Childhood Among the Etruscans

Home , Ancient Pydna, Antioch mosaics, Falerii, Kanephoros, Spina, Tarquinia

West Chester University Digital Commons @ West Chester University

Anthropology & Sociology College of Arts & Sciences

2007 Childhood among the Etruscans: Mortuary Programs at Tarquinia as Indicators of the Transition to Adult Status Marshall Joseph Becker West Chester University of Pennsylvania, [email protected]

Follow this and additional works at: http://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/anthrosoc_facpub Part of the Archaeological Anthropology Commons

Recommended Citation Becker, M. J. (2007). Childhood among the Etruscans: Mortuary Programs at Tarquinia as Indicators of the Transition to Adult Status. , 281-292. Retrieved from http://digitalcommons.wcupa.edu/anthrosoc_facpub/16

This Article is brought to you for free and open access by the College of Arts & Sciences at Digital Commons @ West Chester University. It has been accepted for inclusion in Anthropology & Sociology by an authorized administrator of Digital Commons @ West Chester University. For more information, please contact [email protected]. Hesperia Supplement 41

CONSTRUCTIONS OF CHILDHOOD IN ancient Greece and italy

edited by Ada Cohen and Jeremy B. Rutter

This article is © The American School of Classical Studies at Athens. This offprint is supplied for personal, non-commercial use only.

The American School of Classical Studies at Athens 2007 In memory of Paul Rehak

Cover illustration: Roman portrait head of a young boy, marble, ca. 20 b.c.– a.d. 60, Hood Museum of Art, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hamp- shire, S.965.90.14, gift of Mrs. William Dexter. Photo by Jeffrey Nintzel

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Constructions of childhood in ancient Greece and Italy / edited by Ada Cohen and Jeremy B. Rutter. p. cm. — (Hesperia supplement ; 41) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-87661-541-6 (alk. paper) 1. Children—Mediterranean Region—History—to 1500. I. Cohen, Ada. II. Rutter, Jeremy B. DE61.C4C66 2007 305.23o938—dc22 2007027062 Contents

List of Illustrations ix List of Tables xvii Preface by Jeremy B. Rutter xix Acknowledgments xxv

Introduction: Childhood between Past and Present by Ada Cohen 1

Part I: Families Chapter 1 The Parental Ethos of the Iliad by Louise Pratt 25 Chapter 2 Children in Classical Attic Votive Reliefs by Carol L. Lawton 41 Chapter 3 The Power of Parenthood in Official Roman Art by Jeannine Diddle Uzzi 61

Part II: Socialization and Enculturation Chapter 4 Behaving Like a Child: Immature Gestures in Athenian Vase Painting by Timothy J. McNiven 85 Chapter 5 Paideia’s Children: Childhood Education on a Group of Late Antique Mosaics by Constantin A. Marinescu, Sarah E. Cox, and Rudolf Wachter 101 iv content s

Chapter 6 Educating Paula: A Proposed Curriculum for Raising a 4th-Century Christian Infant by Phyllis B. Katz 115

Part III: Rituals and Life Transitions Chapter 7 Children at Risk: Votive Terracottas and the Welfare of Infants at Paestum by Rebecca Miller Ammerman 131 Chapter 8 Komos Growing Up among Satyrs and Children by Amy C. Smith 153 Chapter 9 The Awkward Age: Art and Maturation in Early Greece by Susan Langdon 173 Chapter 10 Age and Innocence: Female Transitions to Adulthood in Late Antiquity by Lisa A. Alberici and Mary Harlow 193 Chapter 11 Children’s Work: Girls as Acolytes in Aegean Ritual and Cult by Paul Rehak 205

Part IV: Gender and Representation Chapter 12 Boys Will Be Boys: Youth and Gender Identity in the Theran Frescoes by Anne P. Chapin 229 Chapter 13 Gendering the Age Gap: Boys, Girls, and Abduction in Ancient Greek Art by Ada Cohen 257

Part V: BURIAL Chapter 14 Childhood among the Etruscans: Mortuary Programs at Tarquinia as Indicators of the Transition to Adult Status by Marshall Joseph Becker 281 content s

Chapter 15 Notions of Childhood in the Classical Polis: Evidence from the Bioarchaeological Record by Anna Lagia 293

Part VI: Commemoration Chapter 16 Forever Young: An Investigation of the Depictions of Children on Classical Attic Funerary Monuments by Janet Burnett Grossman 309 Chapter 17 Constructing Childhood on Roman Funerary Memorials by Janet Huskinson 323 Chapter 18 Racing with Death: Circus Sarcophagi and the Commemoration of Children in Roman Italy by Eve D’Ambra 339 Chapter 19 Eros and the Lizard: Children, Animals, and Roman Funerary Sculpture by Jean Sorabella 353

Part VII: Childhood and the Classical Tradition Chapter 20 Children as Poets—Poets as Children? Romantic Constructions of Childhood and Hellenistic Poetry by Annemarie Ambühl 373

References 385 Index 413 chapter 14

Childhood among the Etruscans: Mortuary Programs at Tarquinia as Indicators of the Transition to Adult Status

by Marshall Joseph Becker

“Where have all the children gone?” This question has commonly emerged during the analysis of human skeletal populations in central Italy as well as at many archaeological sites throughout the world.1 Perinatal and young children’s remains often are absent from among the recovered skeletons. Lawrence Angel, as well as some recent scholars, believes that these fragile bones simply decayed past recognition or were lost as a result of imperfect skeletal recovery techniques. In much of Italy, however, the small bones of perinatals are not less well preserved than those of adults and are as likely to survive as any others. The absence of perinatal remains in a cemetery often reflects the use of separate burial locations for the bodies of “people” at this stage of life.2 In Etruria, and other culture areas, the bodies of perinatals, infants, and even children up to the age of five may be interred in contexts that are removed from the formal cemeteries used for “adults,” or individuals who have passed to the next stage of life.3 Evaluations of perinatal skeletons are essential to the discussion of “infant” mortality rates. The absence of infant remains from a cemetery

1. This contribution derives from John K. Papadopoulos, Susan Rotroff, Jackes 1993; Herring, Saunders, a paper presented at the Dartmouth and Ann M. E. Haentjens, as well as and Boyce 1991, p. 60. See also College symposium “Constructions several helpful colleagues who provided Bourbou’s brief review (2000, p. 187), of Childhood in the Ancient World” me with reprints and assisted me in which addresses poor skeletal survival (Hood Museum, November 6–8, 2003). processing these data, including A. B. in regions of acid soils, a factor that My sincere thanks go to Ada Cohen Chiarelli (Florence) and, in Cremona, rarely applies in areas of limestone-rich and Jeremy Rutter for the opportunity Marina Voluntè and Daniele Generali geology such as are found in most of to contribute to that program and for and his associates. I would also like to Italy. Bourbou also notes the sugges- their outstanding editorial efforts. thank the directors of the F. W. Gillon tion made by Lucy (1994) and Evison Special thanks go to Maria Cataldi and Foundation for their contributions to (1987, p. 146) that if infants are buried Gabriella Barbieri for their continued this effort, as well as Donald White in shallow graves they are more likely concern with the recovery and evalu- and Jeremy Sabloff of the University to be damaged by subsequent plowing, ation of human skeletal remains from Museum of the University of Penn- a taphonomic process that applies in their many excavations, and to Philip sylvania. The author’s final season some cases. Ethnographic or other evi- Perkins (Open University) for his many of research at Tarquinia was entirely dence for such shallow graves, however, helpful suggestions. I also wish to funded by a generous grant from the is wanting. thank Jean M. Turfa, R. Ross Hol- National Geographic Society (5326- 2. Angel 1969, 1971; Bello 2004. loway, Pedar W. Foss, Helle Horsnaes, 94). 3. Becker 1995a. 282 marshall joseph becker population produces a common distortion in the expected percentages of age groups, a skewing often called “the osteometric paradox.” Biological studies of nonindustrial societies reveal normal infant mortality rates of 50 percent or greater, with perinatal mortality accounting for most of these figures. The last months of a pregnancy, the process of parturition, and various stresses during the months after birth provide a frightening trio of challenges that lead to what is commonly called “infant mortality.” For clarity in the use of terms, “perinatal” deaths (perinatal mortality) will include all aborted or stillborn children from the third trimester of pregnancy to those who survive through the first month (28 days) after a live birth. The designation of “infant mortality” will be used only for those deaths that take place from age 29 days to one year. Perinatal and infant mortality are usually combined, and sometimes include children who die at the age of weaning,4 under the term “child mortality.” Expected child mortality rates of 50 percent or greater are considerably higher than those generally estimated by historians.5 High rates of infant mortality can be inferred without elaborate studies, based solely on what is known of present third world nations. “Life expectancy” is the average age of all the people who are born into the society. Since high infant mortality significantly lowers the average, what we call life expectancy strongly reflects perinatal and child mortality rates. A low life expectancy indicates a high death rate among children. Life expectancy also varies depending on whether an infant is calculated as a live birth if it survives for only a few hours or days after birth. Thus various definitions of when life begins impact calculated life expectancy. In premodern or traditional societies a person surviving to age twenty-five can be expected to live to age sixty-five to seventy-five or longer with nearly the same probability as people in modern societies. Data on the people in ancient Tarquinia and elsewhere who can be documented to have lived longer than seventy-five years, and some as many as ninety or more, reflect the potential of survival and are important to our general understanding of population dynamics. Yet studies of infants may be much more revealing of archaeological populations that we find—or do not find—in cemeteries. Reports of finds of perinatal burials may be absent from the archaeological literature because of the limited attention previously directed to this subject, or alternatively because there genuinely are no burials of children to report. With all the above considerations in mind, archaeologists working in Etruria should indeed wonder, “Where have all the children gone?” 4. For data on “child mortality,” see Moggi-Cecchi, Pacciani, and Pinto Cisternas 1994; Herring, Saunders, Ethnographic Data: Ancient and and Boyce 1991, p. 54; Katzenberg, Recent Texts Herring, and Saunders 1996; Herring, Saunders, and Katzenberg 1998; Becker Perinatal mortality rates are so high in preindustrial societies that disposal of 2006a. 5. E.g., Russell 1958, p. 25; Durand the tiny bodies is a significant task for the poor. Finding even a simple place 1960, pp. 371–372. to bury, or dispose of, a small corpse can be a serious concern. Placement 6. Angel 1945, pp. 311–312, fig. 12; in construction fills, abandoned wells,6 and other non-cemetery locations Little 1999. childhood among the etruscans 283

often resolved the problem in antiquity, as in colonial America7 and even in many parts of the modern world. The disposal of these great numbers of stillborns, plus infants who died soon after birth, forms a principal “birthing” role for the male members of the society.8 Despite the considerable numbers of small bodies involved, only recently have scholars in the Mediterranean area become interested in this basic aspect of mortuary behavior.9 Information on perinatal mortality rates rarely appears in the ancient texts. David Miles’s study of high infant mortality rates in antiquity quotes the two most frequently noted comments on the subject from ancient Greece.10 The earlier is Aristotle’s observation (Hist. an. 588a 8–10) that for infants in Athens in the 4th century b.c., “Most are carried off before the seventh day; that is why they give the child its name then, as by that time they have more confidence in its survival.” Hundreds of years later the Greek moralist Plutarch (ca. 46–ca. 120) observed (Num. 12. 2) that there was no formal mourning for children who die under three years, an age probably relating to the weaning process. Miles notes that later in antiquity, perhaps by the 4th century, this ancient “cut-off ” age had been changed to one year, suggesting that the age of weaning may have changed or that survival rates may have improved. The rich collection of surviving Roman documents relating to the Ro- man child generally pertains to those between the ages of five and fifteen. The fetal stage of development is rarely noted, and then only in relationship to matters of abortion. Newborn children in Rome commonly are noted as having been subject to sale or fatal exposure, but their status was subject to the laws that covered these matters.11 By the 3rd century deliberate exposure of newborns had become a crime in Rome.12 An excellent review of what is known about the Roman birthing process is provided by Beryl Rawson. Of particular interest to this study of infant mortality rates is the ritual of lustratio that took place 8 (for a girl) and 9 (for a boy) days after birth. The difference of a single day may reflect a Roman awareness of the greater biological fragility of males. The lustratio ritual involved conferring a name on the child after which, as Rawson notes, “the infants ‘existed’ in a formal sense.”13 The ethnographic literature, most of which was gathered prior to the emergence of interest in the lives of women and children in traditional 7. Burnston 1982. societies, includes only a few brief observations on the customs involved 8. Hanson 1994. in disposing of the bodies of children who die at birth, or before the age 9. Becker 1983; Bassett 1995. of weaning. Data from living cultures provide important insights into 10. Miles 1986; Hooper 1975. ancient behaviors and beliefs. One of the more extensively documented 11. Rawson 1991c, p. 4; Rawson ethnographic accounts relating to perinatal mortuary activities derives 1991b, pp. 9–10. 14 12. Eyben 1991, p. 123. from modern India. In the early 20th century in the area of Dacca, now 13. Rawson 1991b, pp. 11–14. Pakistan, the differential disposal of “babies and little children” had been 14. N. Kelly 1975. recorded.15 Hooper’s study, using data from a historical context, employs 15. Godden and Godden 1966, the London Bills of Mortality for 1762–1771 as a direct piece of evidence pp. 149–151. for mortality patterns.16 These data indicate that in the urban environment 16. Hooper 1975, p. 375, who derives his data from Still 1931. of London some 50 percent of all live births died by the age of two; by the 17 17. Steel 1988, pp. 150–155; Rous- age of five this had grown to 67 percent. A complete skeletal record for seau 1762, vol. 2, p. 189. any city, town, or other community would include very large numbers of 284 marshall joseph becker perinatals, so that the total subadult population (16.5 years and younger) would exceed 50 percent of the total. What is commonly described as a “normal” or expected cemetery population lacks most if not all of the remains of perinatals.18 The question “Where have all the children gone?” thus becomes a matter relevant to all cemetery sites, not just the many associated with ancient Tarquinia. In a personal communication, Philip Perkins suggested that this question might be asked in a different way, namely, “What does one have to do, or to be, in order to be buried in a cemetery?” Posing the question in this way not only helps us understand why perinatals may not appear at expected rates in a cemetery, but also provides for a broader archaeological concern involving outcasts and other persons excluded from a community and how they may be buried.

Archaeological Evidence for High Infant Mortality and Separate Burial Areas

High rates of child mortality were noted as a factor in the archaeological interpretation of cemeteries more than three decades ago.19 These rates, however, continue to be overlooked in discussions of cemetery populations and child burials. Failure to recover every scrap of bone, any of which might provide vital evidence regarding an individual, may allow the presence of perinatals and other interesting cultural information to be missed. Complete absence of the remains of infants and children from a skeletal collection often is ignored by archaeologists who may assume that their small skeletons will not or cannot be found. This approach confounds any attempt to reconstruct the age structure of that population.20 Richard Reece’s expressions of concern for the integration of all the data recovered in cemetery excavations commonly are ignored.21 Today, the publication of a cemetery’s excavation without reference to the skeletal material, or what I call the “boneless cemetery,” reflects a dated approach to archaeology. Only the recovery and evaluation of all skeletal fragments and the integration of these data with the archaeological record can provide confirmation of the many hypotheses offered by the excavators in matters relating to human biology. Archaeologists involved in the excavation of human skeletal remains from any site should consider documentation of culture-specific mortuary patterns rather than borrowing data or models from other areas. Special attention needs to be directed toward locating the bones of subadults, here defined as persons up to 16.5 years of age. Children’s roles in every society vary with age, but few skeletal studies are oriented toward eliciting cultural information from the biological evidence derived from 18. Boric and Stefanovic 2004; living populations. Murail et al. 2004; Liston and Papado- In the reconstruction of an ancient society, archaeological finds of poulos 2004. clusters of perinatal burials rarely have been contextualized using basic 19. Angel 1971, p. 93. information on expected morbidity patterns. Published reports lacking 20. Konigsberg and Frankenberg 1992. specific analysis of skeletal materials from any cemetery render difficult 21. Reece 1995, 2001. an evaluation of what authors mean when they identify the remains 22. Eyben 1991, p. 123; Dixon of “children.”22 Finds of specialized cemeteries, including Phoenician 1992, pp. 101–102. childhood among the etruscans 285

tophets, often are interpreted as evidence for infanticide.23 Gowland and Chamberlain addressed this question by reassessing the data relating to 396 perinatal burials from 19 Romano-British sites, using modern evalu- ative techniques.24 Finding that the age distributions for these children are similar to natural mortality profiles, they conclude that these deaths cannot be attributed to anything but natural causes. The specific context reviewed by Gowland and Chamberlain, as it relates to child morbidity patterns, is important in addressing any example of ancient demography, particularly those that relate to finds of clustered infant burials. Myths relating to the supposedly extensive practice of infanticide, in ancient Greece as well as in ancient Rome, are continually discussed using only texts as sources of evidence. The archaeological evidence, in the form of skeletal remains, points to a very different, but less dramatic, interpretation of the data.25 The perinatals in specialized cemeteries died from normal causes or from diseases that were extremely common, and which remain so in parts of the modern world. These separate cemeteries are a function of cultural rules regarding the burial of perinatals and should not be interpreted as evidence for infant sacrifice.26 These pieces of direct evidence suggest that historians and others studying the social histories of Rome and Etruria might wish to consider how the available biological evidence relates to their interpretations of the written records.

Tarquinia and Children’s Burials

Study of the skeletal material recovered from several major cemetery areas of Tarquinia (Fig. 14.1) provides a significant database from a major South Etruscan city.27 In addition to 62 individuals identified from early excavations, over 200 individuals have been identified from recent excavation of 77 tombs of all sizes. Two points of interest emerge from the data from Tarquinia. First, perinatals are not represented at all. Second, subadults (children 5.5 to 16.5 years of age) are represented in normal numbers as an expected percentage of the total population. These percentages for subadults apply equally to cremations as well as to inhumations, with only 4 of the 23 cremations excavated at Tarquinia after 1981 (17 percent of the total) being subadults. These 4 cluster between 13 and 16 years of age. These observations regarding a largely ignored part of daily life among the Etruscans help us formulate questions about boundaries and traditions that require new considerations in conducting excavations in this and other parts of Italy.

23. The best-known specialized used for sacrificial victims. Boric and Kinnes, and Randsborg 1981. cemeteries for perinatals are the Stefanovic 2004, in their study of sub- 25. Becker 1995b; K. Hopkins tophets used by Carthaginians. Tophets floor perinatal burials at Mesolithic and 1966. generally have been interpreted as Neolithic sites, also reject the idea that 26. Engels 1980; Pomeroy 1997, burial areas for sacrificed infants (e.g., these were the result of infant sacrifice p. 79; Haentjens 2000. S. Brown 1991), following Roman (see Becker 1996). 27. Mallegni, Fornaciari, and Tara- claims regarding Carthaginian barbari- 24. Gowland and Chamberlain bella 1980; Becker 1990, 1993, 2002, ties. I have suggested that tophets were 2002; Orton and Hodson 1981; 2005a. simply cemeteries for perinatals and not selected contributions in Chapman, 286 marshall joseph becker

Florence

Lake Trasimeno

Lake Bolsena E

A C F Rome B D

Figure 14.1. Map of central Italy: (A) Cazzanello; (B) Ficana (on Monte Cugno); (C) Narce; (D) Osteria del’Osa (ancient Gabii); (E) Poggio 0 50 200 Gramignano; (F) Tarquinia. Drawing kms R. J. Robertson

Despite the high rate of infant mortality in preindustrial societies, rela- tively few subadults die between the ages of weaning and 16.5 years (ca. 10 to 15 percent of the total population). Generally the age group from 5.5 to 16.5 years is well represented in cemeteries, as is the case at Tarquinia and at other Etruscan sites for which we have data. Of a total of 62 individuals from excavations at Tarquinia dating from before 1981, 6 (9.7 percent) were found to be subadults between the ages of 11.5 (the youngest) and 16.5 years (Table 14.1).28 In a second sample (Table 14.2), three times as large (198 individuals), studied in a later program of skeletal research, a total of 19 subadults (ages 5.5–16.5) were identified (9.6 percent), a figure in remarkably close agreement with the earlier study. Similar percentages are found in the Hellenistic sample from Blera (Table 14.3), another South Etruscan site. At Blera the 7 children between 5.4 and 16.5 years of age form 16 percent of the available population and so are within the range of expected mortality figures for this age group.29 These mortality rates for children ca. 5.0 to 16.5 years of age are similar to those inferred from the Isola Sacra (Rome) cemetery populations of Roman imperial date.30 At Blera, as at Tarquinia, no children under the age of five were interred in the “adult” cemetery.

28. The early literature relating to 1980). The two burials identified in ally is older than 16.5 years, this would analyses of human skeletal remains Table 14.1 only as “juveniles” are both lower the percentage to near 12 percent recovered from Tarquinia covers tomb cremations. Sex was not evaluated for (Becker 2004). numbers up to and including T 6101 these subadults. 30. Calza 1940, pp. 268–269. (Mallegni, Fornaciari, and Tarabella 29. If the individual in Tomb 7 actu- childhood among the etruscans 287

Table 14.1. Children 16.5 Years and Younger from Tombs at Tarquinia Identified from Excavations Prior to 1981 (N = 6)

Tomb No. Age Cremation/Inhumation

3855 13 I 5070E Juv. C 5511D 16 I 5672A 16.5 I 5859C 11.5 I 6020A Juv. C

Table 14.2. Children 16.5 Years and Younger from Tombs at Tarquinia Excavated between 1982 and 1995 (N = 19)

Tomb No. Age Sex Cremation/Inhumation

6179B 11 F I 6191 10 F? C 6192 Subad. (12–15 years?) ? I 6203 16? M? C 6204 Adol. M? C 6205 13 M? C 6225B 14.5 F? I 6251 16? F? I 6254G 8 ? I 6255B 12 ? I 6262C 15 M? I 6264H 10 ? I 6268D 15 ? I 6272E 15.5 F I 6276D2 11 ? I 6316B 8 ? I 6330A 9 ? I 6330D 5.5 F? I 6355 Child? I

Intensive studies of the bones from newly discovered chamber tombs at Tarquinia that all date from after the 6th century b.c. produced notable results.31 The complete absence of skeletal remains of children below the age of 5.5 years indicates that the Tarquinians, and perhaps all South Etruscans, treated children and infants under the age of 5.5 years in the same way that they treated stillborn perinatals. Of note are findings that the population age 5.5 to 16.5 years has a normal (expected) distribution. In cases such as Tarquinia where we lack direct archaeological evidence for high infant mortality rates, what can archaeologists do to estimate such rates? Consideration of cases where we do have direct skeletal evidence for 31. Becker 2002. high infant mortality rates is a first step. 288 marshall joseph becker table 14.3. Children 16.5 Years and Younger Identified in Five Hellenistic Tombs at the Casacce Necropolis at Blera ( Viterbo) Excavated by G. Barbieri

Tomb No. of People Adults Children Locus of Child Age of Child Sex of Child

1 13 13 0 - - - 3 11 8 3 2 7.5 ? 4 5.6 F 10 5.4 M 4 11 8 3 9 15 F 10B 8 ? 14 7.5 F? 7 8 7 1 4 15? ? 9 2 2 0 - - -

N = 5 N = 45 N = 38 N = 7 Range: F = 3, (84%) (16%) 5.4–15 M = 1, ? = 3

Skeletal populations recovered from the extensive Etruscan-period cemeteries that are the usual focus of excavations in this region uniformly lack any evidence for the remains of perinatals, infants, and younger children. Two “children” reported from the 19th-century excavations at an adult cemetery near Tarquinia both date from the Villanovan period and their ages have not been verified.32 The evidence for children’s burials in Etruria during the Villanovan period (Prima Età del Ferro or ca. 900–800 b.c.) and immediately thereafter remains poor. Bartoloni discusses child burials of the Villanovan period, commonly inhumed within amphoras, but without citing specific examples.33 The use of amphoras for the interment of perinatals and small children provides archaeologists with an easily identifiable context from which tiny skeletons may be recovered.34 Extensive as well as careful excavations in settlement areas of the Archaic period in central Italy have yielded numbers of infant burials from the vicinity of houses. Prayon’s study of early Etruscan grave and house architecture provides considerable evidence for the burial of perinatals within residential areas.35 32. Dasti 1877, pp. 56–57; Hencken Extensive recent excavations within the actual ancient city of Tarquinia 1968, pp. 159–160, 307, 431, fig.146:a–n. 36 have been conducted under the direction of Maria Bonghi Jovino. The 33. Bartoloni 1989, p. 31. discovery of several neonates and young children interred in rude graves 34. E.g., D. Ridgway 1992, p. 117. within the walled area of Tarquinia (Fig. 14.2) provides evidence for early 35. Prayon 1975, esp. pp. 149–181; mortuary practices at the site.37 All of these date from before the 6th Jarva 1981a, 1981b; Becker 1996. century b.c.38 This evidence suggests that up to the early 7th century, sug- 36. Bonghi Jovino 1987; Chiara- monte Treré 1999, p. ix. grundaria burial, or the inhumation of perinatals “beneath the eaves” of 37. Colonna 1987, p. 156. These the house, was the norm at Tarquinia as well as at Ficana, while children subfloor, or intramural, burials of of 5.5 years and older were buried in “adult” cemeteries.39 Special, separate children within the ancient city of cemeteries for perinatals developed at Tarquinia after the 7th century b.c. Tarquinia may represent the presence with the rise of the Etruscan cities. Is the perinatal mortuary pattern at of proto-Romans, not simply Roman influence. Tarquinia similar to that known from Rome and Latium in general, or do 38. Chiaramonte Treré 1987, 1995, specialized perinatal cemeteries in southern Etruria predate the period of 1999; Bonghi Jovino and Chiaramonte Roman domination as part of a long tradition that continues into the early Treré 1987. Christian era and beyond? 39. Becker 1996. childhood among the etruscans 289

Q A H Figure 14.2. Schematic diagram R E locating the children’s burials found B D in the excavations in the urban area G of ancient Tarquinia, with letter C designations after Chiaramonte T F Treré (1987, Pl. XXX). All appear to predate the 7th century. Squares represent neonates. Ages for the others have not been determined, except 0 5 meters for “C,” a child 7 to 8 years of age. Drawing R. J. Robertson

Cultural rules regarding the separate interment of perinatals and infants might be expected to include a few individual or special exceptions in any society. The unfortunate death of the mother, from childbed fever or other causes, at about the same time as the newborn, for example, might result in both mother and child being consigned to a common grave, unless a strong 40. Smithson (1968, p. 81, n. 18) cultural rule expressly forbade this type of interment. The death of a woman notes that Angel reviewed the cremated before the delivery of her child or in the process of childbirth might leave remains from the upscale tomb of an the bones of the unborn child within those of the mother, as is reported in Athenian woman in September 1967 a Greek example recently published by Liston and Papadopoulos.40 and declared them to derive from a woman ca. 30 years of age (range 24–40 Data on selective placement of the dead by age or sex help clarify years). Angel carefully noted that there problems relating to the age structure of a population. There are a number was no trace of a human infant or fetus of challenges that distort our ability to use the dead to reconstruct the lives but that a few animal bones were pres- of the living population. These include mortuary customs that distort the ent. Recent examination of these same skeletal record, such as cremation and selective cremation, and intracultural remains, said to have been cremated at the gravesite ca. 850 b.c. (Geometric differentials in mortuary customs for perinatals or other members of the period), suggest that a perinatal skel- society, such as women who died in childbirth. In combination with social eton is present: Liston and Papadopou- class differences in the use of burial containers, or placement within large los (2004) suggest that the woman was tombs as distinct from rude graves, these cultural rules create difficulties probably pregnant, rather than dying in understanding population dynamics. after giving birth, based on the condi- The complete absence to date of any example of the burial of a mother tion of the child’s burned bones. 41. Noted in Becker 1986. Stud- with an infant or perinatal at Tarquinia leads me to suggest that a separate ies of women from Tarquinian tombs cemetery may exist for women who died in childbirth, distinct from the are reviewed in Becker 2005b, 2006b; cemetery predicted for children under 5.5 years of age. We simply do not Vargiu and Becker 2005. know why no examples of mother plus infant burials have been found, but 42. Soren 1999; Soren, Fenton, and an example of a cemetery for young adult women only has been identified Birkby 1995; Becker 2005a. The lack 41 of data from the five centuries between at Late Roman Anemur in Turkey. The possibility of a separate cemetery the later phases of occupation at Tar- for women who died in childbirth could explain why the numbers of adult quinia and the two perinatal cemeteries women from the tombs at Tarquinia are far lower than the numbers of now identified provide a gap that is adult males. expected to be filled by future excava- The identification and publication of two specialized infant cemeteries tions. Numbers of infant cemeteries in Etruria provide direct evidence for separate burial programs for children have been reported to me verbally, but 42 their publication remains a low priority below 5.5 years of age during the Late Roman period, suggesting cultural among archaeologists. continuities within the entire Etruscan realm. At Poggio Gramignano in 290 marshall joseph becker

8 1 3 9 10 2 11

4 1 3

2 12

0 5 10 meters

Figure 14.3. Cazzanello infant burial Lugano in Teverina, Soren, Fenton, and Birkby43 have identified 50 small area in the general area of the two children, including 44 perinatals, 5 infants aged from one to five months, cisterns. Burial numbers 1 through and one aged two to three years, probably a weanling death. A second 3 are repeated, but no burials were infant cemetery, at Cazzanello near Tarquinia, includes only 12 burials, 11 numbered 5 through 7. The pair of perinatals and one weanling (Fig. 14.3). The find of four “adults” in another cisterns, built onto the “east” apse of burial area at Cazzanello provides evidence for two separate burial locations the 4th-century a.d. bath, predate at this one site for population subgroups differentiated most obviously by the burials. Many of the bodies of the perinatals in this 6th–7th century age. The Cazzanello and Poggio Gramignano cases provide important a.d. infant cemetery were placed into evidence that in the South Etruscan region all children up to the age of old or broken transport amphoras for perhaps 5.4 years were interred in special cemeteries. Since perinatals, as burial. Drawing R. J. Robertson well as foreigners, are buried in specialized areas distinct from that used for the other residents of the community in modern Italian cemeteries, it is possible that this behavior represents a continuity in basic mortuary practice extending back in time for two millennia or more. 43. Soren, Fenton, and Birkby 1995. childhood among the etruscans 291

table 14.4. Children 16.5 Years and Younger from Graves at Pithekoussai

Children Ages 5.6 – 16.5 Children Ages 2.0 – 5.4 Tomb Cremation/ Cremation/ Number Age Sex Inhumation Age Sex Inhumation

4 5.8 M I 22 3.8 F? I 23 3.5 M? I 29 6.8 F I 53 4 F? I 78 10 M? I 93 10 ? C 140 8 ? C 168 14 M C 389 7 M? I 390 4 ? I 470 2 ? I 515 11 ? I 519 5.5 ? I 529 7.5 M I

N = 15 Range: F = 1 N = 10 Range: F = 2 N = 5 5.5–14 M = 5 C: 3 2.0–4.0 M = 1 C: 0 ? = 4 I: 7 ? = 2 I: 5

The two principal studies of skeletons from extensive excavations in cemeteries that have produced only the remains of adults and children above the age of weaning are of cemeteries from Etruscan Tarquinia and Punic Marsala.44 In both cases the absence of perinatals as well as children of less than 5.4 years of age provides indirect evidence for the existence of separate perinatal burial areas. The possibility that perinatal and infant skeletons, or parts thereof, were missed appears improbable. The ages of the youngest children found in these cemeteries is evidence for an age of transition to a new social status.

Discussion

Every culture has its own complex set of beliefs and rituals surrounding birth, often including specific treatment for stillbirths and those who die 44. See Vargiu and Becker 2005. soon after birth. The length of time that a surviving neonate remains in the 45. There are numerous indications perinatal category is a cultural belief that can be identified by archaeological that Etruscan perinatal cemeteries were located with an eye to nearby water research and subsequent skeletal analysis. Interesting cultural variations in sources, as distinct from the cemetery these beliefs may enable us to use archaeology to define cultural boundaries, areas used for all other members of or borders, as they existed in the past.45 the community. This placement differs Mortuary rituals at Tarquinia and in several other specific cultural considerably from that of the Archaic areas of Italy during the period from ca. 700 b.c. to the Late Roman period period Romans, who buried perinatals outside their houses, beneath the (ca. a.d. 600) involved the disposal of bodies of infants and children who eaves, as suggrundaria, or sub-grundaria died before their second year of life, or before weaning. The negative (Becker 1996, 2005a). evidence from Tarquinia, in the form of absence of bones from the main 292 marshall joseph becker cemeteries from which we have nearly 300 people represented, suggests that children below the age of 5.5 years were buried elsewhere. The absence of children below the age of two years has also been reported at Pithekoussai, where the bones of 134 individuals have been identified (Table 14.4).46

Conclusions

Infant “cemeteries” at Tarquinia may be inferred from the evidence for separate burial areas for perinatals, such as those found elsewhere in Etruria, although at later periods. At Tarquinia the absence of remains represent- ing children below the age of 5.5 years from the principal cemeteries leads 46. The remains of these people are me to expect that separate means of disposal were used for the remains believed to represent Greek colonists, of children who died before reaching 5.5 years of age. As of this date we but other ethnic groups also may be have not located any infant cemeteries for ancient Tarquinia, suggesting present. A total of 134 people, from that they were located some distance from the principal burial areas used 127 tombs, were studied, with the age of 133 evaluated. All the bones recovered for older children and adults. and preserved from 113 cremations The burials now identified from tombs at Tarquinia indicate that ap- were studied. Twenty-one of the many proximately 10 percent of the population died between the ages of 5.5 and extremely fragmentary inhumations 16.5 years of age. This percentage is consistent with rates found elsewhere, recovered from this site were studied such as at Pithekoussai, as well as with our expectations of mortality profiles before the research program was can- from preindustrial societies. These percentages indicate that all children in celed. A total of 15 subadults (11 percent) were among the 133 people this age range known from cemeteries at ancient Tarquinia were afforded from the cemetery area for whom age a place of burial along with adults in this population. could be determined. This percentage of High infant mortality rates were normal in antiquity. Cultural rules the total population is within the normal that cluster perinatals and small children in specialized cemeteries should range, but as J. Rutter points out, the not be taken as indicators of human sacrifice or infanticide. Specialized fact that 12 (i.e., 7 plus 5 Is from Table 14.4) of the 21 inhumations were sub- infant cemeteries should be recognized as providing important insights adults is noteworthy. The distribution into each culture’s views of life and death. within the cemetery should be examined The evidence suggests that the use of special cemeteries for very young (see Ridgway 1992). Children as young children is a pre-Christian trait observable in Etruria by the 7th century as two years of age are represented. b.c., not one introduced to Italy as a Christian custom, as I once believed. Possibly children below two years of age Disposal of perinatals outside the traditional or principal cemeteries is were buried elsewhere, perhaps interred beneath house floors. Ten individuals, indicated for Tarquinia and other Etruscan cities. While this Etruscan or 7.5 percent of all the 133 evaluated pattern is known elsewhere in Italy, the Messapians included perinatals individuals in this sample, died between within their principal cemeteries. 5.6 and 16.5 years of age. references

Abrams, M. H. 1953. The Mirror and ———. 2002. “Investigations of Physi- the Lamp: Romantic Theory and the cal Anthropology and Paleopath- Critical Tradition, Oxford. ology of the Ancient Necropolis Acosta-Hughes, B., and S. A. Stephens. of Thasos,” in Excavating Classical 2001. “Aetia Fr. 1.5: I Told My Culture: Recent Archaeological Dis- Story Like a Child,” ZPE 136, coveries in Greece, ed. M. Stamato- pp. 214–216. poulou and M. Yeroulanou, Oxford, ———. 2002. “Rereading Callimachus’ pp. 12–19. Aetia Fragment 1,” CP 97, pp. 238– Agora XVII = D. W. Bradeen, Inscrip- 255. tions: The Funerary Monuments Acredolo, L., and S. Goodwyn. 2002. (Agora XVII), Princeton 1974. Baby Signs, Chicago. Ahlberg-Cornell, G. 1992. Myth and Adamesteanu, D., and H. Dilthey. Epos in Early Greek Art: Representa- 1992. Macchia di Rossano: Il santu- tion and Interpretation (SIMA 100), ario della Mefitis: Rapporto prelimin- Jonsered. are, Galatina. Ajootian, A. 1996. “Praxiteles,” in Adams, J. N. 1982. The Latin Sexual Personal Styles in Greek Sculpture Vocabulary, London. (YCS 30), ed. O. Palagia and J. J. Adkins, A. W. H. 1960. Merit and Pollitt, Cambridge, pp. 91–129. Responsibility: A Study in Greek ———. 2006. “Male Kourotrophoi,” Values, Oxford. in Mattusch, Donohue, and Brauer Aellen, C. 1994. À la recherche de l’ordre 2006, pp. 617–620. cosmique: Forme et fonction des person- Akamatis, I. 1987. “Ξάνθος Δημητρίου nifications dans la céramique italiote, και Αμαδίκας Υιός,” in Αμητός: 2 vols., Kilchberg. Τιμητικός τόμος για τον Καθηγητή AEMTh = Τo Αρχαιoλoγικό Έργo στη Μανόλη Ανδρόνικο, Part 1, Thes- Μακεδoνία και Θράκη, Thessa- saloniki, pp. 13–29. loniki. Alberici, L. 2004. “The Awkward Age: Agelarakis, A. 1998. “Physical Anthro- Female Transitions to Adulthood pology and Paleopathology at the in Late Antiquity” (master’s thesis, Classical Necropolis of Thasos,” Univ. of Birmingham). AEMTh 10B (1996), pp. 779– ———. Forthcoming. “The Life 789. Course in Late Antiquity” (diss. ———. 2000. “Aspects of Demogra- Univ. of Birmingham). phy and Paleopathology among the Alberti, B. 2002. “Gender and the Hellenistic Abderetes in Thrace, Figurative Art of Late Bronze Age Greece,” Eulimene 1, pp. 13–24. Knossos,” in Labyrinth Revisited: ———. 2001. “On the Clazomenean Rethinking “Minoan” Archaeology, ed. Quest in Thrace during the 7th Y. Hamilakis, Oxford, pp. 98–117. and 6th Centuries b.c., as Revealed Alcock, S. E. 1993. Graecia Capta: through Anthropological Archaeol- The Landscapes of Roman Greece, ogy,” Eulimene 2, pp. 161–183. Cambridge. 386 ref erence s

Alefeld, Y.-P. 1996. Göttliche Kinder: André, J.-M., et al. 1991. Jouer dans ———. 1978b. “Wordsworth und die Die Kindheitsideologie in der Roman- l’antiquité (exhibition catalogue, romantische Krise: Das Kind als tik, Paderborn. Musée d’archéologie méditerrané- Vater,” in Das Vaterbild im Abend- Alexandri, O. 1972. “Γεωμετρικοὶ τάφοι enne-Centre de la Vieille Charité), land 2: Literatur und Dichtung Euro- εἰς περιοχὴν Κυνοσάργους,” AAA 5, Marseille. pas, ed. H. Tellenbach, Stuttgart, pp. 165–176. Andreae, B. 1977. The Art of Rome, pp. 48–61. Alexiou, S. 1959. “Νέα παράστασις New York. Aura Jorro, F. 1999. Diccionario micé- λατρείας ἐπὶ μινωϊκοῦ ἀναγλύφου Angel, J. L. 1945. “Skeletal Material nico, 2 vols., Madrid. ἀγγείου,” CretChron 13, pp. 346– from Attica,” Hesperia 14, pp. 279– Austin, N. 1999. “Anger and Disease 352. 363. in Homer’s Iliad,” in Euphrosyne: Alfieri, N. 1979. Spina: Museo archeo- ———. 1969. “Paleodemography and Studies in Ancient Epic and Its Legacy logico nazionale di Ferrara 1, Evolution,” American Journal of in Honor of Dimitris N. Maronitis, Bologna. Physical Anthropology 31, pp. 343– ed. J. N. Kazazis and A. Rengakos, Allan, W. 2001. “Euripides in Megale 353. Stuttgart, pp. 11–49. Hellas: Some Aspects of the Early ———. 1971. The People of Lerna: Avery, H. C. 1998. “Achilles’ Third Reception of Tragedy,” GaR 48, Analysis of a Prehistoric Aegean Popu- Father,” Hermes 126, pp. 389–397. pp. 67–86. lation, Princeton. Baader, M. S. 1996. Die romantische Idee Alpers, P. 1990. “Schiller’s Naïve and Angelicoussis, E. 1984. “The Panel des Kindes und der Kindheit: Auf der Sentimental Poetry and the Mod- Reliefs of Marcus Aurelius,” RM 91, Suche nach der verlorenen Unschuld, ern Idea of Pastoral,” in Cabinet of pp. 141–205. Neuwied. the Muses: Essays on Classical and Anker, S., and D. Nelkin. 2004. The Baglione, M. P. 1976. Il territorio di Comparative Literature in Honor of Molecular Gaze: Art in the Genetic Bomarzo, Rome. Thomas G. Rosenmeyer, ed. M. Grif- Age, Cold Spring Harbor. Baharal, D. 1996. Victory of Propaganda, fith and D. J. Mastronarde, Atlanta, Aravantinos, V. 1999. “Ακραίφνιον,” Oxford. pp. 319–331. ArchDelt 49, Β΄1 (1994), pp. 278– Baird, A., and J. Fugelsang. 2004. Ambühl, A. 2005. Kinder und junge 281. “The Emergence of Consequential Helden: Innovative Aspekte des ———. 2000. “Αλίαρτος,” ArchDelt 50, Thought: Evidence from Neurosci- Umgangs mit der literarischen Tradi- Β΄1 (1995), pp. 296–298. ence,” Philosophical Transactions of tion bei Kallimachos (Hellenistica Ardovino, A. M. 1986. I culti di Paestum the Royal Society of London, Series B Groningana 9), Leuven. antica e del suo territorio, Salerno. 359, pp. 1797–1804. Amedick, R. 1991. Die Sarkophage mit Argive Heraion II = C. Waldstein, The Balch, D. L., and C. Osiek, eds. 2003. Darstellungen aus dem Menschenle- Argive Heraeum 2 (Argive Heraion Early Christian Families in Context: ben, Berlin. II), Boston 1905. An Interdisciplinary Dialogue, Grand Amelung, W. 1903. Die Skulpturen des Ariès, P. 1960. L’enfant et la vie familiale Rapids. Vaticanischen Museums 1, Berlin. sous l’ancien régime, Paris. Bannon, C. J. 1993. “Erotic Brambles ———. 1908. Die Skulpturen des Vati- ———. 1962. Centuries of Childhood: and the Text of Horace Carmen canischen Museums 2, Berlin. A Social History of Family Life, trans. I.23.5–6,” CP 88, pp. 220–222. Amigues, S. 1988. “Le crocus et le R. Baldick, London. Barber, E. 1991. Prehistoric Textiles: The safran sur une fresque de Théra,” Arjava, A. 1996. Women and Law in Development of Cloth in the Neolithic RA 1988, pp. 227–242. Late Antiquity, Oxford. and Bronze Ages with Special Refer- Ammerman, R. M. 1991. “The Naked ———. 1998. “Paternal Power in Late ence to the Aegean, Princeton. Standing Goddess: A Group of Antiquity,” JRS 88, pp. 147–165. ———. 1992. “The Peplos of Athena,” Archaic Terracotta Figurines from Arnett, J. J. 2004. Emerging Adulthood: in Goddess and Polis: The Panathe- the Sanctuary in the Località Santa The Winding Road from the Late naic Festival in Ancient Athens, Venera at Paestum,” AJA 95, Teens through the Twenties, Oxford. ed. J. Neils, Princeton, pp. 103– pp. 203–230. Arnott, R. 1996. “Healing and Medi- 117. ———. 2002. The Sanctuary of Santa cine in the Aegean Bronze Age,” ———. 1994. Women’s Work: The First Venera at Paestum 2: The Votive Journal of the Royal Society of Medi- 20,000 Years, New York. Terracottas, Ann Arbor. cine 89, pp. 265–270. ———. 2000. “Some Aegean Evidence Amundsen, D. W., and C. J. Diers. Asper, M. 1997. Onomata allotria: Zur for Clothing as Markers of Archaic 1969. “The Age of Menarche Genese, Struktur, und Funktion poet- European Women’s Rituals,” AJA in Classical Greece and Rome,” ologischer Metaphern bei Kallimachos, 104, p. 355 (abstract). Human Biology 41, pp. 125–132. Stuttgart. ———. 2003. “Archaeology by Experi- Ancona, R. 1989. “The Subterfuge Assmann, A. 1978a. “Werden was ment and Reproduction,” in Foster of Reason: Horace Odes 1.23 and wir waren: Anmerkungen zur and Laffineur 2003, pp. 193–195. the Construction of Male Desire,” Geschichte der Kindheitsidee,” Barchiesi, A. 1993. “Future Reflexive: Helios 16, pp. 49–57. A&A 24, pp. 98–124. Two Modes of Allusion and Ovid’s ref erence s 387

Heroides,” HSCP 95, pp. 333–365 cal Review from Cambridge 13, ———. 1995b. “Infanticide, Child (repr. in Speaking Volumes: Narra- pp. 81–96. Sacrifice and Infant Mortal- tive and Intertext in Ovid and Other ———. 1995. “Mythological Child- ity Rates: Direct Archaeological Latin Poets, London 2001, pp. 105– hood: A Male Preserve? An Inter- Evidence as Interpreted by Human 127). pretation of Classical Athenian Skeletal Analysis,” OWAN 18, ———. 2001. “The Crossing,” in Texts, Iconography in Its Socio-Historical pp. 24–31. Ideas, and the Classics: Scholarship, Context,” BSA 90, pp. 339–361. ———. 1996. “Human Skeletal Re- Theory, and Classical Literature, ———. 1998. “Born Old or Never mains Recovered from the Ficana ed. S. J. Harrison, Oxford, pp. 142– Young? Femininity, Childhood, and Excavations,” in Scavi di Ficana II.1: 163. the Goddesses of Ancient Greece,” Il periodo protostorico e arcaico, Barclay, E. A. 2000a. “The Identity of in The Sacred and the Feminine in ed. J. R. Brandt, Rome, pp. 453– the Potnia Theron in Greece: The Ancient Greece, ed. S. Blundell and 479. Evidence from the Sanctuaries,” M. Williamson, London, pp. 71–93. ———. 2002. “Etruscan Tombs at AJA 104, pp. 337–338. ———. 2000. “The Social Status and Tarquinia: Heterarchy as Indicated ———. 2000b. “The Potnia Theron: Artistic Presentation of ‘Adoles- by Human Skeletal Remains,” in Adaptation of a Near Eastern cence’ in Fifth Century Athens,” Preistoria e protostoria in Etruria. Image,” JPR 14, pp. 11–12. in Sofaer Derevenski 2000a, pp. 39– Atti del Quinto Incontro di Studi 2, Bartoccini, R. 1940. “Arte e religione 50. ed. N. Negroni Catacchio, Milan, nella stipe votiva di Lucera,” Iapigia ———. 2003. “The Changing Face of pp. 687–708. 11, pp. 185–213, 241–298. Childhood,” in Neils and Oakley ———. 2004. “Appendice II: Etruscan Bartoloni, G. 1989. La cultura villano- 2003, pp. 59–83. Skeletons of the Hellenistic Period viana: All’inizio della storia etrusca, Beck, F. A. G. 1975. Album of Greek from the Casacce Necropolis at Rome. Education: The Greeks at School and Blera (Viterbo, Italy) Excavated in Bassett, S., ed. 1995. Death in Towns: at Play, Sydney. 1982,” NSc (2002–2003), pp. 175– Urban Responses to the Dying and the Becker, M. J. 1983. “Children’s Burials 189. Dead, 100–1600, Leicester. in Puglia from the Iron Age to the ———. 2005a. “The Cazzanello Peri- Bauman, R. 1992. Women and Politics in IInd Century a.d.: Cultural Conti- natal Cemetery: Continuities of Ancient Rome, London. nuities,” Studi di Antichità (Lecce) 4, Etruscan Mortuary Practices into Baumbach, J. D. 2004. The Significance pp. 261–284. the Late Antique Period and Be- of Votive Offerings in Selected Hera ———. 1986. “Mandibular Symphysis yond,” StEtr 70 (2004), pp. 255– Sanctuaries in the Peloponnese, Ionia (Medial Suture) Closure in Modern 267. and Western Greece (BAR-IS 1249), Homo Sapiens: Preliminary Evi- ———. 2005b. “Etruscan Women at Oxford. dence from Archaeological Popula- Tarquinia: Skeletal Evidence for Baxter, J. E. 2005. The Archaeology of tions,” American Journal of Physical Tomb Use and Insights into Status Childhood: Children, Gender, and Anthropology 69, pp. 499–501. Differences in South Etruria,” Material Culture, Walnut Creek. ———. 1990. “Etruscan Social Classes AnalRom 31, pp. 21–36. Bazant, J. 1975. “Iconography of Choes in the VI Century b.c.: Evidence ———. 2006a. “The Archaeology of Reconsidered,” Listy Filologicke 98, from Recently Excavated Crema- Infancy and Childhood: Integrating pp. 72–78. tions and Inhumations in the Area and Expanding Research into the Baziotopoulou, E., and I. Drakotou. of Tarquinia,” in Die Welt der Etrus- Past,” AJA 110, pp. 655–658. 1999. “Ανασκαφή σταθμού Κερα- ker, ed. H. Heres and M. Kunze, ———. 2006b. “Etruscan Women at μεικός,” ArchDelt 49, Β΄1 (1994), Berlin, pp. 23–35. Tarquinia: Skeletal Evidence for pp. 34–36. ———. 1993. “Human Skeletons from Tomb Use,” in Mattusch, Donohue, Baziotopoulou-Valavani, E. 2002. “A Tarquinia: A Preliminary Analysis and Brauer 2006, pp. 292–294. Mass Burial from the Cemetery of of the 1989 Cimitero Site Excava- Bell, S. 2004. “Images of Chariot Kerameikos,” in Excavating Classical tions with Implications for the Evo- Racing in the Funerary Sculpture Culture: Recent Archaeological Discov- lution of Etruscan Social Classes,” of the Roman Empire: Typology, eries in Greece, ed. M. Stamatopou- StEtr 58 (1992), pp. 211–248. Chronology, and Context” (diss. lou and M. Yeroulanou, Oxford, ———. 1995a. “Human Skeletal Univ. of Edinburgh). pp. 187–201. Remains from the Pre-Colonial Bello, S. M. 2004. “Taphonomy, Selec- Beal, C. R. 1994. Boys and Girls: The Greek Emporium of Pithekoussai tive Preservation, and Robusticity Development of Gender Roles, New on Ischia (NA): Culture Contact in Human Skeletal Samples: The York. in Italy from the Early VIII to the Osteometric Paradox,” American Beaumont, L. 1994. “Constructing a II Century b.c.,” in Settlement Journal of Physical Anthropology, Methodology for the Interpreta- and Economy in Italy 1500 B.C. to Suppl. 38, pp. 61–62 (abstract). tion of Childhood Age in Classical A.D. 1500, ed. N. Christie, Leicester, Ben Abed Ben Khader, A. 1998. Mosa- Athenian Iconography,” Archaeologi- pp. 273–281. ïques du musée du Bardo, Tunis. 388 ref erence s

Benndorf, O. 1883. Griechische und Blakemore, C., and S. Jennett. 2001. ———. 1986. “Votive Terracotta Fig- sicilische Vasenbilder, Berlin. The Oxford Companion to the Body, ures of Mothers and Children,” Bennett, M. J. 1997. Belted Heroes and Oxford. in Italian Iron Age Artefacts in the Bound Women: The Myth of the Blandin, B. 1998. “Recherches sur les British Museum. Papers of the Sixth Homeric Warrior King, Lanham. tombes à inhumation de l’Hérôon British Museum Classical Colloquium, Bentz, M. 1998. Panathenäische Preis- d’Erétrie,” in Euboica: L’Eubea e ed. J. Swaddling, London, pp. 195– amphoren, Basel. la presenza euboica in Calcidica e 201. ———. 1999. Rev. of Hamilton 1992, in Occidente, ed. M. Bats and ———. 1989. “Iconografia delle madri: in Gnomon 71, pp. 49–52. B. d’Agostino, Naples, pp. 135–146. Etruria e Italia antica,” in Le donne Bergemann, J. 1998. Datenbank der Blech, M. 1982. Studien zum Kranz bei in Etruria, ed. A. Rallo, Rome, attischen Grabreliefs des 5. und 4. den Griechen (Religionsgeschichtliche pp. 85–106. Jahrhunderts v. Chr.: Projekt Dyabola, Versuche und Vorarbeiten 38), Berlin. Bonghi Jovino, M. 1971. Capua prero- Munich. Blok, J. H. 1995. The Early Amazons: mana: Terrecotte votive 2: Le statue, ———. 2002. “Kindliche Bürger und Modern Perspectives on a Persistent Florence. bürgerliche Kindlichkeit: Zum Kin- Myth, Leiden. ———. 1987. “Gli scavi nel’abitato di derbild in griechischen Bildwerken Blome, P. 1999. Basel Museum of Tarquinia e la scoperta dei ‘Bronzi’ der klassischen und hellenistischen Ancient Art and Ludwig Collection, in un preliminare inquadramento,” Zeit,” in Schau auf die Kleinen . . . : Geneva. in Bonghi Jovino and Chiaramonte Das Kind in Religion, Kirche, und Blümel, C. 1966. Die klassisch griechi- Treré 1987, pp. 59–77. Gesellschaft, ed. R. Lux, Leipzig, schen Skulpturen der Staatlichen Bonghi Jovino, M., and C. Chiara- pp. 82–101. Museen zu Berlin, Berlin. monte Treré, eds. 1987. Tarquinia: Berk, L. E. 2003. Child Development, Boardman, J. 1955. “Painted Funer- Ricerche, scavi e prospettive. Atti del 6th ed., Boston. ary Plaques and Some Remarks on Convegno “La Lombardia per gli Bernstein, B. 1971. Class, Codes, and Prothesis,” BSA 50, pp. 51–66. Etruschi,” Milan. Control 1: Theoretical Studies towards ———. 1975. Athenian Red Figure Bonner, S. 1977. Education in Ancient a Sociology of Language, London. Vases: The Archaic Period, London. Rome from the Elder Cato to the Bertman, S. 1989. “The Ashes and the ———. 1983. “Symbol and Story in Younger Pliny, Berkeley. Flame: Passion and Aging in Clas- Geometric Art,” in Ancient Greek Bordenache Battaglia, G., and A. Emi- sical Poetry,” in Old Age in Greek and Art and Iconography, ed. W. G. liozzi. 1990. Le ciste prenestine I.2, Latin Literature, ed. T. M. Falkner Moon, Madison, pp. 15–36. Rome. and J. de Luce, Albany, pp. 157– ———. 1992. “Kaloi and Other Boric, D., and S. Stefanovic. 2004. 171. Names on Euphronios’ Vases,” in “Birth and Death: Infant Burials Besques, S. 1972. Catalogue raisonné Euphronios. Atti del Seminario Inter- from Vlasac and Lepenski Vir,” des figurines et reliefs en terre-cuite nazionale di studi, Arezzo, 27–28 Antiquity 78, pp. 526–546. grècs, étrusques, et romains 3: Époques maggio 1990, ed. M. Cygielman Bosanquet, R. C., and R. M. Dawkins. hellénistique et romaine: Grèce et Asie et al., Florence, pp. 45–50. 1923. The Unpublished Objects from Mineure, Musée National du Louvre, ———. 1999. “The Parthenon Frieze, the Palaikastro Excavations, 1902– Paris. a Closer Look,” RA 2, pp. 305–330. 1906, Part 1 (BSA Suppl. 1), London. Bessios, M. 1998. “Νεκροταφεία Πύδ- ———. 2004. “Unnatural Conception Boschung, D. 1987. Antike Grabaltäre νας,” AEMTh 10A (1996), pp. 233– and Birth in Greek Mythology,” aus den Nekropolen Roms (Acta Ber- 238. in Dasen 2004, pp. 103–112. nensia 10), Bern. Bessios, M., and A. Athanasiadou. Boas, G. 1966. The Cult of Childhood, Boswell, J. 1988. The Kindness of Strang- 2003. “Βόρειο Νεκροταφείο Πύδ- London. ers: The Abandonment of Children in νας: Μακρύγιαλος, αγροτεμάχιο Bodel, J. 1999. “Trimalchio’s Under- Western Europe from Late Antiquity 951,” AEMTh 15 (2001), pp. 363– world,” in The Search for the Ancient to the Renaissance, New York. 367. Novel, ed. J. Tatum, Baltimore, Bottini, A. 1988. “Elena in Occidente: Bettini, M., and C. Brillante. 2002. Il pp. 237–259. Una tomba dalla chora di Meta- mito di Elena: Immagini e racconti Bodson, L. 1986. “L’initiation arté- ponto,” BdA 73, pp. 1–18. dalla Grecia a oggi, Turin. misiaque,” in Les rites d’initiation, Bottini, A., and M. Tagliente. 1990. Bickerman, E. J. 1980. Chronology of the ed. J. Ries and H. Limet, Louvain- “Due casi di acculturazione nel Ancient World, Ithaca. la-Neuve, pp. 299–315. mondo indigeno della Basilicata,” Bieber, M. 1961. The Sculpture of the Boëthius, A. 1918. Die Pythaïs: Studien PP 45, pp. 206–231. Hellenistic Age, rev. ed., New York. zur Geschichte der Verbindung zwi- Bourbou, C. 2000. “Infant Mortality: Birtacha, K., and M. Zacharioudakis. schen Athen und Delphi, Uppsala. The Complexity of It All!” Eulimene 2000. “Stereotypes in Theran Wall Böhr, E. 1982. Der Schaukelmaler, 2, pp. 187–202. Paintings: Modules and Patterns in Mainz. Bowie, E. L. 1985. “Theocritus’ Sev- the Procedure of Painting,” in Sher- Bonfante, L. 1984. “Dedicated Moth- enth Idyll, Philetas, and Longus,” ratt 2000, pp. 159–172. ers,” Visible Religion 3, pp. 1–18. CQ 35, pp. 67–91. ref erence s 389

Boyancé, P. 1928. “Le sommeil et l’im- Brueckner, A. 1910. “Κεραμεικού ανα- Cameron, A. 1976. Circus Factions, mortalité,” MÉFR 45, pp. 97–105. σκαφαί,” ArchEph 1910, pp. 95–143. Oxford. Boyd, E. 1980. Origins of the Study of Brueckner, A., and E. Pernice. 1893. ———. 1995. Callimachus and His Human Growth, Eugene. “Ein attischer Friedhof,” AM 18, Critics, Princeton. Bradley, K. R. 1985. “Child Labor pp. 73–191. Cameron, M. 1987. “The ‘Palatial’ in the Roman World,” Historical Bruhn, A. 1943. Oltos and Early Red- Thematic System in the Knossos Reflections/Réflexions Historiques 12, Figure Vase Painting, Copenhagen. Murals: Last Notes on Knossos pp. 311–330. Brulé, P. 2003. Women of Ancient Greece, Frescoes,” in The Function of the ———. 1991. Discovering the Roman trans. A. Nevill, Edinburgh. Minoan Palaces. Proceedings of the Family: Studies in Roman Social Buchholz, H.-G. 1987. “Das Symbol Fourth International Symposium at History, Oxford. des gemeinsamen Mantels,” JdI 102, the Swedish Institute in Athens, 10– ———. 1998. “The Sentimental Edu- pp. 1–55. 16 June 1984, ed. R. Hägg and N. cation of the Roman Child: The Budde, L., and R. Nicholls. 1964. Cata- Marinatos, Stockholm, pp. 321–328. Role of Pet-Keeping,” Latomus 57, logue of the Fitzwilliam Museum, Campenon, C. 1994. La céramique pp. 523–557. Cambridge. attique à figures rouges autour de 400 Brakke, D. 1995. Athanasius and Asceti- Buikstra, J. E. 1997. “Paleodemography: avant J.C.: Les principales formes, cism, Baltimore. Context and Promise,” in Integrat- évolution et productions, Paris. Brann, E. T. H. 1960. “Late Geometric ing Archaeological Demography: Mul- Canby, J. V. 1986. “The Child in Hit- Grave Groups from the Athenian tidisciplinary Approaches to Prehistoric tite Iconography,” in Ancient Ana- Agora,” Hesperia 29, pp. 402–416. Population, ed. R. R. Paine, Carbon- tolia: Aspects of Change and Cultural Braund, D. 1984. Rome and the Friendly dale, pp. 367–380. Development, ed. J. V. Canby et al., King: The Character of Client King- Burn, L. 1987. The Meidias Painter, Madison, pp. 54–69. ship, London. Oxford. Caprino, C. et al. 1955. La Colonna di Braund, S. H. 1981. “Juvenal 8.58–59,” Burns, B. 2000. “Gendered Con- Marco Aurelio, Rome. CQ 31, pp. 221–223. sumption of Ivory in Bronze Age Carington-Smith, J. 1982. “A Roman Breitenstein, N. J. 1941. Catalogue of the Greece,” AJA 104, p. 352 (abstract). Chamber Tomb on the South-East Terracottas, Cypriote, Greek, Etrusco- Burnston, S. A. 1982. “Babies in the Slopes of Monasteriaki Kephala, Italian, and Roman, Danish National Well: An Underground Insight into Knossos,” BSA 77, pp. 255–293. Museum, Copenhagen. Deviant Behavior in Eighteenth- Carson, A. 1986. Eros the Bittersweet: Brendel, O. J. 1978. Etruscan Art, New Century Philadephia,” Pennsylvania An Essay, Princeton. York. Magazine of History and Biography ———. 1990. “Putting Her in Her Brilliant, R. 1963. Gesture and Rank in 106, pp. 151–186. Place: Woman, Dirt, and Desire,” in Roman Art, New Haven. Buschor, E. 1975. Griechische Vasen, Before Sexuality: The Construction of Brock, H. H. 1999. “Mycenaean Beads: 2nd ed., Munich. Erotic Experience in the Ancient Greek Gender and Social Contexts,” OJA Cahn, H. A. 1968. Art of the Ancients: World, ed. D. Halperin, J. J. Winkler, 18, pp. 277–296. Greeks, Etruscans, and Romans, and F. I. Zeitlin, Princeton, pp. 135– Brommer, F. 1959. Satyrspiele, 2nd ed., New York. 169. Berlin. ———. 1999. Handliste zur Ausstellung: Carter, J. B. 1987. “The Masks of Or- ———. 1982. Theseus: Die Taten des Attische Meisterzeichnungen: Vasen- theia,” AJA 91, pp. 355–383. griechischen Helden in der antiken fragmente der Sammlung H. A. Cahn, Castriota, D. 1995. The Ara Pacis Au- Kunst und Literatur, Darmstadt. in der Archäologischen Sammlung der gustae, Princeton. Brooker, W. 2004. Alice’s Adventures: Universität Freiburg (October 31, Cavallera, F. 1922. Saint Jérôme: Sa vie Lewis Carroll in Popular Culture, 1998–March 31, 1999). et son oeuvre, Louvain. New York. Cairns, F. 1984. “Theocritus’ First Chadzioti, E. M. 1988. “Οδός Πανεπι- Brouskari, M. 1980. “A Dark Age Idyll: The Literary Programme,” στημίου,” ArchDelt 36, Β΄1 (1981), Cemetery in Erechtheion Street, WS n.s. 18, pp. 89–113. pp. 10–13. Athens,” BSA 75, pp. 13–31. Calame, C. 1977. Les choeurs de jeunes Chamberlain, A. T. 1997. “Commen- Brown, M. R., ed. 2002. Constructions filles en Grèce archaique 1: Morpholo- tary: Missing States of Life: To- of Childhood between Rousseau and gie, fonction religieuse et sociale, wards the Perception of Children Freud, Aldershot. Rome. in Archaeology,” in Invisible People Brown, P. 1988. The Body and Society: ———. 1990. Thésée et l’imaginaire and Processes: Writing Gender and Men, Women, and Sexual Renun- athénien: Légende et culte en Grèce Childhood into European Archaeology, ciation in Early Christianity, New antique, Lausanne. ed. J. Moore and E. Scott, London, York. ———. 1999. The Poetics of Eros in pp. 248–250. Brown, S. S. 1991. Late Carthaginian Ancient Greece, trans. J. Lloyd, ———. 2000. “Minor Concerns: A Child Sacrifice and Sacrificial Monu- Princeton. Demographic Perspective on Chil- ments in the Mediterranean, Shef- Calza, G. 1940. La Necropoli del Porto dren in Past Societies,” in Sofaer field. di Roma nell’Isola Sacra, Rome. Derevenski 2000a, pp. 207–211. 390 ref erence s

Chapin, A. 2002. “Maidenhood and ———. 1990. “Le terrecotte figurate,” ———. 1998. “Domesticating Arte- Marriage: The Reproductive Lives in Roccagloriosa 1: L’abitato: Scavo e mis,” in The Sacred and the Feminine of the Girls and Women from Xeste ricognizione topografica (1976–1986), in Ancient Greece, ed. S. Blundell 3, Thera,” Aegean Archaeology 4 ed. H. Fracchia and M. Gualtieri, and M. Williamson, London, (1997–2000), pp. 7–25. Naples, pp. 109–118, 297–299. pp. 27–43. ———. 2004. “Power, Privilege, and ———. 1997. “Il ruolo di Hera nel san- Collin-Bouffier, S. 1999. “Des vases Landscape in Minoan Art,” in tuario meridionale di Poseidonia,” in pour les enfants,” in Céramique et ΧΑΡΙΣ: Essays in Honor of Sara A. Héra: Images, espaces, cultes, ed. J. de peinture grecques: Modes d’emploi, Immerwahr, ed. A. P. Chapin, La Genière, Naples, pp. 211–225. ed. M.-C. Villanueva Puig et al., Princeton, pp. 47–64. Cipriani, M., and F. Longo, eds. 1996. Paris, pp. 91–96. ———. Forthcoming. “Constructions Poseidonia e i Lucani: I Greci in Occi- Colonna, G. 1987. “Una proposta per il of Youth and Gender in Aegean dente, Naples. supposto elogio tarquiniese di Tar- Art: The Evidence from Crete and Clairmont, C. 1993. Classical Attic chon,” in Bonghi Jovino and Chia- Thera,” in Engendering Prehistoric Tombstones, 6 vols. Kilchberg. ramonte Treré 1987, pp. 153–157. “Stratigraphies” in the Aegean and Clark, E. A. 1982. Jerome, Chrysostom, Comella, A. M. 1978. Il materiale the Mediterranean. Proceedings of the and Friends: Essays and Translations, votivo tardo di Gravisca, Rome. International Conference, University 2nd ed., New York. ———. 1981. “Tipologia e diffusione of Crete, Rethymnon, Crete, 3–6 June Clark, G. 1994. “The Fathers and dei complessi votivi in Italia in 2005 (Aegaeum), ed. K. Kopaka, the Children,” in The Church and epoca medio e tardo-repubblicana: Liège. Childhood, ed. D. Wood, Oxford, Contributo alla storia dell’artigia- Chapman, R., I. Kinnes, and K. Rands- pp. 1–27. nato antico,” MÉFRA 93, pp. 717– borg, eds. 1981. The Archaeology of Clayton, P. A. 1994. Chronicle of the 803. Death, New York. Pharaohs: The Reign-by-Reign Record ———. 1982. Il deposito votivo presso Charbonneaux, J. 1963. La sculpture of the Rulers and Dynasties of Ancient l’Ara della Regina, Rome. grecque et romaine au Musée du Egypt, London. ———. 1986. I materiali votivi di Louvre, Paris. Clinton, K. 1992. Myth and Cult: The Falerii, Rome. Charitonides, S. I. 1958. “Ανασκαφή Iconography of the Eleusinian Myster- ———. 2002. I rilievi votivi Greci di κλασσικών τάφων παρά την Πλα- ies (Martin P. Nilsson Lectures in periodo arcaico e classico: Diffusione, τείαν Συντάγματος,” ArchEph 1958, Greek Religion), Stockholm. ideologia, committenza, Bari. pp. 1–152. Cloke, G. 1995. “This Female Man of Conze, A. 1893. Die attischen Grab Chiaramonte Treré, C. 1987. “Altri dati God”: Women and Spiritual Power reliefs 1, Berlin. dagli scavi alla civita sugli aspetti in the Patristic Age, A.D. 350–450, ———. 1900. Die attischen Grabreliefs culturali e rituali,” in Bonghi Jovino London. 2, Berlin. and Chiaramonte Treré 1987, Cohen, A. 2001. “Art, Myth, and Travel ———. 1906. Die attischen Grabreliefs pp. 79–89. in the Hellenistic World,” in Pausa- 3, Berlin. ———. 1995. “Seppellimenti in nias: Travel and Memory in Roman Conze, A., et al. 1911–1922. Die atti- abitato: Il caso di Tarquinia,” in Greece, ed. S. E. Alcock, J. Cherry, schen Grabreliefs 4, Berlin and Preistoria e protostoria in Etruria 1: and J. Elsner, Oxford, pp. 93–126. Leipzig. Tipologie delle necropoli e rituali di Cohen, B. 1997. “Divesting the Breast Cooper, K. 1992. “Insinuations of deposizione, ed. N. Negroni Catac- of Clothes in Classical Sculpture,” Womanly Influence: An Aspect chio, Milan, pp. 241–248. in Naked Truths: Women, Sexual- of the Christianisation of Roman ———, ed. 1999. Tarquinia: Scavi ity, and Gender in Classical Art and Society,” JRS 82, pp. 150–164. sistemmatici nell’abitato. Campagne Archaeology, ed. A. Koloski-Ostrow ———. 1996. The Virgin and the Bride: 1982–88: I Materiali, Rome. and C. Lyons, London, pp. 66–92. Idealised Womanhood in Late Antiq- Chodorow, N. 1974. ”Family Structure ———, ed. 2000. Not the Classical Ideal: uity, Cambridge, Mass. and Feminine Personality,” in Wo- Athens and the Construction of the Corbier, M. 2001. “Child Exposure man, Culture, and Society, ed. M. Z. Other in Greek Art, Leiden. and Abandonment,” in Dixon Rosaldo and L. Lamphere, Palo Cohen, M. N. 1979. Lewis Carroll, 2001b, pp. 52–73. Alto, pp. 43–66. Photographer of Children: Four Nude Corsaro, W. A. 1997. The Sociology of Choremis, A. K. 1977. “Οικ. Ιω. Γραμ- Studies, Philadelphia. Childhood, Thousand Oaks. ματικού,” ArchDelt 27, Β΄2 (1972), Coldstream, J. N. 1995. “The Rich Coulomb, J. 1979. “Le prince aux lis pp. 340–343. Lady of the Areiopagos and Her de Knossos reconsidéré,” BCH 103, Cimok, F., ed. 2000. Antioch Mosaics, Contemporaries,” Hesperia 64, pp. 29–50. Istanbul. pp. 391–403. ———. 1981. “Les boxeurs minoens,” Cipriani, M. 1989. S. Nicola di Alba- Cole, S. G. 1984. “The Social Func- BCH 105, pp. 27–40. nella: Scavo di un santuario capestre tion of Rituals of Maturation: The Courbin, P. 1955. “Un fragment de nel territorio di Poseidonia-Paestum, Koureion and the Arkteia,” ZPE 55, cratère protoargien,” BCH 79, Rome. pp. 233–244. pp. 1–49. ref erence s 391

Cribiore, R. 2001. Gymnastics of the Dallas, C. 1987. “The Significance of the Fourth International Symposium Mind: Greek Education in Hellenistic Costume on Classical Attic Grave at the Swedish Institute at Athens, and Roman Egypt, Princeton. Stelai” (diss. Oxford Univ.). 10–16 June 1984, ed. R. Hägg and ———. 2007. The School of Libanius in D’Ambra, E. 1996. “The Calculus N. Marinatos, Stockholm, pp. 157– Late Antique Antioch, Princeton. of Venus,” in Sexuality in Ancient 161. Crielaard, J. P. 1999. “Production, Cir- Art, ed. N. Kampen, Cambridge, ———. 2000. “The Organization of culation, and Consumption of Early pp. 219–232. the Theran Artists,” in Sherratt Iron Age Greek Pottery (Eleventh ———. 2002. “Acquiring an Ancestor: 2000, pp. 859–872. to Seventh Centuries b.c.),” in The The Importance of Funerary Statu- Davis, W. 1989. The Canonical Tradition Complex Past of Pottery: Production, ary among the Non-elite Orders in Ancient Egyptian Art, Cambridge. Circulation, and Consumption of My- of Rome,” in Images of Ancestors Dean-Jones, L. A. 1994. Women’s Bodies cenaean and Greek Pottery (Sixteenth (Aarhus Studies in Mediterranean in Classical Greek Science, Oxford. to Early Fifth Centuries B.C.), ed. J. P. Antiquity V), ed. J. M. Højte, Aar- De la Genière, J. 1987. “Vases de Lé- Crielaard, V. Stissi, and G. J. van hus, pp. 223–246. néennes?” MÉFRA 99, pp. 43–61. Wijngaarden, Amsterdam, pp. 49– Damiani-Indelicato, S. 1988. “Were Della Torre, O., and S. Ciaghi. 1980. 81. Cretan Girls Playing at Bull Leap- Terrecotte figurate ed architettoniche Crotty, K. 1994. The Poetics of Suppli- ing?” Cretan Studies 1, pp. 39–47. del Museo Nazionale di Napoli 1: cation: Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey, D’Angelo, M. R. 1995. “Veils, Virgins, Terrecotte figurate da Capua, Naples. Ithaca. and the Tongues of Men and Demakopoulou, K., ed. 1988. The Crowther, N. B. 1983. “Greek Games Angels: Women’s Heads in Early Mycenaean World: Five Centuries of in Republican Rome,” AntCl 52, Christianity,” in Off With Her Early Greek Culture, 1600–1100 B.C., pp. 268–273. Head! The Denial of Women’s Iden- Athens. Csapo, E. 1993. “Deep Ambivalence: tity in Myth, Religion and Culture, Demand, N. 1994. Birth, Death, and Notes on a Greek Cockfight (Part ed. H. Eilberg-Schwartz and Motherhood in Classical Greece, I),” Phoenix 47, pp. 1–28. W. Doniger, Berkeley, pp. 131–166. Baltimore. Cullen, T., ed. 2001. Aegean Prehistory: Darmon, J.-P. 2005. “Le programme DeMause, L., ed. 1974a. The History of A Review, Boston. idéologique du décor en mosaïque Childhood, New York. Cumont, F. 1942. Recherches sur le de la Maison de la Télétè diony- ———. 1974b. “The Evolution of symbolisme funéraire des romains, siaque, dite aussi de Poséidon à Childhood,” in DeMause 1974a, Paris. Zeugma (Belkis, Turquie),” in Actes pp. 1–73. Cunningham, H. 1998. “Histories of du IXe Colloque international pour ———. 1988. “On Writing Childhood Childhood,” AHR 103, pp. 1195– l’étude de la mosaïque antique et History,” Journal of Psychohistory 16, 1208. médiévale, ed. H. Morlier, Rome, pp. 137–171. Currie, S. 1996. “The Empire of pp. 1279–1300. Dentzer, J.-M. 1982. Le motif du ban- Adults: The Representation of Chil- Dasen, V., ed. 2004. Naissance et petite quet couché dans le Proche-Orient et le dren on Trajan’s Arch at Beneven- enfance dans l’Antiquité: Actes du monde grec du VII e au IV e siècle avant tum,” in Art and Text in Roman colloque de Fribourg, 28 novembre– J.-C., Rome. Culture, ed. J. Elsner, Cambridge, 1er décembre 2001, Fribourg. Deppert-Lippitz, B. 1985. Griechischer pp. 153–181. Dasti, L. 1877. “Lettera del sig. Cav. Goldschmuck, Munich. D’Agata, A. L. 1992. “Late Minoan Dasti, sindaco di Corneto—Tarqui- D’Ercole, M. C. 1990. La stipe votiva Crete and Horns of Consecration: nia, a W. Helbig,” Bulletino dell’In- del Belvedere a Lucera, Rome. A Symbol in Action,” in Laffineur stituto di Corrispondenza Archeologica Deubner, L. 1932. Attische Feste, Berlin. and Crowley 1992, pp. 247–256. 4 (April), pp. 54–64. DeVries, K. 1997. “The ‘Frigid Ero- ———. 1996. “The ‘Lord’ of Asine Datsouli-Stavridi, A. 1984. “Ρωμαϊκὰ menoi’ and Their Wooers Revisited: Reconsidered: Technique, Type, γλυπτὰ ἀπὸ τὸ ᾿Εθνικὸ Μουσεῖο,” A Closer Look at Greek Homosex- and Chronology,” in Asine 3: Sup- ArchEph 1984, pp. 161–190. uality in Vase Painting,” in Queer plementary Studies on the Swedish Davies, G. 1990. “Contests in Etrus- Representations: Reading Lives, Excavations 1922–1930, Fasc. 1, can and Roman Funerary Art,” Reading Cultures, ed. M. Duberman, ed. R. Hägg, G. C. Nordquist, and in Contests, ed. A. Duff-Cooper, New York, pp. 12–24. B. Wells, Stockholm, pp. 39– Edinburgh, pp. 127–144. Dewailly. M. 1997. “L’Héraion de Foce 46. Davies, M. 1988. Epicorum Graecorum del Sele: Quelques aspects du culte ———. 1997. “The Shrines on the Fragmenta, Göttingen. d’Héra à l’époque hellénistique Piazzale dei sacelli at Ayia Triada: Davis, E. 1986. “Youth and Age in the d’après les terres cuites,” in Héra: The LM IIIC and SM Material: Thera Frescoes,” AJA 90, pp. 399–406. Images, espaces, cultes, ed. J. de la A Summary,” in La Crète mycénienne ———. 1987. “The Knossos Miniature Genière, Naples, pp. 201–210. (BCH Suppl. 30), ed. J. Driessen Frescoes and the Function of the Dickmann, J.-A. 2001. “Das Kind and A. Farnoux, Athens, pp. 85– Central Courts,” in The Function am Rande: Konstruktionen des 100. of the Minoan Palaces. Proceedings of Nicht-Erwachsenen in der attischen 392 ref erence s

Gesellschaft,” in Konstruktionen von ———. 1989. Greek Homosexuality, Evely, R. D. G. 1992. “Other Stone Wirklichkeit: Bilder im Griechenland 2nd ed., Cambridge, Mass. Objects,” in Well-Built Mycenae des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., Dowden, K. 1992. The Uses of Greek 27, Oxford, pp. 21–34, microfiche ed. R. von den Hoff and S. Schmidt, Mythology, London. 157–202. Stuttgart, pp. 173–181. Ducat, J. 2006. Spartan Education: Evison, V. I. 1987. Dover: The Buckland ———. 2002. “Bilder vom Kind im Youth and Society in the Classical Anglo-Saxon Cemetery (Historic klassischen Athen,” in Die griechische Period, trans. E. Stafford, P.-J. Shaw, Monuments and Buildings Report Klassik: Idee oder Wirklichkeit (exhi- and A. Powell, Swansea. 3), London. bition catalogue, Antikensammlung Dunbabin, K. M. 1982. “The Victori- Ewald, B. C. 1999. Der Philosoph als Berlin Staatliche Museen Preus- ous Charioteer on Mosaics and Leitbild: Ikonographische Unter- sischer Kulturbesitz 2002), Mainz, Related Monuments,” AJA 86, suchungen an römischen Sarkophag- pp. 310–320. pp. 65–89. reliefs, Mainz. Diehl, E. 1964. Die Hydria: Formge- ———. 1999. Mosaics of the Greek and ———. 2003. “Sarcophagi and Sena- schichte und Verwendung im Kult des Roman World, Cambridge. tors: The Social History of Roman Altertums, Mainz. Duncan-Jones, R. 1964. “The Purpose Funerary Art and Its Limits.” Rev. Dillon, M. 2002. Girls and Women in and Organization of the Alimenta,” of H. Wrede, Senatorische Sarko- Classical Greek Religion, London. PBSR 32, pp. 123–148. phage Roms, in JRA 16, pp. 561– Dillon, S. 2006. “Women on the Col- Durand, J. D. 1960. “Mortality Esti- 571. umns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius mates from Roman Tombstone Ewers, H.-H. 1989. Kindheit als poeti- and the Visual Language of Roman Inscriptions,” American Journal of sche Daseinsform: Studien zur Ent- Victory,” in Representations of War in Sociology 65, pp. 365–373. stehung der romantischen Kindheits- Ancient Rome, ed. S. Dillon and K. E. Ebbott, M. 2003. Imagining Illegitimacy utopie im 18. Jahrhundert: Herder, Welch, Cambridge, pp. 244–271. in Classical Greek Literature, Lanham. Jean Paul, Novalis und Tieck, Dimas, S. 1998. Untersuchungen zur Economidis, P. S. 2000. “The ‘Little Munich. Themenwahl und Bildgestaltung Fisherman’ and the Fish He Holds,” Eyben, E. 1972. “Antiquity’s View of auf römischen Kindersarkophagen, in Sherratt 2000, pp. 555–560. Puberty,” Latomus 31, pp. 677–697. Münster. Edelmann, M. 1999. Menschen auf ———. 1981. “Was the Roman ‘Youth’ Dixon, S. 1992. The Roman Family, griechischen Weihreliefs (Quellen und an ‘Adult’ Socially?” AntCl 50, Baltimore. Forschungen zur antiken Welt 33), pp. 328–350. ———. 1997. “Continuity and Change Munich. ———. 1991. “Fathers and Sons,” in in Roman Social History: Retriev- Edwards, C. M. 1985. “Greek Votive Rawson 1991a, pp. 114–143. ing ‘Family (Feelings)’ from Roman Reliefs to Pan and the Nymphs” ———. 1993. Restless Youth in Ancient Law and Literature,” in Inventing (diss. New York University, Institute Rome, trans. P. Daly, London. Ancient Culture: Historicism, Period- of Fine Arts). Fairbanks, A. 1907. Athenian White ization, and the Ancient World, Eger, J.-C. 1966. Le sommeil et la mort Lekythoi 1, New York. ed. M. Golden and P. Toohey, Lon- dans la Grèce antique, Paris. ———. 1914. Athenian White Lekythoi don, pp. 79–90. Elderkin, K. M. 1930. “Jointed Dolls in 2, New York. ———. 2001a. Reading Roman Women, Antiquity,” AJA 34, pp. 455–479. Falkner, T. M. 1995. The Poetics of Old London. Elsner, J. 2000. “Frontality in the Col- Age in Greek Epic, Lyric, and Tragedy, ———, ed. 2001b. Childhood, Class, and umn of Marcus Aurelius,” in Scheid Norman. Kin in the Roman World, London. and Huet 2000, pp. 265–279. Fanara, G. 1984. “Frammento di kou- Dohrn, T. 1973. “Aspekte grossgriechi Engels, D. 1980. “The Problem of rotrophos da Selinunte,” SicArch 17, schen Malerei,” RM 80, pp. 1–34. Female Infanticide in the Greco- pp. 54–55, 59–62. Doumas, C. 1987. “Ἡ Ξεστὴ 3 καὶ Roman World,” CP 75, pp. 112–120. Fantham, E., et al. 1994. Women in the οἱ κυανοκέφαλοι στὴν τέχνη τῆς Evans, J. K. 1991. War, Women, and Classical World: Image and Text, Θήρας,” in ΕΙΛΑΠΙΝΗ· Τόμος Children in Ancient Rome, London. New York. Τιμητικὸς γιὰ τὸν Καθηγητὴ Evans, M. M. [1893] 1964. Chapters on Feichtinger, B. 1995. Apostolae apostolo- Νικόλαο Πλάτωνα, ed. L. Kastri- Greek Dress, in Ancient Greek Dress, rum: Frauenaskese als Befreiung und naki, G. Orphanou, and N. Gianna- ed. D. M. Johnson, repr. Chicago. Zwang bei Hieronymus, Frankfurt- dakis, Herakleion, pp. 151–159. Evans-Grubbs, J. 1995. Law and Fam- am-Main. ———. 1992. The Wall-Paintings of ily in Late Antiquity, Oxford. Feldherr, A. 1995. “Ships of State: Thera, Athens. Eveleth, P. B., and J. M. Tanner. 1990. Aeneid 5 and Augustan Circus ———. 2000. “Age and Gender in the Worldwide Variation in Human Spectacle,” ClAnt 14, pp. 245–265. Theran Wall Paintings,” in Sherratt Growth, 2nd ed., Cambridge. Felson, N. 1999. “Paradigms of Pater- 2000, pp. 971–981. Evely, D., ed. 1999. Fresco: A Passport nity: Fathers, Sons, and Athletic/ Dover, K. J. 1978. Greek Homosexuality, into the Past: Minoan Crete through Sexual Prowess in Homer’s Odyssey,” Cambridge, Mass. the Eyes of Mark Cameron, Athens. in Euphrosyne: Studies in Ancient ref erence s 393

Epic and Its Legacy in Honor of Foster, K. P., and R. Laffineur, eds. ———. 1992. Curse Tablets and Bind- Dimitris N. Maronitis, ed. J. N. Ka- 2003. METRON: Measuring the ing Spells from the Ancient World, zazis and A. Rengakos, Stuttgart, Aegean Bronze Age (Aegaeum 24), Oxford. pp. 89–98. Liège. Gallivan, P., and P. Wilkins. 1997. ———. 2002. “Threptra and Invincible Foucault, M. 1986. The Care of the Self, “Familial Structures in Roman Italy: Hands: The Father-Son Relation- London. A Regional Approach,” in Rawson ship in Iliad 24,” Arethusa 35, Foucher, L. 1960. Inventaire des mosa- and Weaver 1997, pp. 239–279. pp. 35–50. ïques: Sousse (Atlas Archéologique Garland, R. 1982. “A First Catalogue Felson Rubin N., and W. Sale. 1983. 57), Tunis. of Attic Peribolos Tombs,” BSA 77, “Meleager and Odysseus: A Struc- Fowler, B. H. 1989. The Hellenistic pp. 125–176. tural and Cultural Study of the Aesthetic, Bristol. ———. 1990. The Greek Way of Life: Greek Hunting-Maturation Myth,” Fox-Leonard, S. 1997. “Comparative From Conception to Old Age, Ithaca. Arethusa 16, pp. 137–171. Health from Paleopathological ———. 1992. Introducing New Gods: Fenelli, M. 1975. “Contributo per lo Analysis of the Human Skeletal The Politics of Athenian Religion, studio del votivo anatomico: I votivi Remains Dating to the Hellenistic Ithaca. anatomici di Lavinium,” ArchCl 27, and Roman Periods, from Paphos, ———. 1995. The Eye of the Beholder: pp. 206–252. Cyprus and Corinth, Greece” Deformity and Disability in the Ferrari, G. P. 1993. “Coming of Age in (diss. Univ. of Arizona). Graeco-Roman World, London. Ancient Greece,” in Gender, Race, Franchi Dell’Orto, L., and R. Franchi. Garnsey, P. 1999. Food and Society in and Identity, ed. C. Barrow et al., 1988. Veder greco: Le necropoli di Classical Antiquity, Cambridge. Chattanooga, pp. 99–110. Agrigento (Mostra internazionale, Gates, C. 1992. “Art for Children in ———. 2002. Figures of Speech: Men Agrigento, 2 maggio–31 luglio Mycenaean Greece,” in Laffineur and Maidens in Ancient Greece, 1988), Rome. and Crowley 1992, pp. 161–171. Chicago. Franke, P. R., and M. Hirmer. 1972. Gauss, W., and F. Ruppenstein. 1998. Ferrence, S., and G. Bendersky. 2005. Die griechische Münze, 2nd ed., “Die Athener Akropolis in der Frü- “Deformity in the ‘Boxing Boys,’ ” Munich. hen Eisenzeit,” AM 113, pp. 1–60. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine Fränkel, C. 1912. Satyr- und Bakchen- Geary, D. C. 1998. Male, Female: The 48, pp. 105–123. namen auf Vasenbildern, Halle. Evolution of Human Sex Differences, Finlay, I. 1997. “Kid Knapping: The Fraschetti, A. 1997. “Roman Youth,” in Washington, D.C. Missing Children in Lithic Anal- A History of Young People in the West ———. 1999. “Evolution and Devel- ysis,” in Moore and Scott 1997, 1: Ancient and Medieval Rites of Pas- opmental Sex Differences,” Current pp. 203–212. sage, ed. G. Levi and J-C. Schmitt, Directions in Psychological Science 8, Finlay, R. A. 1980. “Patroklos, Achil- Cambridge, Mass., pp. 51–82. no. 4, pp. 115–120. leus, and Peleus: Fathers and Sons French, E. 2002. Mycenae, Agamem- Geary, D. C., et al. 2003. “Evolution in the Iliad,” CW 73, pp. 267– non’s Capital: The Site in Its Setting, and Development of Boys’ Social 273. Stroud. Behavior,” Developmental Review Finley, M. I. 1989. “The Elderly in Freud, S. 1962. Three Essays on the 23, pp. 444–470. Classical Antiquity,” in Old Age in Theory of Sexuality, trans. J. Strachey, George, M. 2000. “Family and Fami- Greek and Latin Literature, ed. T. M. London. lia,” RM 107, pp. 191–207. Falkner and J. de Luce, Albany, Frontisi-Ducroux, F., and F. Lisarrague. Ghali-Kahil, L. B. 1955. Les enlève- pp. 1–20. 1983. “De l’ambiguïté à l’ambiva- ments et le retour d’Hélène dans les Fittschen, K. 1969. Untersuchungen zum lence: Un parcours dionysiaque,” textes et les documents figurés, Paris. Beginn der Sagendarstellungen bei den Annali del Seminario di Studi del Ghiron-Bistagne, P. 1976. Recherches Griechen, Berlin. Mondo Classico, Napoli 5, pp. 11–32. sur les acteurs dans la Grèce antique, Flemming, R. 2000. Medicine and the Fuhrmann, H. 1952. “Athamas,” JdI Paris. Making of Roman Women, Oxford. 65–66 (1951–1952), pp. 103–134. Giannotta, M. T. 1996. “Rinvenimenti Florescu, F. B. 1965. Das Siegesdenkmal Furtwängler, A. 1885. Beschreibung der tombali da Rocavecchia (1934) von Adamklissi, Tropaeum Traiani, Vasensammlungen im Antiquarium, al Museo Provinciale di Lecce: Bucharest. Berlin. Materiali di corredo e produzioni,” Fontenrose, J. E. 1959. Python: A Study Gaca, K. L. Forthcoming. “The Ho- RStAnt 9, pp. 37–98. of Delphic Myth and Its Origins, meric Simile of the Little Girl and Gill, C. 1998. “Altruism or Reciproc- Berkeley. Her Mother (Iliad 16.7–11),” AJP. ity in Greek Ethical Philosophy,” Forgacs, E. 2001. “Toys Are Us: Toys Gager, J. G. 1990. “Curse and Com- in Reciprocity in Ancient Greece, and the Childlike in Recent Art,” petition in the Ancient Circus,” ed. C. Gill, N. Postlethwaite, and Art Criticism 16:2, pp. 6–21. in Of Scribes and Scrolls, ed. H. W. R. Seaford, Oxford, pp. 303–328. Först, G. 1978. Die Gravierung der Attridge, J. J. Collins, and T. H. Gilotta, F. 2002. “Note prenestine,” in pränestinischen Cisten, Rome. Tobin, Lanham, pp. 215–228. Caelatores: Incisori di specchi e ciste tra 394 ref erence s

Lazio ed Etruria. Atti della giornata Gorbunova, K., and I. Saverkina. 1975. Century b.c.e. Vase-Painting,” in di studio, Roma, 4 maggio 2001 Greek and Roman Antiquities in the The Art of Ancient Spectacle (Studies (Quaderni di Archeologia Etrusco- Hermitage, Leningrad. in the History of Art 56), ed. B. Berg- Italica 27), ed. A. Emiliozzi and Gordon, C. C., and J. E. Buikstra. 1981. mann and C. Kondoleon, New A. Maggiani, Rome, pp. 59–81. “Soil pH, Bone Preservation, and Haven, pp. 36–63. Giuliano, A., ed. 1979–1994. Museo Sampling Bias at Mortuary Sites,” Greene, T. 1963. The Descent from Nazionale Romano: Le Sculture, AmerAnt 46, pp. 566–571. Heaven: A Study in Epic Continuity, Rome. Gowland, R. L., and A. T. Chamber- New Haven. Godden, J., and R. Godden. 1966. lain. 2002. “A Bayesian Approach to Griechische Vasenfragmente = Griechische Two under the Indian Sun, New Aging Perinatal Skeletal Material Vasenfragmente der Sammlung Her- York. from Archaeological Sites: Implica- bert A. Cahn, Basel, 2 vols., Hanover Golden, M. 1979. “Demosthenes and tions for the Evidence for Infanti- 1993. the Age of Majority at Athens,” cide in Roman-Britain,” JAS 29, Griffin, J. 1980. Homer on Life and Phoenix 33, pp. 25–38. pp. 677–685. Death, Oxford. ———. 1985. “Pais, ‘Child’ and Graf, F. 1999. “Komos, der ritualisierte Griffith, M. 2001. “Public and Private ‘Slave,’ ” AntCl 54, pp. 91–104. ausgelassene griechische Umzug,” in Early Greek Institutions of ———. 1988. “Did the Ancients Care Der Neue Pauly: Enzyklopädie der Education,” in Education in Greek When Their Children Died?” GaR Antike 6, pp. 703–720. and Roman Antiquity, ed. Y. L. Too, 35, pp. 152–163. Grebe, S. 1999. “Jüngere oder Mäd- Leiden, pp. 23–84. ———. 1990. Children and Childhood chen? Aristophanes, Lysistrate 641– Grossman, J. B. 1995. “The Sculptured in Classical Athens, Baltimore. 647,” MusHelv 56, pp. 194–203. Funerary Monuments of the Clas- ———. 1992. “Continuity, Change, Greco, E. 1988. “Archeologia della sical Period in the Athenian Agora” and the Study of Ancient Child- colonia latina di Paestum,” DialArch (diss. New York Univ., Institute of hood,” EchCl 36, n.s. 11, pp. 7–18. 6, pp. 79–86. Fine Arts). ———. 1995. “Baby Talk and Child ———. 1990. “Problemi della roma- ———. 2001. Greek Funerary Sculpture: Language in Ancient Greece,” in nizzazione della Lucania occiden- Catalogue of the Collections at the Lo spettacolo delle voci, ed. F. De tale nell’area compresa tra Paestum Getty Villa, Los Angeles. Martino and A. H. Sommerstein, e Laos,” in Basilicata: L’espansio- Grossman, J. B., and J. Maish. 2002. Bari, pp. 11–34. nismo romano nel sud-est d’Italia: “An Investigation of the Authentic- ———. 1997. “Change or Continuity? Il quadro archeologico (Leukania 2), ity of a Classical Attic Funerary Children and Childhood in Hel- ed. M. Salvatore, Venosa, pp. 265– Monument in the J. Paul Getty lenistic Historiography,” in Invent- 268. Museum,” in ASMOSIA 5: Interdis- ing Ancient Culture: Historicism, Greco, E., and A. Capano. 1988. Satri- ciplinary Studies on Ancient Stone, Periodization, and the Ancient World, ano 1987–1988: Un biennio di ri- ed. J. J. Herrmann, Jr., N. Herz, and ed. M. Golden and P. Toohey, Lon- cerche archeologiche, Potenza. R. Newman, London, pp. 274–282. don, pp. 176–191. Greco, E., and D. Theodorescu, eds. Guarducci, M. 1928. “Due o piu donne ———. 2003. “Childhood in Ancient 1980. Poseidonia-Paestum 1: La sotto un solo manto in una serie di Greece,” in Neils and Oakley 2003, “Curia,” Rome. vasi greci arcaici,” AM 53, pp. 52–65. pp. 13–29. Greco, G., ed. 1982. L’evidenza arche- ———. 1974. “L’offerta di Xenokrateia ———. 2004. “Mortality, Mourning, ologica nel Lagonegrese: Mostra docu- nel santuario di Cefiso al Falero,” and Mothers,” in Dasen 2004, mentaria, Matera. PHOROS: Tribute to Benjamin Dean pp. 145–157. ———. 1998. “Da Hera argiva ad Hera Meritt, ed. D. W. Bradeen and Goldhill, S. 1987. “An Unnoticed Allu- pestana,” in I culti della Campania M. F. McGregor, Locust Valley, sion in Theocritus and Callima- antica. Atti del convegno in onore di pp. 57–66. chus,” Illinois Classical Studies 12, Nazarena Valenza Mele, ed. A. Mus- ———. 1978. Epigrafia greca 4, Rome. pp. 1–6. cettola and G. Greco, Rome, Guggisberg, M. A. 1996. Frühgrie- Goldschmidt, A. M. E. 1971. “Alice pp. 45–62. chische Tierkeramik, Mainz. in Wonderland Psycho-Analysed,” Greco, G., and A. Pontrandolfo. 1990. Güntner, G. 1994. Göttervereine und in Aspects of Alice: Lewis Carroll’s Fratte: Un insediamento etrusco- Götterversammlungen auf attischen Dreamchild as Seen through the Crit- campano, Modena. Weihreliefs: Untersuchung zur Typolo- ics’ Looking-Glasses, 1865–1971, Green, J. 1971. “Choes of the Later gie und Bedeutung (Beiträge zur ed. R. Phillips, New York, pp. 279– Fifth Century,” BSA 66, pp. 189– Archäologie 21), Würzburg. 282. 228. Guralnick, E. 2000. “Proportions of Gombrich, E. H. 1961. Art and Illusion: ———. 1999. “Tragedy and the Spec- Painted Figures from Thera,” in A Study in the Psychology of Picto- tacle of the Mind: Messenger Sherratt 2000, pp. 173–190. rial Representation, 2nd ed., rev., Speeches, Actors, Narrative, and Guy, H., C. Masset, and C.-A. Baud. Princeton. Audience Imagination in Fourth- 1997. “Infant Taphonomy,” Interna- ref erence s 395

tional Journal of Osteoarchaeology 7, Hands, A. R. 1968. Charities and Social the Classical World,” Vassar Quar- pp. 221–229. Aid in Greece and Rome, Ithaca. terly 79, pp. 28–30. Habinek, T. N. 1998. The Politics of Hannestad, N. 1988. Roman Art and Hazzidakis, J. 1921. Tylissos à l’époque Latin Literature: Writing, Iden- Imperial Policy, Aarhus. minoenne, Paris. tity, and Empire in Ancient Rome, Hanson, A. E. 1990. “The Medical Heath, J. 2001. “Telemachus ΠΕΠΝΥ- Princeton. Writers’ Woman,” in The Construc- ΜΕΝΟΣ: Growing into an Epithet,” Haentjens, A. M. E. 2000. “Reflec- tion of Erotic Experience in the An- Mnemosyne 54, pp. 129–159. tions on Female Infanticide in the cient Greek World, ed. D. M. Hal- Heintz, F. 1998. “Circus Curses and Greco-Roman World,” AntCl 69, perin, J. J. Winkler, and F. I. Zeitlin, Their Archaeological Contexts,” pp. 261–264. Princeton, pp. 309–337. JRA 11, pp. 337–342. ———. 2002. “Ritual Shoes in Early ———. 1994. “A Division of Labor: ———. 2000. “Magic Tablets and the Greek Female Graves,” AntCl 71, Roles for Men in Greek and Roman Games at Antioch,” in Antioch: The pp. 171–184. Births,” in Myth Making from Past to Lost Ancient City, ed. C. Kondoleon, Hagendahl, H. 1958. Latin Fathers and Present (Thamyris/Intersecting: Place, Princeton, pp. 163–168. the Classics, Göteborg. Sex and Race 1:2), ed. J. Best and Helgeson, V. S. 2002. The Psychology of Halbherr, F., E. Stefani, and L. Banti. N. de Vries, Amsterdam, pp. 157– Gender, Upper Saddle River. 1977. “Haghia Triada nel Periodo 202. Hemelrijk, E. A. 1999. Matrona Docta: Tardo Palazziale,” ASAtene 39, Hardwick, L. 1990. “Ancient Amazons Educated Women in the Roman pp. 13–291. —Heroes, Outsiders or Women?” Elite from Cornelia to Julia Domna, Hall, J. G., U. G. Froster-Iskenius, and GaR 59, pp. 14–36. London. J. E. Allanson. 1989. Handbook of Harlow, M. 1998. “Images of Mother- Hencken, H. 1968. Tarquinia and Normal Physical Measurements, hood in Late Antiquity” (diss. Univ. Etruscan Origins, London. Oxford. of Leicester). Henneberg, M., and R. J. Henneberg. Hall, J. M. 1995. “How Argive Was ———. 2004. “Female Dress in Late 1998. “Biological Characteristics of the ‘Argive Heraion’? The Political Antiquity,” Antiquité Tardive 12, the Population Based on Analysis and Cultic Geography of the Argive pp. 203–15. of Skeletal Remains,” in Metaponto Plain, 900–400 b.c.,” AJA 99, Harlow, M., and R. Laurence. 2002. 2: The Necropoleis, ed. J. C. Carter, pp. 577–613. Growing Up and Growing Old in Austin, pp. 503–559. Halpern, D. F. 2000. Sex Differences Ancient Rome: A Life Course Ap- Herkenrath, E. 1937. “Mykenische in Cognitive Abilities, 3rd ed., proach, London. Kultszenen,” AJA 41, pp. 411–423. Mahwah. Harpham, G. 1987. The Ascetic Imper- Herman-Giddens, M. E., E. Slora, Ham, G. L. 1997. “The Choes and ative in Culture and Criticism, Chi- R. C. Wasserman, C. J. Bourdony, Male Maturation Ritual in Attic cago. M. V. Bhapkar, G. G. Koch, and Dionysiac Cult” (diss. Univ. of Harrison, E. B. 1967. “Athena and C. M. Hasemeier. 1997. “Secondary Texas, Austin). Athens in the East Pediment of the Sexual Characteristics and Menses ———. 1999. “The Choes and Anthe- Parthenon,” AJA 71, pp. 28–58. in Young Girls Seen in Office steria Reconsidered: Male Matura- Haskell, F., and N. Penny. 1981. Taste Practice: A Study from the Pedi- tion Rites and the Peloponnesian and the Antique, New Haven. atric Research in Office Settings War,” in Rites of Passage in Ancient Haslett, B., and W. Samter. 1997. Chil- Network,” Pediatrics 99, pp. 505– Greece: Literature, Religion, Society dren Communicating: The First Five 512. (Bucknell Review 43), ed. M. Pa- Years, Mahwah. Herman-Giddens, M. E., L. Wang, dilla, pp. 201–218. Hausmann, U. 1948. Kunst und Heil- and G. Koch. 2001. “Secondary Hamberg, P. G. 1945. Studies in Roman tum: Untersuchungen zu den grie- Sexual Characteristics in Boys: Imperial Art, Copenhagen. chischen Asklepiosreliefs, Potsdam. Estimates from the National Health Hamilton, R. 1992. Choes and Antheste- ———. 1959. Hellenistische Reliefbecher and Nutrition Examination Survey ria: Athenian Iconography and Ritual, aus attischen und böotischen Werkstät- III, 1988–1994,” Archives of Pedi- Ann Arbor. ten: Untersuchungen zur Zeitstellung atrics and Adolescent Medicine 155, Hammer, D. 2002. “The Iliad as Ethi- und Bildüberlieferung, Stuttgart. pp. 1022–1028. cal Thinking: Politics, Pity, and the Havelock, C. M. 1981a. Hellenistic Art, Hermary, A. 1989. Catalogue des Anti- Operation of Esteem,” Arethusa 35, rev. ed., New York. quités de Chypre: Sculptures, Musée pp. 203–235. ———. 1981b. “Mourners on Greek du Louvre, Paris. Hammond, M. 1953. “A Statue of Tra- Vases: Remarks on the Social His- Héron de Villefosse, A. 1899. Le trésor jan Represented on the ‘Anaglypha tory of Women,” in The Greek Vase, de Boscoreale (MonPiot 5), Paris. Traiani,’ ” MAAR 21, pp. 129–183. ed. S. L. Hyatt, Latham, pp. 103– Herring, D. A., S. R. Saunders, and Hampe, R., and E. Simon. 1981. The 118. G. Boyce. 1991. “Bones and Burial Birth of Greek Art from the Myce- ———. 1983. “Fallen Child: A New Registers: Infant Mortality in a naean to the Archaic Period, London. Treasure for the Art Gallery from 19th-Century Cemetery from 396 ref erence s

Upper Canada,” Northeast Historical a Drag to be a King,” in Represen- Classical Athens,” Arion ser. 3, Archaeology 20, pp. 54–70. tations of Gender from Prehistory vol. 6, pp. 48–78. Herring, D. A., S. R. Saunders, and to the Present, ed. M. Donald and ———. 2000. “Pederasty and Democ- M. A. Katzenberg. 1998. “Investi- L. Hurcombe, Houndsmills, racy: The Marginalization of a gating the Weaning Process in Past pp. 69–86. Social Practice,” in Greek Love Populations,” American Journal of Hoddinott, R. E. 1975. Bulgaria in Reconsidered, ed. T. K. Hubbard, Physical Anthropology 105, pp. 425– Antiquity, London. New York, pp. 1–11. 439. Hoeniger, C. S. 2002. “The Child ———. 2003. Homosexuality in Greece Herter, H. 1927. “Das Kind im Zeit- Miracles in Simone Martini’s Beato and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic alter des Hellenismus,” BJb 132, Agostino Novello Altarpiece,” Documents, Berkeley. pp. 250–258. Zeitschrift für Kunstgeschichte 65, ———. 2006. “History’s First Child ———. 1975a. “Kallimachos und pp. 303–324. Molester: Euripides’ Chrysippus Homer: Ein Beitrag zur Interpre- Hoffman, M. L. 1977. “Sex Differences and the Marginalization of Peder- tation des Hymnos auf Artemis,” in Empathy and Related Behaviors,” asty in Athenian Democratic Dis- in Kleine Schriften, ed. E. Vogt, Psychological Bulletin 84, pp. 712– course,” in Greek Drama III: Essays Munich, pp. 371–416 (originally 722. in Honour of Kevin Lee (BICS Suppl. published in 1929 in Xenia Bonnen- Hoffmann, H. 1971. Ten Centuries That 87), ed. J. Davidson, F. Muecke, sia, Bonn, pp. 50–105). Shaped the West, Mainz. and P. Wilson, London, pp. 223– ———. 1975b. “Das Leben ein Hommes, dieux et héros = Hommes, dieux 244. Kinderspiel,” in Kleine Schriften, et héros de la Grèce (exhibition cata- Huizinga, J. 1971. Homo ludens: A Study ed. E. Vogt, Munich, pp. 584–597 logue, Musée départemental des of the Play-Element in Culture, 21st (originally published in 1961 in BJb antiquités de Rouen 1982–1983), ed., Boston. 161, pp. 73–84). Rouen. Hume, D. [1777] 1987. Essays: Moral, ———. 1975c. “Das unschuldige Kind,” Hood, S. 1978. The Arts in Prehistoric Political, and Literary, ed. E. F. in Kleine Schriften, ed. E. Vogt, Mu- Greece, Harmondsworth. Miller, Indianapolis. nich, pp. 598–619 (originally pub- Hooper, B. 1975. “The Human Bones,” Humphrey, J. H. 1986. Roman Circuses: lished in 1961 in JAC 4, pp. 146– in Excavations at Portchester Castle 1: Arenas for Chariot Racing, London. 162). Roman, London, ed. B. W. Cunliffe, Hunter, R. 1996. Theocritus and the ———. 1993. s.v. “Kind,” in Kleines pp. 375–377. Archaeology of Greek Poetry, Cam- Lexikon des Hellenismus, ed. H. H. Hope, V. M. 2001. Constructing Iden- bridge. Schmitt and E. Vogt, 2nd ed., tity: The Roman Funerary Monu- ———, ed. 1999. Theocritus: A Selec- Wiesbaden, pp. 371–375. ments of Aquileia, Mainz, and Nîmes, tion: Idylls 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 10, 11 and 13, Heydemann, H. 1880. Satyr- und Oxford. Cambridge. Bakchennamen (HallWPr 5), Halle. Hopkins, K. M. 1965. “The Age of ———. 2001. “The Poet Unleaved: Heywood, C. M. 2001. A History of Roman Girls at Marriage,” Popula- Simonides and Callimachus,” in Childhood: Children and Childhood tion Studies 18, pp. 309–327. The New Simonides: Contexts of in the West from Medieval to Modern ———. 1966. “On the Probable Age Praise and Desire, ed. D. Boedeker Times, Cambridge. Structure of the Roman Pop- and D. Sider, Oxford, pp. 242–254. Higgins, R. A. 1954. Catalogue of the ulation,” Population Studies 20, Hurwit, J. M., and P. C. Powell. 2000. Terracottas in the British Museum 1, pp. 245–264. Ancient Etruscan and Greek Vases Oxford. ———. 1983. Death and Renewal, in the Elvehjem Museum of Art, Higonnet, A. 1998. Pictures of Innocence: Cambridge. Madison. The History and Crisis of Ideal Child- Horn, R. 1936. “Archäologische Funde Huskinson, J. 1996. Roman Children’s hood, London. in Italien, Tripolitanien, der Kyre- Sarcophagi: Their Decoration and Its ———. 2002. “What Do You Want naika und Albanien von Oktober Social Significance, Oxford. to Know about Children?” in Pic- 1935 bis Oktober 1936,” AA 1936, Iliaki, A. P. 1975. “Mycenaean Ivories: turing Children: Constructions of pp. 426–561. A Study of Three Classes of Childhood between Rousseau and Houby-Nielsen, S. 2000. “Child Burials Objects—Combs, Pyxides, and Freud, ed. M. Brown, Aldershot, in Ancient Athens,” in Sofaer Dere- Mirror Handles” (diss. Bryn Mawr pp. 200–206. venski 2000a, pp. 151–166. College). Hillson, S. 1996. Dental Anthropology, Houdijk, L. J. J., and P. J. J. Vander- Immerwahr, H. R. 1946. “Choes and Cambridge. broeck. 1987. “Old Age and Sex in Chytroi,” TAPA 77, pp. 245–260. ———. 2002. “Investigating Ancient the Ancient Greek World,” Wissen ———. 1990. Attic Script: A Survey, Cemeteries on the Island of Asty- schaftliche Zeitschrift der Wilhelm- Oxford. palaia, Greece,” Archaeology Inter- Pieck-Universität Rostock: Gesell- ———. 1998. A Corpus of Attic Vase national 5, pp. 29–31. schaftliche Reihe 36, pp. 57–61. Inscriptions, 4 vols., Athens. Hitchcock, L. 2000. “Engendering Hubbard, T. K. 1998. “Popular Percep- Immerwahr, S. 1990. Aegean Painting Ambiguity in Minoan Crete: It’s tions of Elite Homosexuality in in the Bronze Age, University Park. ref erence s 397

Ingalls, W. B. 1998. “Attitudes toward Johansson, S. R. 1987. “Neglect, Abuse, l’acropole,” Hesperia 50, pp. 253– Children in the Iliad,” EchCl 42, and Avoidable Death: Parental 263. n.s. 17, pp. 13–34. Investment and the Mortality of Kallipolites, V., and V. Petrakos. 1965. ———. 2000. “Nausikaa, Penelope, Infants and Children in the Euro- “Αγ. Ιωάννης Ρέντης,” ArchDelt 18, and Initiation,” EchCl 44, n.s. 19, pean Tradition,” in Child Abuse Β΄1 (1963), pp. 46–50. pp. 1–18. and Neglect: Biosocial Dimensions, Kaltsas, N. 1990. “Από τα ελληνιστικά ———. 2001. “ΠΑΙΔΑ ΝΕΑΝ ΜΑ- ed. R. J. Gelles and J. B. Lancaster, νεκροταφεία της Πύλου,” ArchDelt ΛΙΣΤΑ: When Did Athenian Girls New York, pp. 57–93. 38, Α΄ (1983), pp. 1–77. Really Marry?” Mouseion ser. 3, Johnston, A. W. 1985. “A Fourth Cen- ———. 1998. Άκανθος 1: Η ανασκαφή vol. 1, pp. 17–29. tury Graffito from the Kerameikos,” στο νεκροταφείο κατά το 1979, ———. 2002. “Demography and AM 100, pp. 293–307. Athens. Dowries: Perspectives on Female Johnston, S. I., and T. McNiven. 1996. ———. 2001. Εθνικό Αρχαιολογικό Infanticide in Classical Greece,” “Dionysos and the Underworld Μουσείο: Τα Γλυπτά, Athens. Phoenix 56, pp. 246–254. in Toledo,” MusHelv 53, pp. 25– ———. 2002. Sculpture in the National Ingvarsson-Sundström, A. 2003. “Chil- 36. Archaeological Museum, Athens, trans. dren Lost and Found: A Bioarchae- Jones, B. R. 1998. “Minoan Women’s D. Hardy, Los Angeles. ological Study of Middle Helladic Clothes: An Investigation of Their Kalveram, K. 1995. Die Antikensamm- Children in Asine with a Compari- Constructions from the Depictions lung des Kardinals Scipione Borghese, son to Lerna” (diss. Uppsala Univ.). in Aegean Art” (diss. New York Worms. Isthmia VIII = C. Morgan, The Late Univ.). Kamp, K. A. 2001. “Where Have All Bronze Age Settlement and Early ———. 2000. “New Interpretations of the Children Gone? The Archae- Iron Age Sanctuary (Isthmia VIII), the Costumes on the Ivory Triad ology of Childhood,” Journal of Princeton 1999. from Mycenae,” AJA 104, p. 352. Archaeological Method and Theory 8, Iversen, E., and Y. Shibata. 1975. ———. 2003. “Veils and Mantles: An pp. 1–34. Canon and Proportions in Egyptian Investigation of the Construction Kampen, N. B. 1981. “Biographical Art, 2nd ed., rev., Warminster. and Function of the Costumes of Narration and Roman Funerary Jackes, M. K. 1992. “Paleodemography: the Veiled Dancer from Thera and Art,” AJA 85, pp. 47–58. Problems and Techniques,” in the Camp Stool Banqueter from ———. 1991. “Between Public and The Skeletal Biology of Past Peoples: Knossos,” in Foster and Laffineur Private: Women as Historical Sub- Advances in Research Methods, 2003, pp. 441–450. jects in Roman Art,” in Women’s His- ed. S. R. Saunders and M. A. Katz- ———. 2004. “A New Reconstruction tory and Ancient History, ed. S. Pom- enberg, New York, pp. 189–224. of the Women on the Fresco from eroy, Chapel Hill, pp. 218–248. ———. 1993. “On Paradox and Oste- Room 14 at Ayia Triada,” Archaeo- Kampen, N. B., E. Marlowe, and R. M. ology,” CurrAnthr 34, pp. 434–439. logical Institute of America (105th Molholt. 2002. What Is a Man? Jaeger, W. W. 1939–1944. Paideia: The Annual Meeting) Abstracts 27, Changing Images of Masculinity in Ideals of Greek Culture, 3 vols., trans. p. 41. Late Antique Art (exhibition cata- G. Highet, Oxford. Joyce, L. B. 1997. “Maenads and Bac- logue, Douglas F. Cooley Memorial Jameson, M. H. 1990. “Perseus, the chantes: Images of Female Ecstasy Art Gallery), Portland. Hero of Mykenai,” in Celebrations of in Greek and Roman Art” (diss. Kaplowitz, P. B., and S. E. Oberfield. Death and Divinity in the Bronze Age Univ. of California, Los Angeles). 1999. “Reexamination of the Age Argolid, ed. R. Hägg and G. C. Nor- Junkelmann, M. 1990. Die Reiter Roms, Limit for Defining When Puberty dquist, Stockholm, pp. 213–222. Mainz. Is Precocious in Girls in the United Jantzen, U., ed. 1975. Führer durch Kadletz, E. 1976. “Animal Sacrifice in States: Implications for Evaluation Tiryns von den Mitarbeitern der Greek and Roman Religion” (diss. and Treatment,” Pediatrics 104, Grabung, Athens. Univ. of Washington). pp. 936–941. Jarva, E. 1981a “Area di tombe infantile Kaempf-Dimitriadou, S. 1979. Die Karageorghis, V. 1993. The Coroplas- a Ficana: Archeologia Laziale,” Liebe der Götter in der attischen Kunst tic Art of Ancient Cyprus 2: Late Quaderni del centro di studi per l’ar- des 5. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., Bern. Cypriote II–Cypro-Geometric III, cheologia etrusco-italica 5, pp. 269– Kahil, L. 1963. “Quelques vases du Nicosia. 272. sanctuaire d’Artémis à Brauron,” ———. 1996. The Coroplastic Art of ———. 1981b. .“Tombe infantile nel AntK-BH 1, pp. 5–29. Ancient Cyprus 4: The Cypro-Archaic Lazio e a Ficana nell’età del ferro ———. 1965. “Autour de l’Artémis Period:. Monsters, Animals, and e in epoca arcaica,” Ficana: Una attique,” AntK 8, pp. 20–33. Miscellanea, Nicosia. Pietra Miliare sulla Strada per Roma ———. 1977. “L’Artémis de Brauron: ———. 2000. Ancient Art from Cyprus, (exhibition catalogue), Rome, Rites et mystères,” AntK 20, New York. pp. 141–147. pp. 86–98. Karetsou, A., ed. 2000. Κρήτη– Jenkins, I. 1986. Greek and Roman Life, ———. 1981. “Le ‘cratérisque’ Αίγυπτος: Πολιτισμικοί δεσμοί London. d’Artémis et le Brauronion de τριών χιλιετιών, 2 vols., Athens. 398 ref erence s

Karo, G. 1930–1933. Die Schachtgräber IX = U. Knigge, Der Südhügel, Klein, W. 1921. Vom antiken Rokoko, von Mykenai, Munich. 1976. Vienna. Karouzou, S. 1968. National Archaeolog- XIII = B. Bohen, Die geome- Kleiner, D. E. E. 1977. Roman Group ical Museum Collection of Sculpture: trischen Pyxiden, 1988. Portraiture: The Funerary Reliefs of A Catalogue, Athens. XIV = W. K. Kovacsovics, Die the Late Republic and Early Empire, ———. 1970. “Stamnos de Polygnotos Eckterrasse an der Gräberstrasse des New York. au Musée National d’Athènes,” RA Kerameikos, 1990. ———. 1987a. Roman Imperial Funer- 1970, pp. 229–252. Keuls, E. C. 1985. “The Conjugal Side ary Altars with Portraits (Archaeo- Karusu, S. 1979. “Bemalte attische of Dionysiac Ritual and Symbolism logica 62), Rome. Weihreliefs,” in Studies in Classi- in the Fifth Century b.c.,” Meded ———. 1987b. “Women and Family cal Art and Archaeology: A Tribute 46, n.s. 11, pp. 25–33. Life on Roman Imperial Funerary to P. H. von Blanckenhagen, ———. 1993. The Reign of the Phallus: Altars,” Latomus 46, pp. 545–554. ed. G. Kopcke and M. B. Moore, Sexual Politics in Ancient Athens, ———. 1992. Roman Sculpture, New Locust Valley, pp. 111–116. Berkeley. Haven. Kassel, R. 1951. Quomodo quibus locis Kilian, K. 1981. “Zeugnisse mykeni- Klöckner, A. 2001. “Menschlicher Gott apud veteres scriptores Graecos infantes scher Kultausübung in Tiryns,” in und göttlicher Mensch? Zu einigen atque parvuli pueri inducantur Sanctuaries and Cults in the Aegean Weihreliefs für Asklepios und die describantur commemorentur (diss. Bronze Age, ed. R. Hägg and Nymphen,” in Konstruktionen von Univ. of Mainz), repr. in Kassel N. Marinatos, Stockholm, pp. 49–58. Wirklichkeit: Bilder im Griechenland 1991, pp. 1–73. Kilian-Dirlmeier, I. 1978–1979. “Zum des 5. und 4. Jahrhunderts v. Chr., ———. 1987. Die Abgrenzung des Hel- Halsschmuck mykenischer Idole,” ed. R. von den Hoff and S. Schmidt, lenismus in der griechischen Literatur Jahresbericht des Instituts für Vorge- Stuttgart, pp. 121–136. geschichte, Berlin, repr. in Kassel schichte der Universität Frankfurt- Knigge, U. 1991. The Athenian Kera- 1991, pp. 154–173. am-Main, pp. 29–43. meikos: History, Monuments, Excava- ———. 1991. Kleine Schriften, ed. H.-G. Kilmer, M. F. 1993. Greek Erotica, tions, Athens. Nesselrath, Berlin. London. Koch, G., and H. Sichtermann. 1982. Kaster, R. A. 1988. Guardians of Lan- ———. 1997. “Painters and Pederasts: Römische Sarkophage (Handbuch der guage, Berkeley. Ancient Art, Sexuality, and Social Archäologie), Munich. Katzenberg, M. A., D. A. Herring, and History,” in Inventing Ancient Cul- Koch-Harnack, G. 1983. Knabenliebe S. R. Saunders. 1996. “Weaning and ture, ed. M. Golden and P. Toohey, und Tiergeschenke: Ihre Bedeutung Infant Mortality: Evaluating the London, pp. 36–49. im päderastischen Erziehungssystem Skeletal Evidence,” Yearbook of Phys- Kim, J. 2000. The Pity of Achilles: Oral Athens, Berlin. ical Anthropology 39, pp. 177–199. Style and the Unity of the Iliad, ———. 1989. Erotische Symbole, Berlin. Keller, O. 1963. Die antike Tierwelt 2, Lanham. Kockel, V. 1993. Porträtreliefs stadt- Hildesheim. King, H. 1998. Hippocrates’ Women: römischer Grabbauten: Ein Beitrag Kellum, B. A. 1994. “What We See Reading the Female Body in Ancient zur Geschichte und zum Verständnis and What We Don’t See: Narrative Greece, London. des spätrepublikanisch-frühkaiserzeit- Structure and the Ara Pacis Augus- King, M. 2000. “Commemoration of lichen Privatporträts (Beiträge zur tae,” Art History 17, pp. 26–47. Infants on Roman Funerary Inscrip- Erschließung hellenistischer und Kelly, J. N. D. 1975. Jerome: His Life, tions,” in The Epigraphy of Death: kaiserzeitlicher Skulptur und Archi- Writings, and Controversies, NY. Studies in the History and Society of tektur 12), Mainz. Kelly, N. U. 1975. “Some Socio- Greece and Rome, ed. G. J. Oliver, Koehl, R. 1986. “The Chieftain Cup Cultural Correlates of Indian Sex Liverpool, pp. 117–154. and a Minoan Rite of Passage,” JHS Ratios: Case Studies of Punjab and ———. Forthcoming. “Whose Iden- 106, pp. 99–110. Kerala” (diss. Univ. of Pennsylvania). tity? Whose Role Model? Repre- ———. 2000. “Ritual Context,” in Kennell, N. M. 1995. The Gymnasium sentations of Young Children on MacGillivray, Driessen, and Sackett of Virtue: Education and Culture in Roman Funerary Memorials,” in 2000, pp. 131–143. Ancient Sparta, Chapel Hill. Role Models in Ancient Rome (MAAR Koehl, R., and R. Porter. 2003. “Recon- Kerameikos: Ergebnisse der Ausgrabun- Suppl.), ed. S. Bell and I. L. Han- structing the ‘Boxer Rhyton’ from gen, Berlin. sen, Ann Arbor. Ayia Triada,” poster session, New I = W. Kraiker and K. Kübler, Kirk, G. S. 1990. The Iliad: A Commen- Orleans. Abstract available at http:// Die Nekropolen des 12. bis 10. Jahr- tary II: Books 5–8, Cambridge. www.archaeological.org/webinfo. hunderts, 1939. Kleijwegt, M. 1991. Ancient Youth: The php?page=10123&searchtype=abstr V.1 = K. Kübler, Die Nekropole Ambiguity of Youth and the Absence of act&sessionid=1J&paperid=49. des 10. bis 8. Jahrhunderts, 1954. Adolescence in Greco-Roman Society, Kohlberg, L. 1966. “A Cognitive- VII = K. Kübler, Die Nekropole Amsterdam. Developmental Analysis of Chil- der Mitte des 6. Bis Ende des 5. Jahr- Klein, A. E. 1932. Child Life in Greek dren’s Sex-Role Concepts and Atti- hunderts, 1976. Art, New York. tudes,” in The Development of Sex ref erence s 399

Differences, ed. E. E. Maccoby, Stan- Kraniote, L. 1988. “Ωρωπός. Νέα Παλά- Paintings,” in Sherratt 2000, ford, pp. 82–173. τια,” ArchDelt 36, Β΄1 (1981), pp. 890–906. Kokula, G. 1984. Marmorlutrophoren, pp. 59–64. Laffineur, R., and J. Crowley, eds. Berlin. ———. 1989. “Τύμβος από τη ΒΔ Νε- 1992. EIKON: Aegean Bronze Age Kondoleon, C. 2000. Antioch: The Lost κρόπολη των Αβδήρων,” AEMTh 1 Iconography: Shaping a Methodology Ancient City, Princeton. (1987), pp. 431–435. (Aegaeum 8), Liège. Konigsberg, L. W., and S. R. Franken- Krattenmaker, K. 1991. “Minoan La Fontaine, J. 1985. Initiation, Har- berg. 1992. “Estimation of Age Architectural Representation” (diss. mondsworth. Structure in Anthropological Bryn Mawr College). Lagia, A. 1999. “Στοιχεία καθημερινού Demography,” American Journal of Kritsele-Providi, I. 1982. Τοιχογραφίες βίου. Το ανθρωπολογικό υλικό από Physical Anthropology 89, pp. 235– του θρησκευτικού κέντρου των την ανασκαφή του ρωμαϊκού ταφι- 256. Μυκηνών, Athens. κού κτίσματος αρ. 1 στο νεκρο- Konstan, D. 2000. “Οἰκíα δ’ ἐστí τις Kron, U. 1988. “Zur Schale des Ko- ταφείο του Κεραμεικού,” AM 114, φιλíα: Love and the Greek Family,” dros-Malers in Basel,” in Kanon: pp. 291–303. Syllecta Classica 11, pp. 106–126. Festschrift Ernst Berger, ed. M. Schmidt ———. 2000. “Kerameikos Grabung Kontis, I. D. 1967. “Άρτεμις Βραυ- (AntK-BH 15), Basel, pp. 291–304. 1999: Preliminary Analysis of the ρωνία,” ArchDelt 22 A, pp. 156– ———. 1998. “Sickles in Greek Human Skeletal Remains,” AA 206. Sanctuaries: Votives and Cultic 2000, pp. 481–493. Koortbojian, M. 1996. “In commemora- Instruments,” in Ancient Greek ———. Forthcoming. “A Bioarchaeo- tionem mortuorum: Text and Image Cult Practice from the Archaeological logical Survey of Social Structure along the ‘Streets of Tombs,’ ” in Evidence, ed. R. Hägg, Stockholm, from the Polis of Athens during the Art and Text in Roman Culture, pp. 187–215. Classical, Hellenistic, and Early ed. J. Elsner, Cambridge, pp. 210– Kurtz, D. C. 1975. Athenian White Roman Periods” (diss. Univ. of 233. Lekythoi, Oxford. Chicago). Körte, A. 1911. “Ein griechischer Kurtz, D. C., and J. Boardman. 1971. Laistner, M. 1951. Christianity and Romantiker,” Deutsche Rundschau Greek Burial Customs, London. Pagan Culture in the Later Roman 148, pp. 40–51. Kurtz, D. C., and B. Sparkes, eds. 1982. Empire, Ithaca. Kossatz-Deissmann, A. 1991. “Satyr- The Eye of Greece: Studies in the Art Landes, C., ed. 1990. Le cirque et les und Mänadennamen auf Vasen- of Athens, Cambridge. courses de chars Rome-Byzance, bildern des Getty-Museums und Kuttner, A. 1995. Dynasty and Empire Lattes. der Sammlung Cahn (Basel), mit in the Age of Augustus: The Case of the Langdon, S., ed. 1993. From Pasture Addenda zu Charlotte Fränkel, Boscoreale Cups, Berkeley. to Polis: Art in the Age of Homer, Satyr- und Bakchennamen auf Kyle, D. G. 1994. “Gifts and Glory: Columbia, Mo. Vasenbildern (Halle, 1912),” Greek Panathenaic and Other Greek ———. 1999. “Figurines and Social Vases in the J. Paul Getty Museum 5, Athletic Prizes,” in Worshipping Change: Visualizing Gender in pp. 131–199. Athena: Panathenaia and Parthenon, Dark Age Greece,” in From the Kostoglou-Despini, A. 1979. Προβλή- ed. J. Neils, Madison, pp. 106–136. Ground Up: Beyond Gender Theory in ματα τῆς Παριανῆς Πλαστικῆς τοῦ Labarbe, J. 1953. “L’âge correspon- Archaeology. Proceedings of the Fifth 5ου Αἰώνα π.Χ., Thessaloniki. dant au sacrifice du koureion et les Gender and Archaeology Conference ———. 1988. “Eine Grabstele aus données historiques du 6e discours (BAR-IS 812), ed. N. L. Wicker and Pydna,” in Kanon: Festschrift Ernst d’Isée,” Bulletin de l’Académie Royale B. Arnold, Oxford, pp. 23–29. Berger, ed. M. Schmidt (AntK-BH de Belgique, Classe des Lettres V série ———. 2002. “Trial by Amazon: 15), Basel, pp. 180–186. 39, pp. 369–392. Thoughts on the First Amazons Koukouli-Chrysanthaki, Ch., M. Sgou- Lacey, W. K. 1986. “Patria Potestas,” in in Greek Art,” in Ancient Journeys: rou, and A. Agelarakis. 1998. “Αρ- Rawson 1986, pp. 121–144. A Festschrift in Honor of Eugene χαιολογικές έρευνες στη νεκρό- Lada-Richards, I. 2002. “‘Foul Monster Numa Lane, ed. C. Callaway (Stoa πολη της Αρχαίας Θάσου: 1979– or Good Saviour’? Reflections on Consortium; available at http:// 1996,” AEMTh 10B (1996), Ritual Monsters,” in Monsters and www.stoa.org/Lane). pp. 769–794. Monstrosity in Greek and Roman ———. 2005. “Views of Wealth, a Kourou, N. 1987. “Ρόα Γλυκεῖα,” in Culture, ed. C. Atherton, Bari, Wealth of Views: Grave Goods in ΕΙΛΑΠΙΝΗ: Τόμος Τιμητικὸς γιὰ pp. 41–82. Iron Age Attica,” in Women and τὸν Καθηγητὴ Νικόλαο Πλάτωνα, Laes, C. 2004. “Children and Accidents Property in Ancient Near Eastern and ed. L. Kastrinaki, G. Orphanou, in Roman Antiquity,” Ancient Society Mediterranean Societies, ed. D. Lyons and N. Giannadakis, Herakleion, 34, pp. 153–170. and R. Westbrook, Washington, D.C. pp. 101–116. ———. 2006. Kinderen bij de Romeinen: (Center for Hellenic Studies; avail- Kozloff, A. P., and B. M. Bryan. 1992. Zes Eeuwen Dajelijks Leuen, Leuven. able at http://www.chs.harvard.edu/ Egypt’s Dazzling Sun: Amenhotep III Laffineur, R. 2000. “Dress, Hair Style, activities_events.sec/conferences. and His World, Cleveland. and Jewellery in the Thera Wall ssp/conference_women_property.pg). 400 ref erence s

———. 2006. “Maiden Voyage: From ———. 1999. Néotês: Recherches sur les Lomas, K., ed. 2004. Greek Identity in Abduction to Marriage in Late jeunes Grecs dans l’Égypte ptolémaïque the Western Mediterranean: Papers in Geometric Art,” in Pictorial Pur- et romaine, Geneva. Honour of Brian Shefton, Leiden. suits: Figurative Painting on Myce- LeMoine, F. J. 1996. “Jerome’s Gift to Long, A. A. 1970. “Morals and Values naean and Geometric Pottery Women Readers,” in Shifting Fron- in Homer,” JHS 90, pp. 121–139. (Acta Instituti Atheniensis Regni tiers in Late Antiquity, ed. R. W. Lonsdale, S. H. 1993. Dance and Ritual Sueciae), ed. E. Rystedt and Mathisen and H. S. Sivan, Alder- Play in Greek Religion, Baltimore. B. Wells, Athens, pp. 205–215. shot, pp. 230–241. Lorimer, H. L. 1947. “The Hoplite Langlotz, E., and M. Hirmer. 1968. Lepper, F., and S. Frere. 1988. Trajan’s Phalanx,” BSA 42, pp. 76–138. L’arte della Magna Grecia, Rome. Column, Gloucester. ———. 1950. Homer and the Monu- Laqueur, T. 1990. Making Sex: Body Leppert, R. 1996. Art and the Com- ments, London. and Gender from the Greeks to Freud, mitted Eye: The Cultural Function of Lubin, D. M. 2003. Shooting Kennedy: Cambridge, Mass. Imagery, Boulder. JFK and the Culture of Images, Larson, J. 1997. “Handmaidens of Leventi, I. K. 1999–2000. “Οι θεότητες Berkeley. Artemis?” CJ 92, pp. 249–257. του κύκλου του Ασκληπιού ως Lucy, S. J. 1994. “Children in Medieval ———. 2001. Greek Nymphs: Myth, κουροτρόφοι: οι εικονογραφικές Cemeteries,” Archaeological Review Cult, Lore, Oxford. μαρτυρίες,” Αρχαιογνωσία 10, from Cambridge 13, pp. 21–34. Lattanzi, E. 1968. I rittrati dei cosmeti pp. 87–103. Luni, M., and G. Gori, eds. 1986. nel Museo Nazionale di Atene, Levi, D. 1925–1926. “Le cretule di Il Museo archeologico di Urbino 1: Rome. Haghia Triada,” ASAtene 8–9, Storia e presentazione delle Collezioni Laurence, P. 1998. “Ivresse et luxure pp. 71–156. Fabretti e Stoppani, Urbino. féminines: Les sources classiques de ———. 1947. Antioch Mosaic Pave- Lyman, R. 1974. “Barbarism and Reli- Jérome,” Latomus 57, pp. 885–899. ments, Princeton. gion,” in DeMause 1974a, pp. 75– Lazos, C. D. 2002. Παíζοντας στο Levine, M. M. 1995. “The Gendered 100. χρόνο: Αρχαιοελληνικά και Grammar of Ancient Mediter- Lynn-George, M. 1988. Epos: Word, βυζαντινά παιχνíδια 1700 π.Χ.– ranean Hair,” in Off with Her Narrative, and the Iliad, Basingstoke. 1500 μ.Χ., Athens. Head! The Denial of Women’s Iden- ———. 1996. “Structures of Care in Leader, R. E. 1997. “In Death Not tity in Myth, Religion, and Culture, the Iliad,” CQ 46, pp. 1–26. Divided: Gender, Family, and State ed. H. Eilberg-Schwartz and MacCary, W. T. 1982. Childlike Achilles: on Classical Athenian Grave Ste- W. Doniger, Berkeley, pp. 76–130. Ontogeny and Phylogeny in the Iliad, lae,” AJA 101, pp. 683–699. Linfert, A. 1967. “Die Deutung des New York. Lebessi, A. 1996. “The Relations of Xenokrateiareliefs,” AM 82, Maccoby, E., and C. Jacklin. 1974. Crete and Euboea in the Tenth and pp. 149–157. The Psychology of Sex Differences, Ninth Centuries b.c.: The Lefkandi Lissarague, F. 1993. “On the Wildness Stanford. Centaur and His Predecessors,” in of Satyrs,” in The Masks of Dionysos, MacGillivray, J. A., J. M. Driessen, Minotaur and Centaur: Studies in ed. T. H. Carpenter and C. A. Fara- and L. H. Sackett, eds. 2000. The the Archaeology of Crete and Euboea one, Ithaca, pp. 207–220. Palaikastro Kouros: A Minoan Chry- Presented to Mervyn Popham, Liston, M. 1993. “The Human Skeletal selephantine Statuette and Its Aegean ed. D. Evely, I. S. Lemos, and Remains from Kavousi, Crete: Bronze Age Context (BSA Studies 6), S. Sherratt, Oxford, pp. 146–154. A Bioarchaeological Analysis” (diss. London. Ledermann, S. 1969. Nouvelles tables- Univ. of Tennessee, Knoxville). Macleod, C. W. 1982. Homer, Iliad, types de mortalité (Institut national Liston, M. A., and J. K. Papadopoulos. Book xxiv, Cambridge. d’études démographiques: Travaux 2004. “The ‘Rich Athenian Lady’ Macmullen, R. 1980. “Women in Pub- et documents cahier 53), Paris. Was Pregnant: The Anthropology lic in the Roman Empire,” Historia Le Dinahet, M.-T. 2001. “L’image de of a Geometric Tomb Reconsid- 29, pp. 208–218. l’enfance à l’époque hellénistique: ered,” Hesperia 73, pp. 7–38. Mahaffy, J. P. 1896. Greek Life and La valeur de l’exemple délien,” in Little, L. M. 1999. “Babies in Well Thought from the Death of Alexander Les pierres de l’offrande: Autour de G5:3: Preliminary Results and to the Roman Conquest, 2nd ed., l’oeuvre de Christoph W. Clairmont, Future Analysis,” AJA 103, p. 284 London. ed. G. Hoffmann, Zurich, pp. 90– (abstract). Mainoldi, C. 1987. “Sonno e morte in 106. Livingston, M. C. 1984. The Child as Grecia antica,” in Rappresentazioni Lee, M. 2000. “The Gendered Mean- Poet: Myth or Reality? Boston. della morte, ed. R. Raffaelli, Urbino, ing of the Early Classical Peplos,” Llewellyn-Jones, L. J. 2003. Aphrodite’s pp. 9–46. AJA 104, pp. 355–356. Tortoise: The Veiled Women of Ancient Maischberger, M., et al. 2002. Die Legras, B. 1998. Éducation et culture Greece, Swansea. griechische Klassik: Idee oder Wirklich- dans le monde grec: VIII e–I er siècle Lloyd-Jones, H. 1983. “Artemis and keit (exhibition catalogue, Martin- av. J.-C., Paris. Iphigeneia,” JHS 103, pp. 87–102. Gropius-Bau, Berlin and Kunst und ref erence s 401

Ausstellungshalle der Bundesrepub- Mistress of Animals in Early Greek McGeorge, P. J. P. 1988. “Health and lik Deutschland, Bonn), Mainz. Religion, London. Diet in Minoan Times,” in New Makaronas, C., and E. Gioure. 1989. ———. 2000b. “The Arkteia and the Aspects of Archaeological Science in Οἱ Οἰκίες Ἁρπαγῆς τῆς Ἑλένης καὶ Gradual Transformation of the Greece (Occasional Paper 3 of the Διονύσου τῆς Πέλλας (Βιβλιοθήκη Maiden into a Woman,” in Le orse Fitch Laboratory, British School at τῆς ἐν Ἀθήναις Ἀρχαιολογικῆς di Brauron: Un rituale di iniziazione Athens), ed. R. E. Jones and H. W. Ἑταιρείας 109), Athens. femminile nel santuario di Artemide,” Catling, Athens, pp. 47–54. Malama, P., and S. Triantaphyllou. ed. B. Gentile and F. Perusino, Pisa, McNiven, T. J. 1982. “Gestures in 2003. “Ανθρωπολογικές πληρο- pp. 29–42. Attic Vase Painting” (diss. Univ. of φορίες από το Ανατολικό Νεκρο- Marinatos, S. 1971. Life and Art in Michigan). ταφείο της Αμφίπολης,” AEMTh 15 Prehistoric Thera (Proceedings of the ———. 1995. “The Unheroic Penis: (2001), pp. 127–136. British Academy 57), London. Otherness Exposed,” Source 15, Mallegni, F., G. Fornaciari, and N. Ta- Marinatos, S., and M. Hirmer. 1960. pp. 10–16. rabella. 1980. “Studio antropologico Crete and Mycenae, New York. ———. 2000a. “Fear and Gender in dei resti scheletrici della necropoli Marinescu, C. A., S. E. Cox, and Greek Art,” in Reading the Body, dei Monterozzi (Tarquinia),” Atti R. Wachter. 2005. “Walking and ed. A. Rautman, Philadelphia, della Società Toscana di Scienze Talking among Us: Personifications pp. 124–131. Naturali, Memorie, ser. B, vol. 86, in a Group of Late Antique Mo- ———. 2000b. “Behaving Like an pp. 185–221. saics,” in Actes du IX e Colloque inter- Other: Telltale Gestures in Athe- Manning, S. 1999. A Test of Time: The national pour l’étude de la mosaïque nian Vase Painting,” in B. Cohen Volcano of Thera and the Chronology antique et médiévale, ed. H. Morlier, 2000, pp. 71–97. and History of the Aegean and East Rome, pp. 1269–1277. McWilliam, J. 2001. “Children among Mediterranean in the Mid-Second Marrou, H. 1956. A History of Educa- the Dead: The Influence of Urban Millennium B.C., Oxford. tion in Antiquity, trans. G. Lamb, Life on the Commemoration of Mansfield, J. M. 1985. “The Robe New York. Children on Tombstone Inscrip- of Athena and the Panathenaic Marx, F. 1885. “Dioskurenartige Gott tions,” in Dixon 2001b, pp. 74–98. ‘Peplos’ ” (diss. Univ. of California, heiten,” AM 10, pp. 81–91. ———. 2003. “Images, Society, and Berkeley). Mastronarde, D. J. 1994. Phoenissae/ Roman Culture: The Representation Manson, M. 1983. “The Emergence Euripides, Cambridge. of Children in the Early Empire” of the Small Child in Rome (Third Matheson, S. B. 1995. Polygnotos and (diss. Cambridge Univ.). Century b.c.–First Century a.d.),” Vase Painting in Classical Athens, Mealey, L. 2000. Sex Differences: Devel- History of Education 12, pp. 149– Madison. opment and Evolutionary Strategies, 159. Mattusch, C. C., A. A. Donohue, and San Diego. Marconi, P. 1929. Agrigento: Topografia A. Brauer, eds. 2006. Common Megaw, A. H. S. 1967. “Archaeology in ed arte, Florence. Ground: Archaeology, Art, Science, and Greece, 1966–67,” AR 13, pp. 3–24. Marinatos, N. 1984a. Art and Religion Humanities. The Proceedings of the Meritt, B. D. 1954. “Greek Inscrip- in Thera: Reconstructing a Bronze Age 16th International Congress of Clas- tions,” Hesperia 23, pp. 233–283. Society, Athens. sical Archaeology, Oxford. ———. 1957. “Greek Inscriptions,” ———. 1984b. “The Date-Palm in Maxmin, J. 1973. “A Note on Praxiteles’ Hesperia 26, pp. 24–97. Minoan Iconography and Religion,” ‘Sauroktonos,’ ” GaR, n.s. 20, Mertens, J. 1987. The Metropolitan OpAth 15, pp. 115–122. pp. 36–37. Museum of Art: Greece and Rome, ———. 1987. “An Offering of Saffron Mayo, M. E., ed. 1982. The Art of South New York. to the Minoan Goddess of Nature,” Italy: Vases from Magna Graecia, an Michaelis, T. 1986. Der romantische in Gifts to the Gods, ed. T. Linders Exhibition, Richmond. Kindheitsmythos: Kindheitsdarstel- and G. C. Nordquist, Uppsala, Mazarakis Ainian, A. 1996. “Ανασκαφή lungen der französischen Literatur von pp. 123–132. Σκάλας Ωρωπού (1985–87, 1996),” Rousseau bis zum Ende der Romantik, ———. 1993. Minoan Religion: Ritual, Prakt 1996, pp. 21–124. Frankfurt. Image, and Symbol, Columbia. ———. 1997. From Rulers’ Dwellings to Mikalson, J. 1998. Religion in Hellenistic ———. 1995. “Formalism and Gender Temples: Architecture, Religion, and Athens, Berkeley. Roles: A Comparison of Minoan Society in Early Iron Age Greece (1100 Milam, J. 2002. “Sex Education and the and Egyptian Art,” in POLITEIA: –700 B.C.) (SIMA 125), Jonsered. Child: Gendering Erotic Response Society and State in the Aegean Bronze ———. 2002. “Recent Excavations at in Eighteenth-Century France,” in Age (Aegaeum 12), ed. R. Laffineur Oropos,” in Excavating Classical Constructions of Childhood between and W.-D. Niemeier, Liège, Culture: Recent Archaeological Discov- Rousseau and Freud, ed. M. R. pp. 577–585. eries in Greece, ed. M. Stamatopou- Brown, Aldershot, pp. 45–58. ———. 2000a. The Goddess and the lou and M. Yeroulanou, Oxford, Miles, D., ed. 1986. Archaeology at Warrior: The Naked Goddess and pp. 149–178. Barton Court Farm, Abingdon, Oxon 402 ref erence s

(Council for British Archaeology Moraw, S. 1998. Die Mänade in der Münz, F. R. 1970. “Die Zahnfunde Research Report 50), Oxford. attischen Vasenmalerei des 6. und 5. aus der griechischen Nekropole von Militello, P. 1998. Haghia Triada 1: Jahrhunderts v. Chr. Rezeptionsästhe- Pithekoussai auf Ischia,” AA 1970, Gli affreschi, Padua. tische Analyse eines antiken Weiblich- pp. 452–475. Miller, P. D. 1993. “The Blazing Body: keitsentwurfes, Mainz. Murail, P., and L. Girard. 2000. “Biol- Ascetic Desire in Jerome’s Letter Morgan, C., and T. Whitelaw. 1991. ogy and Burial Practices from the to Eustochium,” Journal of Early “Pots and Politics: Ceramic Evi- End of the First Century a.d. to the Christian Studies 1, pp. 21–45. dence for the Rise of the Argive Beginning of the Fifth Century a.d.: Millingen, J. 1817. Peintures antiques de State,” AJA 95, pp. 79–108. The Rural Necropolis of Chantam- vases grecs de la collection de Sir John Morgan, L. 1988. The Miniature Wall bre (Essone, France),” in Burial, Coghill, Bart., Rome. Paintings of Thera: A Study in Ae- Society, and Context in the Roman Mills, S. 1997. Theseus, Tragedy, and the gean Culture and Iconography, Cam- World, ed. J. Pearce, M. Millett, and Athenian Empire, Oxford. bridge. M. Struck, Oxford, pp. 105–111. ———. 2000. “Achilles, Patroklos, and ———. 1995a. “Minoan Painting and Murail, P., B. Maureille, D. Peresinotto, Parental Care in Some Homeric Egypt: The Case of Tell el-Dab’a,” and F. Geus. 2004. “An Infant Similes,” GaR 47, pp. 3–18. in Egypt, the Aegean and the Levant: Cemetery of the Classic Kerma Milner, G. R., J. W. Wood, and J. L. Interconnections in the Second Mil- Period (1750–1500 b.c., Island of Boldsen. 2000. “Paleodemography,” lennium B.C., ed. W. V. Davies and Saï, Sudan),” Antiquity 78, pp. 267– in Biological Anthropology of the L. Schofield, London, pp. 29–53. 277. Human Skeleton, ed. M. A. Katzen- ———. 1995b. “Of Animals and Murnaghan, S. 1992. “Maternity and berg and S. R. Saunders, New York, Men: The Symbolic Parallel,” in Mortality in Homeric Poetry,” pp. 467–497. KLADOS: Essays in Honor of J. N. ClAnt 11, pp. 242–264. Minois, G. 1989. History of Old Age: Coldstream (BICS Suppl. 63), Musgrave, J. 2000. “The Anatomy of a From Antiquity to the Renaissance, ed. C. Morris, London, pp. 171– Minoan Masterpiece,” in MacGil- trans. S. H. Tenison, Chicago. 184. livray, Driessen, and Sackett 2000, Minyard, G. A. 1976. “An Inquiry into ———. 2000. “Form and Meaning in pp. 97–101. the Lexical Meaning and Cultural Figurative Painting,” in Sherratt Mustakallio, K., et al., eds. 2005. Hop- Significance of the wordKomos, 2000, pp. 925–944. ing for Continuity: Childhood, Educa- Komazein in Greece, during the Morgan, T. 1998. Literate Education in tion, and Death in Antiquity and the Classical Period” (diss. Univ. of the Hellenistic and Roman Worlds, Middle Ages (ActaInstRomFin 33), Pennsylvania). Cambridge. Rome. Mitropoulou, E. 1976. Horses’ Heads Morris, I. 1987. Burial and Ancient Muth, R. 1972. “Poeta ludens: Zu einem and Snake in Banquet Reliefs and Society: The Rise of the Greek City- Prinzip der alexandrinisch-helle- Their Meaning, Athens. State, Cambridge. nistischen und der römisch-neoter- ———. 1977. Corpus I: Attic Votive ———. 1992. Death-Ritual and Social ischen Dichtung,” in Serta Philo- Reliefs of the 6th and 5th Centuries B.C., Structure in Classical Antiquity, logica Aenipontana II (Innsbrucker Athens. Cambridge. Beiträge zur Kulturwissenschaft 17), Moggi-Cecchi, J., E. Pacciani, and ———. 1997. “Periodization and the Innsbruck, pp. 65–82. J. Pinto Cisternas. 1994. “Enamel Heroes: Inventing a Dark Age,” Mylona, D. 2000. “The ‘Fishermen’ Hypoplasia and Age at Weaning in Inventing Ancient Culture, Frescoes in the Light of the Fish in 19th-Century Florence, Italy,” ed. M. Golden and P. Toohey, New Bone Evidence,” in Sherratt 2000, American Journal of Physical Anthro- York, pp. 96–131. pp. 561–567. pology 93, pp. 299–306. Morris, S. P. 1984. The Black and White Mylonas, G. E. 1975. Το Δυτικόν Moon, W., ed. 1983. Ancient Greek Art Style: Athens and Aigina in the Orien- Νεκροταφείον της Ελευσίνος Bʹ, and Iconography, Madison. talizing Period, New Haven. Athens. Moore, J., and E. Scott, eds. 1997. In- Most, G. W. 2000. “Generating ———. 1983. Mycenae Rich in Gold, visible People and Processes: Writing Genres: The Idea of the Tragic,” Athens. Gender and Childhood into European in Matrices of Genre: Authors, Can- Nadeau, Y. 1987. “Aenigma, an elo- Archaeology, London. ons, and Society, ed. M. Depew quens structura? Hor. c. 1.23 (vitas Moorees, C. F. A., E. A. Fanning, and and D. Obbink, Cambridge, Mass., inuleo),” Latomus 46, pp. 778–780. E. E. Hunt. 1963a. “Age Variation pp. 15–35. Napier, A. D. 1986. Masks, Transforma- of Formation Stages for Ten Per- Müller, C. 1990. Kindheit und Jugend in tion, and Paradox, Berkeley. manent Teeth,” Journal of Dental der griechischen Frühzeit: Eine Studie Nathan, G. S. 2000. The Family in Late Research 42, pp. 1490–1501. zur pädagogischen Bedeutung von Antiquity: The Rise of Christianity ———. 1963b. “Formation and Re- Riten und Kulten, Giessen. and the Endurance of Tradition, New sorption of Three Deciduous Teeth Müller, V. 1921. “Gewandschemata der York. in Children,” American Journal of archaischen Kunst,” AM 46, pp. 36– Natov, R. 2003. The Poetics of Childhood, Physical Anthropology 21, pp. 205–213. 69. New York. ref erence s 403

Neils, J. 1987. The Youthful Deeds of mer and H. D. Szemethy, Vienna, Onians, J. 1999. Classical Art and the Theseus, Rome. pp. 37–43. Cultures of Greece and Rome, New ———, ed. 1992. Goddess and Polis: Nünlist, R. 1998. Poetologische Bilder- Haven. The Panathenaic Festival in Ancient sprache in der frühgriechischen Dich- Orme, N. 2001. Medieval Children, Athens, Hanover. tung, Stuttgart. New Haven. ———. 2003. “Children and Greek Oakley, A. 1994. “Women and Chil- O’Roark, D. 1999. “Parenthood in Late Religion,” in Neils and Oakley dren First and Last: Parallels and Antiquity: The Evidence of Chryso- 2003, pp. 139–161. Differences between Children’s stom,” GRBS 40, pp. 53–81. Neils, J., and J. H. Oakley, eds. 2003. and Women’s Studies,” in Children’s Orphanou, V. 2000. “Οδός Κοραή 10 Coming of Age in Ancient Greece: Childhoods: Observed and Experi- και Πανεπιστημίου,” ArchDelt 50, Images of Childhood from the Classical enced, ed. B. Mayall, London, B΄1 (1995), pp. 36–39. Past (exhibition catalogue, Hood pp. 13–32. Orton, C. R., and F. R. Hodson. 1981. Museum of Art 2003), New Haven. Oakley, J. H. 2000. “Some ‘Other’ “Rank and Class: Interpreting the Néraudau, J.-P. 1984. Étre enfant à Members of the Athenian House- Evidence from Prehistoric Ceme- Rome, Paris. hold: Maids and Their Mistresses teries,” in Mortality and Immortality: Neumann. G. 1965. Gesten und Gebärden in Fifth-century Athenian Art,” in The Anthropology and Archaeology in der griechischen Kunst, Berlin. Cohen 2000, pp. 227–247. of Death, ed. S. C. Humphreys and ———. 1979. Probleme des griechischen ———. 2003. “Death and the Child,” H. King, London, pp. 103–115. Weihreliefs (Tübingen Studien zur in Neils and Oakley 2003, pp. 163– Osborne, R. 1996. “Desiring Women Archäologie und Kunstgeschichte 194. on Athenian Pottery,” in Sexuality in 3), Tübingen. Oakley, J. H., and R. Sinos. 1993. Ancient Art: Near East, Egypt, Greece, Neutsch, B. 1956. “Archäologische The Wedding in Ancient Athens, and Italy, ed. N. Kampen, Cam- Grabungen und Funden im Bereich Madison. bridge, pp. 65–80. der unteritalischen Soprintendenzen Oehler, H. 1980. Foto & Skulptur: ———. 2001. “Why Did Athenian von Tarent, Reggio di Calabria und Römische Antiken in englischen Pots Appeal to the Etruscans?” Salerno (1949–1955),” AA 1956, Schlössern, Cologne. WorldArch 33, pp. 277–295. pp. 193–450. Oesterle, G., ed. 1997. Jugend-Ein Pache, C. O. 2004. Baby and Child Nicholls, R. V. 1952. “Type, Group, and romantisches Konzept? Würzburg. Heroes in Ancient Greece, Urbana. Series: A Reconsideration of Some Ogden, D. 1996. Greek Bastardy in Padgett, J. M. 2000. “The Stable Hands Coroplastic Fundamentals,” BSA 47, the Classical and Hellenistic Periods, of Dionysos: Satyrs and Donkeys as pp. 217–226. Oxford. Symbols of Social Marginalization Nielsen, M. 1993. “Cultural Orienta- Ogle, M. 1933. “The Sleep of Death,” in Attic Vase Painting,” in Cohen tions in Etruria in the Hellenistic MAAR 11, pp. 81–117. 2000, pp. 43–70. Period: Greek Myths and Local Ohly-Dumm, M. 1975. “Berichte: ———. 2001. Roman Sculpture in the Motifs on Volterran Urn Reliefs,” in Glyptothek und Antikensamm Art Museum, Princeton University, Aspects of Hellenism in Italy: Towards lungen,” MüJb 26, pp. 211–216. Princeton. a Cultural Unity? (Acta Hyperborea Olsen, B. 1998. “Women, Children Padgett, J. M., et al. 2003. The Centaur’s 5), ed. P. Guldager, I. Nielsen, and and the Family in the Late Aegean Smile: The Human Animal in Early M. Nielsen, Copenhagen, pp. 319– Bronze Age: Differences in Minoan Greek Art (exhibition catalogue, 357. and Mycenaean Constructions of Princeton University Art Museum), Niemeier, W.-D. 1992. “Iconography Gender,” WorldArch 29, pp. 380– New Haven. and Context: The Thera Frescoes,” 392. Paglieri, S. 1960. “Una stipe votiva vul- in Laffineur and Crowley 1992, Olsen, K. 2002. “Matrona and Whore: cente,” RivIstArch 18, pp. 74–96. pp. 97–104. The Clothing of Roman Women,” Paine, R. R. 1997a. “The Need for a Nilsson, M. P. 1950. The Minoan-Myce- Fashion Theory 6, pp. 387–420. Multidisciplinary Approach to Pre- naean Religion and Its Survival in Olynthus = Excavations at Olynthus, historic Demography,” in Integrating Greek Religion, 2nd ed., Lund. Baltimore. Archaeological Demography: Multi- Nock, A. D. 1972. “The Lizard in IV = D. M. Robinson, The Terra- disciplinary Approaches to Prehistoric Magic and Religion,” in Essays cottas of Olynthus Found in 1928, Population, ed. R. R. Paine, Carbon- on Religion and the Ancient World, 1931. dale, pp. 1–18. ed. Z. Stewart, Cambridge, Mass., VII = D. M. Robinson, The ———. 1997b. “Uniformitarian Models pp. 271–276. Terracottas of Olynthus Found in in Osteological Paleodemography,” Nosch, M.-L. 2001. “Kinderarbeit in 1931, 1933. in Integrating Archaeological Demog- der mykenischen Palastzeit,” in XI = D. M. Robinson, Necrolyn- raphy: Multidisciplinary Approaches Akten des 8: Österreichischen Archäolo- thia, 1942. to Prehistoric Population, ed. R. R. gentages am Institut für Klassische XIV = D. M. Robinson, Terra- Paine, Carbondale, pp. 191–204. Archäologie der Universität Wien vom cottas, Lamps, and Coins Found in Pairault-Massa, F.-H. 1992. Iconologia 23. bis 25. April 1999, ed. F. Blakol- 1934 and 1938, 1952. e politica nell’Italia antica: Roma, 404 ref erence s

Lazio, Etruria dal VII al I secolo a.C., ———. 2003. Old Age in the Roman Aufsätze und Vorträge zur griechischen Milan. World: A Cultural and Social History, Dichtung und zum Humanismus, Palagia, O. 1980. Euphranor, Leiden. Baltimore. ed. W. Bühler, Munich, pp. 148–158 ———. 2000. “A Gymnasiarch’s Dedi- Parlama, L., and Ch. Stambolides. (originally published in JHS 75, cation and the Panathenaic Torch- 2000. Η Πόλη κάτω από την Πόλη, 1955, pp. 69–73). Race,” BCH Suppl. 38, pp. 403–408. Athens. Pierce, K. 1998. “Ideals of Masculinity Palagia, O., and D. M. Lewis. 1989. Patrianakou-Iliaki, A. 1996. “An Ivory in New Comedy,” in Thinking Men: “The Ephebes of Erechtheis, 333/2 Mirror Handle from Asine,” in Masculinity and Its Self-Representa- b.c. and Their Dedication,” BSA 84, Atti e memorie del secondo congresso tion in the Classical Tradition (Not- pp. 333–344. internazionale di Micenologia, Roma- tingham Studies in Ancient Society Panetta, M. R. 2004. Pompeii: The His- Napoli, 14–20 ottobre, 1991, Rome, 7), ed. L. Foxhall and J. Salmon, tory, Life, and Art of the Buried City, pp. 1273–1280. London, pp. 130–147. Vercelli. Patterson, C. B. 1998. The Family in Pietsch, C. 1999. Die Argonautika Papadopoulos, J. K. 2000. “Skeletons Greek History, Cambridge, Mass. des Apollonios von Rhodos: Unter- in Wells: Towards an Archaeology Pautasso, A. 1994. Il deposito votivo suchungen zum Problem der einheit- of Social Exclusion in the Ancient presso la Porta Nord a Vulci, Rome. lichen Konzeption des Inhalts, Stutt- Greek World,” in Madness, Disabil- Pedley, J. G. 1990. Paestum: Greeks gart. ity, and Social Exclusion: The Archae- and Romans in Southern Italy, Plotz, J. 2001. Romanticism and the ology and Anthropology of “Difference,” New York. Vocation of Childhood, New York. ed. J. Hubert, London, pp. 96–118. Pedley, J. G., and M. Torelli. 1993. The PM = The Palace of Minos at Knossos, Papadopoulos, J. K., and E. L. Smith- Sanctuary of Santa Venera at Paestum London. son. 2002. “The Cultural Biography 1, Rome. I = A. Evans, The Palace of Minos of a Cycladic Geometric Amphora: Peirce, S. 1998. “Visual Language and at Knossos, 1921. Islanders in Athens and the Pre- Concepts of Cult on the ‘Lenaia II = A. Evans, The Palace of history of Metics,” Hesperia 71, Vases,’ ” ClAnt 17, pp. 59–95. Minos at Knossos, 1928. pp. 149–199. Pélékidis, C. 1962. Histoire de l’éphébie III = A. Evans, The Palace of Papaefthimiou-Papanthimou, A. 1971. attique des origines à 31 avant Jésus- Minos at Knossos, 1930. “Σκεύη και σύνεργα του καλλωπισ- Christ, Paris. Poliakoff, M. 1987. Combat Sports in the μού στον κρητομυκηναϊκό χώρο” Pendlebury, J. D. S. 1930. Aegyptiaca: Ancient World, New Haven. (diss. Aristotle Univ., Thessaloniki). A Catalogue of Egyptian Objects in Polinskaya, I. 2003. “Liminality as Met- Papageorgiou, I. 2000. “On the Rites de the Aegean Area, Cambridge. aphor: Initiation and the Frontiers Passage in Late Cycladic Akrotiri, Peredolskaya, A. 1967. Krasnofigurnye of Ancient Athens,” in Initiation in Thera: A Reconsideration of the attischeskie vasy, Leningrad. Ancient Greek Rituals and Narratives: Frescoes of the ‘Priestess’ and the Perlman, P. 1983. “Plato’s Laws 833C– New Critical Perspectives, ed. D. B. ‘Fishermen’ of the West House,” 834D and the Bears of Brauron,” Dodd and C. A. Faraone, London, in Sherratt 2000, pp. 958–970. GRBS 24, pp. 115–130. pp. 85–106. Papangele, K. 1995. “Οδός Εθνικής Persson, A. 1931. The Royal Tombs at Pollard, J. 1977. Birds in Greek Life and Αντιστάσεως,” ArchDelt 44, B΄1 Dendra near Midea, Lund. Myth, London. (1989), pp. 31–32. ———. 1942. New Tombs at Dendra Pollini, J. 1987. The Portraiture of Gaius ———. 2002. “Οδός Μουρίκη,” και near Midea, Lund. and Lucius Caesar, New York. “Οδός Άρη Βελουχιώτη,” ArchDelt Petersdotter, K.-D. 1996. “Die Geburt ———. 1993. “The Acanthus of the 52, B΄1 (1997), pp. 61–63. der Helena,” in Exempla: Leitbilder Ara Pacis as an Apolline and Dio- Papaoikonomou, I.-D. 2006. “L’inter- zur antiken Kunst, ed. B. Schmaltz, nysiac Symbol of Anamorphosis, prétation des ‘jouets’ trouvés dans Kiel, pp. 102–106. Anakyklosis, and Numen Mixtum,” les tombes d’Abdère,” in Rois, cités, Petersen, J. 1994. “The Education of in Von der Bauforschung zur Denk- nécropoles: Institutions, rites et Girls in Fourth-century Rome,” malpflege: Festschrift für Alois monuments en Macédoine, ed. A.-M. in The Church and Childhood, Machatschek zum 65. Geburtstag, Guimier-Sorbets, M. B. Hatzopou- ed. D. Wood, Oxford, pp. 29–37. ed. M. Kubelík and M. Schwarz, los, and Y. Morizot, Athens, Petrakos, V. Ch. 1999. Ο Δήμος του Vienna, pp. 181–217. pp. 239–248. Ραμνούντος: Σύνοψη των ανα- Pollitt, J. J. 1986. Art in the Hellenistic Papathanasiou, A. 2001. A Bioarchaeo- σκαφών και των ερευνών (1813– Age, Cambridge. logical Analysis of Neolithic Alepo- 1998) 1: Τοπογραφία, Athens. ———. 1987. “Pots, Politics, and Per- trypa Cave, Greece (BAR-IS 961), Petrocheilos, I. E. 2003. “Επιτάφια sonifications in Early Classical Oxford. λήκυθος παιδική,” AAA 2003, Athens,” YaleBull 40, pp. 9–15. Parke, H. W. 1977. Festivals of the pp. 175–180. ———. 2000. “Patriotism and the Athenians, London. Pfeiffer, R. 1960. “The Future of West Pediment of the Parthenon,” Parkin, T. G. 1992. Demography and Studies in the Field of Hellenistic in Tsetskhladze, Prage, and Snod- Roman Society, Baltimore. Poetry,” in Ausgewählte Schriften: grass 2000, pp. 220–227. ref erence s 405

Pollock, L. A. 1983. Forgotten Chil- ———, ed. 1996. I Greci in Occidente, Minor,” in The Coroplast’s Art: Greek dren: Parent-Child Relations from Milan. Terracottas of the Hellenistic World, 1500–1900, Cambridge. Purcell, N. 1995. “Literate Roman ed. J. P. Uhlenbrock, New Rochelle, Poloyiorgi, M. I. 1998. Μνημεία του Games: Roman Urban Society and pp. 81–88. Δυτικού Νεκροταφείου του Ορωπού, the Game of Alea,” PastPres 124, ———, ed. 1995. Pandora: Women in Athens. pp. 3–37. Classical Greece, Princeton. Pomeroy, S. B. 1994. Xenophon’s Oeco- Raepsaet, G., and C. Decocq. 1987. Rehak, P. 1992. “The ‘Genius’ in Late nomicus: A Social and Historical Com- “Deux regards sur l’enfance athéni- Bronze Age Glyptic: The Later mentary, Oxford. enne à l’époque classique,” ÉtCl 55, Evolution of an Aegean Cult Fig- ———. 1997. Families in Classical and pp. 3–15. ure,” in Sceaux minoens et mycéniens Hellenistic Greece: Representations and Raftopoulou, E. G. 2000. Figures enfan- (CMS Beiheft 5), ed. I. Pini and Realities, Oxford. tines du Musée National d’Athènes: J.-C. Poursat, Berlin, pp. 215–231. ———, ed. 1999. Plutarch’s Advice to Département des sculptures, Munich. ———. 1995. “Enthroned Figures in the Bride and Groom and A Conso- Raftopoulou, S. 1998. “New Finds from Aegean Art and the Function of the lation to His Wife, New York. Sparta,” in Sparta in Laconia (BSA Mycenaean Megaron,” in The Role Pontrandolfo, A. G. 1977. “Su alcune Studies 4), ed. W. G. Cavanagh and of the Ruler in the Prehistoric Aegean tombe pestane: Proposta di una let- S. E. C. Walker, pp. 125–140. (Aegaeum 11), ed. P. Rehak, Liège, tura,” MÉFRA 89, pp. 31–98. Rawson, B., ed., 1986. The Family in pp. 95–117. ———. 1979. “Segni di transformazi- Ancient Rome, Ithaca. ———. 1996. “Aegean Breechcloths, oni sociali a Poseidonia tra la fine ———, ed. 1991a. Marriage, Divorce, Kilts, and the Keftiu Paintings,” AJA del V e gli inizi del III sec. a.C.,” and Children in Ancient Rome, 100, pp. 35–51. DialArch 1, pp. 27–50. Oxford. ———. 1997. “The Role of Religious Poole, W. 1990. “Male Homosexuality ———. 1991b. “Adult-Child Relation- Painting in the Function of the in Euripides,” in Euripides, Women, ships in Roman Society,” in Rawson Minoan Villa: The Case of Ayia and Sexuality, ed. A. Powell, Lon- 1991a, pp. 7–30. Triadha,” in The Function of the don, pp. 108–150. ———. 1991c. “Introduction,” in Raw- “Minoan Villa” (SkrAth 4º, 46), ed. Popham, M. R., and I. S. Lemos. 1996. son 1991a, pp. 1–5. R. Hägg, Stockholm, pp. 163–174. Lefkandi 3: The Toumba Cemetery, ———. 1997. “The Iconography of ———. 1999a. “The Aegean Land- London. Childhood,” in Rawson and Weaver scape and the Body: A New Inter- Popham, M. R., and L. H. Sackett. 1979. 1997, pp. 205–232. pretation of the Thera Frescoes,” in Lefkandi 1: The Iron Age, London. ———. 2001. “Children as Cultural From the Ground Up: Beyond Gender Porter, J. R. 2003. “Orestes the Ephebe,” Symbols,” in Dixon 2001b, pp. 21– Theory in Archaeology. Proceedings of in Poetry, Theory, Praxis: The Social 42. the Fifth Gender and Archaeology Life of Myth, Word, and Image: ———. 2003. Children and Childhood Conference, University of Wisconsin- Essays in Honour of William Slater, in Roman Italy, Oxford. Milwaukee, October 1998 (BAR-IS ed. E. Csapo and M. C. Miller, Rawson, B., and P. Weaver, eds. 1997. 812), ed. N. L. Wicker and B. Ar- Oxford, pp. 146–177. The Roman Family in Italy: Status, nold, Oxford, pp. 11–22. Postlethwaite, N. 1998. “Akhilleus and Sentiment, Space, Oxford. ———. 1999b. “The Construction of Agamemnon: Generalized Reci- Rebenich, S. 2002. Jerome (The Early Gender in Late Bronze Age Aegean procity,” in Reciprocity in Ancient Church Fathers), London. Art: A Prolegomenon,” in Redefining Greece, ed. C. Gill, N. Postlethwaite, Reber, K. 1991. Untersuchungen zur Archaeology: Feminist Perspectives, and R. Seaford, Oxford, pp. 93– handgemachten Keramik Griechen- ed. M. Casey, D. Donlon, J. Hope, 104. lands in der submykenischen, proto- and S. Wellfare, Canberra, pp. 191– Poursat, J.-C. 1977. Catalogue des geometrischen und der geometrischen 198. ivoires mycéniens du Musée Nationale Zeit (SIMA-PB 105), Jonsered. ———. 1999c. “The Mycenaean War- d’Athènes, Athens. Redfield, J. M. 1975. Nature and Cul- rior Goddess Revisited,” in POLE- Prayon, F. 1975. Frühetruskische Grab- ture in the Iliad: The Tragedy of Hec- MOS: Le contexte guerrier en Égée und Hausarchitektur, Heidelberg. tor, Chicago. à l’Age du Bronze (Aegaeum 19), Price, T. H. 1978. Kourotrophos: Cults Reece, R. 1995. “Bones, Bangles, and ed. R. Laffineur, Liège, pp. 227–239. and Representations of the Greek Barbarians: Towards the Perfect ———. 2002. “Imag(in)ing a Women’s Nursing Deities, Leiden. Cemetery Report,” Antiquity 69, World in Prehistoric Greece: The Pritchard, J. B., ed. 1975. The Ancient pp. 414–417. Frescoes from Xeste 3 at Akrotiri,” Near East 2: A New Anthology of ———. 2001. “Afterword,” in Burial, in Among Women: From the Homo- Texts and Pictures, Princeton. Society, and Context, ed. J. Pearce, social to the Homoerotic in the Ancient Prückner, H. 1968. Die lokrischen Ton M. Millett, and M. Struck, Oxford, World, ed. N. Rabinowitz and reliefs, Mainz. pp. 270–272. L. Auanger, Austin, pp. 34–59. Pugliese Carratelli, G., ed. 1985–1990. Reeder, E. D. 1990. “Some Hellenistic ———. 2004. “Crocus Costumes in Magna Grecia, 4 vols., Milan. Terracottas and Sculpture in Asia Aegean Art,” in ΧΑΡΙΣ: Essays 406 ref erence s

in Honor of Sara A. Immerwahr Ridgway, D. 1992. The First Western Christian Traditions, ed. R. Ruether, (Hesperia Suppl. 33), ed. A. P. Greeks, Cambridge. New York, pp. 150–183. Chapin, Princeton, pp. 85–100. Rizzo, G. E. 1929. La pittura ellenistico- Rühfel, H. 1984a. Das Kind in der Rehak, P., and R. R. Snihurowych. romana, Milan. griechischen Kunst: Von der minoisch- 1997. “Is Female to Male as Nature ———. 1932. Prassitele, Milan mykenischen Zeit bis zum Hellenismus Is to Culture? Medicine, Myth, and Robins, G. 1994. Proportion and Style in (Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Welt Matriarchy in the Thera Frescoes,” Ancient Egyptian Art, Austin. 18), Mainz. American Philological Association ———. 1997. The Art of Ancient Egypt, ———. 1984b. Kinderleben im klassi- Abstracts of Papers Presented at the Cambridge, Mass. schen Athen: Bilder auf klassischen One Hundred Twenty-Ninth Annual Roccos, L. J. 1995. “The Kanephoros Vasen (Kulturgeschichte der Antiken Meeting, p. 180. and Her Festival Mantle in Greek Welt 19), Mainz. Rehak, P., and J. G. Younger. 1998. “In- Art,” AJA 99, pp. 641–666. ———. 1988. “Ammen und Kinder- ternational Styles in Ivory Carving ———. 2000. “Back-Mantle and Pep- frauen im klassischen Athen,” AntW in the Bronze Age,” in The Aegean los: The Special Costume of Greek 19, pp. 43–57. and the Orient in the Second Millen- Maidens in 4th-Century Funerary Ruppenstein, F. 1999. “Geschlechts nium (Aegaeum 18), ed. E. H. Cline and Votive Reliefs,” Hesperia 69, spezifische Beigabenkombinationen and D. Harris-Cline, Liège, pp. 235–265. in der submykenischen Kerameikos- pp. 229–255. Rombos, T. 1988. The Iconography of Nekropole,” AM 114, pp. 12–28. Reinhold, M. 1970. “The Generation Attic Late Geometric II Pottery Russell, J. C. 1958. Late Ancient and Gap in Antiquity,” PAPS 114, (SIMA-PB 68), Jonsered. Medieval Population (TAPS 48:3), pp. 347–365. Romiopoulou, K. 1997. Ελληνορω- Philadelphia. Reinsberg, C. 1989. Ehe, Hetärentum μαϊκά γλυπτά του Εθνικού Αρχαιο- Rutter, J. 2003. “Children in Aegean und Knabenliebe im antiken Griechen λογικού Μουσείου, Athens. Prehistory,” in Neils and Oakley land, Munich. Romiopoulou, K., and I. Touratsoglou. 2003, pp. 31–57. Renfrew, C. 1985. The Archaeology of 2002. Μίεζα: Νεκροταφείο υστερο- Ryberg, I. S. 1955. Rites of the State Cult: The Sanctuary of Phylakopi, αρχαϊκών-πρώιμων ελληνιστικών Religion in Roman Art, Rome. London. χρόνων, Athens. ———. 1967. Panel Reliefs of Marcus Renfrew, C., and E. B. W. Zubrow, eds. Rose, C. B. 1993. “Princes and Barbar- Aurelius, New York. 1994. The Ancient Mind: Elements of ians on the Ara Pacis,” in Roman Sabetai, V. 2000. “Παιδικές ταφές Cognitive Archaeology, Cambridge. Art in Context, ed. E. D’Ambra, Ακραιφίας,” in Επετηρίς της Εται- Ricciardi, L. 1989. “Canino (Viterbo): Englewood Cliffs, pp. 53–74. ρείας Βοιωτικών Μελετών, Τόμος Γ΄, Il santuario di Fontanile di Legni- ———. 1997. Dynastic Commemoration Τεύχος α΄, Athens, pp. 494–535. sina a Vulci: Relazione delle cam- and Imperial Portraiture in the Julio- Sakellarakis, Y. 1979. “Sport in Crete pagne di scavo 1985 e 1986: L’altare Claudian Period, Cambridge. and Mycenae,” in The Eternal Olym- monumentale e il deposito votivo,” Rose, M. 1994. “With Line and Glit- pics: The Art and History of Sport, NSc (1988–1989), pp. 137–209. tering Bronze Hook: Fishing in the ed. N. Yalouris, New York, pp. 13– Richardson, B. E. 1933. Old Age among Aegean Bronze Age” (diss. Indiana 23. the Ancient Greeks, Baltimore. Univ.). Sakellarakis, Y., and E. Sakellarakis. Richter, G. M. A. 1943. “A Bronze Rossi, L. 1972. Trajan’s Column and the 1997. Archanes: Minoan Crete in a Eros,” AJA 47, pp. 365–378. Dacian Wars, London. New Light, Athens. Richter, G. M. A., and L. Hall. 1936. ———. 1997. “A Synoptic Outlook Saliora-Oikonomakou, M. 1999. Red-figured Athenian Vases, New on the Adamklissi Metopes and “Τμήμα Νεκροταφείου της Αρχαίας Haven. Trajan’s Column Frieze: Factual Χαλκίδας,” ArchEph 1999, pp. 219– Ridgway, B. S. 1972. Catalogue of the and Fanciful Topics Revisited,” 239. Classical Collection, Museum of Art, Athenaeum 85, pp. 471–486. Saller, R. P. 1984. “Familia, domus, and Rhode Island School of Design: Classi- Rotroff, S. I. 1999. “The Artifacts from the Roman Conception of Family,” cal Sculpture, Providence. Well G5:3 and Some Conclusions Phoenix 38, pp. 336–355. ———. 1981. Fifth Century Styles in Concerning the Deposit,” AJA 103, ———. 1991. “Corporal Punishment, Greek Sculpture, Princeton. pp. 284–285 (abstract). Authority, and Obedience in the ———. 1989. “Leto and the Children,” Rouse, W. H. D. 1902. Greek Votive Roman Household,” in Rawson Anadolu 22 (Festschrift E. Akurgal 2) Offerings, Cambridge. 1991a, pp. 144–165. (1981–1983), pp. 99–109. Rousseau, J.-J. 1762. Émile, ou De l’édu- ———. 1994. Patriarchy, Property, ———. 1990. Hellenistic Sculpture 1: cation, 4 vols., Paris. and Death in the Roman Family, The Styles of ca. 331–200 B.C., Ruether, R. 1974. “Misogynism and Cambridge. Madison. Virginal Feminism in the Fathers of Saller, R. P., and B. D. Shaw. 1984. ———. 2002. Hellenistic Sculpture 3: The the Church,” in Religion and Sexism: “Tombstones and Roman Family Styles of ca. 100–31 B.C., Madison. Images of Woman in the Jewish and Relations in the Principate: Civil- ref erence s 407

ians, Soldiers, and Slaves,” JRS 74, 10. bis zum Ende des 4. Jhs. v. Chr., Sebesta, J., and L. Bonfante, eds. pp. 124–156. Frankfurt. 1994. The World of Roman Costume, Salzman, M. R. 1990. On Roman Time, Schiller, F. 1962. “Über naive und sen- Madison. Berkeley. timentalische Dichtung,” in Schillers Séchan, L. 1967. Études sur la tragédie Sande, S. 1999. “Famous Persons as Werke: Nationalausgabe, Zwanzigster grecque dans ses rapports avec la Bringers of Good Luck,” in The Band: Philosophische Schriften: Erster céramique, 2nd ed., Paris. World of Ancient Magic, ed. D. R. Teil, ed. B. von Wiese, Weimar, Serbin, L. A., D. Poulin-Dubois, K. A. Jordan, H. Montgomery, and pp. 413–503. Colburne, M. G. Sen, and J. A. E. Thomassen, Athens, pp. 227– ———. 1981. On the Naive and Senti- Eichstedt. 2001. “Gender Stereotyp- 238. mental in Literature, trans. H. Wata- ing in Infancy: Visual Preferences Saunders, S. R. 2000. “Subadult Skele- nabe-O’Kelly, Manchester. for and Knowledge of Gender-Ste- tons and Growth-Related Studies,” Schmidt, M. 1996. “Southern Italian reotyped Toys in the Second Year,” in Biological Anthropology of the and Sicilian Vases,” in The Greek International Journal of Behavioral Human Skeleton, ed. M. A. Katzen- World: Art and Civilization in Magna Development 25, pp. 7–15. berg and S. R. Saunders, New York, Graecia and Sicily, ed. G. Pugliese Sestieri, P. C. 1952. “Salerno: Scoperte pp. 135–161. Carratelli, New York, pp. 443– archeologiche in località Fratte,” Saunders, S. R., and L. Barrans. 1999. 456. NSc 1952, pp. 86–166. “What Can be Done about the Schmitt, A. 1988. “Neuzeitliches ———. 1953. Paestum: La città, la ne- Infant Category in Skeletal Sam- Selbstverständnis und Deutung der cropolis preistorica in contrada Gaudo, ples?” in Human Growth in the Past, Antike,” in Geisteswissenschaften– lo Heraion alla Foce del Sele, Rome. ed. R. D. Hoppa and C. M. Fitz- wozu? Beispiele ihrer Gegenstände ———. 1955. “Ricerche posidoniati,” Gerald, Cambridge, pp. 183–209. und ihrer Fragen, ed. H.-H. Krum- MÉFRA 67, pp. 35–48. Scanlon, T. 2002. Eros and Greek Athlet- macher, Wiesbaden, pp. 187–210. Sestieri Bertarelli, M. 1989. “Statuette ics, Oxford. Schmitz, T. A. 1999. “ ‘I Hate All Com- femminili arcaiche e del primo clas- Scatozza Höricht, M. 1987. Le terrecotte mon Things’: The Reader’s Role in sicismo nelle stipi votive di Poseido- figurate di Cuma del Museo Archeo- Callimachus’ Aetia Prologue,” HSCP nia,” RivIstArch 12, pp. 5–48. logico Nazionale di Napoli, Rome. 99, pp. 151–178. Settis, S., et al. 1988. La Colonna Schäfer, J. 1958. “Elfenbeinspiegelgriffe Schöne, A. 1987. Der Thiasos: Eine iko- Traiana, Torino. des zweiten Jahrtausends,” AM 73, nographische Untersuchung über das Shapiro, H. A. 1981. “Courtship Scenes pp. 73–87. Gefolge des Dionysos in der attischen in Attic Vase Painting,” AJA 85, Schaub, G. 1973. Le génie enfant: Die Vasenmalerei des 6. und 5. Jhs. v. Chr. pp. 133–143. Kategorie des Kindlichen bei Clemens (SIMA-PB 55), Göteborg. ———. 1990. “Comings and Goings: Brentano, Berlin. Schulze, H. 1998. Ammen und Päda- The Iconography of Departure and Schauenburg, K. 1995. Die Stadtrömi- gogen: Sklavinnen und Sklaven als Arrival on Attic Vases,” Metis 5, schen Eroten-Sarkophage, Berlin. Erzieher in der antiken Kunst und pp. 113–126. ———. 2001. Studien zur unteritali- Gesellschaft, Mainz. ———. 1991. “The Iconography of schen Vasenmalerei 3, Kiel. Schürmann, W. 1989. Katalog der anti- Mourning in Athenian Art,” AJA ———. 2002. Studien zur unteritali- ken Terrakotten im Badischen Landes- 95, pp. 629–656. schen Vasenmalerei 4/5, Kiel. museum Karlsruhe (SIMA 84), Göte- ———. 1992a. “Eros in Love: Peder- Scheid, J., and V. Huet, eds. 2000. Au- borg. asty and Pornography in Greece,” tour de la Colonne Aurélienne, Turn- Schweitzer, B. 1971. Greek Geometric in Pornography and Representation hout. Art, London. in Greece and Rome, ed. A. Richlin, Scheuer, L., and S. Black. 2000. Devel- Schwinge, E.-R. 1985. “Wilamowitz Oxford, pp. 53–72. opmental Juvenile Osteology, Lon- und das Verständnis der hellenist- ———. 1992b. “The Marriage of The- don. ischen Poesie,” in Wilamowitz nach seus and Helen,” in Kotinos: Fest- Schiering, W. 1999. “Goddesses, Danc- 50 Jahren, ed. W. M. Calder III, schrift für Erika Simon, ed. H. Fro- ing, and Flower-gathering Maidens H. Flashar, and T. Linken, Darm- ning, T. Hölscher, and H. Mielsch, in Middle Minoan Vase Painting,” stadt, pp. 151–177. Mainz, pp. 232–236. in MELETEMATA 3: Studies in Scott, E. 1999. The Archaeology of ———. 1993. Personifications in Greek Aegean Archaeology Presented to Mal- Infancy and Infant Death (BAR-IS Art: The Representation of Abstract colm H. Wiener as He Enters His 65th 819), Oxford. Concepts 600–400 B.C., Zurich. Year (Aegaeum 20), ed. P. P. Betan- Scourfield, J. H. D. 1983. “A Literary ———. 1994. Myth into Art: Poet and court, V. Karageorghis, R. Laffi- Commentary on Jerome, Letters 1, Painter in Classical Greece, New York. neur, and W.-D. Niemeier, Liège, 60, 107” (diss. Oxford Univ.). ———. 2000. “Leagros and Euphro- pp. 747–750. Seaford, R. A. 1994. Reciprocity and nios: Painting Pederasty in Athens,” Schiffler, B. 1976. Die Typologie des Ritual: Homer and Tragedy in the in Greek Love Reconsidered, ed. T. K. Kentauren in der antiken Kunst vom Developing City-State, Oxford. Hubbard, New York, pp. 12–32. 408 ref erence s

———. 2003. “Fathers and Sons, Men Silk, M. S. 1995. “Nestor, Amphitryon, ———. 1982a. “Art and Play in Cal- and Boys,” in Neils and Oakley Philocleon, Cephalus: The Lan- limachus,” in The Discovery of the 2003, pp. 85–111. guage of Old Men in Greek Litera- Mind in Greek Philosophy and Litera- Shaw, B. D. 1987. “The Age of Roman ture from Homer to Menander,” in ture, trans. T. G. Rosenmeyer, New Girls at Marriage: Some Reconsid- Lo spettacolo delle voci 2, ed. A. H. York, pp. 264–280. erations,” JRS 77, pp. 30–46. Sommerstein, Bari, pp. 165–214. ———. 1982b. “Arcadia: The Discov- ———. 1991. “The Cultural Meaning Simon, E. 1963. “Polygnotan Painting ery of a Spiritual Landscape,” in of Death: Age and Gender in the and the Niobid Painter,” AJA 67, The Discovery of the Mind in Greek Roman Family,” in The Family in pp. 43–62. Philosophy and Literature, trans. Italy from Antiquity to the Present, ———. 1967. Ara Pacis Augustae, T. G. Rosenmeyer, New York, New Haven, ed. D. Kertzer and Greenwich. pp. 281–309. R. Saller, pp. 67–90. Sittl, K. 1890. Die Gebärden der Grie- Snodgrass, A. M. 1998. Homer and Shaw, M. C. 1972. “The Miniature chen und Römer, Leipzig. the Artists: Text and Picture in Early Frescoes of Tylissos Reconsidered,” Siurla-Theodoridou, V. 1989. Die Fa- Greek Art, Cambridge. AA 1972, pp. 171–188. milie in der griechischen Kunst und Snyder, L. M. 1999. “The Animal ———. 1986. “The Lion Gate Relief Literatur des 8. bis 6. Jahrhunderts Bones from Well G5:3: Domestic of Mycenae Reconsidered,” in Φίλια v. Chr., Munich. Debris, Industrial Debris, and ἔπη εἰς Γεώργιον Ἐ. Μυλωνᾶν διὰ Skarlatidou, E. 1989. “Ανασκαφή στο Possible Evidence for the Sacrifice τὰ 60 ἔτη τοῦ ἀνασκαφικοῦ του Αρχαϊκό Νεκροταφείο Αβδήρων,” of Domestic Dogs in Late Hel- ἔργου 1, Athens, pp. 108–123. AEMTh 1 (1987), pp. 421–425. lenistic Athens,” AJA 103, p. 284 Shear, I. 2000. Tales of Heroes: The Ori- Skias, A. N. 1898. “Παναρχαία ἐλευ- (abstract). gins of the Homeric Texts, New York. σινιακὴ νεκρόπολις,” ArchEph 1898, Sobel, H. 1990. Hygieia, die Göttin der Shearer, R. 2003. Jerome’s Advice to a pp. 28–122. Gesundheit, Darmstadt. Homeschooling Mom. Available at ———. 1912. “Νεώτεραι ἀνασκαφαὶ ἐν Sofaer Derevenski, J. 1997. “Engen- http://www.texashomeeducators. τῇ παναρχαίᾳ ἐλευσινιακῇ νεκρο- dering Children, Engendering com/jeromesadvice.htm. πόλει,” ArchEph 1912, pp. 1–39. Archaeology,” in Moore and Scott Sheehy, A., T. Gasser, L. Molinari, Slater, P. 1968. The Glory of Hera: Greek 1997, pp. 192–202. and R. Largo. 1999. “An Analysis Mythology and the Greek Family, ———, ed. 2000a. Children and Mate- of Variance of the Pubertal and Boston. rial Culture, London. Midgrowth Spurts for Length and Slehoferova, V. 1991. Der zerbrochene ———. 2000b. “Material Culture Width,” Annals of Human Biology Krug: Vasenfragmente klassischer Zeit Shock: Confronting Expectations 26, pp. 309–331. aus Athen und Grossgriechenland: in the Material Culture of Chil- Sherratt, S., ed. 2000. The Wall Paint- Sammlung H. A. Cahn (exhibition dren,” in Sofaer Derevenski 2000a, ings of Thera. Proceedings of the First catalogue, Antikenmuseum Basel pp. 3–16. International Symposium, Petros M. und Sammlung Ludwig 1991), Basel. Söldner, M. 1986. Untersuchungen zu Nomikos Conference Centre, Thera, Smith, A. C. 1997. “Political Personi- liegende Eroten in der hellenistischen Hellas, 30 August–4 September 1997, fications in Classical Athenian Art” und römischen Kunst, Frankfurt-am- 2 vols., Athens. (diss. Yale Univ.). Main. Shumka, L. 1993. “Children and Toys ———. 1999. “Eurymedon and the Sorabella, J. 2000. “Sleep That Rouses: in the Roman World: A Contribu- Evolution of Political Personifica- Naturalism and the Observer in tion to the History of the Roman tions in the Early Classical Period,” Greco-Roman Art” (diss. Columbia Family” (master’s thesis, Univ. of JHS 119, pp. 128–141. Univ.). Victoria). ———. 2005. “From Drunkenness to a Soren, D. 1999. “Introduction to Part Sier, K. 1998. “Von der Ähre zur Hangover: Maenads as Personifica- Three,” in A Roman Villa and a Late Zikade: Die Komposition des tions,” in Personification in the Greek Roman Infant Cemetery: Excavation kallimacheischen Aitienprologs,” World, ed. J. Herrin and E. J. Staf- at Poggio Gramignano, Lugnano in ZPE 122, pp. 21–35. ford, Aldershot, pp. 211–230. Teverina, ed. D. Soren and N. Soren, ———. 2002. “Die Dialektik des Smith, R. R. R. 1991. Hellenistic Sculp- Rome, pp. 463–464. ‘Noch-Nicht’: Zur Repräsenta- ture, London. Soren, D., T. Fenton, and W. Birkby. tion des Kindes in der griechischen Smithson, E. L. 1968. “The Tomb of a 1995. “The Late Roman Infant Literatur und Philosophie,” in Schau Rich Athenian Lady, ca. 850 b.c.,” Cemetery Near Lugnano in Teve- auf die Kleinen . . . : Das Kind in Hesperia 37, pp. 77–116. rina, Italy: Some Implications,” Religion, Kirche und Gesellschaft, Snell, B. 1948. “Über das Spielerische Journal of Paleopathology 7, pp. 13– ed. R. Lux, Leipzig, pp. 54–81. bei Kallimachos,” in Die Entdeckung 42. Sigismund Nielsen, H. 1997. “Inter- des Geistes: Studien zur Entstehung des ———. 1999. “The Infant Cemetery preting Epithets in Roman Epi- europäischen Denkens bei den Griechen, at Poggio Gramignano: Description taphs,” in Rawson and Weaver 2nd ed., Hamburg, pp. 252– and Analysis,” in A Roman Villa 1997, pp. 169–204. 267. and a Late Roman Infant Cemetery: ref erence s 409

Excavation at Poggio Gramignano, ———. 1997. Art, Desire, and the Body Svoronos, J. N. 1908–1937. Das Athener Lugnano in Teverina, ed. D. Soren in Ancient Greece, Cambridge. Nationalmuseum, Athens. and N. Soren, Rome, pp. 477– Stewart, S. 1993. On Longing: Narra- Swan, R., ed. 1983. The Human Body on 530. tives of the Miniature, the Gigantic, File, New York. Sorensen, M. 1991. “The Construction the Souvenir, the Collection, Durham. Sydenham, E. A. 1920. The Coinage of of Gender through Appearance,” in Stichel, R. 1982. “Grabung im Bezirk Nero, London. The Archaeology of Gender. Proceed- des Dionysios von Kollytos,” AA Syme, R. 1977. “Scorpus the Chario- ings of the 22nd Annual Chacmool 1982, pp. 56–61. teer,” AJAH 2, pp. 86–94. Conference, Calgary, University of Still, G. F. 1931. The History of Paedi- Szondi, P. 1972. “Das Naive ist das Calgary, ed. D. Walde and N. D. atrics: The Progress of the Study of Sentimentalische: Zur Begriffsdi- Willows, Calgary, pp. 121–129. Diseases in Children up to the End of alektik in Schillers Abhandlung,” Soteriades, G. 1934. “Ανασκαφή Μαρα- the XVIIIth Century, London. Euphorion 66, pp. 174–206. θώνος,” Prakt 1934, pp. 29–38. Stone, L. 1977. The Family, Sex, and Tagalidou, E. 1993. Weihreliefs an Sourvinou-Inwood, C. 1988. Studies in Marriage in England 1500–1800, Herakles aus klassicsher Zeit (SIMA- Girls’ Transitions: Aspects of the Ark- London. PB 99), Jonsered. teia and Age Representation in Attic Strauss, B. S. 1993. Fathers and Sons Tamburello, I. 1982. “Magia e religio- Iconography, Athens. in Athens: Ideology and Society in sità a Palermo Punico,” SicArch 15, Sparkes, B. A. 1996. The Red and the the Era of the Peloponnesian War, pp. 45–56. Black: Studies in Greek Pottery, Princeton. Tanner, J. M. 1962. Growth at Adoles- London. Strøm, I. 1993. “Pontecagnano- cence, 2nd ed., Oxford. Stadter, P. 1995. “‘Subject to the Erot- Picentia: A Hellenistic Town in ———. 1990. Foetus into Man: Physical ic’: Male Sexual Behaviour in Plu- the Former Etruscan Campania: Growth from Conception to Maturity, tarch,” in Ethics and Rhetoric: Classi- The Danish Excavations,” in Aspects rev. and enl. ed., Cambridge, Mass. cal Essays for Donald Russell on His of Hellenism in Italy: Towards a Tanner, J. M., and R. H. Whitehouse. Seventy-Fifth Birthday, ed. D. Innes, Cultural Unity?, ed. P. G. Bilde, I. 1982. Atlas of Children’s Growth: H. Hine, and C. Pelling, Oxford, Nielsen and M. Nielsen (Acta Normal Variation and Growth Disor- pp. 221–236. Hyperborea 5), Copenhagen, ders, London. Stambolidis, N. 2002. “Geometric and pp. 107–126. Tarlow, S. 1999. Bereavement and Com- Archaic Necropolis at Eleutherna,” Strömberg, A. 1993. Male or Female?: memoration: An Archaeology of Mor- in Excavating Classical Culture: A Methodological Study of Grave Gifts tality, Oxford. Recent Archaeological Discoveries in as Sex Indicators in Iron Age Burials Technau, W. 1936. Exekias, Leipzig. Greece, ed. M. Stamatopoulou and in Athens (SIMA-PB 123), Jonsered. Televantou, C. 1992. “Theran Wall- M. Yeroulanou, Oxford, pp. 327– Strong, D. E. 1961. Roman Imperial Painting: Artistic Tendencies and 332. Sculpture, London. Painters,” in Laffineur and Crowley Stears, K. 1995. “Dead Women’s Soci- Stuveras, R. 1969. Le putto dans l’art 1992, pp. 145–159. ety: Constructing Female Gender romain (Collection Latomus 99), Temkin, O. 1956. Soranus’ Gynecology, in Classical Athenian Funerary Brussels. Baltimore. Sculpture,” in Time, Tradition, and Summers, D. 1981. “Conventions in Themelis, P. 1997. “Ανασκαφή Μεσσή- Society in Greek Archaeology: Bridging the History of Art,” New Literary νης,” Prakt 1997, pp. 100–101. the “Great Divide,” ed. N. Spencer, History 13, pp. 103–125. ———. 1999. “Ανασκαφή Μεσσήνης,” London, pp. 109–131. Susemihl, F. 1891. Geschichte der grie- Prakt 1999, pp. 95–97. Steel, T. 1988. The Life and Death of chischen Litteratur in der Alexandri- ———. 2000. “Ταφικά μνημεία Γυμνα- St. Kilda, 2nd ed., rev., London. nerzeit, 2 vols., Leipzig. σίου,” Prakt 2000, pp. 97–101. Stehle, E. 1990. “Sappho’s Gaze: Fan- Sutton, R. F., Jr. 1981. “The Inter Themelis, P., and I. Touratsoglou. 1997. tasies of a Goddess and a Young action between Men and Women Οι τάφοι του Δερβενίου, Athens. Man,” differences 2, pp. 88–125. Portrayed on Attic Red-Figure Pot- Thera = Excavations at Thera, Athens. Stern, E. M. 1978. “Kinderkannchen tery” (diss. Univ. of North Carolina, IV = S. Marinatos, Excavations zum Choenfest,” in Thiasos: Sieben Chapel Hill). at Thera 4: 1970 Season, 1971. archäologische Arbeiten (Castrum ———. 1992. “Pornography and Per- VI = S. Marinatos, Excavations Peregrini 132–133), ed. T. Lorenz, suasion on Attic Pottery,” in Pornog- at Thera 6: 1972 Season, 1974. Amsterdam, pp. 27–37. raphy and Representation in Greece VII = S. Marinatos, Excavations Steuben, H. von. 1968. Frühe Sagen- and Rome, ed. A. Richlin, Oxford, at Thera 8: 1973 Season, 1976. darstellungen in Korinth und Athen, pp. 3–35. Thompson, H. A. 1948. “The Exca- Berlin. ———. 2000. “The Good, the Base, vations of the Athenian Agora, Stewart, A. 1990. Greek Sculpture: An and the Ugly: The Drunken Orgy Twelfth Season: 1947,” Hesperia 17, Exploration, 2 vols., New Haven. in Attic Vase Painting and the pp. 149–196. ———. 1995. “Rape?” in Reeder 1995, Athenian Self,” in Cohen 2000, pp. Tillier, A.-M., and H. Duday. 1990. pp. 74–90. 180–202. “Les enfants morts en période 410 ref erence s

perinatale,” Bull. et Mem. de la Soc. Triantaphyllou, S. 1998. “An Early Iron M. Cataldi, “Sulle ‘Tombe a Buca’ di d’Anthrop. de Paris 3–4, pp. 89–98. Age Cemetery in Ancient Pydna, Tarquinia,” in Dinamiche di Sviluppo Tillyard, E. M. 1923. The Hope Vases, Pieria: What Do the Bones Tell della Città nell’Etruria Meridionale: Cambridge. Us?” BSA 93, pp. 353–364. Veio, Caere, Tarquinia, Vulci. Atti del Todisco, L. 2002. Teatro e spettacolo in ———. 2001. A Bioarchaeological Ap- XXIII Convegno di Studi Etruschi ed Magna Grecia e in Sicilia, Milan. proach to Prehistoric Cemetery Popula- Italici, Pisa, pp. 409–411. Tölle-Kastenbein, R. 1964. Frühgrie- tions from Central and Western Greek Ventris, M., and J. Chadwick. 1959. chische Reigentänze, Waldsassen. Macedonia (BAR-IS 976), Oxford. Documents in Mycenaean Greek: Too, Y. L., ed. 2001. Education in Greek Tsetskhladze, G. R., A. J. N. W. Prag, Three Hundred Selected Tablets from and Roman Antiquity, Leiden. and A. M. Snodgrass, eds. 2000. Knossos, Pylos, and Mycenae with Torelli, M. 1987. “Paestum romana” Periplous: Papers on Classical Art and Commentary and Vocabulary, Cam- and “Il Dibattito,” in Poseidonia- Archaeology Presented to Sir John bridge. Paestum (Atti Taranto 27), Taranto, Boardman, London. Vermeule, E. T. 1979. Aspects of Death pp. 33–115, 128–130. Tsountas, C. 1892. “ Ἑνδεκάτη ἀνα- in Early Greek Art and Poetry, ———. 1990. In “Tavola Rotunda,” in σκαφὴ ἐν Μυκήναις,” Prakt 1892, Berkeley. Basilicata: L’espansionismo romano nel pp. 56–58. Vernant, J.-P. 1991. “Artemis and Rites sud-est d’Italia: Il quadro archeologico Tsountas, C., and J. I. Manatt. 1897. of Sacrifice, Initiation, and Mar- (Leukania 2), ed. M. Salvatore, The Mycenaean Age, London. riage,” in Mortals and Immortals, Venosa, pp. 328–332. Turner, V. W. 1969. The Ritual Process: ed. F. Zeitlin, Princeton, pp. 207– ———. 1996. “Donne, domi nobiles ed Structure and Anti-Structure, 219. evergeti a Paestum tra la fine della Chicago. Veyne, P. 1959. “Voyage d’outre tombe,” Repubblica e l’inizio dell’Impero,” Ubelaker, D. H. 1989. Human Skeletal RÉL 37, pp. 43–45. in Les élites municipales de l’Italie Remains: Excavation, Analysis, Inter- ———. 1978. “La famille et l’amour péninsulaire des Grecques à Néron, ed. pretation, Washington, D.C. sous le haut-empire romain,” M. Cébeillac-Gervasoni, Naples, Ulijaszek, S. J., F. E. Johnston, and AnnÉconSocCiv 33, pp. 35–63. pp. 153–178. M. A. Preece. 1998. The Cambridge Vierneisel-Schlörb, B. 1988. Klassische ———. 1999a. Tota Italia: Essays in the Encyclopedia of Human Growth and Grabdenkmäler und Votivreliefs: Cultural Formation of Roman Italy, Development, Cambridge. Glyptothek München, Katalogue der Oxford. Uzzi, J. D. 2005. Children in the Visual Skulpturen 3, Munich. ———. 1999b. Paestum Romana, Arts of Imperial Rome, Cambridge. Vikela, E. 1994. Die Weihreliefs aus dem Rome. Van Berchem, D. 1939. Les distributions Athener Pankrates-Heiligtum am Ilis- Toynbee, J. M. C. 1971. Death and de blé et d’argent à la plèbe romaine sos: Religionsgeschichtliche Bedeutung Burial in the Roman World, Balti- sous l’empire, Geneva. und Typologie (AM-BH 16), Berlin. more. Van der Meer, L. B. 1995. Interpretatio Vincentelli, M. 2000. Women and Ce- ———. 1973. Animals in Roman Life Etrusca: Greek Myths on Etruscan ramics: Gendered Vessels, Manchester. and Art, London. Mirrors, Amsterdam. Vlavianou, A., and I. Tsaliki. 1989. Trakossopoulou, E. 1996. “Ιερισσός,” Van Gennep, A. 1960. The Rites of “Ανασκαφή τάφων στην Ερέτρια,” ArchDelt 46, B΄2 (1991), pp. 289– Passage, trans. M. B. Vizedom and ArchDelt 36, Α΄ (1981), pp. 58–81. 290. G. L. Caffee, Chicago. Vogt, E. 1993. s.v. “Hellenismus,” in Traversari, G. 1973. Sculture del V–VI Van Hoorn, G. 1951. Choes and Anthes- Kleines Lexikon des Hellenismus, secolo a. C. del Museo Archeologico di teria, Leiden. ed. H. H. Schmitt and E. Vogt, Venezia, Venice. Van Straten, F. T. 1981. “Gifts for the 2nd ed., Wiesbaden, pp. 1–9. Travlos, J. 1971. Pictorial Dictionary of Gods,” in Faith, Hope, and Worship: Vokotopoulou, I. 1986. Βίτσα: Τα νεκ- Ancient Athens, New York. Aspects of Religious Mentality in the ροταφεία μιας μολοσσικής κώμης, ———. 1988. Bildlexikon zur Topogra- Ancient World, ed. H. S. Versnel, Athens. phie des antiken Attika, Athens. Leiden, pp. 65–151. Vokotopoulou, I., and S. Moschone- Treggiari, S. 1991. Roman Marriage, ———. 1995. Hiera Kala: Images of siote. 1992. “Το παράλιο νεκροτα- Oxford. Animal Sacrifice in Archaic and φείο της Μένδης,” AEMTh 4 (1990), Trendall, A. D. 1970. “Three Apulian Classical Greece (Religions in the pp. 411–423. Kraters in Berlin,” JBerlMus 12, Graeco-Roman World 127), Vollkommer, R. 1988. Herakles in the pp. 153–190. Leiden. Art of Classical Greece, Oxford. Trendall, A. D., and T. B. L. Webster. ———. 2000. “Votives and Votaries ———. 2000. “Mythological Children 1971. Illustrations of Greek Drama, in Greek Sanctuaries,” in Oxford in Archaic Art: On the Problem of London. Readings in Greek Religion, ed. Age Differentiation for Small Chil- Tress, D. M. 1997. “Aristotle’s Child: R. Buxton, Oxford, pp. 191–223. dren,” in Tsetskhladze, Prag, and Development through Genesis, Vargiu, R., and M. J. Becker. 2005. Snodgrass 2000, pp. 371–382. Oikos, and Polis,” Ancient Philosophy “Appendice: Studio Antropologico Vorberg, G. 1932. Glossarium Eroticum, 17, pp. 63–84. dei Resti Scheletrici Umani,” in Stuttgart. ref erence s 411

Vorster, C. 1983. Griechische Kinder- Walters, H. B. 1929. “A New Red- Wiedemann, T. E. J. 1989. Adults and statuen, Cologne. figured Vase,” BMQ 4, p. 71. Children in the Roman Empire, New Voutiras, E. 1982. “A Dedication Warden, P. G. 1983. “Bullae, Roman Haven. of the Hebdomaistai to the Pyth- Custom and Italic Tradition,” Wiener, M. 2003. “Time Out: The ian Apollo,” AJA 86, pp. 229– OpRom 14, pp. 69–75. Current Impasse in Bronze Age 233. Wardle, K. A. 1972. “Two Roman Archaeological Dating,” in Foster Wace, A. J. B. 1921–1923. “Excavations Rock-cut Tombs in Knossos,” BSA and Laffineur 2003, pp. 363–399. at Mycenae: The Tholos Tombs,” 67, pp. 271–284. Wienke, L., and J. Neils. 2004. “Differ- BSA 25, pp. 282–402. Warren, P., and V. Hankey. 1989. Ae- entiation of Age Categories of Chil- ———. 1954. “Ivory Carvings from gean Bronze Age Chronology, Bristol. dren as Depicted on Attic Choes,” Mycenae,” Archaeology 7, pp. 149– Wealth of the Ancient World = Wealth of Archaeological Institute of America 155. the Ancient World: The Nelson Bunker (105th Annual Meeting) Abstracts 27, Waggoner, D. 2002. “Photographing Hunt and William Herbert Hunt p. 30. Childhood: Lewis Carroll and Collections (exhibition catalogue, Wiesen, D. 1964. St. Jerome as a Satirist Alice,” in Constructions of Child- Kimbell Art Museum 1983), Fort (Cornell Studies in Classical Philol- hood between Rousseau and Freud, Worth. ogy 34), Ithaca. ed. M. R. Brown, Aldershot, Weaver, P. 1997. “Children of Junian Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, U. von. pp. 149–166. Latins,” in Rawson and Weaver 1924. Hellenistische Dichtung in der Walker, H. J. 1995. Theseus and Athens, 1997, pp. 55–72. Zeit des Kallimachos, 2 vols., Berlin. New York. ———. 2001. “Reconstructing Lower- Williams, B. 1993. Shame and Neces- Walker, P. L., J. R. Johnson, and P. M. class Roman Families,” in Dixon sity (Sather Classical Lectures 57), Lambert. 1988. “Age and Sex Biases 2001b, pp. 101–114. Berkeley. in the Preservation of Human Skel- Weber, G. 1993. Dichtung und höfische Williams, D. 2000. “Of Geometric etal Remains,” American Journal of Gesellschaft: Die Rezeption von Toys, Symbols, and Votives,” in Physical Anthropology 76, pp. 183– Zeitgeschichte am Hof der ersten drei Tsetskhladze, Prag, and Snodgrass 188. Ptolemäer, Stuttgart. 2000, pp. 388–396. Walker, S. 1988. “Untimely Memorials: Webster, T. B. L. 1967. The Tragedies of Wilson, A. 1980. “The Infancy of the Some Roman Portraits of the Pre- Euripides, London. History of Childhood: An Appraisal maturely Dead in the British Mu- Weingarten, J. 1995. “Measure for of Philippe Ariès,” History and seum Collections,” in Ritratto uffi- Measure: What the Palaikastro Theory 19, pp. 132–153. ciale e ritratto privato. Atti della II Kouros Can Tell Us about Minoan Winkler, A. 2000. Das romantische Conferenza internazionale sul riratto Society,” in POLITEIA: Society and Kind: Ein poetischer Typus von Goethe romano, Roma, 26–30 settembre 1984 State in the Aegean Bronze Age bis Thomas Mann, Frankfurt. (Quaderni de “la Ricerca scientifica” (Aegaeum 12), ed. R. Laffineur and Winkler, J. 1990. The Constraints of 116), ed. N. Bonacasa and G. Rizza, W.-D. Niemeier, Liège, pp. 249– Desire: The Anthropology of Sex and Rome, pp. 547–554. 264. Gender in Ancient Greece, New York. ———. 1990a. Catalogue of Roman ———. 2000a. “Male and Female S/he Winter, F. 1903a. Die Typen der figür- Sarcophagi in the British Museum, Created Them: Further Studies in lichen Terrakotten 1, Berlin. London. Aegean Proportions,” in MELETE- ———. 1903b. Die Typen der figürlichen ———. 1990b. “The Sarcophagus of MATA 3: Studies in Aegean Archaeol- Terrakotten 2, Berlin. Maconiana Severiana,” in Roman ogy Presented to Malcolm H. Wiener Wöhrle, G. 1999. Telemachs Reise: Funerary Monuments in the J. P. Getty as He Enters His 65th Year (Aegaeum Väter und Söhne in Ilias und Odyssee Museum 1 (Occasional Papers on 20), ed. P. P. Betancourt, V. Kara- oder ein Beitrag zur Erforschung der Antiquities 6), ed. G. Koch, Malibu, georghis, R. Laffineur, and W.-D. Männlichkeitsideologie in der home- pp. 83–94. Niemeier, Liège, pp. 921–930. rischen Welt (Hypomnemata 124), Wall, S. M., J. H. Musgrave, and ———. 2000b. “Reading the Minoan Göttingen. P. Warren. 1986. “Human Bones Body: Proportions and the Palai- Woodford, S. 1971. “Cults of Herakles from a Late Minoan IB House at kastro Kouros,” in MacGillivray, in Athens,” in Studies Presented to Knossos,” BSA 81, pp. 333–388. Driessen, and Sackett 2000, George M. A. Hanfmann, ed. D. G. Walter, O. 1923. Beschreibung der Reliefs pp. 103–111. Mitten, J. G. Pedley, and J. A. Scott, im kleinen Akropolismuseum in Athen, West, M. L. 1985. The Hesiodic Cata- Cambridge, Mass., pp. 211–225. Vienna. logue of Women: Its Nature, Structure, Woysch-Méautis, D. 1982. La repré- ———. 1937a. “Die Reliefs aus dem and Origins, Oxford. sentation des animaux et des êtres Heiligtum der Echeliden in Neu- Whitley, J. 1991. Style and Society in fabuleux sur les monuments funéraires Phaleron,” ArchEph 1937, pp. 97– Dark Age Greece: The Changing Face grecs de l’époque archaïque à la fin du 119. of a Pre-Literate Society, Cambridge. IVe siècle av. J.-C., Neuchâtel. ———. 1937b. “Der Saulenbau des Whitman, C. 1958. Homer and the Wrede, H. 1975. “Lunulae im Hals- Herakles,” AM 62, pp. 41–51. Heroic Tradition, New York. schmuck,” in Wandlungen: Studien 412 ref erence s

zur antiken und neueren Kunst ———. 1997. “Gender and Sexuality ———. 1998. “Beyond Reciprocity: Ernst Homann-Wedeking gewidmet, in the Parthenon Frieze,” in Naked The Akhilleus-Priam Scene in Iliad ed. Universität München, Institut Truths: Women, Sexuality, and Gen- 24,” in Reciprocity in Ancient Greece, für Klassische Archäologie, Munich, der in Classical Art and Archaeology, ed. C. Gill, N. Postlethwaite, and pp. 243–254. ed. A. Kosloski-Ostrow and R. Seaford, Oxford, pp. 73– ———. 1981. Consecratio in formam C. Lyons, London, pp. 120–153. 92. deorum: Vergöttlichte Privatpersonen ———. 2005. Sex in the Ancient World, Zanker, P. 1975. “Grabreliefs römischer in der römischen Kaiserzeit, Mainz. A–Z, London. Freigelassener,” JdI 90, pp. 267– Xagorari, M. 1996. Untersuchungen zu Zachariadou, O., and D. Kyriakou. 315. frühgriechischen Grabsitten, Mainz. 1993. “Πλατεία Κοτζιά,” ArchDelt ———. 1988. The Power of Images in Xenaki-Sakellariou, A. 1985. Οι Θαλα- 43, B΄1 (1988), pp. 22–29. the Age of Augustus, trans. A. Shapiro, μωτοί τάφοι των Μυκηνών. Ανα- Zahn, R. 1970. “Das Kind in der anti- Ann Arbor. σκαφή Χρ. Τσούντα (1887–1898)/ ken Kunst: Vortrag in der Vereini- ———. 2000. “Die Frauen und Kinder Les tombes à chambre de Mycènes. gung der Freunde antiker Kunst, der Barbaren auf der Markussäule,” Fouilles de Chr. Tsountas (1887– 20. Nov. 1926,” in Staatliche Museen in Scheid and Huet 2000, pp. 163– 1898), Paris. zu Berlin: Forschungen und Berichte 174. Young, F. W. 1965. Initiation Ceremo- 12: Archäologische Beiträge, Berlin, Zanker, P., and B. C. Ewald. 2004. nies: A Cross-Cultural Study of Status pp. 21–31. Mit Mythen Leben: Die Bildwelt der Dramatization, Indianapolis. Zancani Montuoro, P. 1964. “Perse- römischen Sarkophage, Munich. Young, R. S. 1939. Late Geometric phone e Aphrodite sul mare,” in Zapheiropoulou, P. 1996. “Πάρος- Graves and a Seventh Century Well Essays in Memory of Karl Lehmann Παροικιά,” ArchDelt 46, B΄2 (1991), in the Agora (Hesperia Suppl. 2), (Marsyas Suppl. 1), ed. L. F. Sandler, pp. 375–376. Athens. New York, pp. 386–395. Zeitlin, F. I. 1999. “Utopia and Myth ———. 1942. “Graves from the Zancani Montuoro, P., and U. Zanotti- in Aristophanes’ Ecclesiazousae,” in Phaleron Cemetery,” AJA 46, p. 24. Bianco. 1937. “Capaccio: Heraion Contextualizing Classics: Ideology, ———. 1949. “An Early Geometric alla foce del Sele (Relazione pre- Performance, Dialogue: Essays in Grave Near the Athenian Agora,” liminare),” NSc 1937, pp. 206–354. Honor of John J. Peradotto, ed. T. M. Hesperia 18, pp. 275–297. ———. 1951. Heraion alla Foce del Sele Falkner, N. Felson, and D. Konstan, Younger, J. G. 1992. “Representations 1, Rome. Lanham, pp. 69–87. of Minoan-Mycenaean Jewelry,” Zanker, G. 1994. The Heart of Achilles: Zorides, P. 1999. “Οδός Χανίου και in Laffineur and Crowley 1992, Characterization and Personal Ethics Αιγειρουσών,” ArchDelt 49, B΄1 pp. 257–293. in the Iliad, Ann Arbor. (1994), pp. 57–59.