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Didik Murwantoro – Jefferson and Tocqueville on at Hemisperic Views

JEFFERSON AND TOCQUEVILLE ON DEMOCRACY AS HEMISPERIC VIEWS

Didik Murwantono College of Languages, Sultan Agung Islamic, Semarang [email protected]

Abstract This paper examines democracy to Jefferson’s and Tocqueville’s in shaping the American polity. A few scholars have discussed the connection between Jefferson and Tocqueville, but this writing provides a of democracy as hemispheric or trans-national sources. Democracy is not only an American mind, but also a global mind. The philosophers, sociologists, and economists of the eighteenth and the early part of the nineteenth century formulated a political program that served as a guide to social first in the , then on the European continent, and finally in the other parts of the inhabited world as well. It was reflected in Tocqueville’s journey for learning democracy in around the mid of the nineteenth century. Therefore, there are two significant points to describe both Tocqueville and Jefferson; they are democracy and tradition with all conditions. Keywords: Jefferson, Tocqueville, democracy, founding, and liberal

INTRODUCTION democracy in particular. Democracy was the lens through Tocqueville saw the political Most are familiar with the name of world. , even some of them adore Alexis de Tocqueville these days. His For him, the brave and frightening new world extraordinary account of the political ushered in by the era of was an era landscape of the early United States, of democracy. As he wrote in the introduction , is endlessly quoted by to Democracy in America, “a great democratic pundits and politicians of every bar. Today if is taking place in our midst” one reads about America, about democracy, (Tocqueville, ed. Richard D. Heffner, 1956, about , about , about p.26). equality, about almost any aspect of , or for that about large stretches of Furthermore, Alexis de Tocqueville has as it emerges in a political become a fixture in contemporary American context, one sooner or later encounters political discourse as reflected in Democracy Tocqueville. In the work of Democracy in in America. This work also contains America, Tocqueville utilizes facts, Tocqueville’s associational life in America. observations, and speculations to examine The tendency for democratic to both democracy in general and American centralize power was an important aspect of

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“Tocqueville’s on the role of forms, and to his warnings about “the tyranny associations” (Boesche, 1980, p.550-563; of the majority” (Ibid, p.9-10). Gannett, 2003, p.1-16; Koritansky, 1975, p.63- 81). Associations served as an artificial In the modern at that , it preferred in democratic societies and helped to a democratic country. This , to counter democratic tendencies toward democracy, then, is to be understood as a centralization (Dolence, 2006, p.3-4). conveyor of accumulated . For Tocqueville, “democracy is the product of the Most scholars have created a certain new derived from the process Tocqueville, one who slips easily into the of the changing of modern society” (Stone & main dialogue of American politics between Mennel, 2005, p.xvi). It began the immigrants -designated and conservatives, called ‘the ’ with their religious with each camp claiming him as its own. To orthodox in the New World. Tocqueville the one he is a “liberal conservative” who remarks that “All the Europeans who values as well as ; the successively established themselves in the other he is a “conservative liberal” who is alert New World. All these European colonies to the dangers of “too much democracy” and contained the elements, if not the who commiserates with the burdens borne by development, of a complete democracy” political elites, not the least of which is the (Tocqueville, ed. Richard D. Heffner, 1956, periodic invasion of the political realm by the p.40-41). They forced American society to masses (Wolin, 2001, p.3). adopt the Puritan beliefs including hard work, , discipline, and . Tocqueville represented an important early engagement between and Meanwhile, as one of democracy. The eighteen-century revolutions leading American founding is chosen because in America and had been widely of his uniqueness. Jefferson had showed his represented as the triumph of liberalism over great accomplishments among other American and aristocracy. Tocqueville’s self- founding fathers such as George description as a new kind of liberal reflected and John . He looks monumental and his strong conviction that freedom or liberty unique. was the fundamental political value and an even stronger that the greatest threat to Although his speech is lower than others, he freedom was from a combination of political has in writing. His pen is like a democracy and . Nineteenth and sharp sword that is ready to cut down any twenty-century have responded warmly to problem shortly. Jefferson’s are mostly Tocqueville’s criticism of egalitarian embodied in scattered writings, particularly in democracy, in both its political and social his superb letters. Through his letters,

2 Didik Murwantoro – Jefferson and Tocqueville on Democracy at Hemisperic Views

Jefferson spoke on the and by means of violent, and illegitimate. Jefferson also learned letters he stimulated his followers. One of the about the overreaction of the Shay’s great aspects of Jefferson thought is that it is Rebellion. Therefore, the values of classic relevant with era. It is not only the age when liberal were always embedded in the he gave his ideas but also the age which Jefferson’s thought such as limited passed through that era. However, Jefferson , laissez-faire, and freedom. As was more relevant with the crises or great (Hartz, 1995, p.3) suggests in The stories happened in America. Liberal Tradition in America that “America has inherited a liberal tradition primarily Thomas Jefferson is also a mystery. He is a through the teachings of , and that man who promoted democracy and majority these ideas were in turn transmitted by rule yet who also proudly claimed to be a Thomas Jefferson”. member of the natural aristocracy. He favored legislative rather than supremacy In order to assess the of American yet he was the first American president to democracy, it is useful to trick out democracy advance a complex . He from the tapestry of the tradition. Jefferson disfavored yet generally appreciated the importance of custom and supported the American . He did tradition, and he did not seek to radically re- not support the Constitution clearly. He was invent American society. Moreover, the framer particularly critical of the presidency, writing of the American Constitution looked at to that “their President seems a populist democracy. And though Jefferson bad edition of a Polish king” (Peterson 1984, undertook a fairly radical experiment in p.910). He was also concerned over the lack of framing a new government in the new world, a Bill of Rights, and fretted that the new he was conservative skeptics who did not government might be an overreaction to Shay believe in the perfectibility of mankind. Rebellion. Both Tocqueville and Jefferson are passionate Jefferson was careful in making the political who look to free society from the changes in order not to make social and dead handoff the past, and who are guided by political upheavals. He learned from the a quasi-utopian outlook. Tocqueville said that and the American “The second circumstance to which I have Revolution that those revolutions were alluded is, that the social condition and the absolutely different. According to Burke’s constitution of the are democratic” discourses, the referred (Tocqueville, ed. Richard D. Heffner, 1956, to freedom, democracy, non-violence, and p.144). He described himself between , meanwhile the French Revolution aristocracy greatness and democratic . was as antipode – despotic, undemo-cratic, According to Tocqueville, “In aristocratic

3 RUBIKON Volume 1 / Number 1 February 2014 ages, vast ideas are commonly entertained of approach is used to analyze American the dignity, the power, and the greatness of from multidisciplinary man” (Ibid, p.166). Tocqueville sees as well as perspectives, namely historical, political, Jefferson that the aristocrats’ claim that their economical, sociological and cultural nobles help them to understand between disciplines. It describes the of twofold world between aristocracy and American democracy from founding like modern society. Thomas Jefferson to the . Democracy is as one of the important Therefore, this paper engages with the American intellectual that is still held American founding from a critical until now. The growth and the development of perspective. Mainly, it connects American democracy as an American mind with the ways in which the American founding cannot be parted from phenomenon living in has been studied in order to understand not the society at a particular time. Democracy as what the American founding is, but instead a living concept has its connection with what it might have meant at different points in , politics, , sociology, and meanings. Such an analysis entails foremost culture of the society where it is nurtured. And changing the terms with which Americans the best understanding of that issue is through conceptualizes the American Founding: from inter-connection among those disciplines. an historical event and a set of facts fixed in the past, towards conceptualizing it as a The best we can do is to conceive dynamic and contested that is constructed American Studies as collaboration in different ways to serve different political among men working from within and social needs. As a result, the concept of existing academic disciplines but trans-national in studying the founding ideas is attempting to widen boundaries impasse also inevitably true, mainly American by conventional methods of inquiry. founding. This implied a sustained effort of the student of literature to take account sociological, historical and AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL MIND IN anthropological data and methods. AMERICAN STUDIES (Smith, 1980, p.14)

Since this paper is a product of American In this paper, American classic democracy in Studies’ discipline, it follow the charac- the United States can be understood accurately teristics of American Studies which has the by comprehending the founding. A founding is main stream as interdisciplinary studies not only as the birth of nation, the moment of (Smith, 1980, p.14, McDowell, 1948, p.iv, creation after which regime is said to exist, but Lohof, 1978, p.3). The interdisciplinary also as a concept, an idea made up of many

4 Didik Murwantoro – Jefferson and Tocqueville on Democracy at Hemisperic Views other ideas. By comparing American founding from John Carlos Rowe. He states that “the and European elite, it builds on a premise that multicultural and multi-ethnic US cannot be gradually should seem self-evident: the understood adequately without considering its American and European ‘democracy’ transnational sources, hemispheric interests, experiences have been intrinsically different. and global ” European traditional-ists defended aristocracy, social hierarchy, and ecclesiastical (Rowe, 2010, p.1). establishment, meanwhile the Americans advocates of such concerns as a Some ideas from American founding and , an anti-Communist , some changes of America’s cultural eras bring and a global democratic crusade. distinctive characters in each historical one Therefore, by studying the historical Therefore, a concept of founding can be background issues like American democracy understood well by adopting the reconciliation can reveal the democratic values, traditions, the past, present, and future. McDowell and customs. Teuku Ibrahim Alfian (Alfian, (McDowell, 1948, p.v) points out that 2003, p.5) stated “one aspect that must be “American Studies are designed to modify a considered in the historical method is time persistent characteristics of mankind and to element. The inter-related categories in this advance a contemporary movement in method are diversity, change, and continuity”. . The characteristic is tendency of Therefore historical approach is a suitable one men to live predominantly in one of three to get acquainted of American tenses, past, present, or future.” He assumes democracy from two prominent figure, that if one applies the interdisciplinary Thomas Jefferson and Alexis de Tocqueville. approach, he can bridge past, present, and future. Founding itself cannot be separated History itself is a phenomenon. It is a from the concept of tenses. Since founding transcript of the relentless surge of events, the existed in some time in the past, and it still sequential and meaningful record of human exists in the present time and has been activity. Therefore, the historical method aims developed into various variations but limited to access the and to read the message by some characteristics in the future. In short, of the happenings in which men and events those tenses are interrelated. relate meaningfully to each other. Gilbert J. Garraghan as quoted by Teuku Ibrahim Alfian Furthermore, American democracy is a (Alfian, 2003) wrote phenomenon in American society. It is not only as an American intellectual mind, but Historical method is a systematic body also as hemispheric mind. Therefore, this of and rules designed to aid paper also uses a ‘trans-national’ approach effectively in gathering the source—

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materials of history, appraising them governing. To colonial leaders, critically, and presenting a synthesis were inherently susceptible to corrupted (generally in written form) of the result and to suing the instruments of government achieved. power, whether legislation, rules, and regulations or criminal sanctions, to advantage In studying like classic democracy, a themselves and harm others. Government was historical perspective can be used as an necessary, they believed, but government analysis tool of ideology. As Karl Mannheim could also be used to impose its will over argue that “no ideology could be fully other and groups. The victims of understood unless this historical relationship the abusive use of government power were was clear” (Baradat, 1984, p.7). No ideology, liberty and freedom. Anxiety was in other words, can be understood unless we clearly present in much of what was said grasp the ideas of the previous era and regarding the new Constitution. As the 1780’s investigate the impact of the previous ideology drew to a close many people felt that the on the current one. Simply, in order to get Articles of were simply better understanding about the American inadequate to govern the new nation. Beneath democracy, we firstly understand about the the feeling was a sense that the revolution had ideology of democracy, mainly the roots of created a spirit hostile to order and efficient American democracy. government (Coleman, et al. 2012, p.65-66).

Two literary works, both Democracy in In short, there was a between the America and Notes on describes the and the Anti-Federalists about the events and the society when those were issue that were essentially social. The produced. Some eras both the Enlightenment Federalists saw the passion for liberty they and the French Revolution are used to know feared mani-festing itself in the form of “new the relationship between America and . men” coming to power in the states. The Anti- In order properly to understand the impact of Federalists justified the infusion of new blood France’s Revolution on America, one must with a radical challenge to the fundamental have some pictures of what America was like in a hierarchical society and when the news of revolution began arriving elite rule. They conten-ded that society was a from Europe. American Revolution also longer a homogeneous unit for which an elite depicted the struggles of American founding could speak. Society had changed from a in forming American government. organic hierarchy of ranks and degrees eternally linked to each other to a The American Revolution was an ideological heterogeneous mixture of many classes in revolution, which is to say a revolution most which only a member of a certain class could notably about ideas and philosophy of speak for the wants and interests of that class.

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Gordon Wood concluded that all the political change, religious can Federalists for a strong self-reliant create the feeling that all is being nation and a healthy economy. “In short, all of washed away and leads to a desire to what the Federalists wanted out of the new reestablish the old beliefs or in some way seemed in the final institute religious restraints on the social and analysis depended upon the prerequisite political transformation of the time. This maintenance of aristocratic politics” movement was closed to American conservative who preserve and keep their (Wood, 1969, p.490-91). traditions.

The fundamental debate over the Constitution Meanwhile cultural and social approach can was one of the most bitter in American history be seen from the changes of cultural values but perhaps nearly as bitter was the conflict living among American society, mainly over religious matters. By the end of the democracy. The changes have deep impacts Revolution religious in America toward the changes of behaviors. Therefore was in retreat. Indeed it had been under culture and society cannot be separated in challenge since the early seventeenth century learning of a phenomena in the American when the Puritans arrived to create their city society. According to Diana Laurenson and of saints in the wilderness, only to find the Alan Swingewood freedom of the wilderness a stronger force Sociology is essentially the scientific, than the pull of salvation. “The revolution objective study of man in society, the gave impetus to this gradual process by study of social and of social bringing the American soldiers into contact processes; it seeks to answer the with the multitude of visitors from Europe at question of how society is possible, how the time” (Koch, 1973, p.23). The influence of it works, why it persists. But, of course European Enlightenment thinkers made a sociology is concerned also with the profound impression on the American people processes whereby society changes, who debated whether had been a gradually, or cataclys-mically as in benefit to man and took for themselves revolution, from one type of society to nicknames such as and Rousseau another. (Laurenson & Swinge-wood, (Purcell, 1963, p.19). The 1972, p.11-12) grew up in the era. A culture is shared by a society. Members of the society agree about the meaning of things In the last two decades of the eighteenth and about the ‘why.’ They have interpreted life century such anxiety over religious matters experiences in ways that validate their own has a special meaning. In the context of rapid culture’s views. Therefore, since they have

7 RUBIKON Volume 1 / Number 1 February 2014 little doubt about that validity, they all share policy, and government support for the less the view that their interpretations are correct. advantaged. They agree about what the important things are that truly merit respects. Most American Meanwhile, culture consists of three traditions are strong work ethnic, small manifestations as follows: cultural ideas, government, and Christian-Protestant. The cultural activities, and humans’ work. A birth of the Enlighten-ment in the eighteenth product of culture begins with the of century was a threat for the fate of idea in the mind of humans then it is followed and tended to reform society by by a work to produce it. The final product is using for spawning , acquired after completing the process of the , and of the modern cultural work. American classical democracy era. is a cultural artifact. This research focuses on describing the cultural behaviors or the Culture is not something we are born with, but process of cultural influences. There are three rather it is learned. This is not to say people prominent issues – continuity, selecting and can talk objectively about their own culture. filtering, and preserv-ing—in the process of Much of what is learned about one’s own the changing a culture to other types. It is culture is stored in mental categories that are undeniably true that culture is always recalled only when they are challenged by dynamics in a society. something different. We all have to be taught our culture. If culture is learned, then it is also Economics in America is familiar with the learnable. That means nobody has to remain concept of . In economical for a lifetime locked inside only one culture. approach, it highlights on capitalism system. In the United States, two prominent cultural Capitalism is an economic system where the spectrum in politics— conservative and liberal are privately held and — greatly give influences each other. Even the operated for profit. It is a system of resource French Revolution (1789-1799) with old ideas allocation where prices are based on the of about tradition and hierarchy of monarchy, supply and . It is premised on the idea aristocracy, and religious authority was that self-interested individuals participate in a abruptly overthrown by new Enlightenment competitive market where they buy and sell principles of equality, , and their , services, and labor. As inalienable rights. In response to the changes, Smith put it in his classic work The of traditionalists emphasized other : close Nation, , , responsibility, and social order. In government issues, they were against It is not from the benevolence of the women’s movement, in foreign butcher, the brewer, or the baker, that we expect our dinner, but from their regard

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to their own interest. We address tensions between groups and social classes ourselves, not to their humanity but to (Laurenson & Swingewood, 1972, p.13). In their self-, and never talk to them of short, literature provides a mirror to the age as our own necessities but of their reflected from two great literary works: advantage. (Smith, 2000, p.14) Thomas Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia and Alexis de Tocqueville’s Democracy in It is a system where the vast majority of America. people learn their living be selling their labor- power for a wage to the owners of the means This approach is no different from other kinds of production. The driving forces of the of analysis; it attempts to find . Literary system are profit maximization, accumulation inter-pretations always reflect a particular of , and the incessant need to innovate institutional, cultural, and historical and expand in order to remain competitive. As background. One of literary approach is Ellen Meiksins writes in capitalism “the ‘Reader-response criticism’ which includes production of goods and services is attention of the role of the reader and a subordinate to the production of capital and process-oriented approach to reading capitalist profit. The basic objective of the literature. This approach supports activities capitalist system, in other words, is the that encourage us to draw on our personal production and self-expansion of capital” experien-ces, opinions, and feelings in our (Wood, 2002, p.2-3). interpretation of literature. According to Davies and Stratton (Davies & Stratton, 1984, Another approach is literary approach. A work p.3) “Reader-Response addresses this problem of literature is any reflection of events or by making the learners “active participant(s) phenomena in a society. Hence the study of in the learning proceeds.” literature is very crucial because it exposes to meaningful contexts that are full with In this case, a reader can give his opinion and descriptive language and characters in line interpretation about a phenomenon reflected in with the spirit of era at the time. As with the literary work. The interpretation must be sociology, literature is pre-eminently proved by giving some facts. concerned with man’s social world, his adaptation to it, and his desire to change it. Thus the , as the major literary genre of A CONCEPT OF DEMOCRACY IN industrial society, can be seen as a faithful JEFFERSON AND TOCQUEVILLE SEEN attempt to re-create the social world of man’s relation with his family, with politics, with the AS TRANS-NATIONAL VIEWS ; it delineates too his roles within the family and other institutions, the conflicts and

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This study is an attempt to reveal the roots of European thinkers -Jacob Burck-hardt and democracy and the thought of founding in - are used to support the making a discourse of democracy. Thus, it is European nature of liberal thought in relation focused on some ideas of democracy between to Tocqueville’s ideas. Certainly “they were Jefferson and Tocqueville who gave them the not all aristocrats by birth, and none of them position as two of the figures of democracy. wished to revive the Old Regime or to base The great ideas do not come automatically, liberty on a traditional aristocracy” (Logue, they commonly born from the great thinkers 1983, p.5). too. Jefferson as an American founding is mostly seen as founding of classic democracy, The aristocratic liberals saw the eighteenth this democracy tends to classic liberal with its century and the French Revolution as the distinctive characteristics. Meanwhile origins of . For them, the Tocqueville is rather than aristocracy but he is Enlightenment and the Revolution sketched also a bit of liberal with modern democracy as the outlines of the typical social, political, and reflected in Jacksonian presidential era in the ideological struggles of the nineteenth century. end of the nineteenth century. From these beginnings flowered the commercial spirit and middle-class It is not easy to understand the nineteenth- domination of the nineteenth century, as well century liberalism. This is particularly true as the ominous first stirrings of the great when liberalism is considered from a future struggle between the and European rather than an American perspective. the lower classes. The centralized state Therefore, this study is also intended to define continued the growth that had begun in the the different types of liberalism by making eighteenth century and threatened aristocratic concrete one of the nebulous shapes of liberal values both because it provided a European liberal thought in nineteenth means for imposing the domination of one century, it is “aristocratic liberalism” class or idea and because it was a threat in itself to the chief values of liberty, (Kahan, 1992, p.3). individuality, and diversity (Kahan, 1992, p.5).

One of major European thinkers who has America had a feudal present and, moreover, correlation with the thought of aristocratic its feudal elements provided the basis for liberalism is Alexis de Tocqueville. commend-ing American democracy to his Tocqueville is generally conceded to be countrymen. Historically the presence of a important thinker, part of the traditional canon strongly entrenched had been of the of the West, and thus synonymous with a weak central any re-interpretation of his meaning and administration, with an “incomplete national significance is important. But the other government.” While this combination may

10 Didik Murwantoro – Jefferson and Tocqueville on Democracy at Hemisperic Views have been cause for Tocquveville claim that Moreover, Democracy in America has been the French could learn from the American recognized as an indispensable starting point example, it was precisely the combination of for understanding American politics. southern plantation feudalism and an “incomplete” national government that would … The social condition of the make possible and civil near Americans is eminently democratic; this interminable. Tocqueville’s feudalism was its character at the foundation of the expressed itself in the representation of colonies, and it is still more strongly dispersed power, a loose political system in marked at the present day… which the most significant unit—in terms of (Tocqueville, ed. Richard D. Heffner, power, loyalties, and active individual 1956, p.49) involvement—were local character, hence far smaller than state. (Wolin, 2001, It is based, in large part, on Tocqueville’s p.232). experiences during his 1831-32 journey through Jacksonian America, but it certainly The crucial element in Tocqueville’s feudalism cannot be reduced to a mere travelogue, or was aristocracy. Aristocracy is represented as even to a work of mere social . Nor is the instinctive to any from of it quite a of in the massed power, monarchial or popular. tradition of , Hobbes, Locke and Although the pride or confidence of self-worth Rousseau. They were classic liberalists. natural to aristocrats prevented them from coalescing their power and honors. In order to understand about Jefferson, it is Tocqueville, himself a lawyers, found an necessary to grasp the issues of Jefferson's age aristocratic counterpart secreted in America in confronted and the kinds of conflicts those the values, outlook, and functions of lawyers issues invited as well as the social causes for and judges. “Hidden at the bottom of the which he fought. Therefore, the writer can, of legists is something of the tastes and habits with greater confidence, interpret the meaning of the aristocracy.” They have a natural of the political thought that Jefferson contempt for the multitude and form a “corps” bequeathed and only then endeavor to that is opposed to “the spirit.” determine its significance for future conflicts They prize “order” and “authority”; they have and even current controversies. And it is “a liking and respect for what is ancient” and always relevant to raise questions concerning they make a ritual of the following “the legal the meaning of particular political theory that decisions of their fathers (Ibid, p.233). are referable to Jefferson’s social life-world and the purposes for which the political theory was formulated.

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Jefferson follows the central starting point of they were not to the control of an the social tradition and its classical outside authority. Hence, Hobbes equated predecessors in presupposing two phrases to freedom with restraint by the government. human associations. The first phase is a pre- Locke, by contrast, was very optimistic about political phase in which individuals are said to . He believed that governmental live in the so-called ‘.’ In restraints on people were largely unnecessary contrast to and Aristotle who saw the (Baradat, 1984, p.68). pre-political phase as ruled by a natural monarchy among individuals, Jefferson Another crucial argument that was to be the envisioned individuals in the state of nature as basic of Jefferson’s assumption about living in a state of equality. In the Declaration democratic government was his confidence on of Independence, Jefferson famously defines the abilities of common men in giving this equality in two ways. First, as an equality judgment on what was the best in their life of condition –“all men are created equal.’ And together and their activities on participating in second, as an equality of natural rights –as he politics. Based on this confidence, Jefferson put it, that men are endowed with equal, found that there was no any single reason to inalienable rights by their creator including the reject the democratic government. This rights to ‘life, liberty, and the pursuit of Jefferson’s thought also showed the ” (Appleby & Ball, 1999, p.102). Enlightenment which stressed on the in order to get the truth. He wrote to Jefferson’s ideas as founding are greatly in 1823: influenced by British philosopher John Locke. In his classic liberal values, Locke believed in We believed, with them, that man was a . He believed that people were rational animal, endowed by nature with rational beings who could use their reason to rights, and with an innate sense of perceive the basic principles of natural law. justice; and that he could be restrained Natural law, according to Locke, guaranteed from wrong and protected in right by each individual certain rights that could not moderate powers, confined to of legally be taken away, or alienated, without his own , and held their duties by of law. dependence on his own will (Peterson, 1984, p.1470) He summarized these inalienable rights as “life, liberty, and property.” Those above Thomas Jefferson is not only an idealist but he statements have a contradiction with Hobbes. tends to a realist. In his concept of democracy, Hobbes was very pessimistic about human Jefferson realized in order not to be trapped on nature. He believed that people were basically the perfect of human beings. In his Notes on evil and that they would harm each other if

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Virginia, he depicted that each government distributing to every one exactly the had the typical weakness of human beings. functions he is competent.

In every government on earth is some Both figures has given great contribution trace of human weakness, some germ of toward the development of democracy. corruption and degeneracy … Every Democracy is itself notoriously difficult to government degenerates when trusted to define. It does not consists of a single unique the rules people alone. The people set of institutions. There are many models of themselves there are its only safe democracy, and their diverse practices produce depositories. And to render even them a similarly varied set of effects. According to safe their minds must be improved to a Macpherson (Macpherson, 1977:20-21), “a certain degree. (Ibid, p.274) model of democracy was a theoretical construction intended to exhibit and explain Jefferson’s confidence on the ability of people relations, underlying the appearances, in giving rational critics was a significant between or within the phenomena under the characteristic in his concept of democracy. But study; to explain the probability or possibility Jefferson was also be wise in order to not to of future changes in those relations; and with a stress on the goodness of people in concern for what id desirable or good or participating to determine the government’s right.” Based on the above , . The most important things here was substantially, there is the distinction between people had to rid from the tyranny of and indirect democracy, both foolishness. of which are forms of political democracy.

Another crucial Jefferson’s concept is the Since the time of the Greek’s democracy has balancing of powers in government. The been used to denote different types of govern- in executive, legislative, ment, but arguably all have a shared and judicative (Hofstadter 1974:36). The which supplies a central core of meaning, balancing in the separation of powers and the Graham Maddox (Maddox, 1997, p.16) said: crosscheck among the powers prove that power cannot be hold absolutely by someone Words such as democracy are shorthand of group in order not to abuse it. As reports intended to convey ideas about Jefferson’s writing in Peterson (Peterson, how are to behave as experienced 1984, p.1380) people in matters regarding which each starts by having no No, my friend, the way to have good experience. And if this is so, the term and safe government, is not to trust it all democracy is a carrier of historical to one, but to divide it among the many, experience whose meaning is stabilized

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by an endless trial and error historical process. A certain unalienable rights, that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of This sense, democracy, then, is to be happiness, that to secure these rights, understood as a conveyor of accumulated Government are instituted among men, experience. In order to assess the quality of deriving their just power forms the American democracy, it will be useful to trick , that whenever out some styles of democracy from the any form of government becomes tapestry of the tradition. We shall then be in a destructive of these ends, it is the right better position to fit the American experiences of the people to alter or to abolish such into the wider backdrop. principles and organizing its powers in such from, as them shall seem most Democracy in America has developed in likely to effect their safety and various models from classical democracy to happiness. in the twenty-first century. The specific form democracy takes is Democracy as a practical possibility of contingent upon a country’s socioeconomic individualism is also linked with the rights of conditions as well as its entrenched state the people pertaining the government. structures and policy practices. According to Democracy refers not only to right of life, Payne and Nasser (Payne & Nasser, 2003, liberty and happiness individually and p.30), “ of democracy have often personally, but also to the rights of people in depended on local conditions and special determining their own government. People circumstances.” For example, in America have a central and strong position and right in when it was still a New World, English settlers establishing their own government system. in America faced frontier conditions that They have rights to abolish the government if emphasized the importance of the individual the government is corrupt or weak and and helped in breaking down class distinctions institute again a new government that can and prejudices. These led to a democratic secure and save their lives and freedom. political structure marked by a high degree of individualism, civil liberty, and a government According to Hegel, a democratic political limited by law. system is a historical necessity. Sooner or later, it comes to all societies. In the era of colonization and revolution, the shows that political systems changed from ideas such as representation and individual monarchy (in which one rules) to rights were very crucial to be exposed. (a group rules) and lastly to Thomas Jefferson as quoted by Allan Nevin democracy (all the people rule). A democratic and Henry S. Commager wrote political system, according to Hegel and later

14 Didik Murwantoro – Jefferson and Tocqueville on Democracy at Hemisperic Views picked up by , is the end of tends to equality-oriented democracy history (Budiman, 1999, p.41). that adopted as the philosophical basis of the state. Meanwhile a term of liberal I do not mean that I agree with his democracy is associated with western conclusion that we are arriving at the democracy. end of history by having a democratic political system. Democracy is As it is mentioned above, there is no single something desirable, but it is also a definition of democracy, much less in a liberal project of capitalism to secure free democracy. It means that democracy is always market competition. Democracy does followed by local values. Democracy has no not solve the unjust economic end. On the other hand, democracy cannot be exploitation of the poor by economically taken for granted as something established rich. Therefore, rather than arriving at once and for all, nor can it be viewed as a the end of history, societies continue to single model applicable work. On the contrary, struggle for a must society (Fukuyama, democracy is an evolving system that is 1992, p.19). gradually enriched and fine-tuned in each country that adopts it in response to the It is to emphasize that democracy needs for socioeconomic, technological, and cultural continuous and progressive improvement with changes to which today’s open and dynamic a view to perfecting democratic institutions in societies are exposed. all their aspects and practical applications. Though, these will of course differ from Since the term of democracy is the paradigm country to country and from continent to case of the essentially contested concept, or continent, based on the lessons of experience. one about which there is no agreed meaning. This is not to say, however, that the word lacks Nowadays, some countries such as German, contents; in fact it is one of the richest Chile, , China, Malaysia, , and in heritage of political thought. claim their have adopted According to Mas’oed (Mas’oed, 2004, p.3), democracy principles. It must be remembered “democracy is a system of government in that each country has different background of which all persons within the unit of rule sociology and culture. Therefore it has are entitled to participate equally in making distinctive characteristic of democracy general and policy. It is also supported by embodying on cultural values, for example, the continuing responsiveness of the Indonesia has democracy in New government to the preferences of its citizens, Order era. Here, Pancasila is as philosophical considered as political equals. And a crucial basis of the state. one that cannot be ignored is government’s .

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for other countries over the world. Therefore, In more recent , definitions and practices democracy is not only an American of democracy vary widely. The United States intellectual mind, but also a hemispheric mind. is one of countries that practice it in the The existence of American liberal democracy political life. In the U.S. Constitution, is undeniably true. Sometimes, adopting some principles among others –the is followed by backlashes in , a commitment to popular which some of the democratized countries , and a respect for the inalienable became authoritarian again. However, the rights of individuals and minorities, make the democratization always came back, and more U.S. Constitution an attractive model for countries became democratized. Therefore, the emerging . During the 18th and necessity of learning democracy is greatly 19th centuries, many nations overthrew needed to comprehend the phenomena around monarchs or established their independences us, mainly social-political changes and the from colonial power. roles of government in economic affairs.

In the era of Jefferson and Tocqueville, the In some events, American democracy is closed spirit of the Enlightenment also triggered the to which would entail American Revolution and the French more active involvement by citizens in Revolution. The kind of radical thought community affairs, social movements, and expressed by Englishman in interest groups. Supporters of participatory Commonsense (1776) and democracy usually look to civic education to (1791-1792) was taken up in a revolt over encourage a more politically interested and taxation in Britain’s American colonies. The active citizenry. At earlier periods, Thomas American Revolution (1775-1783) ended a Jefferson and Alexis de Tocqueville called it colonial rule and led to the U.S. Constitution as an instrument of civic education. The (1789); its Bill of Rights amendments (1791) associations in America clearly run well as a became the classic statement of liberal rights, mediating structure between government and including the trial by and of people. religion, speech, press and assembly. French Meanwhile, one critique of representative Revolution (1789) referred to the values of democracy like liberal democracy is that it liberty, equality, and fraternity. European centralizes power into the hands of a few or liberalism became in extricably of national oligarchy democracy, thereby increasing the self-determination. In the , likelihood of corruption in and abuse of power democracy gradually became the norm. by the government. In their works, Jefferson and Tocqueville also are afraid of the excess American democracy as a model has a of centralized power. Citizens cannot significant role in shaping of government type participate in government, except by asking

16 Didik Murwantoro – Jefferson and Tocqueville on Democracy at Hemisperic Views their elected officials to listen to their views. Budiman, A. (1999). The 1998 Crisis: Change To reduce this risk, most nations with and Continuity in Indonesia, Reformasi: Crisis and Change in Indonesia. representative democracies constitutionally : Monash Asia Institute. separate powers to establish a system of checks and balances. Coleman et. al. (2012). IT Matters American Government: Understanding American Politics and Government. USA: Pearson This study also finds that founding is merely Ltd. not as an event, but also as a concept. Davies, A.Z., and F. Stratton. (1984). How to Founding as a concept is an idea made up of Teach Poetry: An African Perspective. many other ideas. As an idea, founding can be : Heinemann. seen from the perspective of past, present, and Dolence, David M. (2006). Tocquevillian future. Founding is a historically situated idea, Political Associations, , comprised of other contested and ever and the Centralizing Tendency of changing ideas some more dominant than Democracy in the United Sates. Diss. USA: Northern University. others, but all fighting to be heard. Therefore, founding can serve as a tool for change. By Fukuyama, Francis. (1992). The End of History and The Last Man. Journal of borrowing the thought of Heddy Shri Ahimsa- Democracy. Vol. 3. No. 2. April. Putra, “mythology figure” is closed to Gannett, Jr. Robert. (2003). Bowling Ninepins in founding. Tocqueville’s Township. American Review, 97: p.1-16. Hartz, Louis. (1995). The Liberal Tradition in REFERENCE America. : Harcourt, Brace Alfian, T. I. (2010). Metode Sejarah. Metode and Co. dan Metodologi Sejarah. Perkuliahan Kahan, Alan S. (1992). Aristocratic Liberalism: Kelas Theory and Method of American The Social and Political Thought of Studies Research by Djuhertati Imam Jacob Burckhardt, John Stuart Mill, and Muhni. Alexis de Tocqueville. New York: Oxford Appleby, Joyce O. & Terence Ball eds. (1999). University Press. Thomas Jefferson, Political Writings, Koritansky, John C. (1975). and Cambridge Texts in the History of Civic in Tocqueville’s ‘New Political Thought. New York: Science of Politics. Publius, 5. Spring. p. Cambridge University Press. 63-81. Baradat, Leon P. (1984). Political : nd Koch, G. Adolf. (1973). Republican Religion: Their Origins and Impact. 2 ed. New The American Revolution and the Cult : Prentice-Hall, Inc. of Reason. New York: Henry Holt. Boesche, Roger. (1980). The : Tocque Laurenson, Diana and Alan Swingewood. ville’s Model for ”. Western (1972). The Sociology of Literature. Political Quarterly, 33, p.550-563. Great Britain: MacGibbon & Kee Ltd.

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Logue, William. (1983). Philosophy to Sociolo Peterson, Merrill D, Ed. (1984). Jefferson gy: The Evolution of French Writings, Autobiography, Notes on the Liberalism, 1870-1914 (DeKalb: NIU), State of Virginia, Public and Private USA. Papers, Addresses Letters. New York: The . Lohof, Bruce. A. (1978). Through the Eyes of the World: International in Purcell, Richard J. (1963). Connecticut in American Studies. Delphi: The Transition: 1775-1818. Middletown, Macmillan Compa ny of Indian Ltd. Connecticut: Wesleyan U. Press. Macpherson, C.B. (1977). The Life and Times of Rowe, John Carlos. (2010). “Introduction” A Concise Companion to American Liberal Democracy. Oxford: Oxford Studies. USA: Blackwell Publishing University Press. Ltd. Maddox, Graham. (1987). Australian Demo- cracy: In Theory and Practice. Smith, Adam. (2000). . Malaysia: United Book Sdn. Bhd., Kuala New York: The Modern Library. Lumpur. Smith, Henry Nash. (1980). Studies in American Mas’oed, Mohtar. (2004). Challenges to Culture. Ed. Joseph J. Kwiat & Mary C. Democratic Accountability in Post New Turpie. USA: University of Minnesota. Order Indonesia. International Seminar: Stone, John and Stephen Mennel. ed. (2005). Democratic Accountability. Yogyakarta, Alexis De Tocqueville on Democracy, June 5. Revolution, and Society. Trans. Yusi A. McDowell, Tremaine. (1984). American Studies. Pareanom. Jakarta: Yayasan Obor Minneopolis: the University of Minne- sota Press. Tocqueville, Alexis de. (1956). Democracy in America. Ed. Richard D. Heffner. New Nevins, Allan and Henry S. Commager. (1986). York: the Penguin Group. Thomas Jefferson. A Pocket History of the United States. New York: Washing- Wolin, Sheldon S. (2001). Tocqueville between ton Square Press. Two Worlds: The Making of Political and Theoretical Life. New Jersey: Payne, Richard J. and Jamal R. Nasser. (2003). Princeton University Press. Politics and Culture in the Developing World. New York: Pearson Education, Wood, Ellen Meiksins. (2002). The Origin of Inc. Capitalism: A Longer View. London: Verso Inc.

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