Sacralization of the Mekong River Through Folk Narratives

Home , Lao Buddhist sculpture, Nepalis in Thailand, Origin myth

SACRALIZATION OF THE this paper indicates the influence and the MEKONG RIVER THROUGH integration of Buddhism in the folk 1 perception and folk beliefs on the Mekong FOLK NARRATIVES River.

Pathom Hongsuwan2 Introduction

Buddhism is the predominant religion of Abstract people living along the Mekong River, from highland Tibet (the source) through This paper aims to identify the construction China, Burma, Laos, and Thailand (the of the sacredness of the Mekong River middle of the stream) to Cambodia and through folk narratives created by the Vietnam (the end of the stream). The communities of Tibet, China, Burma, Laos, houses of people are located in the Thailand, Cambodia and Vietnam, located lowland areas and it is believed that people along the banks of the Mekong River. started to settle along the Mekong River 4,000 years ago (Griffith 2001: 181). In this paper, the sacralization of the Thus, the Mekong River has long been a Mekong River is explained through four sacred place in peoples’ lives, and the major kinds of folk narrative; firstly, those origin of civilization is as old as the river about the origin and the characteristics of itself. This implies that there could be a the Mekong River; secondly, narratives close relationship between the Mekong about sacred objects and sacred places; River and religious notions, especially thirdly, narratives about sacred animals Buddhism, because the river has played an and sacred trees; and fourthly, narratives important role in the way of life of people explaining rituals and traditions. in various communities. The relationship between Buddhism and the Mekong River This paper discusses the relationship has influenced people living along the between the Mekong River and folk banks to create folk narratives related to Buddhism through folk narratives, beliefs Buddhism and the common perception of and rites that exist among the riverine the relationship between Buddhism and communities along the Mekong River. This the Mekong River. paper will shed light on the folk perspective of the Mekong River as a sacred The peoples’ way of life is closely related river through the folk narratives related to to the river and has been reflected in the the Lord Buddha. Overall, the analysis in construction of sacred narratives. Joel P. Brereton (1995: 526–531) explains that, according to folk belief, there is a “sacred 1 This paper is a part of a post-doctoral area,” a ritual space, which includes a research entitled, “The Mekong River: Myths frontier or boundary and can be separated and Relationship with the Tai Peoples,” from the “common area.” To describe the granted by Office of the Higher Education sacred area explicitly, Jonathan Z. Smith Commission (OHEC) and The Thailand (1982: 189) has suggested the helpful Research Fund (TRF). metaphor of the sacred space as a 2 Assistant Professor, Department of Thai and Oriental Languages, Faculty of Humanities and “focusing lens.” The sacred space focuses Social Sciences, Mahasarakham University the attention on the forms, objects, and

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actions with in it and reveals them as the Lord Buddha. The findings from this study bearers of religious meaning. The sacred will add to previous studies of folk space describe the fundamental constituents Buddhism and the Mekong studies. of reality as the religious community perceives them, defines the way of life in Sacralization of the Mekong River accordance with that view, and provides a through folk narratives concerned with means of access between the human world the origin and characteristics of the and the divine world. river

A survey of folk narratives among the The folk narratives of the people along the various communities around the lowlands Mekong River reflect the perception of the of the Mekong River, e.g. Tibetan, Tai Mekong River as a sacred river created by Lue, Chinese, Laotian, Cambodian and the Lord Buddha. The origin myth of the Vietnamese, found that these narratives, to Mekong River told by the peoples in the a certain extent, make reference to Buddhism. upstream Mekong, e.g., Tibetans, In the story of the river’s origin, for Nepalese, etc., indicates the role of the example, it was believed that “the river Lord Buddha as the god who created the was created by the power of Lord Buddha Mekong River. It is told that, originally, who separated the Himalayan mountain there was a huge lake encircled by range, allowing the water reserved at the mountain ranges. It was the Lord Buddha top of the mountain to flow down and who divided the mountain ranges into half become the main stream for humankind” and, by doing so, liberated the lake and the (Gargan 2002: 22–23 and Bell 2007: 19, water to become the streams that flowed 31). Some narratives explain that the downwards giving birth to the Mekong footprints of the Lord Buddha in his River which travelled a long way onwards various lifetimes are enshrined in the to the ocean (Gargan 2002: 22–23). Mekong River. Moreover, the river was also the place to which the Lord Buddha Thus, it was the power of the Lord Buddha travelled to drink and bathe before that created the great stream of the Mekong Nirvana (Luang Phrabang Chronicle). River. In other words, it was the Lord These beliefs have been passed down Buddha who split the mountains, creating through folk narratives which can be the watercourse that led to different viewed as creative and imaginary stories boundaries. Had he not done so, the Mekong that do not exist in the Buddhist canon. River would never have been born. Another However, such folk narratives serve as version of the myth of the Himalayas tells useful sources when trying to understand how the Lord Buddha used a sword to the folk perception of Buddhism. slice into the mountain and release the water inside thus creating the watercourse. This paper aims to illustrate the The watercourse became sacred streams relationship between the Mekong River that flowed downward creating the and folk Buddhism through folk narratives Mekong River we know today. For and rituals among the communities in the Tibetans, all the river streams running lowlands along the Mekong River. It is from the Himalayan mountain ranges, hoped that this paper will shed light on the including the Mekong River, are symbols meaning of the Mekong River as a sacred of an entity that acts as the eternal bond river through the folk narratives about the between the Lord Buddha and human beings.

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In the culture of certain peoples living in golden catfish. Eventually, the Naga who the upstream segment of the Mekong dug the Mekong River became the winner. River, there exists a trek that symbolizes the relationship between the Mekong Even though the content of this legend River and the Lord Buddha. The Tibetans does not present the Lord Buddha himself living in the highlands of the Himalayas as the one who commanded the two Nagas have a tradition of people travelling in to dig the river, in other legends, for pilgrimage across the mountain ranges that example, the Legend of Mun River/ divide the Mekong and the Salawin (a Northeastern Thai legend), the Rivers. This pilgrimage is believed by the character of the Great Sky God, Thaen people to be “a travel to heaven to see the Luang, is replaced by Indra, a Buddhist Lord Buddha.” This belief and practice deity. So in this legend, it is Indra who among the Buddhist people of highland gives the command to the Nagas. This Tibet in the upstream part of the Mekong then reflects creation and the making also signifies a powerful accumulation of sacred of the Mekong River through a merit and a return to nature (Suttichai Buddhist deity, Indra. Yoon 2009: 30). In addition, the Legend of

Muang Chiangrung, (a legend of the Tai This same story of the fight between the Lue (Dai) in Yunnan, China) tells that the two Nagas which ends with one Naga muddy colour of the Mekong stream is due receiving a giant fish as a reward has also to washing of the Lord Buddha’s robes been used to explain the exclusive and those of his followers’ in the Mekong existence of natural giant catfish in the River. This kind of folk narratives Mekong River. This also demonstrates the indicates belief that the Mekong River has belief that the river has a “life” and a sense of sacredness. “mind” and that the river creates stability

for the universe, since it is the source of The narratives mentioned above reflect a various kinds of fish. Moreover, many belief in the relationship between the Lord people believe that the nearer the river is Buddha’s supreme power and the origin of to the sea, the more plentiful it will be. For the Mekong River, which flows from the instance, the entrance of the Mekong River sacred mountain range down stream. Later before flowing into the South China River on, the watercourse became the habitat of is called Lake Tonle Sap (in Cambodia) Nagas the , the place becoming known as meaning the area that has the greatest Nong Sae/ . In Laos and Northeastern abundance of fresh water fish in the Thai myths, there are stories about the two Mekong River. Nagas who were good friends who loved and supported each other. One day, they In relation to the legend concerning the land quarrelled over the sharing of food and a being dug to create the Mekong River, the war developed between the two Nagas. Legend of Phra That Phanom/ The war created trouble for other living (a legend of Laotian and Northeastern creatures in the stream so Thaen Luang/ Thai origin) states that all the Nagas ‘the Great Sky God’ commanded that became the Mekong River’s guardians and the two Nagas compete by digging up the were known as Phi Chao Nam Chao Tha/ land to make a path to the ocean and the . When the Lord Buddha travelled winner would be rewarded with a giant down to earth to propagate Buddhism,

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these Nagas, after listening to His teaching, chewing the betel nuts (nam mak) and had faith in Buddhism and volunteered to poured it into the stream resulting in the be the guardians of all Buddhist places lower stream of the Mekong River turning built along the Mekong River. red (due to the red colour of the betel nuts). Nowadays, this stream is still a In Sipsongpanna, Yunnan, China, many muddy red. Accordingly, the colour of the temples were constructed in the land of the Mekong River has been associated with Tai Lue people where the people living the folk narrative concerning the Buddha’s along the river are Buddhists. Luang life history. Temple is one of the oldest temples and a statue of Naga is kept there. It is believed Water from the Mekong River is however that in the past, the Nagas at Luang perceived to be sacred because it has been Temple wanted to sneak out to play in the used in various court and community rites. Mekong stream at Nong Toeng/, not For example, in the past, Laotians in far from the temple. The villagers were Luang Phra Bang believed that water from afraid that the Nagas might not return to the Mekong River had to be used in the guard the temple so they shackled the King’s accession ceremony. Similarly, it is Nagas’ feet with metal to prevent them also believed that water and stones from from going to play in the river (Bunchuay the Mekong River were used in the Srisawat 2004: 170). This resulted in the tradition of worshipping the That Phranom change of the Nagas’ habits from those of Stupa in Nakorn Phanom province. The “wild” Nagas to “virtuous” Nagas ( water was used as an intermediary to ). The Mekong River is therefore invite Naga, as the Mekong river guardian, considered a powerful river that has the and Upakut/, the God of Protection potential to change the status of Nagas in Laotian and Northeastern Thai folk from “wild” to “virtuous” beings. belief) to come to guard and help the ceremony proceed smoothly. The fact that Apart from the various narratives explaining people use water from the Mekong River the relationship between the Mekong for various ritual purposes confirms that River and the Lord Buddha as described people along the river believe in the above, there is also another legend, the sacredness of the Mekong River. Legend of the Huay Nam Mak/ ก. Huay Nam Mak is called “Huay Sacralization of the Mekong River Mieng” in the Laotian language. It is a through the folk narratives of sacred stream near Wat Phon San/, a objects and sacred places temple in Bolikamsai, Laos. The legend recounts how the Lord Buddha and his 400 Apart from the narratives indicating that followers came to the Ponsan (where, later the Mekong River was created from the on in 1933, a Buddha footprint was found, Lord Buddha’s power, there is also dating back to the 15th century) and the another set of folk narratives that explain Buddha’s followers helped to construct the sacredness of the river by making small pavilions to stay in during the rain’s sacred objects and places along the river in retreat. The followers chewed betel nuts relation to the Buddha’s journey. It is (mak) and a novice who served the narrated that the Lord Buddha travelled to followers collected the monks’spit from visit the communities along the Mekong River and taught dharma to the indigenous

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peoples. It is also told that the Lord Apart from the narratives of the Buddha’s Buddha would press his feet on the stones footprints, there are also many stories along the river bank and, thus, the stones about the Buddha images found under the became the evidence of his sacred footprint. Mekong River. For example, the Legend Other kinds of evidence are the various of the Phra Suk Buddha Image/ก Buddhist temples along the Mekong River. told by northeastern Thais tells of the three images of the Lord Buddha, Phra Suk, There are quite a number of folk narratives Phra Sai and Phra Serm. These three about the Buddha’s footprint. There is the images were constructed in Viantian in the story of the Nagas asking the Buddha to Lanchang Kingdom in Laotian history. impress his footprints on the stones so that Later, the three Buddha images were put the Nagas could bring the sacred stone on a raft along the Mekong River but there down to the bottom of the Mekong River was a big storm and Phra Suk sunk to worship. In the Legend of the Ponsan beneath the river. Consequently, villagers Buddha’s footprint/ told called this area Wern Suk. around the Bolikamsai sub-district of Laos, it is said that when the Lord Buddha A similar story of a Buddha image being came to preach to the indigenous people enshrined under the Mekong River is also along the Mekong River, the people asked found in the northern Thai Legend of the him to leave his footprints near the river Lan Tue Buddha Image of Chiang Rai bank. Since then there has always been province in Thailand. It is said that the water coming out of the footprint and temple where the image of Buddha was people believe that it has certain sacred enshrined collapsed during the Chiangsaen powers and can help cure sickness and period. The whole temple as well as the remove evil. image of Buddha, sank into the Mekong River, where it has remained ever since Another interesting folk narrative is the (Dararat Weerapong 2003: 39). This Legend of the Wernpla Buddha’s Footprint/ shows how the local belief in the object told among northeastern lying beneath the Mekong River is related Thai people. It is related that when the to the Lord Buddha and it sheds light on Lord Buddha travelled to this area, the the belief that the Mekong stream is sacred king of the golden-mouth fish/ก so that people need to be respectful to the asked Him to press his footprint on a stone river. in the middle of the Mekong River. This sacred stone of the Buddha’s footprint is It is believed by the Laotians that these believed to be guarded by the king of the sunken Buddha images used to be the golden-mouth fish. It is also believed that Lanchang Kingdom’s Buddha’s images. the king of the golden-mouth fish will live Later on when Thailand and Laos became long until the era of Phra Sri Arayamettrai separate countries, the Mekong River (the future Buddha). This story can thus be became the border between them. It was believed that the Buddha images had seen as sacralizing the stone in the middle feelings like those of humans and since the of the Mekong River since it is believed images loved both countries, they sank that it was pressed by the Buddha’s footprint. beneath the Mekong River and they became the mutual property of the two countries, not of either particular side.

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cave, a number of Buddha images are The sacralizing of the Mekong River enshrined. Moreover, the construction of includes folk narratives of the Buddhist many temples in Luang Phra Bang or in stupa (the Buddhist for housing the the communities parallel to the Mekong Buddha’s relics) in the river. An example River can be seen as examples of the is the La Nong Stupa/ special notion of building sacred places commonly known as the Stupa in Middle along the river which is a different notion of Mekong River/ก in Muang that of central Thailand (Surasawat District, Nong Khai province, Thailand. It Suksawat 2001: 48). is believed that, originally, this stupa was located on the river bank. It is narrated that several hundreds years ago when the Mekong stream changed its direction, the stupa was submerged beneath the river. Since then, the villagers have believed that the Buddha’s relics were instead taken care of by the Naga in his underworld kingdom. So, this illustrates the villagers’ perception of the Mekong River as a sacred river containing the Buddha’s relics.

Figure 2: Ting Cave, located along the Mekong River in Luang Phrabang, Laos

The kinds of folk narrative mentioned above provides evidence indicating people’s perception of the Mekong as a sacred river. Since the temples were constructed parallel to the stream of the river, the main Buddha images have to face upstream since this was also believed to have been the birthplace of the Lord Buddha. The Mekong River is therefore like a

“compass” to the Buddhist architecture Figure 1: La Nong Stupa or known as the along the river and for this reason, the stupa in the middle of the Mekong River. Mekong is considered to be a part of the Buddhist architectural system of thought. Furthermore, certain stones or small islands Clifford Geertz (2000) argues that people’s along the Mekong are also associated with behaviour in the community is the the Lord Buddha. Examples of these are constructed symbol for communication Khon Phi Long/, an island at and so this reflects the hidden meaning in Chiang Kong District, Chiang Rai province the symbolic behaviour of the Laotian and the carved stones of Buddha’s image people. It also reveals the attempt to construct found there. Another place is the Ting a relationship between the Mekong River Cave/ in Luang Phrabang, Laos. In this and the Lord Buddha.

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perception that the animals inhabiting in So, the folk narratives concerning the the river are somehow related to Buddhist Buddha’s footprint, images and the stupas belief. The giant catfish/ก widely enshrined in the area of the Mekong River known as an important species of fish are evidence which reflects the beliefs and living in the Mekong River, has been practices of people living along the river accepted as a sacred fish and its narrative banks. These people have tried to integrate is related to the legend of the Mekong the unified relationship between the River. Mekong River and Buddhist belief. Such construction of the sacred meaning of the The giant catfish is perceived by local physical environment whether they be people as a large animal that eats only mountains, streams, islands, stones or the plants and is kind and harmless to other bends of the watercourse of the Mekong kinds of animals in the river. Moreover, River reflect the worldview, values and the white skin of the giant catfish indicates beliefs of the people along the Mekong “purity” and “cleanness.” The distinctive River. The Mekong River has thus been feature of the giant catfish are the eyes that treated as a sacred river that contains look downwards in the same way as the many Buddhist symbols and this has eyes of the Buddha images (Pathom enhanced the value of the river as a natural Hongsuwan 2009: 155). For this reason, resource which should be maintained, the image of the giant catfish with its eyes guarded and protected. looking downwards as if kindly looking after people has led to the belief that it is a The co-existence between the Mekong sacred fish and that it is perceived as a River and the symbolic representation of “meritorious fish” thus relating it to the Lord Buddha indicates the unified Buddhist notions. relationship between humans and nature. Claude Lévi-Strauss argues that even In addition, Thais and Laotians believe though the content of the myths might not that the giant catfish swam against the be reliable, the story has been created stream to pay its respects to the Phra That using “language as a code” which needs to Phanom Stupa and Phra Bang’s Buddha be understood in addition to the thought image, as well upstream of the Mekong used to communicate myths. The River to pay its respects to the Buddha investigation of all folk narratives reflects who was believed to be the creator of the “the primitive thought” which was the river. This illustrates the relationship result of the human beings living together between the folk narrative and beliefs with nature, being a part of each other (see concerning the sacred fish and the Buddha. more detail in Siraporn Nathalang 2009: 277–284). William Bascom (1984: 9) indicates that the myth is the sacred narrative of Sacralization of the Mekong River supernatural beings, not of human beings. through the folk narratives of sacred Thus animals in myths may have some animals and sacred trees kind of cosmological symbol related to world creation. The image of the giant Folk narratives concerning the Mekong catfish in the sacred narrative told among River told in various communities along people along the Mekong River thus the river have enhanced the peoples’ presents the giant catfish as a “sacred

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fish.” This has led to the formation of the Buddha in one of his past lives was born local beliefs and certain custom and as Lord Rama. The tree was brought from prohibitions regarding the sacred giant heaven by Indra. In the story, while Rama catfish of the Mekong River. was travelling along the Mekong River, he found a Maneekote tree in the middle of The image of the sacred fish also exists in the river and ate the fruit from one of its Chinese culture. For example, animals branches. After eating the fruit Rama onpalace roofs look like dragons that have became a monkey and later on got another tails like fish. In the Chinese myth, it is monkey to be his wife and she gave birth believed that this kind of dragon with the to a son named Hanuman. Until today, fish tail is the symbol of “the Rain God” Laotian people believe that this magic tree and so, this figure is put on the roof to can be found only on the isles in the protect the building from fire (Morgenstern middle of the Mekong River especially at 1993: 119). Khon Phapheng/ and also at Lee Phi waterfall/ก in southern Laos. Furthermore, in Laotian-Thai culture, Accordingly, the Mekong River is, in this there is a rain making ritual in which the way, sacralized by the folk narrative of the fish figure has a place. In the rain-making magic “Maneekote tree.” ritual, there is the tradition of “the chanting of the fish spell/ .” This is in accordance with the folk narrative that tells how, in the past, the

Lord Buddha was born as a snake-head fish living in a pond. At that time, there was a drought so the pond became dry and all the animals living in the pond were suffering. So, Lord Buddha, as a snake- head fish, made a request to the rain god and since the snake-head fish was a “moral fish” that never exploited or troubled other Figure 3: The Maneekote tree in the animals, the rain god provided heavy rain middle of the Mekong River, and brought fertility back to the pond Champasak Province, Laos (Khampuy Pilawong 2009: 264). Hence, narrative presents the image of the fish as The narrative of Rama as an episode from a symbol of fertility and morality. the Buddha’s life concerning his eating of the fruit from a sacred tree situated in the Apart from the narrative concerning the middle of the Mekong River suggests the sacred fish living in the Mekong River as connection between traditional beliefs discussed above, there are also narratives about this sacred tree and Buddhism. It regarding sacred trees in the Mekong was later on claimed that the Buddha used River. The Maneekote tree/ is a to sit under this Maneekote tree. local tree whose name is derived from Accordingly, in Laos, it is widely believed Rama Jataka, a Laotian version of that if the people worship this tree, it is Ramayana. The narrative of this tree is like worshiping the Lord Buddha. related to both the Buddha and the Mekong River. In the story, the Lord

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Among northeastern Thais, there also exist Sacralization of the Mekong River other narratives about magic trees. The through folk narratives explaining the story goes that there was a king travelling rituals on a boat from southern China downstream to the lower Mekong River. He was very The relationship between the Mekong hungry so he came ashore to find some River and folk Buddhism is clearly shown taro and yams to eat. A lady giant who in the calendrical rites in the Laotian and was the owner of the territory, saw him northeastern Thai way of life. These rites and tried to harm the king and his retinue. reflect the perception of the people The king suppressed the giant with his towards the relationship between nature, power. The giant begged for her life humans, streams, folk beliefs and folk giving the king two sacred things in return. Buddhism. All indicate that the Mekong The first sacred thing was a branch of the River is the river of faith and sacredness to Maneekote tree that can make people die if the people who live along it. one end is pointed at them and can revive dead people if the other end is pointed at Regarding the calendrical rites, in them. The second sacred thing was a northeastern Thai and Laotian tradition, at magic gourd. After that, the king preached the end of Buddhist lent on the full moon dharma to the giant telling her to stop day of the 11th month, there is the rite of killing animals and to observe religious lai rue fai/ (decorating the boats precepts. with lanterns) to worship the Buddha. It is explained in a folk narrative that Phra Examples of the narratives described Anuruth became a Buddhist saint because above reflect the belief in certain sacred he used to give lanterns to the Buddha in trees in the Mekong River. This suggests his previous life. The venerating of the that special trees in the Mekong River are Mekong stream by lighting lanterns was sacred and they have a certain kind of like the worship of the Lord Buddha. The magic power. It is also believed that the rite of lai rue fai can be seen as using the Maneekote tree has three prosperous Mekong River as the mediator between branches pointing in three directions: to humans and the Buddha. It should also be Thailand, Laos and Cambodia, so, if the noticed that the lantern lighting festival three countries are on good terms, they also exists in Cambodia with the similar will be blessed with prosperity. Therefore, explanation of worshiping the Naga who this sacred tree is perceived as the symbol lives in the Naga world to worshipping the of prosperity and wealth. Buddha. Performing the lai rue fai ritual is also believed to be a way of making On the one hand, such narratives reflect a merit to enhance the happiness and the belief in sacred nature in relation to the prosperity of the people and the Mekong River. The animals and trees community. represent a natural environment to be respected and protected by people along the river. On the other hand, they are folk narratives that sacralize the Mekong River. Either way, the importance of the Mekong River is emphasized through these folk narratives and the notion of sacredness.

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rice growing. Sometimes, villagers also pray for rain from the Naga who lives in the Mekong River to ensure that there is enough rain and “plenty of rice in the field and plenty of fish in the water.”

In Northeastern Thailand and in Laos, there is also a folk explanation of the phenomenon of the red fire balls that emerge from the Mekong on the full moon Figure 4: The “Fire Boat” (Lai Rue Fai) in day of the eleventh month that are the illuminated boat procession, Mekong bang fai phya nak, the fireballs of the River,Nakhon Phanom, Thailand. Naga and a means of the Naga paying respect to the Buddha. Some people explain In addition, this lai rue fai tradition is also that the event is related to the folk belief related to the Buddhist belief of worshiping that this was the way Naga, when seeing the five Buddhas, i.e., Kukusanto, Konakom, the Buddha descending to earth after visiting Kassapo, Gautama and Sri Arayametrai. his mother in heaven, expressed his joy by Mahasila Werawong (1974) states that the spitting fire. floating of the lit boats is to worship the Mother Ka Phueak, the Mother White There are certain variation on narratives Crow, who was in one life the mother of explaining the “naga fireball” phenomenon the five Buddhas. According to the story, although all the versions refer to the the mother white crow made a nest to lay Buddha. In Laos, a certain variation narrates her eggs near the river. One day, there was that while the Buddha was coming down heavy rain and her five eggs were washed to earth to save mankind from sin, he away and floated along the stream. Later, stopped around the Mekong river bank and various kinds of animals, i.e., a mother preached to all living creatures. These hen, a mother Naga, a mother turtle, a living creatures had faith in the Buddha mother cow and a mother snake (some say and two Nagas become the guardians of a lion) took each of the eggs and hatched the Lord Buddha. Later, the two Nagas them and the eggs later became the five asked the Buddha’s permission to join the Buddhas. In gratitude to the mother white monkhood but He regarded them as crow, Gautama Buddha taught Buddhist to animals. So, the Nagas magically transformed lay people to make a white thread in the themselves into humans and the Buddha shape of the crow’s feet, put the thread in allowed them to be ordained as monks. a container filled with oil, then light the When other Nagas heard that the two fire. This represented a gesture of worship Nagas had joined the monkhood, they of the mother white crow and was also a were so pleased that they fired rockets up way of thanking the stream for bringing from the Mekong to celebrate and to show the eggs to the five mother animals gratitude to the Buddha. Ever since, the (Humpan Ratthanawong 2001: 21–22). full moon day of the 11th month of every Before floating the boats along the year, has been the anniversary of the day Mekong River, there was the ritual of the of the two Nagas attaining the monkhood. monks chanting to request protection from So, every year, when people see this the Buddha. It is also believed that the phenomenon of red fireballs coming up Buddha’s power created a lot of rain for

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from the Mekong River, people say that concerning the origin and the characteristics these are the “Naga’s fireballs” (Boonlert of the river, narratives of sacred objects Seewichai 1998: 11–18). The phenomenon and sacred places, narratives concerning of the fireballs described above implies the sacred animals and sacred trees in the river sacredness of the Mekong River. and narratives explaining the rituals associated with the narrative of the Buddha. Apart from the relationship between the Nagas and the Lord Buddha in the The findings from this study reflect narrative about the fireballs, there is various beliefs about the Mekong River. It another narrative concerning the Naga’s is believed that this river was created by guarding the Buddha from rain. It is the Lord Buddha. It is also believed that believed that in the 5th week after the the Lord Buddha implanted footprints both Buddha’s enlightenment, there was a big around the bank and down the stream. storm. Naga Mujalin coiled its body Furthermore, the river is the location around the Lord Buddha and spread a where the Buddha’s relics and many hood over him to protect the Buddha’s images were kept. And also, rituals and head from the storm. This story indicates traditions that have taken place along the the integration between the Naga’s belief river are explained in relation to the and Buddhism. And as a result, there is a Buddha’s history. construction of the Buddha image called nak prok, meaning Naga protecting the So, the Mekong River is like an outdoor Buddha (Ruthurford, 2000: 144). From stage which is used to present faith in the Laotian perspective, all Nagas living in Buddhism. The folk narratives concerning the Mekong River are therefore sacred the Mekong River discussed above indicate animals which have a close relationship significant perceptions of the people living with the Buddha and Buddhism. Such an along the river. That is to say that the explanation makes the Mekong River part Mekong River does not have meaning in of Buddhist narratives. terms of nature only, but also a meaning in the cultural dimension which has played In addition, in Cambodia, there is a water an important role in the ways of lives of festival held on the full moon day of the the people. In other words, the folk narratives twelfth month to show gratitude to the present the Mekong River incorporating Mekong River. Such folk beliefs and with Buddhism to make it a sacred river. narratives are again ways of sacralizing the Mekong River. Moreover, this paper also raises awareness concerning the values of Buddhism as a Conclusion powerful religion that helps to protect nature and human beings. The construction This paper investigates the construction of of meaning for nature is usually integrated the meaning of Mekong River as “the in the value and moral system and the River of Lord Buddha” through the folk people’s ways of lives. In this paper, I narratives and rituals of peoples in various have discussed the relationship between communities along the lowlands of the human beings and nature, and in Mekong River. In this paper, I have particular, the Mekong River. Most of the provided four kinds of folk narratives in people living along the Mekong River sacralizing the Mekong River: narratives believe in Buddhism, so they have

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