University of Nevada, Reno Traditional Beliefs and Farmer Decision- Making in the Uplands of Northern Lao PDR A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Anthropology By Michelle S. Roberts Dr. Robert L. Winzeler dissertation advisor December, 2011 Copyright by Michelle Roberts 2011 All Rights Reserved i Abstract This dissertation reports the results of a year of anthropological fieldwork on agricultural decision-making and traditional beliefs about the land among upland farmers in northern Lao PDR (Laos). Ethnographic research in this region is rare. Laos is currently undergoing an economic and agricultural transition. There is a need to understand farmer perspectives in the midst of this transition. Using ethnoecological, anthropological and participatory photography methods I explore preferences and values associated with agricultural crops and land. More specifically, I elicit local perspectives at an individual level, across five different ethnic groups (Tai, Tai-Lue, Lao, Hmong and Khmu) and across two stakeholder groups (farmers and government staff). Broader outside forces and how they affect farmer choices is also considered. The political ecology of Laos, ethnicity, and international environmental discourse all affect farmer choices. I found that ethnicity affects rice preferences, but economic variables affect cash crop choices. Farmers in Laos apply a ―safety-first‖ principle in an attempt to minimize risk. Upland farmers‘ livelihoods are dependent on subsistence farming, livestock rearing, and ecological knowledge about non-timber forest products as foods, medicines and cash earners. Farmers in Laos prefer to maintain subsistence crops and to have some cash income either by growing annual and long-term cash crops, collecting forest products, or through traditional cultural activities such as weaving. Farmers prefer to plant some trees to secure landholdings and to comply with government and international environmental ideologies to reduce deforestation. My research conveys the complexity of livelihood systems in the uplands of Laos. I show that farmers negotiate a number of variables and adapt their farming strategies as situations change. My research contributes information to the global issues of agrarian change and international development ii Acknowledgements Kap Jie Li Li or ―Thank You Very Much‖ to all the farmers in Laos who accepted me into their lives and villages and let me learn from them. None of this research would have been possible without the willingness and patience of farmers to sit and talk with me. Nong Pawnkham, Mae Tao Kian, and Poh Pawnpuey in Muang Muay village went out of their way to make me feel comfortable in my new surroundings. From Bouammi village I give special thanks to Nai Ban Bounyong and elder Bouatang; they were reservoirs of local knowledge. And they always greeted me with a smile and showed genuine interest in me as an individual and in my home country. Occasionally they requested me to sing an ―American‖ song, which was the cause of much laughter and delight. The Nai Ban Khamdeua, the school teachers and all the quick-witted old women in Pak Lao village, always made me enjoy my time there. I also will never forget the women in Houay Khone village who were concerned about my non-meat eating habits. Due to their concern they would give me their highly valued chicken and duck eggs. The women would stop me as I was walking through the village, or at the meeting hall, or as I was brushing my teeth in the morning. It did not matter where I was or what I was doing they wanted to be certain they got the eggs to me! It was such a surprise to be given eggs at random times throughout the day. Their thoughtfulness and the oddity (from my cultural perspective) of the situation makes me giggle whenever I think about it. Thank you to Dr. Robert Winzeler my Ph.D. advisor, who guided me throughout this long and arduous journey. He was continually available for discussions and always committed to helping me reach my goal. His insights and questions helped me articulate my research more clearly. The hours he spent advising me were invaluable. I only hope one day I can become as good of a mentor to others as he has been to me. I give thanks to my husband Joshua Laking for being willing to accompany me into the field with our then 4-year-old daughter. Graduate school and child-rearing are opposing forces; I had to rely on the generosity of many family members who collectively spent hundreds of hours babysitting over the past five years (the time it took iii me to complete this degree). Thank you Grandma‘s Debbie and Cyndee, Grandpa‘s Rick and Chuck, and aunt Tami—it really was a group effort. My father Dan is a farmer; I spent many warm summer days in his alfalfa fields asking him questions and testing some of my methods on him and my step-mom Nancy. Conversations with my father and my father-in-law Chuck helped me incorporate more aspects and points of inquiry into my study. I want to thank all of my family and friends for believing in me, emotionally supporting me throughout this process, and for sending care-packages to fulfill our American food cravings while living in Laos. In the field Sangthong Padsalin was the best research assistant and friend anyone could ask for. He was efficient, smart and funny. He always seemed to understand things from my point of view, which is a talent, considering we were communicating across cultures. My research tasks would have been much more difficult to complete without his continued assistance. He is, and shall remain, a dear friend for years to come. I give professional recognition to Dr. Nora Devoe; we spent many hours discussing development issues in Southeast Asia. Every time I left her office I was rejuvenated about my topic of inquiry! Her enthusiasm was contagious and I was sad for her to leave my Ph.D. committee when she moved to Alice Springs, Australia. Thank you to Dr. Louis Forline for his help navigating through the ANTHROPAC program and for sharing his method books with me. Thank you to Dr. Donald Hardesty, Dr. Catherine Fowler and Dr. Hugh Shapiro for being on my committee and for their continued support. I give thanks to the CIFOR Landscapes Mosaics project and its entire staff in Laos and Indonesia who allowed me to work with them as an intern. I give special thanks to Dr. Manuel Boissiere and Dr. Jean-Christophe Castella who were my CIFOR field advisors. Thank you to Dr. Brian Belcher of Royal Roads University, with whom I collaborated on the photovoice method. I quickly learned he was easy to talk to and full of knowledge about international work. I want to thank the staff of the Lao District Agricultural and Forestry Offices in Pak Ou, Xieng Nguen, and Viengkham districts, and the staff at the Northern Agriculture and Forestry Research Center for working with me, especially Mr. Houmchitsavath Sodarak and Mr. Vilaphong Kanyasone. Also the iv National Agriculture and Forestry research Institute and their staff who worked with the Landscapes Mosaics project particularly Vongvilay Vongkhamsao. I also thank Ouenheuane Phoutachit, who helped me navigate the logistics of being a foreigner working and living in Laos. He is an excellent administrator and good friend. Thank you to John Watts for letting me vent and put things into perspective when times were tough. Thank you to Amandine Boucard whose perseverance to get the work done, train her partners and students and stay focused were inspirational. Thank you to my dear friend Tasha Zemke who copy edited my work pro-bono and prodded me along when I was running out of steam. Thank you to Judith Winzeler for all the helpful feedback, editing advice, and motivational words. Finally, and very importantly I give thanks to my funding institutions: 1. The National Science Foundation, Dissertation Improvement Grant #0921900 2. Rotary International, Ambassadorial Research Scholarship 2009-2010 academic year 3. The Graduate School at UNR, Semester Dissertation Writing Grant Spring 2010 4. The Canadian International Development Agency via the Canada-CGIAR Linkage Fund, Developing More Effective Methods for Assessing Conservation and Livelihoods Outcomes in Forest Landscapes Project—for their support of photovoice workshops through Dr. Brian Belcher. 5. The Swiss Development Cooperation through the CIFOR, Landscapes Mosaics Project—for the support of Lao staff per-diem wages and some fuel. v Table of Contents Chapter 1 My Perceptions, Their Perceptions: Approaching Development Holistically ................. 1 Introduction ..................................................................................................................................... 1 My Research..................................................................................................................................... 9 My Background and Fieldwork ...................................................................................................... 11 Research Goals ............................................................................................................................... 17 A Note on Languages ..................................................................................................................... 19 Chapter Organization ..................................................................................................................... 22 Chapter 2 Peoples of Laos: A History and Ethnology ....................................................................