DOCSLIB.ORG

The Enlightenment Thinkers the Age of Reason the Enlightenment

Total Page：16

File Type：pdf, Size：1020Kb

Download full-text PDF Read full-text
The Enlightenment Thinkers the Age of Reason the Enlightenment The Enlightenment Thinkers The Age of Reason The Enlightenment Scholars began to challenge long held beliefs about science, religion, and government. Thinkers were inspired by Galileo and Newton. The method of observation and logic is used to approach problems of human life. Ideas based on rational thought and understanding. The Enlightenment In France, thinkers called philosophes (or “philosophers”) would gather in informal meetings called salons. There, they would exchange and debate ideas. The Basic Questions Enlightenment thinkers wanted to learn more about human life using these questions: 1) What natural law governs the way people should live? 2) How well do our institutions agree with natural law? 3) Does natural law give all people certain rights? 4) What is the best form of government? Philosophers Philosophers did not always agree about the answers to these questions. Some supported absolute rule by the king. Others argued that the They all shared a trust in reason and people should have a say observation as the best way of in their own government. understanding and progress. The Five Thinkers Thomas Hobbes John Locke Baron de Montesquieu Voltaire Cesare Beccaria Thomas Hobbes His Question: What is the basis of social order? His Observation: Human beings are naturally cruel, selfish, and greedy. In 1651, he published a book called Leviathan. He wrote that people are driven by a restless desire for power. Without laws or other social controls, people would always be in conflict. Absolute Rule by Kings Thomas Hobbes Governments are created to protect people from their own selfishness. People are selfish by nature and can’t be trusted to make decisions that were good for society as a whole. John Locke His Observation: He denied the divine right of kings to rule. In 1690, he published Two Treatises of Government. His book justified a strong parliament which protects human rights. He argues that the purpose of government is to protect people’s natural rights. Natural Rights These rights include the right to life, liberty, and property. John Locke In exchange for rights, people give the government the power to make and enforce laws. The true basis of government is a social contract (or agreement), among free people. His theory is that a government’s authority is based on the consent of the people. If the government fails to respect people’s rights, it can be overthrown. Baron de Montesquieu His Observation: Too much power in the hands of any one person or group will lead to tyranny. French author, in 1748, he published The Spirit of Laws. He argues that the best way to protect human rights is to divide power among three branches of government. Each branch of government checks (limits) the power of the others. Separation of Powers Baron de Montesquieu The Three Branches of Government 1) Legislative branch – makes the laws; Congress 2) Executive branch – enforces the laws; President 3) Judicial branch – interprets the laws; Supreme Court Voltaire His Observation: Freedom of thought and expression is the only way to fight oppression. He was a French writer and participant in Paris salons. He supported religious tolerance – allowing people to believe in religion in their own way. “I disapprove of what you say, Strong supporter of free but I will defend to the death speech. your right to say it”. Cesare Beccaria His Observation: He studied criminology, the scientific study of crime and punishment. He objected to the harsh practices that were common in his day and called for changes in criminal law to protect the rights of the accused. Torture was common and people found guilty of crimes were often sentenced to death. “Punishment should fit the seriousness of the crime”. Cesare Beccaria On Crimes and Punishments He argued that laws exist to preserve society and order and that punishment does not have to be brutal. A person accused of a crime should receive a fair and speedy trial. Torture should never be used. Capital punishment (putting someone to death) should never be used. Punishment should fit the seriousness of the crime. Women of the Enlightenment Enlightenment thinking influenced many throughout Europe and inspired revolutions in America and France. Although women of the 1700s did not have the same rights or status as men, there were a small few Mary Wollstonecraft who played an important role by Abigail helping to spread ideas about Adams rights and equality for women. Mary Wollstonecraft (1792), wrote A Vindication of the Rights of Women arguing for equality and education rights for women. Madame Geoffrin .
Load more

Recommended publications
  • The Enlightenment and Democratic Revolutions MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES
    4 The Enlightenment and Democratic Revolutions MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES REVOLUTION Enlightenment These revolutions and the • Enlightenment • representative ideas helped bring about the documents they produced have • social contract government American and French inspired other democratic • natural rights • federal system revolutions. movements. • separation of • United Nations powers SETTING THE STAGE The Renaissance continued to affect European thinking throughout the 17th century. The Renaissance emphasis on the individual and on expanding human potential were especially influential. At the same time, Europeans began to explore their physical world. They extended the boundaries of the known world in what came to be called the Age of Exploration. New ideas and discoveries had a great impact on Europeans’ understanding of themselves and the world. TAKING NOTES Enlightenment Thinkers and Ideas Outlining Use an outline During the 17th and 18th centuries, an intellectual movement called the to organize the main ideas and details. Enlightenment developed. Enlightenment thinkers tried to apply the principles of reason and the methods of science to all aspects of society. They built upon I. Enlightenmentg the long history of Western thought. Thinkers and Ideas The philosophers of ancient Greece had established the idea of natural laws A. that could be discovered by careful observation and reasoned inquiry. B. Christianity contributed the belief in the equality of all human beings. (This belief II. The Beggginnings of Democracy in America would later lead to the principle of equal rights in society.) During the Renaissance, thinkers had focused on worldly concerns. They criticized medieval philosophy A. for concentrating on questions that seemed unrelated to human conditions.
    [Show full text]
  • Comparative Jurisprudence(I) 1891
    University of Pennsylvania Law School Penn Law: Legal Scholarship Repository Faculty Scholarship 1995 Comparative Jurisprudence (I): What Was it Like to Try a Rat? William B. Ewald University of Pennsylvania Law School, [email protected] Follow this and additional works at: http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship Part of the Civil Law Commons, Civil Procedure Commons, Commercial Law Commons, Ethics and Political Philosophy Commons, Jurisprudence Commons, Law and Philosophy Commons, Legal Commons, Legal Education Commons, Legal History, Theory and Process Commons, Legal Theory Commons, Natural Law Commons, and the Public Law and Legal Theory Commons Recommended Citation Ewald, William B., "Comparative Jurisprudence (I): What Was it Like to Try a Rat?" (1995). Faculty Scholarship. Paper 1405. http://scholarship.law.upenn.edu/faculty_scholarship/1405 This Article is brought to you for free and open access by Penn Law: Legal Scholarship Repository. It has been accepted for inclusion in Faculty Scholarship by an authorized administrator of Penn Law: Legal Scholarship Repository. For more information, please contact [email protected]. COMPARATIVE JURISPRUDENCE (I): WHAT WAS IT LIKE TO TRY A RAT? WILLIAM EWALDt PART ONE I. THE RATS OF AUTUN .......................... 1898 PART TWO H. COMPARATIVE JURISPRUDENCE .................... 1948 A. Remarks on Strategy .......................... 1943 B. The Boundaries of ComparativeJurisprudence ....... 1954 1. Criteria for a New Subject ................ 1955 2. Distinguishing Comparative Jurisprudence from the Philosophy of Law ................ 1956 III. THE PRESENT STATE OF COMPARATIVE LAW ............ 1961 A. The Malaise ............................... 1961 B. The TraditionalApproaches to Comparative Law ..... 1965 1. Casebooks and Pedagogy .................. 1965 2. Works of Scholarship ..................... 1975 3. The Problem of Public Law ............... 1987 t Assistant Professor of Law and Philosophy, University of Pennsylvania.
    [Show full text]
  • The British Empiricism Locke, Berkeley and Hume
    The British Empiricism Locke, Berkeley and Hume copyleft: nicolazuin.2018 | nowxhere.wordpress.com 1 The problem of knowledge • Please, look out of the window (or into the box, or just in front of you…) and answer the following questions: ‣ What do you see? ‣ Are you sure that what you see is what truly exists out there? ‣ What do you know about it? ‣ How do you know it? ‣ What make you sure of it? • Here you are: this is the problem of knowledge! • Now try to formalise it in a single question or definition. copyleft:nicolazuin.2018 | nowxhere.wordpress.com 1 A long way behind In a certain way, we could say that the problem of knowledge is the problem of philosophy itself, since its birth. • Think for example on this quotations: Parmenides: «the same thing is for thinking as is for being” Eraclitus: «The things of which there is sight, hearing, experience, I prefer». (But he also says: «Poor witnesses for men are their eyes and ears if they have barbarian souls» Gorgia: «Nothing exists; Even if something exists, nothing can be known about it; and Even if something can be known about it, knowledge about it can't be communicated to others. Even if it can be communicated, it cannot be understood». • Or try to imagine the discussion between Plato and Aristotle in the famous Raffaello’s School of Athens. • Now try to build a mind-map of all the different answers to the problem of knowledge given by the philosophers you already know copyleft:nicolazuin.2018 | nowxhere.wordpress.com 2 The terrible heritage of Descartes: The modern problem of knowledge originates from the conclusions of Descartes’s research, which was inspired by the successful advancement of geometry and natural sciences and was aimed to find a certain knowledge for philosophy.
    [Show full text]
  • Voltaire's Conception of National and International Society
    Voltaire's Conception of National and International Society LilIy Lo Manto Faced with the crumbling of their beloved Greek city-states, during the 4th century before our era, the Stoics used reason to explain their uncertain future in the huge global polis of the Macedonian empire. Two thousand years later, the economic, political and social turmoil brewing in France would foster the emergence of the French Enlightenment. Championed by the philosophes, this period would also look to reason to guide national and international security. Indeed, eighteenth century France was a society in ferment. After the death of Louis XIV, in 1715, the succeeding kings, Louis XV and XVI, found themselves periodically confronted, primarily by the pariements, with an increasing rejection of the absolutist claims and ministerial policies of the throne. l Like his Stoic forefathers, Fran~ois Marie Arouet (1694-1778), otherwise known as "Voltaire", extolled the merits of reason and tolerance,2 believing that the world would be a better place if men only behaved rationally.3 His primary focus was peace; how to obtain, preserve and propagate it. In order to comprehend Voltaire's conception of world peace, this essay will analyze what he believed to be its foundations, namely: the rights and roles of individuals based on their social class, and the role of an ideal state which would foster domestic harmony. According to Voltaire, the key to obtaining international peace stemmed from the relationship between the individual and the State. The relationship between the individual and the state, outlined in the Social Contract, could only succeed if man maintained his role and exercised his rights while the state assured him of his fundamental liberties.
    [Show full text]
  • Rousseau Or Wollstonecraft?
    Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol.7, No.6, 2016 Who Won the Debate in Women Education? Rousseau or Wollstonecraft? Clifford Owusu-Gyamfi Faculty of Theology, University of Geneva, Chemin du Riolet 8, 1012-Lausanne, Switzerland Abstract Curriculum framework in the education of children became debatable during the enlightenment. Jean-Jacque Rousseau's treatise, Emile , outlined an educational curriculum based on natural rights. Rousseau thought education should be based on espousing and exploring the natural abilities of a person. Therefore, since women have a natural responsibility of care giving, their education should be given in line with helping them to enhance these natural caring abilities. Wollstonecraft, an enlightened philosopher, took on a literary protest against Rousseau's sexual politics in her treatise, A Vindication of the Rights of Women . This paper will show why Wollstonecraft’s idea is worth considering, in that it points the way past and out of a world of discrimination to create nondiscriminatory educational concept for future generation. Since discriminatory educational ideologies perpetrates in contemporary societies in diverse fashions, this paper challenges such cultures to rethinking the imperativeness of women education. Keywords: Jean-Jacque Rousseau, Mary Wollstonecraft, Women education, Sexist politics Acknowledgement: My deepest appreciation to Abigail Gyasi of Temple University for the encouragement to write about this subject. 1. Introduction Emile is a treatise written by the French enlightened author Jean-Jacque Rousseau. In this popular work, Rousseau seeks to put across the point that education should be based on espousing and exploring the natural abilities of a person (Rousseau & Allan, 1979: 37).
    [Show full text]
  • Beccaria, Cesare: Classical School
    Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory Beccaria, Cesare: Classical School Contributors: Andrew N. Carpenter Editors: Francis T. Cullen & Pamela Wilcox Book Title: Encyclopedia of Criminological Theory Chapter Title: "Beccaria, Cesare: Classical School" Pub. Date: 2010 Access Date: September 12, 2014 Publishing Company: SAGE Publications, Inc. City: Thousand Oaks Print ISBN: 9781412959186 Online ISBN: 9781412959193 DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412959193.n19 Print pages: 74-78 ©2010 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. This PDF has been generated from SAGE knowledge. Please note that the pagination of the online version will vary from the pagination of the print book. SAGE ©2010 SAGE Publications, Inc. All Rights Reserved. SAGE knowledge http://dx.doi.org/10.4135/9781412959193.n19 Cesare Beccaria was an Italian Enlightenment philosopher, politician, and economist whose celebrated book On Crimes and Punishments condemned the use of torture, argued for the abolition of capital punishment, and advocated many reforms for the rational and fair administration of law. Beccaria's ideas about legal and penal reforms, which influenced intellectuals and statesmen throughout Europe and in North America, inspired many significant reforms in the last decades of the 18th century and the first decades of the 19th century. Beccaria influenced the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham who, along with Beccaria, produced the foundational ideas of the Classical School of Criminology. Many of the reforms that Beccaria advocated remain aspirations for contemporary systems of legal justice, including punishment proportionate to the severity of the crime and [p. 74 ↓ ] the development of a system of published laws and legal procedures applied equally to all without interference by the particular interests of rulers, judges, or clerics and without providing favorable treatment to individuals of higher social, political, or economic status.
    [Show full text]
  • Works on Giambattista Vico in English from 1884 Through 2009
    Works on Giambattista Vico in English from 1884 through 2009 COMPILED BY MOLLY BLA C K VERENE TABLE OF CON T EN T S PART I. Books A. Monographs . .84 B. Collected Volumes . 98 C. Dissertations and Theses . 111 D. Journals......................................116 PART II. Essays A. Articles, Chapters, et cetera . 120 B. Entries in Reference Works . 177 C. Reviews and Abstracts of Works in Other Languages ..180 PART III. Translations A. English Translations ............................186 B. Reviews of Translations in Other Languages.........192 PART IV. Citations...................................195 APPENDIX. Bibliographies . .302 83 84 NEW VICO STUDIE S 27 (2009) PART I. BOOKS A. Monographs Adams, Henry Packwood. The Life and Writings of Giambattista Vico. London: Allen and Unwin, 1935; reprinted New York: Russell and Russell, 1970. REV I EWS : Gianturco, Elio. Italica 13 (1936): 132. Jessop, T. E. Philosophy 11 (1936): 216–18. Albano, Maeve Edith. Vico and Providence. Emory Vico Studies no. 1. Series ed. D. P. Verene. New York: Peter Lang, 1986. REV I EWS : Daniel, Stephen H. The Eighteenth Century: A Current Bibliography, n.s. 12 (1986): 148–49. Munzel, G. F. New Vico Studies 5 (1987): 173–75. Simon, L. Canadian Philosophical Reviews 8 (1988): 335–37. Avis, Paul. The Foundations of Modern Historical Thought: From Machiavelli to Vico. Beckenham (London): Croom Helm, 1986. REV I EWS : Goldie, M. History 72 (1987): 84–85. Haddock, Bruce A. New Vico Studies 5 (1987): 185–86. Bedani, Gino L. C. Vico Revisited: Orthodoxy, Naturalism and Science in the ‘Scienza nuova.’ Oxford: Berg, 1989. REV I EWS : Costa, Gustavo. New Vico Studies 8 (1990): 90–92.
    [Show full text]
  • THE PHILOSOPHES Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau
    THE PHILOSOPHES Voltaire Montesquieu Rousseau Tuesday, January 21, 2014 Philosophes - public intellectuals dedicated to solving the problems of the World http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxG_d94F3Dg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Xd_zkMEgkI Tuesday, January 21, 2014 Philosophes - public intellectuals dedicated to solving the problems of the World - wrote for a broad, educated public audience http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxG_d94F3Dg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Xd_zkMEgkI Tuesday, January 21, 2014 Philosophes - public intellectuals dedicated to solving the problems of the World - wrote for a broad, educated public audience - fought to eradicate bigotry, religious fanaticism, superstition http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxG_d94F3Dg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Xd_zkMEgkI Tuesday, January 21, 2014 Philosophes - public intellectuals dedicated to solving the problems of the World - wrote for a broad, educated public audience - fought to eradicate bigotry, religious fanaticism, superstition - promoted “Natural Rights” - intellectual freedom, freedom of the press and religion, human progress http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxG_d94F3Dg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Xd_zkMEgkI Tuesday, January 21, 2014 Philosophes - public intellectuals dedicated to solving the problems of the World - wrote for a broad, educated public audience - fought to eradicate bigotry, religious fanaticism, superstition - promoted “Natural Rights” - intellectual freedom, freedom of the press and religion, human progress - spread their ideas through books, essays, letters pamphlets http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RxG_d94F3Dg http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5Xd_zkMEgkI Tuesday, January 21, 2014 PHILOSOPHES Tuesday, January 21, 2014 PHILOSOPHES - Paris was headquarters Tuesday, January 21, 2014 PHILOSOPHES - Paris was headquarters Tuesday, January 21, 2014 PHILOSOPHES - Paris was headquarters - they met in salons and coffee houses to share ideas Tuesday, January 21, 2014 PHILOSOPHES - Paris was headquarters - they met in salons and coffee houses to share ideas -Mme.
    [Show full text]
  • Our Debt to Mary Wollstonecraft, Moral and Intellectual Pioneer for Women
    Our Debt to Mary Wollstonecraft, Moral and Intellectual Pioneer for Women By Susan Roberts I teach a course entitled Leadership in Writing at the United States Coast Guard Academy that includes both male and female Officer Candidates. The women in my class are strong and unafraid to accept challenges. They perform jobs often seen as men’s work, live by the Coast Guard’s Core Values of Honor, Respect and Devotion to Duty, and balance their time between being on active duty and being wife, mother, or both. In our classes, we focus on examples of leadership in the military and civilian world. To mark Women’s History Month in March, I asked each Officer Candidate (OC) to select a female who exemplifies leadership and to present a speech about her. Their choices included Hillary Rodham Clinton, Sarah Palin, Margaret Thatcher, Queen Boudicca, Cleopatra, Elizabeth I, Sally Ride, Amelia Earhart, Rosa Parks, Susan B. Anthony, Mother Teresa, and Marie Curie. I responded by noting, “I see no one has claimed Mary Wollstonecraft.” A few moments of silence were followed by a series of questions: “Who is she?” “Is she in politics?” “Is she a writer?” “Why did you expect us to know her name?” and “Did she have anything to do with the Coast Guard?” I responded, “She was an eighteenth century writer. Women today owe her a debt of gratitude for we are beneficiaries of her ideas, which were quite revolutionary for her times. She advocated moral and intellectual education for women in a world where a woman’s voice rarely counted.” One of the handful of female OCs in class was curious enough to claim Wollstonecraft as the figure for her leadership speech, and all of the students were introduced to the life of this woman, the social changes she called for over two hundred years ago, and the impact of her work on opportunities for women then and now.
    [Show full text]
  • Aristotle & Locke: Ancients and Moderns on Economic Theory & The
    Xavier University Exhibit Honors Bachelor of Arts Undergraduate 2015-4 Aristotle & Locke: Ancients and Moderns on Economic Theory & the Best Regime Andrew John Del Bene Xavier University - Cincinnati Follow this and additional works at: http://www.exhibit.xavier.edu/hab Part of the Ancient History, Greek and Roman through Late Antiquity Commons, and the Ancient Philosophy Commons Recommended Citation Del Bene, Andrew John, "Aristotle & Locke: Ancients and Moderns on Economic Theory & the Best Regime" (2015). Honors Bachelor of Arts. Paper 9. http://www.exhibit.xavier.edu/hab/9 This Capstone/Thesis is brought to you for free and open access by the Undergraduate at Exhibit. It has been accepted for inclusion in Honors Bachelor of Arts by an authorized administrator of Exhibit. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Aristotle & Locke: Ancients and Moderns on Economic Theory & the Best Regime Andrew John Del Bene Honors Bachelor of Arts – Senior Thesis Project Director: Dr. Timothy Quinn Readers: Dr. Amit Sen & Dr. E. Paul Colella Course Director: Dr. Shannon Hogue I respectfully submit this thesis project as partial fulfillment for the Honors Bachelor of Arts Degree. I dedicate this project, and my last four years as an HAB at Xavier University, to my grandfather, John Francis Del Bene, who taught me that in life, you get out what you put in. Del Bene 1 Table of Contents Introduction — Philosophy and Economics, Ancients and Moderns 2 Chapter One — Aristotle: Politics 5 Community: the Household and the Πόλις 9 State: Economics and Education 16 Analytic Synthesis: Aristotle 26 Chapter Two — John Locke: The Two Treatises of Government 27 Community: the State of Nature and Civil Society 30 State: Economics and Education 40 Analytic Synthesis: Locke 48 Chapter Three — Aristotle v.
    [Show full text]
  • CONDORCET (1743–94) Bernard Jolibert1
    The following text was originally published in Prospects: the quarterly review of comparative education (Paris, UNESCO: International Bureau of Education), vol. XXIII, no. 1/2, 1993, p. 197-209. ©UNESCO: International Bureau of Education, 2000 This document may be reproduced free of charge as long as acknowledgement is made of the source. CONDORCET (1743–94) Bernard Jolibert1 In the discussions of ideas that constitute our daily intellectual environment there are certain words that reek of cordite and certain writers who give us a sense of peace. The term ‘secular’ is in the first category, and Condorcet in the second. A person who speaks of secular or non-religious education or schools, or of educational ‘neutrality’, immediately lays himself or herself open to being regarded either as a supporter of the ‘independent school’, that is private, clerical, religious, ‘right-wing’ and, needless to say, reactionary, or as a champion of public, secular, positivist, ‘left-wing’ and, needless to say, anti-clerical education. Simplistic images are powerful, and ingrained mental habits so reassuring. And yet the divisions are not always where one would like them to be. I may be that one of the first people to notice the caricatural exaggeration of this Manichaean representation of the school was in fact Condorcet, at a time when the present-day French noun denoting the principle of non-religious education did not yet exist. Rather than bludgeon the reader with an encyclopedic account of the educational writings and thought of Marie Jean Antoine Nicolas Caritat, Marquis de Condorcet, it seemed more useful to accompany this writer, insufficiently known in spite of media excitement over the bicentenary of the French Revolution, along the path that led him to discover the secular ideal.
    [Show full text]
  • Cesare Beccaria's Contractual Theory of Criminal Law and Its Resonance in Absolutist Russia
    UNIWERSYTET ZIELONOG6RSKI IN GREMIUM, tom 5 Srudia nad Hisrori~, Kulrur~ i Poliryk~ Zielona Gora 2011 Lan'sa Strese-Gassiev Uniwersytet w Poczdamie CESARE BECCARIA'S CONTRACTUAL THEORY OF CRIMINAL LAW AND ITS RESONANCE IN ABSOLUTIST RUSSIA Grazie alia filosofia e a qucgli spiriti illuminati che, ad onta dc'regiudizzi, del fanatismo, del dispotismo e delle bar-bare leggi sanno ed' anno il coraggio d'insegnare agli uomini la via della giu­ srizia, della dolcezza e dell'umanidl (G. Angiolini) I. The spirit of the eighteenth century was focused on the individual happiness. That happiness corresponds to the demand that was put forward by most Enlight­ enment philosophers to humanize the criminal code in order to advocate the greatest possible mildness in penal punishment. This humanisation of the penal system was conceivable, and conceptually attractive, during the Enlightenment, because for­ merly every alleviation of the prevail punishments, with which the highest being, God was attacked by the delict, was a matter to reconcile. That would have meant the human intervention into the penal power of God, and effectively, a weakening of God's rule. Important changes in the area of criminal law came to fruition only through the cooperation of philosophers and rulers and the corresponding seculari­ sation of many social and political areas by enlightened rulers such as Friedrich 11, Joseph 11 and Catharine lP. One cannot overestimate the close connections between Enlighteners and indi­ vidual monarchs. It is striking, according to the historian Karl Otmar of Aretin, that enlightened rulers like Cathrine 11 surrounded themselves with enlightened philoso­ phers, and not only from vanity, but also 'we1l sie de m neuen Denken einen hreiten 2 Raum hei der Neugestaltung ihrer Staaten einriumen wollten' • The argument of 1 C.
    [Show full text]