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Home , Edgar Adrian, Ivan Pavlov, Karl von Frisch

Weblinks

 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peripheral_nervous_system  http://www.masterbs.univ-montp2.fr/images/FMBS106/2012- 2013/Cours_Patrick_Carroll_2012.pdf  https://www.us.elsevierhealth.com/media/us/samplechapters/9781416031659/9781416031659 .pdf  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4M82WwFACLg  https://highered.mcgraw- hill.com/sites/0072495855/student_view0/chapter14/animation__transmission_across_a_syna pse.html  https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ma8KkwN4_X8  http://www.innerbody.com/image/nervov.html

Suggested Readings

 Carlson, N. R. (2005). Foundations of Physiological . New Delhi: Dorling Kindersley.  Levinthal, C. F. (1990). Introduction to (3rd Ed.). NJ: Prentice Hall.  Morgan, C. T. (1965). Physiological Psychology (3rd Ed.). NY: McGraw Hill.  Pinel, J. P. (1993). Biopsychology (2nd Ed.). London: Allyn and Bacon.  Rosenzweig, M. R., Leiman, A. L. & Breedlove, S. M. (1996). Biological Psychology. Massachusetts: Sinauer.  Schwartz, M. (1978). Physiological Psychology (2nd Ed.). New Jersey: Prentice Hall.  Weller, H. & Wiley, R. (1985). Basic Human (2nd Ed.). Boston: Prindle, Weber & Schmidt.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the ; The Peripheral Nervous System

Biographic sketches

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Luigi Galvani was an Italian physician, physicist and philosopher who had also studied medicine. In 1771, he discovered that the muscles of a dead frog’s legs twitched when struck by a spark. This was one of the first forays into the study of bioelectricity, a field that still today studies the electrical patterns and signals of the nervous system. Galvani was slowly skinning a frog at a table where he had been conducting experiments with static electricity by rubbing frog skin. Galvani's assistant touched an exposed sciatic nerve of the frog with a metal scalpel, which had picked up a charge. At that moment, they saw sparks and the dead frog's leg kicked as if in life. The made Galvani the first investigator to appreciate the relationship between electricity and animation or life. Galvani coined the term animal electricity to describe the force that activated the muscles of his specimens. He regarded their activation as being generated by an electrical fluid that is carried to the muscles by the nerves. The phenomenon was dubbed galvanism, after his name.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi_Galvani

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System

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Heinrich Wilhelm Gottfried von Waldeyer-Hartz was a German anatomist, famous for consolidating the theory of organization of the nervous system and for naming the chromosome. for popularizing the term "neuron" to describe the basic structural unit of the nervous system.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heinrich_Wilhelm_Gottfried_von_Waldeyer-Hartz

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Santiago Ramón y Cajal was a Spanish pathologist, histologist, and Nobel laureate. His original pioneering investigations of the microscopic structure of the brain have led him to be designated by many as the father of modern . His medical artistry was legendary, and hundreds of his drawings illustrating the delicate arborizations of brain cells are still in use for educational and training purposes. It was in 1887 that he learned 's silver nitrate preparation and turned his attention to the central nervous system. During this period he made extensive studies of neural material covering many species and most major regions of the brain. Cajal made several major contributions to neuroanatomy. He discovered the axonal growth cone, and experimentally demonstrated that the relationship between nerve cells was not continuous

but contiguous. This provided definitive evidence for what would later be known as "neuron doctrine", now widely considered the foundation of modern neuroscience. He was an advocate of the existence of dendritic spines, although he did not recognize them as the site of contact from presynaptic cells.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santiago_Ram%C3%B3n_y_Cajal

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System

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Sir Charles Scott Sherrington was an English neurophysiologist, histologist, bacteriologist, and a pathologist. He received the in Physiology or Medicine with , 1st Baron Adrian, in 1932 for their work on the functions of . Prior to the work of Sherrington and Adrian, it was widely accepted that reflexes occurred as isolated activity within a reflex arc. Sherrington received the prize for showing that reflexes require integrated activation and demonstrated reciprocal innervation of muscles (Sherrington's Law). Sherrington worked on segmental distribution of the spinal dorsal and ventral roots, he mapped the sensory dermatomes, and in 1892 discovered that muscle spindles initiated the stretch reflex. Working on cats, dogs, monkeys, and apes that had been bereaved of their cerebral hemispheres, he found that reflexes must be considered integrated activities of the total organism, not just the result of activities of the so-called reflex-arcs, a concept then generally accepted.

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington

Glossary

A Afferent neurons: sensory neurons which relay information from the sensory organs to the nervous system. Astrocyte: a type of star shaped glial cell whose arm-like extensions cover the outer surface of blood vessels that course through the brain. Axon hillock: The part of the axon where it emerges from the soma.

C Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): the nourishing and protective fluid in which the brain is immersed and which fills the ventricular system.

D Dendrites: profusely branched structures that arise from the cell body of the neuron.

E Efferent neurons: motor neurons which relay information from the nervous system to the various effector muscles, viscera or parts of the body.

F Foramen: the small openings through which the spinal nerves leave the vertebral column. PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System

G Ganglion: an encapsulated neural structure consisting of a collection of cell bodies or neuron.

M Meninges: the protective layers covering the brain and the spinal cord beneath their bony structure. Microglia: a type of glial cell that responds to injury or disease by engulfing cellular debris. Myelin sheath: a fatty covering over the axons of some neurons.

N Neurolemma: a protective covering over the neuron. Nodes of Ranvier: points at which the myelin sheath is interrupted on the axon.

O Oligodendrocytes: a type of glial cells that myelinate some neurons of the CNS.

R Radial glia: a type of glial cell which have long radiating arms and assist in transporting or providing pathways for newly formed neurons.

S Schwann cells: a type of glial cells that myelinate the neurons of the peripheral nervous system. Soma: also called the cell body, it is the central part of the neuron and contains the nucleus. Synapse or synaptic cleft: the space that separate the neuron from the neighbouring neurons.

T Terminal arborization: also called terminal buttons or nerve endings, these are the button like structure that the axon ends with.

Time-Line: development of qualitative research methods

Time Description

2nd Century A.D. of Pergamum identifies the brain as the organ of the mind.

17th Century The brain becomes accepted as the substrate of mental life rather than its ventricles, as early writers had proposed.

1664 Thomas Willis publishes Cerebri anatome, with illustrations of the brain by . It is the most comprehensive treatise on brain anatomy and function published up to that time.

1791 Luigi Galvani reveals the electric nature of nervous action by stimulating nerves and muscles of frog legs.

1808 Franz Joseph Gall proposes that specific brain regions control specific functions.

1852 Hermann von Helmholtz measures the speed of a nerve in the frog.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System

1879 establishes the first laboratory of in , Germany. 1891 Wilhelm von Waldeyer-Hartz introduces the term neuron.

1897 Charles Sherrington introduces the term synapse.

1898-1903 and describe operant and , two fundamental types of . 1906 Santiago Ramón y Cajal summarizes compelling evidence for the neuron doctrine, that the nervous system is composed of discrete cells. 1906 Alois Alzheimer describes the pathology of the neurodegenerative disease that comes to bear his name. 1914 Henry Dale demonstrates the physiological action of acetylcholine, which is later identified as a neurotransmitter. 1929 In a famous program of lesion experiments in rats, Karl Lashley attempts to localize memory in the brain. 1929 uses human scalp electrodes to demonstrate .

1928-32 Edgar Adrian describes method for recording from single sensory and motor axons; H. Keffer Hartline applies this method to the recording of single-cell activity in the eye of the horseshoe crab. 1940s , , and explain electrical activity of neurons by concentration gradients of ions and movement of ions through pores. 1946 Kenneth Cole develops the voltage-clamp technique to measure current flow across the cell membrane. 1949 Donald Hebb introduces a synaptic learning rule, which becomes known as the Hebb rule. 1930s to 1950s The chemical nature of synaptic transmission is established by , Henry Dale, Wilhelm Feldberg, Stephen Kuffler, and Bernard Katz at peripheral synapses and is extended to the spinal cord by John Eccles and others. 1930s to 1950s Wilder Penfield and Theodore Rasmussen map the motor and sensory homunculus and illustrate localization of function in the . 1950s , , and establish the science of (animal behavior in natural contexts) and lay the foundation for . 1955-60 Vernon Mountcastle, David Hubel, and pioneer single-cell recording from mammalian sensory cortex; Nils-Ake Hillarp introduces fluorescent microscopic methods to study cellular distribution of biogenic amines. 1956 Rita Levi-Montalcini and Stanley Cohen isolate and purify nerve growth factor.

1957 describes patient H.M. and discovers the importance of the medial

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System

temporal lobe for memory.

1958 finds dopamine to be a transmitter in the brain and proposes that it has a role in extrapyramidal disorders such as Parkinson's disease. 1958 Simple invertebrate systems, including Aplysia , Drosophila, and C.elegans, are introduced to analyze elementary aspects of behavior and learning at the cellular and molecular level. 1962-63 Brain anatomy in rodents is found to be altered by experience; first evidence for role of protein synthesis in memory formation. 1963 Roger Sperry proposes a precise system of chemical matching between pre- and postsynaptic neuronal partners (the chemoaffinity hypothesis). 1966-69 Ed Evarts and Robert Wurtz develop methods for studying movement and with single-cell recordings from awake, behaving monkeys. 1970 Synaptic changes are related to learning and memory storage inAplysia

Mid-1970s shows that many neurotransmitters work by means of protein phosphorylation. 1973 Timothy Bliss and Terje Lomo discover long-term potentiation, a candidate synaptic mechanism for long-term mammalian memory. 1976 and develop the patch-clamp technique for recording the activity of single ion channels. Late 1970s by positron emission tomography is developed.

1980s Experimental evidence becomes available for the divisibility of memory into multiple systems; an animal model of human amnesia is developed. 1986 H. Robert Horvitz discovers the ced genes, which are critical for programmed cell death. 1986 Patient R.B. establishes the importance of the hippocampus for human memory.

1990 Segi Ogawa and colleagues develop functional magnetic resonance imaging.

1990 and Oliver Smythies develop gene knockout technology, which is soon applied to neuroscience. 1991 Linda Buck and discover that the olfactory receptor family consists of over 1000 different genes. The anatomical components of the medial temporal lobe memory system are identified. 1993 The Huntington's Disease Collaborative Research Group identifies the gene responsible for Huntington's disease. 1990s Neural development is transformed from a descriptive to a molecular discipline by Gerald Fischbach, Jack McMahan, Tom Jessell, and Corey Goodman; neuroimaging is applied to problems of human cognition, including perception, attention, and memory.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System

1990s Reinhard Jahn, , Richard Scheller, and Thomas Sudhof delineate molecules critical for exocytosis. 1998 First 3D structure of an ion channel is revealed by Rod MacKinnon.

This timeline is reproduced from Kandel, E. R., & L.R., S. (2000). Neuroscience: Breaking down scientific barriers to the study of brain and mind. Science, 290, 1113-1120.

Did You Know?

 There are billions of nerve cells in the human body; whether their number is actually more than the number of stars in the Milky Way galaxy is debatable, but their number is definitely more than the number of people on Earth.

 Neurons are the largest cells in the human body and they can be up to 3 feet long and their diameter ranges between 4 to 100 microns

 The Nervous System can transmit impulses as fast as 100 meters per second. In fact, the speed of message transmission to the brain can be as high as 180 miles per hour.

 The human brain alone consists of about 100 billion neurons on an average. If all these neurons were to be lined up, it would form a 600-mile long line. While most of the sources maintain that the average number of neurons in the human brain is 100 billion, a 2009 study by neuroscientist, Herculano-Houzel revealed that the same is actually 86 billion.

 The human spinal cord, with an average length of 19 inches, consists of around 13,500,000 neurons.

 Neurons do not undergo the process of mitosis like the other cells.

 In a child developing inside the womb, the neurons are known to grow at the rate of 250,000 neurons per minute. By the time of birth, the brain already consists of approximately 10 million nerve cells.

 In newborns, the brain is known to grow three times within the span of a year. As we grow older, the brain loses a gram every year.

 Men have approximately 6.5 times more gray matter in the brain as compared to women, and women have approximately 10 times more white matter than men.

 Only four percent of the brain's cells work while the remaining cells are kept in reserve.

PSYCHOLOGY PAPER No.14: NEUROPSYCHOLOGY Know_more MODULE No. 01: Organization of the Nervous System; The Peripheral Nervous System