Rational-empiric Scientific healing reasoning Intuitive, naive- History of Veterinary Medicine empiric, superstitious- Metaphysical magic healing healing

Veterinary medicine in the Medieval Europe Ancient India, Ancient Rome, Medieval Arab, 1200-1600 Mesopotamia, Greece, Christian Middle China, Egypt Alexandria Ages

The rise of scientific reasoning Laurentius Rusius (Lorenzo Rusio) (1288-1347) The horse healing of mareschals. Riding schools. Marescalcia: A compiled knowledge based Invention of gun powder, the decline of on experiences chivalry and growing importance of light  Foundation of Italian and Spanish riding cavalry  enhanced role of horsemen schools (marah + scalc = horse + servant)

The influence of humanism (XV-XVI. century) Humanism

Reformation, heliocentric universe, humanism, book • is a broad category of philosophies that affirm the printing (Gutenberg)  dogmas and the monopoly of dignity and worth of all people, based on the ability knowledge was broken  the power of the Church to determine right and wrong by appealing to started to decline, the theory of divine determination could universal human qualities, particularly rationality not be maintained. • Puts the HUMAN in the center of world Reformation (Luther 1517 – 500 years anniversary!) • can be considered the process by which truth and The hierarchy of the state (kings, nobles, clergymen) was morality is sought through human investigation. queried (Switzerland, England: Cromwell). • In focusing on the capacity for self-determination, humanism rejects the validity of transcendental Constant wars and regular epidemics → need for medical justifications, such as a dependence on belief and veterinary knowledge. without reason, the supernatural, or texts of allegedly divine origin. Discovery of America ( the Earth is global). • the ideology that sparked the Renaissance, places a  Humanism: the value of the human being increased and high value on human beings, human culture and the pleasures of life were re-evaluated human experience

1 Turning point in • Great plague infectious disease that is believed to have medicine caused several epidemics and pandemics throughout history. Epidemics • is caused by Yersinia pestis – In one word: plague or • usually transmitted by the bite black death of fleas from an infected host – Started from India in (rat). 1325 Francesco Traini's "Triumph of Death„ (mid 14th century) • transferred from the blood of – Armenia, Russia, Egypt infected rats to the Rat Flea – 1348 - 1542 (Xenopsylla cheopsis). • Florence, Venice – • The bacterium multiplies in the 100.000 stomach of the flea, blocking it. Any serious outbreak of plague is • Sienna, Paris – 60.000 - When the flea next bites a started by other disease outbreaks 80.000 in the rodent population. • England – 25.000 priests mammal, the consumed blood During these outbreaks, infected • Poland, Vienna is regurgitated along with the fleas that have lost their normal – 25 Million people died bacterium into the bloodstream hosts seek other sources of blood. of the bitten animal.

Symptoms

• The disease becomes evident 2-6 days after infection. • Initial symptoms are chills, fever, headaches, and the formation of nodules. The buboes are formed by the infection of the lymph nodes, which swell and become prominent. • The bacteria can enter the bloodstream (septicemic plague) and then the lungs (pneumonic plague). • In septicemic plague there is bleeding into the skin and other organs, which creates black patches on the skin, hence the name. • Without diagnosis and treatment the infection is fatal in one to six days, mortality in untreated cases may be as high as 95%. • The disease can be effectively treated with ABs, however.

Peter Bruegel "Triumph of Death" (Black Plague)

2 14th and 15th century The influence of humanism • Plague and outbreaks of animal diseases Turning point of Middle ages into modern times • Starvation and riots, peasants’ uprisings Historians disagree on the turning points – In all European countries – (Switzerland, England: Cromwell ->). Invention of gun powder (1435) • Aim: free themselves Discovery of America (1492) – From authority of priests, nobles, knights Occupation of Constantinople (1453) – The hierarchy of the state (feudal system) was queried • commonwealth (later in 1653) – Disappointed even in religion • neither religion nor the patron saints could help

Turning from the „dark” Middle Ages Surgery • Humanists translate classical manuscripts from ancient times to medieval Latin • Assigned to clergy in medieval ages – Plato’s, Aristotel’s teaching • Development because of • Guttenberg (1395 - 1468) – 1346 battle at Crécy – More than 30.000 books at the end of 15th century – Invention of gun powder • Bible, Pliny’s Historia Naturalis – Increasing number of gunshots (spherical, conical) • Works of Avicenna, Hippocrates, Celsus • Further reforms • Assigned to „craftsmen” – Collecting new exact scientific knowledge based on – Surgeons, butchers (non educated) experience – Phlebotomy, wound hygiene, abscess opening – Natural sciences were loosely connected to scholastic – Operation of hernia, castration system, but geography lead to unfolding of the world

Great surgeons Education on surgery • Rogerius (1170, Salerno) • Only in France • Rolando (1220, Parma) – Collége de Saint Come et Saint Damien • Borgognoni (Cervia) – sterility! – Faculty in a Medical school • Mondeville – surgical cleanness • Conflict between doctors and „chirurgus” • Longoburgo (Padua) – Despised by doctors • Lanfranchi (died in 1280, Paris) • Theoretical knowledge – stitches on nerves, sphincterectomy – BUT – Books on surgery – Practical knowledge of chirurgs • Ars completa totius chirurgiae (1295) • Worth a lot on the battle field • Chirurgia parva, Chirurgia magna • Famous surgeons • Practica avium et eqourum

3 Anatomical theater, Inventions University of Padua • Smithies – Bleedings, infections – Cauterization • Red-hot iron • Hot oil • Amputation • First caesarian section – 1500 – Jakob Nufer – orchotomist

Amputation, 1517 Birthing chair

• Invented by Giovanni Savonarola (1384-1461) • The parturient woman sits on the lap of an assistant, who sits on a three-legged stool • This simple form of obstetrical chair was probably the most common type used in Europe in the Middle Ages Leprosy

From the Ambroise Paré (1516-1590)

19th century French reformer of surgery! Field surgeon in several military expeditions. Originally a barber. Unending series of small wars, invention and spread of firearms. Dressing without ointment  faster healing. Cauterization.

In the second volume of his book (Treatment of Diseases, 1545) he deals entirely with veterinary surgery.

4 Courageous surgeon • Opening of joints • Ligature on arteries • Amputation in 3 min

• The 3rd volume of his book – rabies – parasitic diseases – poisonous plants

Jansen, Zacharias invented the microscope in 1590.

Holland spectacle-makers, Jansen and his son invented the telescope in 1608.

Development of botany

• „God has given medicament in trees and herbs” • Searching for medication of infectious diseases • Brunfels – „Herbarium vivae eicones” (1530) – Healing herbs – Remedy against plague • Konrad Gesner – End to magic zoology – Natural beings • Hans Asper is also believed to have provided without a soul the illustrations for Konrad Gesner's Historia – Reformation of zoology Animalium. • life-like descriptions

5 Leonardo da Vinci Demand for anatomy (1452 – 1519) • Mondino de Luzzi • Dissected 30 human corpses – First dissection of human corps – 1315 – His book was used for 200 years • Detailed drawings on anatomy – Increased interest in anatomy – Still forbidden by the pope • „Creation was perfect, no further investigation.” Spinal column, muscle, tendon • Sylvius – anatomist from Paris Heart and circulation – Description of circulation by injection Digestive tract, peritoneum – Anatomical structures named after him Urogenital tract, liver – Aquaeductus cerebri Sylvii Central nervous system • aqueduct of mesencephalon Embryology

Artistic anatomy Physiognomy Basis: Secret necropsies Giovanni Battista della Porta Growing wealth: need for arts (paintings, sculptures) Sketches from the book „Physiognomy” detemining mental and moral qualities by the Leonardo da Vinci: face Sketches of human and animal Theory: Characteristics and body temperament are reflected on the face, Polyhistor, a real „renessaince” and similarities with animals: animistic man. view, allied with astrology (ancient animal gods represented by the zodiacs)

Girolamo Fracastoro (1478-1553) Spreading and effect of epidemics Born in Verona, studied medicine in Padua • Bath of Plombières, from De Balneis, Syphilis, or the French disease, 1530 On contagion and contagious diseases, 1546 Venice, Junta, 1553

A transmissible „contagium” spreading • Public baths, which had been popular „per contactum, per fomitem or per throughout Europe since the time of the distans”. Roman Empire, were active in the spread contagium = specific attacks certain species, age, gender of syphilis and many had to be closed. The basis of scientific epidemiology • Great need for medicaments (first observations on rinderpest). – led to the reform of medication Advisor of the pope – led to great number of (ineffective) medicines, His theory was lost for almost three centuries. to nihilism in therapy, but prosperity of trade

6 1583, Cataract extraction, brain surgery

• Syphilis is a chronic, infectious, sexually transmitted disease caused by a bacterium Treponema pallidum. • The sexually transmitted disease begins with a chancre (ulcer) which normally forms on the genital area. • If untreated, this chancre will heal, but the disease will progress possibly causing many complications, and in some instances death may occur. • It begins in the mucous membranes and quickly becomes systemic.

The XVI. century: „The century of anatomy” New anatomical structures

Andreas Vesalius (1514-1564) • Eustacchi (Rome) – the teeth in detail, their basic composition (enamel, Born in Brussels. Studied in dentin) Leuven, Paris. Prof in Padua – the auditory tube ("Eustachian tube") which links the His book: „De humani corporis” middle ear to the throat is the basis of modern anatomy. • Falloppio (Padua) Has proved several mistakes in – the tubes leading from the ovary to the uterus (the the works of Galen. "trumpets of the uterus" as he called them) Persecuted, accused with – subsequently named the "Fallopian tubes" in his honor heresy by the Holy Inquisition. • Varoli (Bologna) Constant harassment for performing necropsies. – Pons Varoli Escaped from Europe, died • Botallo (Paris) during his journey on sea. – Botallo duct

After his death several followers. • Servet – Lung circulation – dissecting dogs with Sylvius

Spleen

• Albrecht Dürer's diagnostic self- portrait denoting. • Dürer sent his physician a note with this sketch in colors, the location of the spleen in yellow. • The note indicates that he is experiencing pain in the location of the yellow spot.

7 Veterinary anatomy was first ahead of medical anatomy, since necropsy of animals was not prohibited.

Carlo Ruini (1520-1598): Anatomia del Cavallo

Description of circulation Absyrtos (1537)

Discovery of the blood circulation William Harvey (1578-1657)

Trained at Cambridge University, studied at the University of Padua, became a professor of anatomy at the London College of Physicians. Some consider his treatise on the circulation of the blood the most History of Veterinary Medicine significant finding in the history of medicine. Also made a huge contribution to the scientific method: a problem was defined, methods of solving the problem were explained, and the results were Veterinary medicine in the reported 17th-20th century Harvey’s treatise on embryology, Anatomical Excertations, Concerning the Generation of Living Creatures, would have secured his place among the great medical thinkers on its own. „Omne vivum ex ovo.”

Discovery of the microscope René Descartes (1596-1650) Seneca (1st century): magnifying lens from water bottle. Father of modern philosophy: „Cogito ergo sum.” Roger Bacon (13th century): magnifying glass lens for reading. Enraptured by Harvey’s blood circulation theory, Descartes regarded life phenomena as mechanical Gallilei, Kepler: telescope (combination of lenses) for studying processes. „Mechanical medicine”. Dead and alive far away objects are like functioning and broken-down clocks. Zacharias Jansen and his son – 1590 microscope, „No reason to assume the existence of „soul” or any 1608 telescope other factor of life, except blood and breath.” Improvement in glass polishing  Better and better of lenses. Never attacked religion, still his writings were put on Athanasius Kircher (1601-1680): the Index of the Vatican. Jesuit monk. Similar small „worms” in spoiled His followers studied body milk, in puddle-water and in plague buboes. movements, breathing, circulation (hydraulics), vision „flea-watcher intrument” (optics). Discovery of the microscope (60): only two lenses in a long tube.

8 Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) Father of microscopical anatomy in both animals and plants Professor in Bologna. Had to escape (jealousy of two other professors)  Pisa and Rome (medical adviser of the Pope). Plants, animals  Malpighian bodies of the kidney, spleen. Malpighian vessels in the insects. Capillaries, erythrocytes (frog). Alveoli of the lung. De viscerum structura Consultationum Medicinalium Anatomia plantarum (1671)

Antony van Leeuvenhoek (1632-1723) Textile merchant, later porter at the town hall. Studied microbes of water. Developed the best microscope of his age (200, 1665)

His followers developed the microscope, but could not reach higher resolution.

Robert Hooke (Micrographia)

Johann N. Lieberkühn

Francesco Redi (1626-1697) Experiment: rotten meat in an open glass and in an other covered with Student of Gallilei. gouse. Italien physician and phylosopher Disproval of the doctrine of spontaneous generation accepted for 2000 years since Aristotle. Maggots, frogs, mice come into being by abiogenesis from dirt, dust, mud, sweat, rotten fruit etc.

Abiogenesis = life arising from The theory of spontaneous non-living matter generation persisted till the XIX. century (Pasteur)

9 European rinderpest panzootics in the 18th century The animism and the phlogiston theory (As obstructive as the spontaneous generation.) Appeared with devastating power in 1709, killed 2.5 million cattle in 4 years. G. E. Stahl (1660-1734) Alchemic remedies, prayers did not help. Combustible material contain a The behaviour of the disease was studied by two Italians: component what makes them Giovanni Mario Lancisi (1656-1720) combustible: that is phlogiston. Fire is phlogiston leaving combustible Bernardino Ramazzini (1633-1714) material.

They refused that the panzootics was the consequence of panzootic influences, and proved that it was contagious: transmitted from animal to animal.

Animism Lazzaro Spallanzani (1729-1799) Attempted to disprove the theory of spontaneous generation, almost one Inorganic materials have no anima, therefore it never hundred years after Redi decomposes, except when other substances react with them. It was discovered that microorganisms did appear from decaying meat, even if it was Living bodies readily decompose spontaneously if the covered as Redi had done. anima (soul) leaves them.

Anatomy and physiology are worthless. Diseases are caused by the presence of the substance of „Air is needed to enter the disease (plethora = pathological hyperaemia) in the the flask in order for life body. The anima should be helped and the plethora should to be created.” be removed (blood letting, emetics).

Veterinary schools The establishment of the first veterinary school Lyon, 1762. Following the French example, several new establishments were PEST Tolnay 1787 Claude Bourgelat (1712-1779) founded mostly by Bourgelat’s French veterinary surgeon and authority disciples: on horse management. Eminent rider, Turin (1769) officer of the Academy of Cavalries. Vienna (1777) Magnificent organizer, but neither Ludovico Scotti scientist nor teacher, so he did not teach Hannover (1778) at the school. Pest (1787)

SandorrrrrTolnai First year: Four professors, six students from different countries (illiterates were rejected). Horseshoeing based on anatomic properties of the hoof was Founded the second veterinary school in spreading (wars). Matching shoes to the hoofs. Alfort, 1763. (vs. P. E. Lafosse) The control of epizootics represented the most difficult task.

10 The discovery of vaccination The era of aetiological concept and mind Edward Jenner (1749 - 1823) Development and perfection of microscopy, widespread use of microscopes! Jenner was an English doctor, the pioneer of smallpox vaccination and the Discovery of plant (Schleiden) and animal cells (Schwann) father of immunology. In 1796 experiment: pus from a cowpox pustule into an incision on a boy's arm. Theory: milkmaids who suffered of cowpox never contracted smallpox.

Coined the word vaccine from the Latin 'vacca' for cow. Jenner was widely ridiculed by critics, especially the clergy. Satirical cartoons.

Rudolf Ludwig Karl Virchow (1821 – 1902) The era of bacteriology An outstanding figure of cytology and Louis Pasteur (1822 – 1895) cytopathology. He was employed in Berlin but was French chemist best known for his suspended on due to his liberal view of remarkable breakthroughs in the German government. He was the microbiology. His experiments founder of cellular pathology because of confirmed the germ theory of disease his extensive research that disease is and he created the first vaccine for created and reproduced at the cellular rabies. He is best known to the general level of the body. public for showing how to stop milk and wine from going sour - this process In the Franco-German War personally lead the first hospital came to be called pasteurization. He is train to the front lines to attend to injured soldiers without regarded as one of the three main respect to nationality. founders of microbiology, together with He campaigned for social reform and had also contributed Ferdinand Kohn and Robert Koch. to the development of Pathology and Anthropology.

The famous swan-neck Robert Koch (1822 – 1895) flask experiment: grape juice without German bacteriologist: discovered the contamination would anthrax disease cycle; the bacteria remain unfermented, responsible for tuberculosis and whereas the same cholera. He formulated rules for the grape juice exposed to control of epidemics of cholera. air would undergo fermentation, due to The Koch’s Postulates are still the basic microbes in the air procedures used by modern epidemiologists and medical researchers: 'Never will the doctrine of (1) Identify a specific organism, spontaneous generation (2) obtain a pure culture of that organism, recover from the mortal blow struck by this (3) reproduce the disease in experimental simple experiment.' animals using the pure culture, and (4) recover the organism from the infected (After experiments of Redi and Spallanzani) animals.

11 Ivan Pavlov (1849 - 1936) Ivan Pavlov was a Russian physiologist whose research on the physiology of digestion led to the development of the first experimental model of learning, Classical Conditioning. Most of his research was gathered studying salivating dogs.

Remarkable technical discoveries and inventions Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen helping medical and veterinary science (1845-1923) German physicist, who was the recipient of the first Nobel Prize for Physics. • Anaesthesia (by ether, 1846) While experimenting with a cathode-ray • Thermometer tube, he observed a new kind of rays – clinical thermometry (1850, 1868) which travelled through paper, wood, and • Subcutaneous injection (1853) soft tissues and which he called X- radiation, which also became known as • Bacterium retaining filters (1871) Röntgen radiation. • Sterilisation by autoclave – (steam sterilisation) (1886) • X-ray (Röntgen, 1895) • Electrocardiography, ECG (1903)

The beginning of Virology Friedrich Loeffler (1852 – 1915) Connection of bacteria and diseases. Development of filtration techniques. Observed that an agent similar to TMDV Dmitri J. Ivanovski (1864 – 1920) was responsible for foot-and-mouth Russian botanist : 1892: the disease. tobacco mosaic disease virus 1898: Foot and mouth disease virus penetrates through bacterium There was strong resistance that proof filters. No bacteria in the suggested these were not associated liquid transmitting the disease → with human diseases, but in 1901 Toxin? (= Virus) →← corpuscular Walter Reed (1893-1902) discovered yellow fever was caused by a virus. Once mosquitoes were identified as the virus carrier, the introduction of aggressive mosquito control helped to suppress the problem.

12 Willem Einthoven Dutch physician and physiologist (Utrecht, Leiden) 1903: electrocardiograph

World War I. Félix d'Herelle (1873 –1949) Last war when mainly horses were used for Canadian born French bacteriologist transportation. Soon replaced by vehicles.

1915 Bacteriophages: Viruses of bacteria (cholera → possible antibacterial treatments ← ø) therapeutic use of bacteriophages to treat pathogenic bacterial infections

→← models for molecular genetics

Hundreds of thousands of New trends in veterinary profession: animals were wounded or killed in the First World After World War shift from horse to War and thousands of food animals → significance of food people served in the hygiene, food safety↑ veterinary corps. Industrialised chicken and pig rearing

13 Discovery of the first antibiotic Alexander Fleming (1881 – 1955) Ernst Ruska German physicist In 1921 discovered an enzyme 1931 electron microscope: called lysozyme (after an accidental Ultrastructural investigations sneeze onto a Petri dish), found in tears, saliva, and other natural substances, lysozyme breaks bonds in the cell walls of bacteria, causing the bacteria to lyse. In 1928, the first significant antibiotic, the penicillin (Mould on uncleaned agar plates in a corner while he was on holidays ).

In 1938 penicillin as an antibiotic purified by Howard Florey and Ernst Chain

World War II. James Watson (1928-) Horses were mainly Frances Crick (1916-2004) victims and no DNA structure is a double helix participants anymore. In 1953, they proposed a three- Veterinarians worked dimensional model for the seldom as veterinarians structure of DNA: a double helix molecule formed by two chains, each composed of alternating sugar and phosphate groups, connected by nitrogenous bases. Basis of genetic investigations.

Nowadays: genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Rosalind Franklin (died on the age of 37, in 1958)

Animal cloning (1997) New trends in veterinary profession:

• Shift from food animals to companion animals (in the ’60ies) • Growing number of exotic pets • Disappearance of great epidemics and Dolly the sheep was the pandemics (eradication of the rinderpest) first mammal to be cloned – Bird flu! – ASF! • Feminization

14 H5N8 HPAI • In November 2016 several countries in Europe have reported numerous detections – Austria, Croatia, Hungary, Poland, Denmark, Germany, Netherlands, Switzerland • Restriction of import: – Canada, Hong-Kong Serbia • Complete embargo: – South Africa, Izrael, Japan Poultry keepers should remind themselves of the mild clinical signs of LPAI infection and be aware of any changes in egg production, feed and water intake (>5%) or rise in mortality above baseline

African swine fever

• Hemorrhagic fever with high mortality – Arthopodborne disease (soft tick) – Infects swine and wild boar (in Europe) • exists in the wild through a cycle of infection between ticks and wild pigs, bushpigs and warthogs – DNA virus (Asfivirus) • 1957 in Portugal, later Spain, France • In September 2018, an outbreak occurred in wild boars in Belgium • …..

Readings:

Food and Agricultural Organisation • Karasszon, Dénes: – A Concise History of Veterinary Medicine (1988) International Office of Epizootics (Office International des Epizooties) • http://www.famousscientists.org/

• Google  The European Association of Establishments for Veterinary Education (EAEVE)

15 Schedule

• 28th of October (Monday) – exam • Retake: – 4th of November (during lecture time) – Any time on request

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