The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: the Kurdish Question in Turkey I CEU Etd Collection Chapter 3 Historical Background to the Conflict

CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts The Effectof Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: Submitted to Central European University The Kurdish Question in Turkey in Question Kurdish The Supervisor: Professor Gábor Tóka Department of Political Science ofPolitical Department Budapest, Hungary Yusuf Ma (2012) by ÷ iya CEU eTD Collection relationship as predicted by any of the theories, but rather the results are mixed. are rather theresults by but theories, the any aspredicted of relationship have notin a does conflict ofethnic Turkey attitudes the public towards the analysis isthat this relationship for both groups, atindividual level Thefindingsurvey data. of statistical the but it should be consideredbetween frommodernization a multi-theoretical andTurkish and Kurdishthe societies beforeintensity I conclude that a single theory on the relationshipperspective. of ethnic Turkey in the lightof existentthe theories and the histories of ethnicmobilizationsthe conflict of the I also can statistically not explainvariants, the mostly disagreeingwholeanalyze with each other.story, In this thesis, I examine the Kurdish questionhas different conflict and ethnic betweenmodernization ontherelationship The literature in Abstract The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey i CEU eTD Collection Chapter 3 Historical Background to the Conflict...... 21 Chapter 2 Theoretical Background...... 7 Chapter 1 Introduction...... 1 i Abstract...... Table of Contents 3.3 The Kurdish Question in the Light of Theories...... 36 3.2 History of Kurds and the Ethnic ...... 24 Conflict in Turkey 3.1 Modernization in Turkey and Mobilization of the Turkish Nationalism...... 21 2.2 The Theories on the Relationship between Modernization and Ethnic Conflict...... 9 2.1 ...... 7 Defining Concepts oa ...... 34 Today 3.2.6 A Glance at the Properties of Kurdish Society and the Radical Kurdish Nationalism 3.2.5 Disappearance and Reappearance of Ethnic Violence...... 32 3.2.4 Ethnicization and Socialization of the Conflict: A Widesprad Mobilization...... 29 the Secularization of ...... 27 the Kurdish Identity 3.2.3 Kurds in Turkey Until the Last Insurgency: Different Levels of Modernization and Period of Insurgencies...... 25 3.2.2 Kurds in Turkey in the Last Years of the Empire and the First Years of Republic: 3.2.1 Kurds in Turkey Before the Turkish Republic: Conflicts Between Elites...... 24 2.2.2 The Theories that Expect ...... 12 a Positive Effect 2.2.1 The Theories that Expect aNegative Effect...... 10 2.1.2 Modernization at the Individual Level...... 8 2.1.1 What is Modernization and What Does ...... 7 it Encompass? The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ii CEU eTD Collection References…………………………………………………………………………………….73 Chapter ...... 71 6 Conclusion Chapter 5 Empirical Results and Discussion...... 62 Chapter 4 Research Design...... 51 5.2 Discussion of Results...... 65 5.1 Results...... 62 4.3 Methods and Model Building...... 60 4.2 Operationalization of ...... 52 the Variables 4.1 Sample and Data...... 51 ...... 50 3.4 Hypotheses 5.2.1 General Discussion ...... 68 of Results 5.1.2 The analysis with Interaction Variables...... 64 5.1.1 The Analysis with the Subsets...... 62 4.2.3. Control ...... 59 Variables 4.2.2. The Dependent ...... 56 Variables 4.2.1. The Independent ...... 52 Variable 3.3.2 Discussion: Which Theory does the Kurdish Case fit?...... 38 3.3.1 Previous Works on this Specific Case...... 36 The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey iii CEU eTD Collection al 1 eut o eciigTrihEhiiya rrqiie neatosAdd.....64 Table 11- Results for Perceiving Turkish as Ethnicity a Prerequisite, Interactions Added Table 10- Results for Willingness to Live Together, Interactions Added...... 64 Table 9- Resultsfor Thoughts on Eliminating Terror...... 63 Table8- Results for Willingness to Live in Turkey...... 63 Table7- Results for Perceiving Turkish Ethnicity as a Prerequisite...... 62 Table 6- Results for Willingness to Live Together...... 62 Table 5 - The Control ...... 60 Variables -recoded Table 4 – The Dependent variables, recoded...... 59 Table 3 - The Dependent variables, as asked ...... 58 in the questionnaire Table 2- The Independent Variables - recoded...... 56 Table 1- The Independent Variables, as asked in ...... 55 the questionnaire. List of Tables The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey iv CEU eTD Collection conflictual in fearconflictual the Kurdish regions 1920’sand duetoof environment sincethe the the the ofthe country. Dueto parts andSouth-Eastern development, Eastern especiallyinthe to suppress legalthe and illegal Kurdish political movements. orsome in laws democratic legislated, interpreted are lawsare wayin a non-democratic order many non- today Still, polity. asanon-democratic abroad, observers eyesof the the avery negative have in These imageGülbey of created Özcan 2006).facts country 1996; the extrajudicially Kurdish individuals(Whitman White 2000; Marcus persecutes 2007; 1993; also and and nationalists Kurdish sentence to laws non-democratic on relying been has state organization that has actively of Kurdishthe militarily population and to extinguish thePKK, Kurdish guerilla been in a de facto warmobilization tosuppress Kurdishinhabited population. widespreadethnic the bythe Inorder with the Turkish state aremostly which of country, the regions andin South-Eastern Eastern the military presence since 1984, the European European Union (Kiri the to accession the and country the of democratization further to obstacle important dimensions. other in many progress lives,it it because harmful question has but also been effecting costs and deeply preventing close tothem killedhurt or was conflict. becauseof violentthe Notonlyis theKurdish fiveevery for Kurdsthe people said and oneinevery ten people Turks someone the for that Beklentiler country for the past several decades. According to the survey to the According several past decades. for the country The Kurdish isquestion hasTurkey been themost importantproblem on agendathe of the Chapter 1Introduction The second important aspect of the conflict is that it prevents economic political and is itprevents conflict that aspectof the important The second The further becauseconflict should taken it be firstly seriously is asan perceived [Perceptions and Expectations in Kurdishthe Question] in 2010),one (Konda The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ú çi 2004; A çi 2004; ÷Õ rd Õ r 2008). Sincethemid-1980’s, has there been r 2008). a strong 1 Kürt Meselesi’nde Alg Kürt Meselesi’nde Õ ve CEU eTD Collection modernization are contradicting their religion and traditional way of life. There is agreat life. There way of traditional and religion their are contradicting modernization by brought thatare values secular life-style especially and modernity, westernized the resting resist belief style on somehavebeentryingthe modernization; that to while life- this adopted modern ofthesociety sincerely modernized. Somehave portions equally imposed onto the society. Nevertheless,it is not right toassume that every strata of the society elite,has been to planned modernization A bythestate tried from above, of century. project has been in a rapid process of modernization inand following: reason Turkish being society the state the ethnic the the this case, conflict especially sinceit Relatedly,solutions. isexamine important to modernization the between relationship and the beginning of the twentiethifhelpcan and, futureunderstand to work that offer underlying any the reasons possible, Therefore, it becomesKurdish people mobilize ethnically since findthey themselves in a position injustice.of more and more make they conflict; of the important tothedeterioration alsocontribute factors, third and second to examine the sources of theKurdish question mostthe critical mostand urgent problem be to solved in Turkey. conflict, to renderthe Ibelieve aspects these (Whitmanforced 1993). that displacements subject to and been masses have of state organizations the by extrajudicial counter-guerilla the killings many Kurdishhave individuals imprisonments, torture, been exposed to kidnappings and Since the early during junta and1980’s, military the thearmed PKKstarted after insurgency, humannumerous violations, rights Kurdishnationalists the especially against and leftists. excusethe of country has ‘terrorists’,defendingagainstthe in the thebeen state involved With country. the throughout violations rights human justify to state Turkish the by excuse investmentprivate so they that have beenin stuck a deeppoverty (Altan 2002). little and very public they any moment, received regions secedeat these elite could that state All these aspects that render the Turkish-Kurdish ethnic conflict critical, especially the The third way the conflict hurts the country is that the ethnic conflict is used as an The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 2 CEU eTD Collection will be used as identical terms. 1 of every industrialization,modernization and society,the to communication strata diffusing with that expect of societies, human aspects andtraditional backward in rooted primordial, the follows: as summarized be can ethnic conflict modernization and between relationship on the of literature the Beingconflict. loyal Donald to classification Horowitz’s (1985) of differentstrands them, the relationship between andintensity degreeofmodernization, the and spread the of ethnic the their to of categories, according expectation canbe classifiedintwo ethnic roughly conflicts is ethnic very conflict critical. the towards attitudes the and modernization level of between the a relationship existence of clash between modern these non-modernand formations, determining anexistence anon- or a to theethnicconflict relates rhetoric popular that the considering andalso Turkish values, Republican modern in progressive and athreattothe tribal and patriarchal and relationships stuck life-styles, living inprimitive still people, backward non-modern is Kurdsare and that system education and Turkish the state the culture, popular media, the themass groups, other (2007,62).Considering stilldangerous” that, Kurdishtoday,of perception peopleby the the backward as“reactionary, and which constructed structure of contrast was Kurdishthe tribal in a clear and andprogressive”, secular as“modern, conflicts from itself these imagethe of integrity”had national republic andthe constructed andathreattothe backward economically fanatical, religiously tribal, associally in region people of image a cumulative “created years republic firstthe atthe of Kurdish rebellions the that Yavuz notes Hakan Parallelly, M. source been important intraethnic of groups, between an tension andinterethnic. different amountof difference inlevels modernization of among different groups of people and has this Although ethnicity and nation are mostly useddefining for different phenomena, throughoutthis study they The first branch, accepting that the concepts of of ethnicity concepts the that accepting branch, firstThe mobilization examine thesources and literature, of theories thatIn theethnic the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 3 1 and ethnic conflicts are CEU eTD Collection Connor’s and Donald Horowitz’s theories, disagrees thatmobilization and radicalization are which latter, lines ethnic conflictWalker emerges.willbe The and therefore over discussed development ethnic between thetwo deprived groups, hasin one interest mobilizing an along Colonialism psychological Theformer,theories. tobe through discussed Michael book Hechter’s socio- choice and asrational be classified can literature of this The mainvariants say scholars even go on is modernization ethnic to aninevitable conflict of (ibid). resultthat 452) andsome (Newman 1991, theories” theories “conflictual modernization are called modernization. isof of These process the ethnic conflict aproduct and thus mobilization who werealreadyisgroups modern. itethnic Basically, arguedthat consciousness, was tobeand considered. conflict underlying mobilization of ethnic reasons some different Therefore, levelsmodernization. of in high of spite radicalized movements nationalist inand UK ethnic Welsh the where the Canada; Basquesthe in Spain;Walloons and the Flemishin Belgium; and the Irish, Scottish in Quebecois asthe such phenomena nationalist explain the to wasunable conflict ethnic and belongings modernization sweep away ethnic would challenges. prediction that important The pose to started west in modern the emerged that nationalisms radical the But century. twentieth the of half second the until challenged seriously not were and societies non-modern modernization on the intensity of ethnic conflict is Karl W. Deutsch. of effect such a negative theoristimportant whopredicts Themost modernization. with disappear a risingshould andeventually degreeof decrease conflict gradually ethnicity different so that ethnic willlearnlive groups to peacefully with Ethnic groups. other called thing backward the off andthrow each other can resemble people more contact, The second variant of theories tried to explain the rise of the nationalism of the ethnic These theories notencounterdid serious problems in explaining in nationalismsthe (1975) is based on the notion that when modernization creates uneven creates modernization when that notion the on based is (1975) The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 4 Internal CEU eTD Collection addition to this, the Kurdish case also partially fits the ‘diffusion’ theories, many Kurdish many theories, ‘diffusion’ the fits partially also case Kurdish the this, to addition ethnic andmobilization.with In of andinstrumental expressive consciousness other aspects Kurds,combined towards violent attitudes state Turkish the of population isresult the of a Kurdish the of mobilization widespread the arguethat will Rather, I (1975). Hechter adequately byinstrumental explained factors, such as internalthe modelcolonialism of the Kurdish is portions society between and the of andnon-Kurdish Kurdish there inequality the alarge regions likebased expressivefactors, on thenationalism and of Basque(Conversi the although 1997), and the Kurdish dominantly isexpectations Kurdishand arethe that the not mobilization ethnicconflict ethnic peoplein considering andtheethnic group, other ethnic conflict the Turkey? conflict My are stuck the of andtowards individual the individuallevel attitudes degree of modernization at the in deep poverties, Tezcür 2010). it can not inethnic(Gülbey 1996; Turkey conflict be variables role inthe of tothe out political have pointed scholars (600)andseveral situations conflict of ethnic intensification play in police military or the forces the and emergence the emergence of such movements” (597). They also emphasize the role that the non-neutrality of institutional andstructures statepolicies play a major role in shaping and conditioning the ethnic whichmayconflict, be more for important some cases.“In many movements, ethnic lead to that variables the political least underemphasize or at neglect these theories note, in emergence As of andTurkishethnic conflict Kurdish case. the Jalali Lipset (1993) and mobilization. and eventually thatmodernization ethnic in identifications results environment creates stronger rational in theirmaterial butpeople needoutcomes, afeeling of belonging andthe The aim of this thesis is to answer the question: is there a relationship between the Nevertheless, I do not think that any of these theories are sufficient to explain the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ø çduygu, Romano & 2007; 1999;Yavuz RomanoSirkeci çduygu, 5 CEU eTD Collection of sinceTurks they predominantlyare assimilated and do not veryhave different attitudes than Turks. 2 thesis. the of conclusion and discussion overall the is chapter last the and sixth the finally and analysis I draw my conclusions areoperationalized. variables andhowthe be tested models to the of building design, research inmodernization in andKurdish ethnicconflict fourth introduces chapter the case. The the the fifth between norelationship and expectmore we should Iarguewhy and reasons, should seek we chapter, explain conflict after the to on adequate their own not are theories modernization andconflictual discussing whydiffusion I elaborate the same chapter, in the Also are presented. conflict ethnic andthe movements nationalist theKurdish the of overview historical the Later, results nationalism. Turkish of of the in with radicalization the Turkey, modernization starts discussing of third histories the chapter statisticalThe thesis. this of context in the modernization by meant is what discusses and way detailed in amore modernization conflict and ethnic between relationship on the literature theoretical mass media. through state of the rhetoric nationalist and education longnationalist decades to exposed been population theTurkish of and radicalization mobilization theethnic increase to modernization I expect hand, other On the population. Kurdish the for conflict ethnic of intensity onthe modernization of effect noexpect significant I Therefore, bigcities. the individuals have beenassimilated intobeing ormoving Turkish ethnicity after educated, to Itshould be carefully noted thathere I include every individual from non-Kurd ethnic origin inthe subsample The rest of The asfollows.isrest of structured The thesis this chapter deals with second the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 6 2 since they have CEU eTD Collection occupation,high a labor, division of transformation of systems andproduction in rise average in (changes activities are:economic process by this are transformed that aspects The 2). 1966, (Eisenstadtaspects ofsocial demographic ofsocietiesand…structural organization” aspects in a of “socio- changes the ofmodernandas this, result“aspects life” large masses to should the “modern man” (Inkeles1983; Inkeles and Smith 1999[1974]) possess. whatproperties individual, elaborate I should level modernization of on the of indicators commonly modernizationwhatin willmeanfirstly clear,meant thisthesisis more should focus on I what of a tomake in order I believe that definitions, these after even tointerpretation, open are that modern societymodern areconcepts and modernization the terms Since behavior” (494). andsocialization and brokenof become andpeople newpatterns areerodedor for available commitments after psychological and economic in social, old of clusters major which in the process “the is: next subsection, modernization, mobilization, social ways of life” (ibid,definition then, or 493).Deutsch’s of substantial of parts in population the countrieswhich are mobing modern from traditional to discussing“[s]ocial mobilization is an given a name overall to process happensof change, which to the Development: Political and Mobilization Social article famous his of sentence opening the to due is, it believe I which modernization, for name another is mobilization social calls what Deutsch that if weagree be mentioned can definition Another forms. contemporary more developed into political(Deutsch and structures social,1961, 493)and economic, life” of ways “traditional of transformation as of process bethe can described Modernization 2.1.1 Whatis Modernization andWhatDoes itEncompass? Concepts 2.1 Defining Background 2 Theoretical Chapter Generally, modernization ismodernization seen Generally, of includingas a development, of exposure process The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 7 CEU eTD Collection an individual modern. way no is clarify there makes individual weneed the measuringTherefore, institution of level. at to an what but polity, a in modernity of result a be may institutions political centralized instance, For level. individual the at measured be not can modern society or a country make to are accepted that Many factors perfectly not overlap. level do individual itthe at measuring Measuring 2.1.2 Modernization attheIndividual Levelthe level of modernization modernization. with interaction their considering without on theexamination of inchange individuals political behavior of incompletebe and masseswould level of and …transform behavior” an (Deutsch Therefore political sometimes 1961, 493). the societyinfluence to these tend changes impact, “cumulative andinthe societies human of structure and the country and1961; 1966; Eisenstadt Tiryakian 1985).and Nevitte Deutsch 1964; anew(Smelser identity which create factors social-psychological directly housing, high better in technology, education,the literacy mass rise and to reaction media and exposure to are among many factors, others, Other groupings. andtribes, castes, religious of importance declineof change, such as stratification of Systems urbanized population. andhas amore interests and political arebasedon economic formation groupings of ina structure which for to example society, differentiation) transforms 1964).The (Smelser institutional and bureaucratization unit, thepolitical of (centralization structure andpolitical inclination liveto in smaller households); value systems (spread of secularity and rationality); income family level); activities relationships based of (decline andconsidering onkinship an attributes of the modern individual with the assumption that “no one is born modern, but modern, born is one “no that assumption the with individual modern the of attributes Alex Inkeles, in his book it whole the aspect transforms change, social of important is an Modernization The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Exploring Individual Modernity, 8 starts examining the CEU eTD Collection universally, and Idiscuss thecriticismsthem. towards conflicts rising for the ethnic of number explanations in satisfactory offering are successful extent they to what theory, of each and weaknesses strengths the anddiscuss conflict ethnic and modernization between relationship the on literature the on elaborate I subchapter, this In Conflict andEthnic Modernization between on theRelationship 2.2 TheTheories limited by surveythe that Iuse. questions is attributes these of measurement the level, individual the at modernity of measurement of limitation the in to addition that, emphasize to need feel the Ialso modernization. the previous generations products lifelongof socializations andlife experiences, and from probably even aggregations of the family. Hence I believe that they will be good individualthe becan measured by data. attitudinal and socio-demographic indicators of forready newexperiences290). modernization andideas…”level the (1999, Therefore, of independent and inhis autonomous traditional relations to sources of influence…;is and he informed citizen; participant marked hehas sensea of personal efficacy; heishighly an is “He such: as individual modern the of character the on findings their summarize another book on individual modernity, In politicization. industrialization, mass communication, education, likeurbanization, factors is thesocio-demographical external,feelingsenvioronment; the secondvalues andtowards such as attitudes, individual, of the characteristics firstof parts. istheinternal The these two in canbe classified carries individual modern the that him, characteristics to the According 31). life (1983, experience” theirpeopleparticular own sothrough that become rather It is important to note that these attributes can not be obtained at once; they are The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Becoming Modern, Becoming 9 Inkeles and David H. Smith CEU eTD Collection among these groups (1975, different 6-8). and convergence commonality is interaction a of isthis out expected what intensemore and gets regions different between interaction the occurs, modernization after But, andlife-style. cultural and political institutions variancesalso possess in standardsliving, of religion culture, in which economic, the differ societies in isolation. These exist andperipheries era whencore ispre-industrial the model diffusion of stage the first the that says He arguments. Deutsch’s (Conversi 2004,8). new and forms freely …individuals become are eroded socialization” available to of bonds… ancestral which the through process is,the that mobilization’, ‘social of presence the scholar tohim,prominent is of According“modernization by such an characterised approach. “ 1985,18). consequence of modernity the from transition traditionality to (Hechter it(Horowitz 1985,13;Conversi was just2004, 4)or atemporary a phase was that conflict class of adisguise even development, uneven crisis, economic traditionalism, backwardness, treatedasresults of were affiliations andthecountries existing ethnic of ethnicity tobewas thought an formoutmoded of in affiliation political the industrial Intherelatively(KaufmanWorld 2006,45-6). War theconceptenvironment, peaceful post II hatreds in ancient were rooted hostilities that mutual of areconsequences conflicts ethnic view, In this asaside-effectmodernization. of andhomogenization of process assimilation a natural diminish to thanks to ethnic groups between different conflicts expectthe therefore and decrease differences ethnic the to anddevelopment modernization basically predict theories Theses theories. as modernization classified aregenerally strand of The first theories 2.2.1 The Theories thatExpect aNegativeEffect diffusion Michael Hechter provides a brief sketch of diffusion theories, which also comprises One of the most important models that predict such a relationship is called the model national of (Hechterdevelopment” 1975,6).Karl W. is the Deutsch The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 10 CEU eTD Collection is product of is of product toacompetitionsomething analogous between mobilization of degree social and conflict thatethnic argues himself Deutsch 1975; 28). citedbyHechter society” 1964; (Allard the into integrated economically in fact, not, is collectivity peripheral “the isthat explanation traditionalism and ethnic inconflicts spite of high levels relatively modernization. of One regions 1985,97).most whereethnic intense was violence (Horowitz were areas urban and nationalists ethnic radical most the sometimes elites, were educated individualstensions (1998,269-70).Another greatweakness of theories is diffusion factthe that, from inter-ethnic into the multiculturalism” of dynamics the “transformed it law, of rule and mostbehavior modernizedbring rationality modernization would modernizers, that of expectation the contrary to portions in conflicts a rapidly modernizing andalready modernized world. FredW. Riggs notes that of the society, such may successful nation-building process be achieved. as army officers and should beforgotten affiliations All a homogenizeda new, ethnic identity. previous or and of core the institutions the towards an assimilation lead to and groups between differences of contact among Therefore,and 498-9). isahigh inelite there 1961, changes (Deutsch degree communications different of population,brings inquality politics ofpoliticallystrata achange relevant expansion the of groups inunified and biggermarketand aunified education system develop. mobilization Social also the society,with Moreover, newspapers,andofindustrialism,through rise groups radiothe a television. which, other of cultures and languages the to exposed get quickly, and in easily more regions other the end should People cantravel dramatically improve. massmeans of to communication and transportation decrease commonality works withamong such groups different dynamics: modernization, With the the A revisioned version of A versionbe revisioned diffusion cited,explainsof that can theories also survival of the Yet, incapableethnic diffusion number of explaining were thetheories growing of a causes that social mobilization of process the Deutsch (1953), According to The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 11 CEU eTD Collection identification, mostly works of through Connor andHorowitz. and be group attachments socio-psychological to underlyingthe expect reasons theories that will andbook bewill his Hechter struggle arethe for reasons power underlying of willethnic focus conflictThe mainscholar I materialor material for goods, inequalities orstruggle argue effectbecausethey a positive (Nairn 1977; cited by Conversi 2004, 9). nationalism and animosity modernization, and; between conflict relationship bemust adirect banner modernizationunder of rapid the and defencehomeland,the there of concluded that often miseries, genocideit andwar, unequal a century led total andeventhat of predicted, to Western unmitigated leadworldnot supremacy did to scholars peaceashad previous nationalisms of violent west. developed the toexplain lineanother inorder theories newly developed, of the intensifying especially Asdiffusion the inadequacy diffusion serious challenges aresponseto theories, to of theories. [as of inin American ethnicEuropean more1972] industrialized are and conflict North states thattherecentupsurge states below, openly introduced will be work whose Connor (1972), modernizationWalkeris theworld. tensions to there ageneral although tendecy throughout As we have seen above,2.2.2 The Theories that Expect a Positive Effect the diffusion theoriesnationalisms inthedeveloped countries. were not able for rising explanation satisfactory are not still, these But modernization. processes of to the to explain the rise1953; cited 1985,100).In by Horowitz view, beimpediments intense this ethnic conflicts can of ethnic ismodernization theformer, successful overcomes vanishes (Deutsch andconflict ethnic latter If the arises. second,conflict the overcomes first the If assimilation. of degree I will examine this subsection under two titles. The first will be theories which expect firstwill betheories titles. The two I will subsection under examine this expansion and trade literature, generally, observingthat ofthis Most proponents The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Internal Colonialism 12 will be examined. Next, I will discuss the discuss will I Next, examined. be will CEU eTD Collection relatively more and less advantaged groups are formed in different regions of As regions country. are formedthe of indifferent groups less more advantaged relatively and model internal of colonialism isas thefollowing: there is first, unevenmodernization an and in book the Hechter andhisarguments in newsystem the stratification”of (1974,462;quotedby 1985, Horowitz 102). feared by others; and the basis for these sentiments is the recognition of their superior position and be andmore sometimes educated, envied, to urbanizedtend resented, wealthy, better Bates, when“more according to increase, Thecan 101-2). conflict also (1985, intense. this andclass boundariesand ethnic overlap isevenmore confontration the groups of the in a and as of resultadvantage” competition the gains a“headstart group can happenif one increase whenthereis an uneven distribution benefitsof ofmodernity amongThis groups. in competitions market. job the same (Melsonwants” andWolpe by 1970,1114;cited 1985,100)such Horowitz as the possessing “inthesensemore of become similar they andincreasewhen ordinary people (1974, 468;cited by 1985,100).Horowitz The competition may also be on levelthe of collective advance supportto their in position for competition the the modernity”benefits of importantpositions,Bates diagnoses:“elitesorganize or material as such aspower gains, competition may be on the level of the elite may over them. ethnic This orpositionscompete groups anddifferentmaterial limited goods and they can work to mobilize masses101).(1985, According proponents of to view,this ethnic appear conflicts becauseis there to obtain conflict motives of and ambitions of very themes: role important the underline two conflict intensity the ethnic of elites, and the role of differential modernization 2.2.2.1. The Theories thatExpecta Positive Effect DuetoMaterial Interest of different groups My discussion on the material interest theories of modernization will mostly focus on Parallelly, mentions otherinstances Horowitz when isethnic conflict expected to on modernization of effect a positive expect that theories the Horowitz, to According The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Internal Colonialism 13 (1975). A sketchbrief (1975). the of CEU eTD Collection ensure that groups cangroups nationalis ensure that dimension live peacefully Another of development together. idenity feelingand of a“corporatea belonging group”(19). to Therefore, itis important to of a common formation and (19) differences” cultural of objective effacement “gradual cultural integration is the The firstthese of 18-20). boxes” black (1975, seperate “analytically different three into is theprocess of Moreover, heseperates national periphery development dominated. that anda core is dominant one there in which a society amodel of assumes Hechter argument, risethe nationalist of movements1985, (Hechter 18).In toconstructorder basisthe for this (9). conflictthe nation makemay fuelingfurther independence, themselves themconsider and seek a seperate that their culture is equal to, group disadvantaged the of isan assertion groups cleavage between and deeper differentiation or even superior than the culture categorize makemarkers groups which themselvesand others.The the final of stage this of the core and this assertion cultural these for example is a perfect language I believe that (9). groups” the characterize is cultural or thismarkers signs, areseen by“visible helped categorization which to is worse, What play” (9). to be expected may each roles of range to the themselves according makes ethnic even identifications of groups moresolid anddistinct “categorize since actors access of the individuals from other groups to these positions. The cultural division laborof whilefor superordinateensure thathighprestige the group arereserved the positions denying institutionalization This 9). (ibid, system” stratification existing the of institutionalization the at aiming ofpolicies the stratification system, their“stabilizetries theadvantagedgroup gains, andmonopolize to its advantages through or “the cultural divisionresources and power happens. In the next stage, as rational actors who are tryingof maximizeto labor” (9) should a resultof this unequal acrystallizationdevelopment, inequality inof distributionthe of The core claim of this book is that cultural division of labor is strongly connected to The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey where language and religion are basic determinants. It aims to achieve 14 CEU eTD Collection equal. The last dimension Hechter analyses is analyses the dimension Hechter equal. last The economic integration, people are stuck in peoplelowest arestuck is strata the Although of called society the this situation (30). being reachof limited. colonized peopletothese the The colonial culture, the extremely from individualscore the in reachof very the occupationsoften are status high 30) andthe stratification where objective cultural upon aresuperimposed distinctions class lines” (ibid, social of system “a requires labor of division cultural The labor. of division cultural people”Although (1975,30). is there cultural contact, resultthe of colonial is development a indigenous inferior materially superiority, on a or cultural “racial, ethnic, on periphery a rests and a phase of colonial development would start. The properties of the rule of the core on the conquers In external culturally the undevelopedcolonialismalien anexogenous, people group Western and thirdworld peripheral the situation countries on disadvantaged the the of groups. increase the they conflict. and integration political while the latter does not, but what is common in both is that they are impediments towards group, of in position reason a disadvantaged encompasses the structural change social the in the direction of expecting“more rewards for supporting the regime” (20). The former of ingroup, demands the peripheral the changes The second canbethe 20). collectivity (ibid, the members of the against job discrimination a of example gives Hechter disadvantage. are totheir that situation social in the changes of becomes aware group peripheral ishence Thefirst legitimacy”membership, when (1975,20). its grantof withdraw and the social of sense its may reassess “a in which collectivity instances two determines society, on any of these dimensions, is more likely to experience conflict. structural position of a collectivity itsdetermines political behavior” (19).An unintegrated The theory of internal colonialism rests on an analogy between colonialism of The He conflict. ethnic groupson unintegrated of effectexamine the to continues Hechter The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey which implies that social and economic development levels are roughly are levels development economic and social that implies which 15 political integration in which “the social CEU eTD Collection possible ways for individuals the from increaseperipheral groups to their“individual life political movements based ethnic Allon appear.affiliations and ethnic inall,only conflicts creates mobilization this differences, in cultural rooted ultimately is inequality this Since resources. of equalize distribution to inorder organization political orform own their power, haveinsteadaffiliations,makes believe more but toobtain political peripheral they groups andethnic decrease inqualities not does periphery the and core the between contact differences. cultural by economic concludes are Hechter that these, inequalities caused population. Considering properties discrimination for suchaslanguage religion are used and peripheral the against lower life quality of amongand annoyance the peripheral population exists. Cultural of periphery the is by strengthenened “juridical, political and military measures” (33) and a is primary position is dependenceWhat this also worse, typical.anddisadvantageous product inthis as fluctuations of price a consequence Migrationworkers peripheral of mineral export. mostly isproperty ona peripheral single, the adependence of economy and agricultural general Another markets. external on economy peripheral the of dependence a is this of hence the peripheral economy isstrictly dependent on the development of the core. The result and of periphery members the among the trade and commerce the monopolize core of the internal colonialism with colonial exogenous the situation as (1975, 32-4): such membersthe the of similarities determines the Hechter in periphery. the groups aredominated there group within group core rulers andinstead of thereisthedominant the indigenous the same polity it. resembles onethat not metropolis, of colony the being of from periphery is the (31). a The developmenttowards are very each other distinct periphery the and core the between development the that says Hechter development, colonial Contary to what diffusion theories expected, Hechter (1975, 34) argues that increased that 34)argues (1975, Hechter expected, theories diffusion what Contary to alien exogenous the of instead but situation, similar very a is colonialism Internal The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 16 CEU eTD Collection calls his approach calls own conflicts. motives needof for belonging identification group and in theformation of ethnic identity and mobilization in of groups pursuitmaterialof benefits, psychological theories emphasize the of psychological concepts thatthe ofa elements Instead nation reston. ethnicity and the omitting are they is that conflict ethnic of explanations material to criticism A common 2.2.2.2 TheTheories that Expecta Positive Effect Due to Psychological Attachments lines. ethnic along mobilization this in making effective are that understand the underlying mechanismsmobilization. of We should for look mechanisms other nothelp usfully may Thus, material explanations 105). (ibid, classes rarely perfectly” overlap by inequalities,notis examples this supported empirical since“ethnicand social groups material for reasons mainthe are underlying differences saying thatand ethnic cultural by answer satisfactory a provides relatively theory colonialism internal Hechter’s Although aregroups organized in lines than ethnic rather instance, for other, lines class (1985,15). explain disadvantaged why the to unable mostare of them isthat conflicts ethnic increase to resources for scarce competition expect which all theories towards of Horowitz A criticism (Horowitz 1985, 15). weaknesses inexplaningmobilize, whypeople prefer to than rather escape their group to change, especially in one or two generations and intenal colonialism theory possesses some leaving about arerelatively thegroup? suchaslanguageCultural andreligion properties easy what but demands, material for mobilization ethnic explaining in is successful It attention. attracts internal theory colonialism a weaknessandstrength of Here, both 18). identity (ibid, orraisingischances” theirgroup by leavingdemands, either emphasizing their group, One scholar who advocates a social-psyhological approach is Stuart J. Kaufmanwho is Stuart approach asocial-psyhological advocates who One scholar point. this to limited not is conflict ethnic of explanations material of weaknesses The The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey symbolic politics (2006). In his model of ethnic conflict the mainmodel the Inhis ethnic of conflict (2006). 17 CEU eTD Collection increased the number of people who were aware of theandwere awareof nationality numberand when increased their who of ethnicity people it itnation”can welegitimately modernization 57), speak of (ibid, canbe asa that said majority nationally hasbecomeaware, a population the and“only great phenomena” of when “mass are nationalism of feeling the and nations in belief the isthat theory Connor’s individualsin sought these which A perennial shouldin properties. that point beunderlined an it notbutcreated ofethnicity environment by concepts and nation, proceeded creating the him,modernization according (2004,57).Therefore, to perennial factors to nationhood with the ethnic, or cultural nature of nations.fact, In Smith writes that Connor’s theory linked believeimply this agree not But, inthisancesteral relationship. Connorshouldnot did that led to are people becauseof circumstances, social or feel belonging, needa to they belief; group of people are actually ancesterally related, or not. What matters is that they have such a believe,italicized byConnorhimselfis does important here. ifextremely not matter It these of who people as“agroup nation and this should give some is ideashowhis theory builton this understanding. Hedefines are nations of nature the about understanding his how reflect should nation of definition own mobilizationtherefore along lines on psychological ethnic feelings rest Connor’s and beliefs. Nation-Destroying view,In of (1972). Connor’s concepts the nation and ethnicity and Understanding TheQuest Ethnonationalism: for isconflict WalkerConnor, whose views be will his discussed through book calculation of materialthe benefit 1985,143; (Horowitz mentioned in Kaufman 2006, 52). theindividual’s in than is rather or esteem conflict of more determinant rise group’s the ethnic symbolic mobilization” politics chauvinistof A (ibid, 47). struggle worth for agroup and self- extinction, anda mythsjustifyfears of hostility, group that are“group causes conflict the of Another scholar who has seminal works in social-psychological models of ethnic The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey believe they are ancesterally related” (1994, 212). The verb The (1994,212). related” areancesterally they 18 (1994) and his article Nation-Building or CEU eTD Collection scholar who is fond of social-psychological theories of ethnicanother conflictHorowitz, points benefits. out anothermaterial have personally not do who individuals by followed masses by is nationalism movements larger understanding adopted how radical and are societies, Connorcriticizes approacheselitist which notpay do enough attention in manyit ordinarythe individuals to aspects livesof modern and haspenetrated of that daily of feelings and beliefs in the exists that phenomenon mass a is nationalism that Emphasizing identity inethnic an beliefof thatpeople the argue advocates of approach this country. Therefore, and of andbuilding in homogenization elites projects modernizethe thesociety order to and the their mobilizationargument in this bookbook his in was nationalism of theory Gellner’s that an important source is is Ernest critical which Connor examplefor such an towards appropriate approach of rise alongof nationalisms An asambitions. elite of results was conflicts ethnic ethnic and which awareness conflicts treated thethese nation- lines distinctions between themselves and (329). others” were toand also ones who share his/her ethnic identity. Therefore,the groups “become more aware of the benefits(ibid,This 328). cultural awareness is raised peoplewhen become more awareof groups other “increaseawareness” cultural television, newspapers, radiomoreby and literacy, of rise of the like spreadof communication (1972,332) “accompaniments ofeconomic the development” elites.Deutsch’smodel. contrary whatDeutsch hadto But, predicted, Connor arguedthat the like communication, in increases the of a consequence is mobilization This modernization. dueto between groups different contacts increasing theory was the inConnor’s belonging anation. to form they started threshold, acertain was above the number of people with the same cultural traits who believed that they constituted a nation In addition to rational choice theories, Connor also criticized elitist theories of ethnic of theories elitist criticized also Connor theories, choice rational to addition In an inThe seek whichdynamic which constituted sucha enviornment to needed people The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Nations and 19 Nationalism (1983). In a nutshell,In the (1983). a CEU eTD Collection ‘objective’ components” (ibid, 63). would be andstronger could bevalidmore for cases if it by wassupplemented “more Connor’s that Hestates theory 63). (2004, increaseconsciousness ethnic of effective inthe are that terms structural and cultural the and omitting factors muchonsubjective very psychologicalin variables explainingethnic Smith conflict. finds approach Connor’s relying He is usually criticized for an only psychological understanding of nation and dependence on ofidentity.is a matter involved in mobilizationthe and conflict consciously,it knowingis what about(ibid, 105);it get they politics, about ignorant actually not are masses class lower that says he interests, from which movements these arise follow nationalist the misled to classesare lower the and parts of important105) conflicts ethnic are (1985, interests” “middleclasscareerist the arguethat which the therories Against can be that criticized. theories choice of rational aspect Nevertheless, Connor’s social-psychological explanations are also prone to criticism. The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 20 CEU eTD Collection in the discourse of the state elite and the education curriculum in the late 1920’sand 1930’s elitein late the of education the curriculum state inthe and discourse the includingeffort, astrictnationalist education andpropaganda. Therewere significantchanges ofmodernization. helpalso process the would which nation, Turkish a create to was point starting a Therefore, ideal. this to obstacle nationalamong existnot fact greatest publicwasthe didbut the that the consciousness republic” (Ye years the of first the after ‘nation-state-society’ modern and a secular ideology of “constitutive as a cultural as movementa cultural 1962;cited(Mardin byYe began which nationalism, Turkish minorities. Muslim by secessions and rebellion nationalist was a thecore dueto that of be Muslimgroups, disappointment empirethe should the the banner of ‘Ottoman Nation’,seeing that Ottomanism the ideology, unitesought to all which andreligionsethnicities under had failed and the nationalism, Turkish embraced elitesintellectuals andthe Turkish state the WorldWar, First Islamism ideology, which demonstrated strong desire for modernization, implemented more radical and faster reforms. when the political(Ye apart authority from it forfalling savingthe Initially, state anda means was 1997). state the society (Poulton of the one-party of the aspects other the spreadto gradually later thearmy and of modernization as started state, withIt borders. and Western Northern atthe suffered continously Empire the failures military the no serious opposition and with3.1 ModernizationTurkey in andMobilization oftheTurkish Nationalism a to the Conflict 3:Historical Background Chapter This process of This nation-building of process and raising thenational consciousness of a lotrequired and Aftermilitary theseverein hugelossesland the Wars defeats Balkan the and the to as aresponse initiated wasfirst in Empire Ottoman the process The modernization ÷ en The was 2007). process years onlygradualuntil first the Turkishthe of republic, The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ÷ en 2007, 120). The idea was to establish a new state withidentity, aTurkishestablishnew state a The idea wasto 2007,120). en 21 ÷ en 2007, 120), later bea en evolved 2007, 120), to CEU eTD Collection conflict is that the attacks of the PKK lead to many losses of life (Zürcher 2004, 178). The manylife (Zürcher 2004,178). of losses leadto of PKK isthe attacks the conflict that against minorities,the including Kurds. I donot think Turkishthe that population would be mobilized this much andradicalized theminorities, blames which rhetoric employed nationalist andthe not mediahad the state the political will discourse (84).If evolve” nationalistthe education system liberalized and was public- mainstream way the the determine will actors state of the andpractices discourse continues state the tobe in dominantthe actor question. Kurdish the “the Hestresses that tribal regional backwardness” or resistance, (Ye content of the discourseKurds. The non-muslims and suchas tobeassimilated whorejected minorities rhetoric were against the Kurds was and maineducation the enemies nationalist system being of rhetoric.andexposed The to this still is “in terms of reactionaryby 2005a,81).Itcan Somer be arguedthat this ‘transplantation’ the occuredthrough politics, suspicionthe of ethnic, religious andlinguistic diversity of public Turkish the quoted (2004; of main is thesociety onto the reason “transplanted” was subconsciously that mental category and in of the empire the important factors collapse most were the minorities and religious lines. press along media employ nationalistand the propagate and discourse this continously these nationalistthe propoganda diffuses many to levels of societythe since a large majority of the Moreover, students. the to consciousness nationalist impose and nationalism preach always citizens still exists today. The education from curriculums,university, primary to school The nationalistrhetoricethnically(ibid, and state its of the mobilizeits willingness 94-7). to wereemphasized aspects racial – even society more homogenous for a theneed emphasizing way, nationalist more much a in written were textbooks history The 1997). (Poulton Another factor Another radicalizesthat Kurdsin society the the Turkish the ethnic against Bask Õ The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey n Oran n Oran argues that lessonsthe derived from history the of country the ethnic that 22 ÷ en, 1998, 216). According216). en,Somer 1998, to (2005a), CEU eTD Collection islikely more happen.to Kurds hostile wasand more towards anda spreadof ethnic radicalism, ethnic consciousness by individuals whoseidentity foremost definedwas by their religion, after Islamic risethe of (Anderson 1983). While previously, beingKurds, fellow Muslims weremore easily tolerated feelidentitiesbelonging were a to and‘imagined’ perfect tofill ethnic groups vacuum the infinding new need were people of After declinereligion, modernization. of secularity with which education through was achieved and nationalistrhetoric exposure to inmy view. of successthe of“the processofinculcating loyalty aprimary to the Turkish nation” (202), 1968 (201).Poulton concludesin increase the that indicator is national the consciousness an of percent 50 the with ‘Turks’, compared as themselves defined of percent respodents the morestudents weremuch (ibid, In exposed survey,to in1993,69 other the 201). conducted workers. Poulton relates this difference to the nationalist state education that the high school factory was surveyed, group that lines, with other compared the themselves along ethnic mentions. Onesurvey in conducted 1968 revealed thathigh identifiedschool students radicalizationthe of Turkishthe population can betwodifferentsurveys thatPoulton (1997) group. the other towards attitudes ischauvenistichostile(ibid, this environmentand leads what perception worse, 148-9) to perceive and axenophobic to andleadsgroups eachothersasenemies, creating conflict both supportparties his in that further to argument 1990’s the armedthe deteriorates the struggle individuals Kalayc ethnicconflict. in the Turkish fuelsof anger the which terrorists, asseperatist shown Kurdsarestill discourse, casualties grew due to thearmed struggle (Kalayc to casualties grewdue ethnic nationalisms both of Kurds and Turksgained and more supporters strength as the One last factor that increases the ethnic mobilization of Turks can be the rising level can of level beTurks of rising the mobilization increases theethnic factor that One last forSome the more support argument education that andin state rhetoric isinfluential The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ÕR÷ lufor both mentions increasedsupport the ethnic 23 ÕR÷ lu 2005, 148). In addition, in lu thepopular addition, In 2005,148). CEU eTD Collection majority majority (xviii).group considered by considered andalso themselves apartof others dominantthe Sunni Muslim Kurds were existed, ethnic althoughcategorizations wecan say that that Natali writes (2005) beimportance could deemednot in categorizations of empire.the Relatedly,great Denise (60).Butstill, butethnic had core the also“religio-feudal”at ethnicity the Turkish state Turkey. Largely Muslim, Kurdslivingbeing Sunni arealso significant there Alevite Muslim in definelanguage to becomespoke theKurdish word the (McDowall people1996,13). the who landsmeans atlive,but the where Kurds mid whenwelook Kurdhad the century, 19th also Kurdistan, timeofIslamic of which atthe ‘Kurd’ ‘nomad’ synonymousconquest with was Iraq, a majority of them wereEast underand South-East the Ottoman of Turkey, rule kingdoms and empires,North-Eastern havenever their state. constituted Alarge own until numberlivedin the the empire parts collapsed.of today’sOne Iran The and oftermNorthern the regions native of 3.2.1 Kurds in Turkey Before the Turkish Republic: Conflicts Between Elites peoples of the area,3.2 History of Kurds and the Ethnic Conflict in Turkey Kurds have always lived massmedia levels more through rhetoric and secularity. of nationalist under the ruleindividuals to alonger areexposed nationalist education, alonger and exposure tothe of other modern ethnic the more and Kurdssince the towards conflict moreattitudes radical modern portions of peoplethe with ethnicityTurkish should bemore mobilized andhave Ali Kemal Özcan (2006) notes that the Ottoman Empire was a “multi-ethnic” and a and the Ottoman Empirethat a“multi-ethnic” notes was Ali Kemal Özcan(2006) moreargue the that to is possible it that I believe above, discussion the all Regarding The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 24 CEU eTD Collection century, when Islamism ideologies became more viable in the empire. in the viable more became ideologies Islamism when century, Ottoman Sultans had an assertion to be the caliph, and this institution was emphasized after the late nineteenth 3 them. among identity national Kurdish forces in the name of religion,Caliphate we can infermovement which was mainly comprised of twogroups these (Özcan 60), which 2006, saveaimed to the thatliberation religious a the of form the in Muslim was it organized, was idenitymovement resistance was prevailing over weremost Turksand the Muslim signifincant WhenanAnatolian ethnic groups the Kurds. a demography of the country significantly changed due to losses of land and migration. The two Period of Insurgencies 3.2.2 Kurds in Turkey in the Last Years of the Empire and the First Years of Republic: highlythe ethnicized andsocialized etnicconflict thatexists today (Yavuz 2007,56). of is itwas thepredecessor between It yet. although struggle elite only the socialized a power andlocalnot Kurdishelitebeen the had the and Turkish-Kurdish ethnicizedconflict or elite state the between wereonly conlflicts these that here note carefully Weshould state. the in conflict by wereseveral areas.There these feudal Kurdish against landlords the uprisings of instances first the created attempts centralization These reforms. of these apart was Sultan Eastern and Anatolia controland these South-Eastern putting underdirect regions the of mostly indecentralized landlords the Kurdish of tribal power the the aims decreasing and for crucial these areas were rural these of Centralization (256). nineteenth century” under the remarks “many Kurdishnineteenth hadsemi-autonomy Somer (2011) chieftains century, that In a caliphate; caliph, the leader of the state, is the representative of Islam religion and all Muslims. The Muslims. all and religion ofIslam representative the is state, of the leader the caliph, a caliphate; In When Anatolia was occupied by the allied powers after the First World theFirstWar, after by When Anatoliaallied powers the wasoccupied the in the center the by ruled directly already were Kurdistan the of parts some Although 3 . SinceKurds with thewerefightingtogether Turksagainstoccupyingthe The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 25 CEU eTD Collection was a Turk”. He goes on to quote Barkey and Fuller (1998) where they demonstrate where1924 Barkey quote that (1998) they Fuller demonstrate and He goes on to was a Turk”. is‘anyone who a “insistedit that republic’ of citizen Turkish since the Kurdish population” “Turkishnessimposing that the the onto 1924constitution was Özcan states the a republic of ethnicities highly was effective in formationof the a Kurdish ethnic identity (2005, xix). Kurdish andother excluded a“we-they that created dichotomy” that project building identities meltedthat inthe of allother Natali,Accordingpot Turkish ethnicity. to nation this fulfilled starting from midthe 1920’s. previous would new expectations thatthe state be state of Kurds the Turksandthe werenot these caused the other,Eastern but the regions only thing of the in thatSouth- state Eastern andKurdish the the against tribes rebelled Turkish ethnicity and country. I can the on surely citizen Turkish the It of identity the is based that agenda beyond saya nationalist adopted is state Turkish thatthe scopeit was ofclear this thatthesis in situation Nevertheless,change. the The Özcan would1969, 399;quoted 2006, 77-8). the to speculate which of been enjoying the right to participate in the government and to rule the country” (Be rulethe country” andto inparticipate government the to right the beenenjoying of in Assembly, representatives andhave Kurdshavetaken part legitimate the National the government of Kurds the as much as of Turks.Thisthe isbecause the bona fide and the isalso Assembly National Grand the of government “The context: the understanding in was should be helpful western newrecognizedthe powers state bythe Turkish where conference Lausanne the was delivered at of republic,that the andminister president be prime thefuture warandwould independence leadingthe of Turkish the commanders statements which conformed to such expectations. A speech of of Aspeech such expectations. to whichconformed statements made also newstate of the The founders of andKurds. beTurks astate would identity and a Muslim on based wouldbe state newthe that were expectations the republic, the to regime The policy the new state followed was to construct a new identity of a Turkish citizen After independence and proclamation of newTurkish state the of the of change the the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 26 ø smet smet ø nönü, who was one of one was who nönü, ú ikçi CEU eTD Collection military and everything seemed calm. Turkey was experiencing a transition to a multi-party to a transition experiencing Turkey was seemedcalm. military and everything Kurdsandthe the between large-scale clashes Therewereno (Özcan 60) started. 2006, 1930’s,Afterbloodily Dersiminsurgencies “silentdecades” the repressed inthe late the were the Secularization of the Kurdish Identity 3.2.3 Kurds inTurkey Until the Last Insurgency: Different Levels of Modernization and planted the seeds of highlythe ethnicized andsocialized conflictisthat present today. formethnicized andviolent nationalism]”Kurdayeti (Natali of [Kurdish 2005, 91)which a more in gave“highly to Turkey rise andexclusionary space centralized, political ethnicized, homogenization were pursued populationthe of that by andand assimilation the state the minorities, of Turkification of policies the that appears possibility a explanation, revolt tribal tendencies (White 2000; Natali in 2000). Especially butalso last, the a certain to in extent the nationalist had revolts these that assume to be can explanation last One nationalism. explanations, which can notexplain the leftist and modern recent discourse of radical Kurdish tribalistic tothe turn Instead, wecan state. dominated Sunni the of secularization with the satisfied would bemore Kurds, than who werebytheAlevite of revolts some these if that we consider explain all especially to it I cases, is believe state, that the insufficient of secularization tothe wereareaction they andthat argues, history official asthe rebellions, some wereIslamic of Even if these that weassume nationalist. than ethnic tribal, rather 1938. inuprisingscan beilluminating Therebetween1924and the period atthis were 16 point. state. conflict into with the come identity but ethnic own in Turkey had twochoices: either beto assimilated and be an‘equal citizen’, orembrace their qualify as Turks“atthe expense of denying their own ethnic identity”Kurds (2006,78).Now, constitution had the “equated term of ‘citizen’ withbeing a andTurk” Kurdscould only ø I believe that the frequency of bythe rebellions Kurdsin the early period republican çduygu, Romano and Sirkeci (1999, 993) presume these conflicts to be religiousçduygu, to and these993) presume conflicts or Romano (1999, Sirkeci The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 27 CEU eTD Collection leftist ideologiesleftist in Turkey.among Gaining alarge support the Turkish youth, radical left was inKurdish nationalism. of factor the radicalization the which wasthecrucial arena. I believe that there are additional factors, especially the state’s attitudes towards Kurds, in political youth the of Kurdish the factor in radicalization the wasanimportant educated, Kiri nationalism (Kiri its from moresecular, ethnic flavorandadopting a identity away Islamic was getting (YavuzWhile 2007,57). modernization morewas diffusing number to of Kurdish people, the isitisnationalism that asa of“secularization identity” perceived Kurdish of the period Kurdish society livedin underdevelopedthe undermuch East, life-standards. worse elite state the –still only when they their Kurdishdenied identity – alarge portion of the in distinguished in schools and be urban could most West the join the to move educated areas, situation very not was amongdifferent ofKurdishWhile people individualsethnicity. some eliterestore state the it (Kad back to and from government to the group latter remove of the to d’étatin in the representatives order 1960 implemented acoup andmorein rural the army wassuch traditional, living people that the areas religious urban classes betweensecular, The tension groups rose evenmore. of different modernization relatively less than otherethnicthe groups. significantly higher.from Kurds it Naturally, changes,although these werealso effected was becoming of rate was urbanization Also,the higher education. werereceiving individuals many years and of republic the first to the compared higher wasmuch The literacy rate very effective. still was process modernization the War and World Second the system after ú çi and Winrow do, modernization, thisthat andWinrowdo, whichmademore çi themurbanized and Lastly,between period the coupsof the 1960 and1980werethe peak years of the Kurdish of mobilization in the important period this makes that aspect crucial Another of level the between gap the that is period this about phenomenon important An The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ú çi çi & Winrow 1997; Yavuz 2007).Yet, itwill be tooearly demonstrate, as to 28 ÕR÷ lu 1998, 189). The lu 1998,189). CEU eTD Collection system, state military legal specific aregionally andalso decades, emergency for been subjected to decree have control and, at the outlawed parties, Kurdish and banned cultural Kurdish activities” “Kurds (Natali 2005, 82-3). same time, economic “prohibitedmilitary junta use militarizedKurdish theKurdishof language, neglect” territories, (Gülbey 1996, The violence. illegal as such tomeans, in would resort legal participate the platform to 13). should amovement isitthat be hereis found that emphasized that natural that noopportunity military anditgovernment was therefore marginalized highly The (Yavuz point2007, 64). Identified asone of divisive the Kurdishnationalism forces inthecountry, was bannedby the ordinary the andKurdish citizens socioeconomic of Turkish every backgrounds. involvement with spread to mobilization conflict ethnic of and the 20th century the ethnic the Kurdish elite in beginning,datingthe back tothe 19th century, especially thesecondafter half local and the state Turkish the was between While theconflict 2006). (Özcan situation look at of we when Kurdish in today’s society the segments mobilization every less ethnic 3.2.4 Ethnicization and Socialization oftheConflict: AWidesprad Mobilization leftMarxist alonggroups, with foundersthe andfirst members of PKK the (Özcan 2006,60). radical the member of wasa of PKK the leader andlong-time thefounders of one Öcalan, Abdullah in leftist be backthe organizations Organization (PKK) can 1970’s. to traced the highly amongpopular the Kurdish youth Some of (Yavuz 2007). roots Kurdishthe Guerilla leftistideologies were Kurdishthe leftturn, cause.In towards Turkish were sympathetic manyfrom overlappedlower beingamember and individuals groups with strata, of the the in Turkey was perceived as ‘internal an colonialism’,inbeing which aKurdlargely portion Kurds Kurds poorest the constituted country,the of situation the of population the of Since the parliament. inthe a presence had and time for some in streets the force an effective The of coup 1980 wasdevastatingfor forand the left the Kurdish nationalists. is more or there people, among levelsmodernization of therearedifferent Although The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 29 CEU eTD Collection wonderno is It repealed. were than, immunities parliamentary their after imprisoned were parliament combined Kurdish political parties were banned in and1993-4 in Kurdish1994 several memberswith of the arena, political other the On forces. security state the by movements, nationalist Kurdish the to repressiveandimprisonment, tortures Kurdishof indivivuals whoweresuspected of having aconnection policies therewereunidentifiedmurders kidnappings,Moreover, still (Gülbey 1996, 17). of the in killed were state, businessmen Kurdish and parties political Kurdish of representatives lawyers, the outlawing due growing worse to incidents.these Many critical Kurdishand journalists, prominent of the from both sidesThere weremany accordinglives lost, toSomer 40,000in about until total 256), 2008 (2011, of the conflict,more conflict widespread got deeper. when inand languagethe 1990’swasaperiod 1991,the civiliansliberalization or fighters. attempts wereweak there Although military moreandrepression. with only would violence reply in the Thepolitical polarization arena, and the officials state andstate its in1984,the army initiated atacksagainstTurkish the 994), such as the removal in of thethe bansociety on the Kurdish was ethnic religiousbasis on one” nationalistor tribal than ( nationalism. Kurdish the of mobilization in the innocent werenot of it state the the factsmakeeasiertoseethat policies andattitudes these opinion, state oppression of Kurdishidentity”the and as a resultof this its “politization” (596).Inmy period thejunta become as Somer more (2005b)considers widespread. “a newpeakin the to started nationalism Kurdish radical when points crucial the were These in jails. killed or peoplewere numerous tortured, Moreover, language prohibited” 13). (ibid, Kurdishthe were be declared to officially Kurds were decades, “For calledKurds, no groups ethnic was declared that there a eliteThe discourse, which adopted state fashionableinwas also climate racist of the 1930’s, After the PKK,which“for time thefirst politicized and Kurds amuch more united on The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey mountain Turks and evenwordssuchasKurds,Kurdish, Kurdistan, as well as 30 ø çduygu, Romano & Sirkeci1999, çduygu, Romano CEU eTD Collection spread of the polarization: “The combination of army operations and societal polarization has polarization societal and operations army of “The combination thepolarization: spread of prejudices against Kurds. be the Here, Barkey’s designation helpfulinsummarizingcan the nationalism raised Turkishthis radical and also (Gülbey as aresponse to 1996, 18)and bigcities the to PKK carrying the PKK,therefore the to moremore attached and became violence Kurdssince wholived in much conditionsworse and werefacing discrimination inincrease the and conflict the inthe of broadening These werekey 2007, 68). deportations involved and with livedbig getting beingunemployed (Yavuz suburbs of crime in cities, the or selling their stock forpeople were also whoweredeported economically damaged,leaving for example,fields, their a much cheaper price. They parts of country the andhad migrate tobig to while cities their villageswereburned. These usually worked in low-quality villages intheEastern and Southeastern from their forcibly deported Kurdish people were jobs or 18)(1996, around2million, andaccordingYavuz to approximately (2007,68) million 1 both sides was thepolicy of evacuation the of villages. Kurdish the According Gülbey to on conflict of the socialization and ethnicization increased radicalization, that factor important Kurds formed amajority and “boycotting of shops runby Kurds” (1996,17). Another physical violence and destruction Kurdishof shops by mobs, attacks on whereneighborhoods “being during of 1990’s. Theseconsisted firsttobearrested the andsearches”, raids police discrimination against Kurdsand attacks the living inwestern hadTurkey increasedin the being a PKK sympathizerbeing (Kiri aPKK discrimination against Kurdish the people, since beingKurdish wasseen as identical with of large amount a andalso aswell nationalists of Turkish aradicalization hadcaused attacks closerget PKKto the 2000,131-2)which(White only made the conflictmore violent. effectivemaking inmore theconflict widespreadand socialized andhelpedKurdish people Kurdish political parties, blocking the legaland means political of expressing was themselves, On the other side of the conflict, the constant warfare and the casualties due to PKK’s The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ú çi & Winrow 1997,132-3).Gülbey stressesthat &Winrow çi 31 CEU eTD Collection writes that, relying on certain evidence and some inferences from of from atmosphere political the some inferences and relying oncertain evidence that, writes democratization and territory and they (779-80)evencontinously newmilitants recruited thiseraduring of relative Turkish the from militants the improvement withdrawing of intention the have not did PKK the of cadres in the cultural top the argues that 2000’s(ibid, 778-9) halfof in violations first the rights inTurkey the rights of the inhuman and decline the andliberalization attempts emphasizing democratization the Tezcür, Kurdish society. He situation of again. deadlock, ina Kurdish the question endmaking incresed the today of and2000’s, attacks towards these After afewyears inits of attacks a peaceful PKK the mid-2000’senvironment, reinitiated the 2010,779-80). (Tezcür totheconflictsolutions ofnon-violent theimportance andstressed 1998 (Marcus 2007, 282-3), called for awithdrawal of Kurdish militants from Turkishthe soil in September hehad for acontinuation declared ceasefire the of February 1999. Hecalled in by secretservices, inKenya Turkish the was abducted Öcalan PKK,Abdullah leaderthe of At latethe 1990’s the military hadTurkish weakened thePKK 2010,778)and(Tezcür the 3.2.5 Disappearance andReappearance of Ethnic Violence modernization. degreeof his/her of independent individual the of Iexpectaradicalization in turn so that in inin or lifeby the marketplace, colleagues, school daily by teachers, workplace the the the inin provincescouldfor instance,was born be to this Eastern the subjected treatment, the independent of degree the of modernization of Kurdishindividual;the individual any who will be discrimination the individuals that Kurdish is which subjected originof were 1997,132).Winrow byKiri Kurd” (1993,58;quoted the mostraidedeven assimilated of theconsciousness There are two contrasting arguments in the explanation of this revival of the conflict. the of revival this of explanation in the arguments contrasting two are There my again expectation environment, polarized conflictual the all Hence, considering The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 32 ú çi and çi CEU eTD Collection Kurdish nation to mobilize and radicalize still exist. They are relatively poorer, culturally poorer, relatively are They exist. still radicalize and mobilize to nation Kurdish led that conditions the all began, insurgency PKK when and today between society Kurdish and therefore it can be concluded more totheKurdish equal citizens, rights and granting hadreally democratization adesireof that there is no great improvement in the 2011 parliamentary elections. situation of the run in June forbidden to were Kurdishthe in candidates banned December2009andseveral limited by the state andcircumstances. Lastly, political participation of Kurdishthe population is still be trying to the government. Thewith what Kurds for exampledesire, education in Kurdish very seems unlikely under today’s Kurdish party Democratic compared rights in cultural improvements great no are still police. stones There atthe throw Society Party they because just sentences prison andget organization terrorist the member of a being forwas thousands of areimprisonedpeople (Cemal KurdishNumerous 2012). childrenareprosecuted theKCK,because of which called of PKK,an the organization extension an alleged haveTurkey beeninincrease that for years, lastthe such as thecharges beingof amember of decrease (K underdeveloped,inequality seem the Turksand not and thegap between Kurds the to do real impact of lives of the Kurdish population. The Kurdish regions were, and are, still, highly had and genuine were Kurds the of rights cultural in the improvement and democratization fewnext months” itis(2007, 287).Also debatable how the relative attempts of the over continued that attacks cross-border with chase the up kept then and rebels retreating the for ambushes laid soldiers “Turkish since PKK the for decision risky very a was soil Öcalan (780). by in ordered reinitiation region,armed 2004wasdirectly the of the attacks PKK spring Considering all these it can be rightfully said that it is notcertain that the Turkish state from Turkish the militants Kurdish the of withdrawal arguesthat Aliza Marcus Yet, Õ The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey rdar 2007; Tocci 2001). Moreover, There are still human rights violations in humanrights Therearestill Moreover, 2001). 2007;Tocci rdar 33 CEU eTD Collection of the PKK is formed by ‘middle’ class such as rural formedof isbourgeoisie PKK the by‘middle’classsuchasrural andpetty urban and ‘low’ base of the most that adds He classes. working the even is not base social its Party, Worker’s positions, Özcan has different observations and arguesthat although its name isKurdistan 2000; van Bruinessen 1992) andthat Kurdish the elite never can in participate leadership the draws its basefrom strata lowestthe of marginalized society the and the most groups (White PKK that demonstrate scholars PKK.Whilesome andthe movement national Kurdish radical urban-based national whereby movement played leaders nosignificanttribal role” (xx). add resultthe illegal,to of a“highly that politicalthis spacewas ethnicized, diversified, closed expressKurdsall foropportunities to ethnicxix-xx).their identity” (2005, on Shegoes “the that highly restrictive andtheunchanging spaceweakened and political structures tribal high amount of urbanization and policies the of statechangedthe these Natali structures. says them livedin in rural the villages. in areas, remote Yet, 20th the a modernization,century masses. unemployed joining slums, livein the to andstart bigcities the move to if they services, or state and other security, facilities, infrastructure, bad health low ofschooling, very percentage regions, with any (Poulton ofinvestmenttype 1997). Kurds in arestuck Kurdish underdevelopmentthe of strata of society.the Kurdish regions were underdeveloped the most onesinlacking Turkey, Turkey, decades, and haveFor with compared 1980’s lowestthe 1990’s.the they constituted Several havethings changed,but many also remain sameforthe the Kurdish population in Nationalism Today 3.2.6 AGlance attheProperties Society Kurdish of andtheRadicalKurdish happensvery theKurdish population often. maltreatment towards policies andthe still pursuesassimilationist state recognized and arenot the their rights Yet, there are some minor disagreements in the literature about the social bases of bases of the social about the literature in the someminor disagreements are Yet, there andamajority of tribal structures had strict society Kurdish above,early As Inoted The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 34 CEU eTD Collection ethnic Kurdish identity and less often get involved in a conflict. social mobility” (136)and thus individualan would haveless incentive toemphasize his/her in upward opportunities considerable provides intoasociety still that integrated becoming On PKK”the inmigrated people hand, interest (136). other the can“develop avested the more of conscious makes identity “vulnerabletheir ethnic which propogandathem tothe of canbe therefore and ethnicities” therefore and theregions between disparities “socioeconomic the of more aware be Kurds can that above, discussed I have that arguments discrimination inandfirstcan migration west .The the bigcities the be, addition to effectto of destruction ofthevillages military.Kiri by the conditions is by which of unequalmodernization, Kurdishduetothe the regions, or support among Kurdish the population of Turkey. reveal thatPKK is notcomprised “handful of terrorists”of (1996,46),but has a very wide Nigogosian,According results to by these supported PKK 1996,45). the (cited Nigogosian somehow they said respondents the of 47% and PKK in the friend or relative, close some his Accordingindividuals from having public. admitted to Kurdishthe survey, 35%of the study reveals PKKhasthe that withdeep ties Kurdishsociety,the enjoys and a wide support educated professionals, families wealthy Do and university students (235). of is whilethere considerable percentages still (2006,236) retiredhousewives, people” are classes, people wholaboroutside students, marketsuch the workers, as “unemployed Lastly, I want to mention the effect of migration on Kurds, escaping the poor The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 35 ú çi and Winrow (1997)mention Winrow çi and a two-wise ÷ u Ergil’s (1995) CEU eTD Collection moremodern andIslamic hypothesis, consciousness which argued that a higher Islamic conflictual modernization theories which individualsexpect togetmore mobilized as they are islevel level are better, development modernization confirmed, while and socioeconomic predicting that individuals would beless of mobilization supportive ethnic as their conflict, ethnic of theory diffusion The found areimportant. he results respectively. The likelihood this andincrease decrease, to development socioeconomic predict hypotheses Kurdish“likelihood of appeal to ethno-nationalism” (537)and second the and third reduce to consciousness Islamic hypothesis predicts tested first The circles. andacademic of getting involved in conflict. andof likelihood otherthe ethnic group individual the as anindicator towards conflict not exactly articles measuredo I intendmeasurein with what to my overlap attitudes analysis: two these what Therefore, movements. ethno-nationalist for support and consciousness ethnic the of indicator an as party ethnonationalist Kurdish the for vote individual’s an include note important shouldthat is madehere One articles thatboth be measures modernization. isindependenta wider onlysocio-economic variablebutnot variable development that only includeonly Kurdish individuals,not the whole sample of population and Sar whichincludes he also some suchas personal values andideology. religion these Yet, works variable, and the second is Faruk Ekmekçi’s (2011) response and criticism towards Sar response and criticism towards is (2011) Ekmekçi’s secondvariable, the and Faruk as theindependent development havingsocio-economic ethnicconflict, of theories diffusion Sar is Zeki first The movements. ethno-nationalist Kurdish for thesupport which are basedexamine recent studies onsurvey questions that There aretwo 3.3.1 Previous Works onthisSpecificCase Theories of theLight in Question TheKurdish 3.3 In the former article, Sar The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Õ gil tests three widely argued hypotheses in the Turkish public 36 Õ gil’s (2010) article which confirms which article (2010) gil’s Õ gil in gil Õ gil’s CEU eTD Collection (Ba problematicfor issue constituency the init Turkey,fit does not westernthe standards is a scale this and ideological left-right onthe itis canbethat a self-placement variable significance isideology of individual inthe model. hisfirst A problem with ideology this income. Similar to Sar to income. Similar to Sar Abdullah Öcalan,founder of the PKK. is whom of example important most the Kurdish, is in Turkey politicians or activists, nationalists, Kurdish radical many of language native Moreover, biased. be may sample fondKurdish only individualswhoare identity unassimilated and of therefore this their including be may sample Ekmekçi’s aspect, this consider we If Turkish. is language native distinguish of ethnic peoplegroups if we consider thelevel assimilation of of people whose Yet,I notway agreethatthisdo Kudish to tothat. isaperfect according of individuals asubsample and creates of ethnicity indicator asan question’ home at ‘languagespoken the same as Kurdish individuals’ towards attitudes their own nationalism. Ekmekçi Instead, treats nearly by always adopted Kurdish individuals, notTurkish ones. can be It not as treated the indicative group, henot is of is nationalism expects;it thenationalism opposite what the of according Ekmekçi,which to to I agree.The attitudes of Kurdish Turkish individuals towards nationalism for sample the whichincludes wholethe population. Thisis a serious mistake sample. Sar inclinedbeingless mobilization, are notconfirmed.towards consciousness would overcome the ethnonationalist feelings and would resultin individuals criticism which should be taken seriously. The first and the foremost criticism is Sar is criticism foremost the and first The seriously. taken be should which criticism ú levent, 2011). In another model, Ekmekçi removes ideology and without ideology as a Õ gil, he finds no significant effect of socioeconomic indicators such as education and The found results be byEkmekçi can if important their is Contrary validity accepted. Ekmekçi’s article is a direct response to Sar to response direct a is article Ekmekçi’s Õ gil does not create asubsamplenot Kurdishgil does butanalysesthe population,of Kurdish The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Õ gil, religion fails to achieve any significance. The only factor that has that factor only The significance. achieve any to fails religion gil, 37 Õ gil and involves a methodological a involves and gil Õ gil’s CEU eTD Collection may be more useful for explaining one case while another case may better fit another I theory. fit better another casemay casewhileanother one for explaining may bemore useful cases; therefore one other from very different butsometimes similar, sometimes dynamics, its own has case Every of these theroies can explain case universally. every can beusedto modernization and ethnic conflict level the of not account for each discussionand of the ethnic conflict in Turkey,is that I doevery not believe any of the theories between case. One theory and conflict the group. other modernization Kurdishof should people have noeffecttheir on attitudes the ethnic towards level the will that of effective, also I argue were modernization, level with of the relationship modernization, of effect a positive expects which oneof theories of both the parts fits some Turkey and the level or modernizationthe individual. ethnic in the the that of considering of Thus, conflict other a negative modernization, with of do process the nothing to whichhave factors, by exacerbated political effect,ethnic and conflict. alsonot exactly fit the stories in anythe of the diffusion, or conflictual modernization political Rather,theories of My argument in this subsection is that the rise of the radical Kurdish nationalism init Turkey do factors,fits some Discussion: 3.3.2 Which Theory does the fit? Kurdish Case havingaspects no of both of these strengthening identity. their ethnic theories andKurdish population maybe in mobilizationeffective ethnic Kurdish of the nationalism, the in of rights additionof lack and violations rights human be that can this of A corollary party. Kurdish the is for support the with correlated negatively aresignificantly variables these with of satisfaction levels thatthe indicate results The party. theethnicKurdish for country the support with the in and democracy human rights of level the with of individual of the effects satisfaction the control variable, religion has a negative effect on voting for the Kurdish party. Lastly, he tests Another crucial aspect I wouldlike to underline here, before going on to the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 38 CEU eTD Collection continued as such for shapecontinued awhile. assuch took as and emerged nationalism Radical a Turkish as As discussedeliteboth Kurdish nationalisms andTurkish and above, projects started 3.3.2.1 Discussion ofDiffusionTheories can explain some parts of it, and when we bring it altogether it will make much more sense. Maybeeach theory conflict. ethnic of the story whole explain will above discussed theories process differently. 273).Each (2011, group of conservative may from these begroups modernization the effected Therefore, I do not agree and is group, last is the religious based and revolutionary,elite traditional another that it is correct Oneis secular- notes. Somer exists, nationalists of Kurdish subgroups Three conclusions. to say that any of theand examining therefore groupsassingle, these monolithic entitites wouldleadwrong us to grand which There have arevery groups. sub-groups attributes homogenous very different may causal 1985). play role (Horowitz a greater ø causal material questions” than greater role mayplay a much motivations non-material groups or individuals some “[F]or persons. different for different be may line this along radicalization and consciousness ethnic an developing of reason the and variable same to responses different have may individual Every level. individual at the also but levels, group at only deprivation. as relative such choice theories, rational fitting latter the and theories social-psychological fitting former the (1979), Flemish the than poorer relatively were they since essences, economic more had nationalism Walloon Flemish and the Walloons, the of movements he concludes ethno-nationalist the of that examination Flemisha thorough After argument. nationalismthis was a cultural for helpful be can one,in Belgium and conflict the ethnic the of discussion Mughan’s Anthony that believe çduygu,& Romano whileSirkeci 1999, 997),some individuals for other material questions Moreover, it would be wrong to consider Kurdish and Turkish nationalists as In my thisopinion, thein ethnic phenomenon not also applies case Turkey,to conflict The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 39 CEU eTD Collection groups ingroups levelthe materialof well-being. Manyscholars and politicians relate the Kurdish underdevelopedin isfarbehind Turkey lacking Kurdish ethnic and population the other most arethe The Kurdish regions conflict. intensity ethnic on of the effect positive modernization may have effect an of mobilization along ethnic lines and therefore may have a Although modernization results in an assimilation of some individuals,for others 3.3.2.2.1 Internal ColonialismModel 3.3.2.2 Discussion ofConflictual Modernization Theories explain thewhole to can notbeenough story. for someall people, not populationKurdish (Somer 2004),and therefore diffusion theories works only assimilation Yet,this conflict. ethnic of theories diffusion fitthe can mobilization For some segments asDeutsch in argued. intensity andin therefore assimilation ethnic of a declinethe conflict, of thelife, newspapers and reading TVinwatching language, modernization Turkish the in results population,people from ethnic abandoningother groups, Kurdish and useTurkish starting to in daily the who can with at into getting schools of morethe state, beingeducated contact the modernization, be assimilated, andTurk facesnodiscrimination because of With ethnicity.assimilation through modernization,is for Turkishexcept – and emphasizedoes not his/her ethnicidentity,he/she is asa perceived speak his/her native not As language–that is longdoes ethnicity asaperson relatively easy. as social mass media and daily life.in could be nationalist only bypropaganda educational the achieved continous curriculum, The transition and assimilation citizen,nationalismbefore andthisdiffusion decades the Turkish diffusedordinary among from other ethnicitiescame to to powerTurkish in theresponse to shatteringthe empire, asameans it, for saving andby wasadopted who elites the last years of the empire and the first years of the republic. It took The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 40 CEU eTD Collection measures were effective. There was a brutal military presence in the Kurdish regions, highly regions, Kurdish inthe military presence a brutal was There wereeffective. measures andwe can Ithink that say this description that resembles thepost1980coup era where these beperiphery by protected to “juridical, 1985, political andmilitary 33) measures” (Horowitz position predicts addition, advantegous the colonialismthis also theory internal the of occupationsin were reachof the Turkish the speakers andtheTurkish In ethnic group. be assimilated to willing was one unless labor; of division cultural the of institutionalization an this call can one would havewe that I believe was assimilated. and identity Kurdish the he/she renounced officer unless to be at the bottomnational of market.the social Moreover, since educated, thelanguageinstruction isfind and of Turkish they not could jobsin the strata it was impossiblewhilestart tospeakTurkish, if or tospeak their language,they wanted be own they wouldnot high for a statusKurdish citizenThis a increated situation peopleabandon whichKurdish had either language to their and to be a high-class isis languageinstitutionalization apartof Turkishin Turkish the advantage regime. the of state language that Kurdishit befact banonly the the can arguedthat and the official useof the on instance for case; this the fits also aspect This stratification. of the institutionalization through stabilizing towards has andmonopolizing advantaged group advantages the these attempts when stage be a to situation colonialism internal of phase next the expects model Hechter’s between Kurds andthe power Turks. resources the and causes an of uneven distribution This of disadvantage the population. comparedthe rest to disadvantaged ispopulation highly republicanbetween Kurdish elite the and non-Kurdish theareas (Yavuz, 56),and Kurdish modernization of project early the anuneven duetothe modernization exists (1975), colonialism internal of story Hechter’s to similar Very situation. colonialism internal of 2012, 20); notionthe in fitting argumentthe the internal colonialism argument of Hechter. insurgency to the material deprivation of the Kurdish society (mentioned in S (mentioned society Kurdish the of deprivation material the to insurgency Indeed, several aspects of the structure in the society of Turkey indicates an existence The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 41 Õ nmazdemir CEU eTD Collection complemented by complemented can some mobilize, theories modernizedthat why moreexplain groups or be should theory colonialism internal case, this for Therefore, lines. ethnic along mobilize level modernization whoincreases, groups fall the pace behind that modernization of by material theirdeprivation. prediction of The model the whileoverall was that and of support relatively the well-off andhere modernized individuals can notbe explained The participation professionalsfamilies (2006,235). wealthy educated people, and students, have very backgrounds, suchdifferent as andrural middle urban classes, decommodified Özcan PKK militants argues that strata. consists from oflower only people the supporters the nationalism. But, several works in the literature challenge the view that the PKK militants and If 1992). internal we considerthis model aspect, seems fitforcolonialism theKurdish mostmarginalized 156) or (vanBruinessen peasants(Whitefrom other the 2000, poor groups literature on the social bases of the PKK. Some stress that the PKK draws most of its support part of it. As mentioned in subsection the of 3.2.6 thesis,this isno there agreementin the mention individuals specificthe of group whoparticipate in conflictthe themselves, orarea issociety emphasized. 1984; the Kurdish the material Manifestodeprivation cited byÖzcan2006,100)and of (PKK is acolonizer called state andTurkish the states by several region is acolonialized isit radicalization.in example, Kurdistan of manifesto declared the For PKK towards the that motivation Kurdishmany This with of individuals largerthe overlaps resources. of share andmore a power expectation obtainingof whohas an group, peripheral wouldthe mobilize labor, of division cultural the and andreinforcing core periphery, the the inequalities between democratic 1982constitution. later non- themilitary the regime and relying on population, theKurdish oppressing Since my analysis will be on the modernization at the individual level, I should also should I level, individual the at modernization the on be will analysis my Since increasing modernization is the process, Hechter’s After that this expectation point, The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 42 CEU eTD Collection One is the mobilization of the least well-off and least modern individuals due to material to due individuals modern least and well-off least the of mobilization the is One society. Kurdish on themobilization of parallel effects canhavetwo Kurdish the society of situation disadvantaged materially the that wecansay lines. So, ethnic the on mobilization their of catalyst important be an also can labor of division cultural discriminatory same languagediscrimination, seeing that people who shared a common identity, such as ones who spoke the or inequality this from effected personally not were if they even Also, andconsciousness. ethnic came theirfrom daily livesthe theyin attitudes discriminatory Someor discrimination, group. disadvantaged the population was weresame subjectKurdish the in which existed, that to situation colonialism mightregion,internal the and identity their also be an influential of with institutions elitesaware state madethese atthe educated being and ethnicities, from other factor people the inwith contact themthe communication, mass of means the to riseexposed being level, individual of theirwere victimsthe 102). Modernization 1985, at (Horowitz conflict” of ethnic collectivethe psychology of a deep272-3). and (Somer 2011, secularized they were relative social mobility, lesson dependent were traditionalthe such ties as religious and tribal, of socio-economic1960’s, development new whowereproducts Kurdishand elites, a these basisfoundedmovements. Kurdishethno-nationalist Especially the of today’s afterthe view a world Kurdish and nationalist adopted in in west the were educated bigcities the who them of Some movement. nationalist Kurdish the of pioneers the were elites Kurdish Like Turkish influential elites werehighly in risethe nationalism, of modernizedTurkish 3.3.2.2.2 Socio-Psychological Theories theories socio-psychological with argument it a more complete analysis,the theory is unfit I toaccountbelieve for the mobilization of the Kurdish population.that In order to makewe need to complement the internal colonialism “[E]thnically differential modernization is a highly useful starting point for analyzing for point starting useful highly a is modernization differential “[E]thnically The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 43 CEU eTD Collection scholars have pointed to the “political grievances” (Ekmekçi 2011, 1612) as the major, or at the“politicalscholars (Ekmekçi2011,1612) as or to havepointed grievances” major,the of the Kurds of political which Kurdish increasedthe frustration attitudes state the population, the towards which led themmoreThe if complete included be and would variables, analysis thepolitical we also the towards conflict. ethnic the of story full the tell not can they that believe I society, the and individuals an ethnic the of modernization through radicalization and mobilization ethnic or assimilation, mobilization of paths the andcan explain modernization diffusion Although of conflictual theories and radicalization.A Neglectof Factors? Political 3.3.2.3 Several motivations, must there beemotional (2010,777). aspects material mustindividuals havemore than joining PKK Tezcüralso that concludes therefore harsh very in lived they conditions contrary the on joined, who militants the for benefits material no were there and also of PKK, the 74).In of recruitment (1994, process conflictthe leadthat them factors towards therebe additional must there terms, choice were rational in purely guerillas Kurdish of motivations no abductions or forcedgroup. recruitments thisthat groupis ina position,disadvantaged they get mobilized along the lines of their ethnic by the PKK, group,peopleother develop startto afeeling belonging and, group this when to of they see andbetween theirbeing modernization,group the an environment distinctions the awareof of explained inby model. educated beand whoare elite Connor’s the can better bigIn cities the society of Kurdish the strata more affluent of relatively mobilization the the concluded that it be can Therefore, discrimination. the and inequalities of the they conscious become is effect identity inequalities andanother after strengtheningthe of modern morestrata, the Lastly, toConnor, according material areinadequate alsotheories in explaining the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 44 CEU eTD Collection issue, such as “struggle over the political rights, administrative autonomy, language administrativeuse, political overthe issue, autonomy, rights, as “struggle such question. Kurdish the of radicalization inthe important ones areamongthe most state the of attitudes with the together between two sides” (255). Therefore, it can be argued that political variables, and the policies, inis this worse, turn, rebellion “reinforces of and the attitudes state the mutual a distrust identity by made state the Kurds express their demands through violent What rebellion (255). Kurdish of the least Theand denial oppression tothis extent. not at Kurdish nationalism, the state followedbecause question Kurdish the was notresolved Had peacefully and successfully” (ibid, 255). the rightKurds,Kurdish butideas nationalist result emerged developingthe “the of the conflict of of policiesKurdish (2011,254)shouldmade.conflict” According be him, to Kurdish a was question to resolve it, probablyinsurgencies (72). there would in making eventually participate people becamestronger”, assimilation ultimately not be a radical identitiessharpenedgroup got believed distinctiveness be and“the groups in of to danger of modernization – with differencesan differential –probably thesharpeningstage, group of identitiesphases these had revivaland anethnic Inthenext gainedstrength. groups group “acculturation to theis boundariesargument and thatthe between and Turks the Kurdswere“porous” the norms of the neighboringis or more that differentiation formed ethnic areHis 72), two (ibid, one groups group. from group was common”Horowitz1985, 65), classifies the emergence of in Kurdishthe ethnicity Turkey as (72). But, in the latter Gürbey Olson1996; 2009;Yavuz 2007). highlyleast effectiveof factors Kurdishmobilization nationalist (Ergil 1995 and2010; ø andthe “theKurdish question the between insistsSomer adistinction that Murat in formation Making afourcategory (Horowitz ethnic the group process distinction çduygu, Romano and Sirkeci also agree that the political dimension of of Kurdish the politicalçduygu, dimension also agreethatthe and Sirkeci Romano The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 45 CEU eTD Collection at the factory, the unemployed while seeking a job and so on. laborer the west, the from population the with encounters and life business the at merhant rich on the language must have effected them all,for instance more educated one at the school, the modernization level.Kurdish language was spokenby Kurds from any social strata, ban the any from people of analienation creates environment insecurity non-material this can saythat alienation towards the state in which they are citizens”1991 and its suppression “probably eversince causes considerable feeling of insecurity and (ibid, 997). Therefore, I believe that I argue choice authors thelegalbanon here.The Kurdishthat languageappropriate until time, again non-material discussing insecurity the in thelightof languagethe rights will be an Kurdish population.focused Ihave onthelanguage aspect of most suppression the of the of political of mobilization,the the to the insecurity related grievances material aspect of the article the this argueabout Iwillsubsections, therefore authors what discuss only subject. the complexity of the many variables missing due to results in which approach willbe one areductionist employing Otherwise, issue. the examining while dimensions these all addressing for need the emphasize ‘ethnic an problem’,another ‘economic’ and a‘seperatist (992), another they terror’” mulitidimensionality of the Kurdish issue “Certainly one aspect of the issue can be labelled an (identity),includeculture They “language, andbelonging” (992). the underline life” services psychological dimensions and the and health, state possession, education, psychological (994).Thematerial dimension such – dimensions has factors as “income, of Kurds “an insecurity”enviorment of encompasses both materialwhich and non-material – beKurdish inan avoided nationalismanalysis (ibid, call of the environment 992). They this cannot socio-economic inequality” “the of issue,such patterned as dimensions other that this schooling992) is (1999, discourse” reason. Nevertheless, and cultural thecore they also argue I already discussed the material aspects of the Kurdish mobilization in previous the mobilization Kurdish of the aspects material the I already discussed The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 46 CEU eTD Collection she argues that “ This policy of assimilation and homogeneity has influenced and continues to Moreover, 10). (ibid, astate such in be followed to policies wrong the were policies centralist in handling minoritiesthe in way. correct the According toher, extremely the nationalist and in ofhomogenization state madeand wasunsuccessful diversity the attempts population, the legal system of itself”AlthoughTurkey (1996,10). was there a very wide ethnicand religious in and political be the must sought issue Kurdish of “the causes the that states She clearly Gürbey. is Gülistan movement nationalist Kurdish the of radicalization in the effective highly seperatism and the PKKlaunched anarmed uprising…” (2007,64). by …was PKK.used the of Kurdish The consolidated policies Turkishmilitary the …further …impact byfurther politicizing andstrengthening the Kurdish senseidentity, of and this the “The nationalism of 1980 couphad of oppression spreadthe strata society. the toother of and radicalization of phase the consider we if change would situation the 1980’s, until years first the from nationalism based elite an was nationalism Kurdish that argument the to sticks deny and can politicalto factors Indeed,even if ofstate ignored. policies the that be one the itis but as difficult argued above, factors andpsychological material there were source, only it the was not course, Of and radicalism. consciousness ethnonational the and spreadof the andwas in by state Kurdish ethnic effective ethnicization other population the groups the the maltreatment be of everybody assimilatedthe under ethnicity,the was desiredto and Turkish like theattitudes of in stages homogenization attempts of away population state, the that in and later elites, the Kurdish the of mobilization inthe wereeffective attempts centralization of order homogenization” of asthe “majorIn source (ibid,the conflict” stages first the 56). “evolution modulation and the ethnonationalism”56). Hesees Kurdish the of the“new (2007, Another scholar who defends that political factors and the attitudes of the state were the state of attitudes the and factors political defends that who scholar Another be therelated in policiesM. HakanYavuz, state todecisive also, of factors the the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 47 CEU eTD Collection assumption that policy outcomes are consequences of the conflicts. It is accepted that there is there that is Itaccepted conflicts. ofthe consequences are policy outcomes that assumption this responseof state, the several individuals had joined the PKK (778). of because just and specifically appealing” PKK of the discourse confrontational radical and demonstrations fueledfeelings of revenge and exclusion amongfound young people who the on some inKurdish bordersofTurkey.in thebased Heconcludes, South-Eastern Yüksekova, atown interviews traditional festival events Newroz of He givesthe2008 joining example (ibid, the PKK 778). with operationsviolence many drove by Kurdishand individuals paramilitary groups” towards local insurgency 1980’s “the778). Hesayscounter the and throughout (2010, 1990’s that elites, thePKK for in more of recruits number andalsoresulted from state, the population Kurdish that and of in the suppression population state the analienation of Kurdish the of resulted the “the state’s militarythrough heavy-handedviolence, without any alternative of dialogue (ibid, 22). is Turkish policy” forced assimilation blames that Likehe Gülbey, “inappropriate directly the seen as of “defender Kurds”Turkey’s the that millionsreached39). its so (1996, supporters responsewas institution that only asthe expressing PKK demandstheir rendered meansdialogue or of to theban on the legal means of politicssays that the popularity of the PKK among the Kurdish population was the result of these. The forNigogosian theimprisoned. were parliament, Kurdish Turkish the of members politicians, Kurdish several nationalists and, the impossibilityKurdish inparties politicalthe arena faced. They were constantly declared illegal and in 1994 of any political alternatives and the policies pursuedemergence of …PKK the must be viewed in framework”this (10). by the state. I influence theforms ofKurdishmentioned resistance andis a cause of open the use violenceof …the the difficulties that A common discourse in ethnic conflict literature that Horowitz criticizes isthe criticizes Horowitz that literature in conflict ethnic A discourse common Güne Other scholars also relate the rise of PKK to the factors created by the lack of other ú The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Murat Tezcür, also, notes that the repression and “the indiscriminate violence” “theindiscriminate and thattherepression notes also, Tezcür, Murat 48 CEU eTD Collection and intensification of the ethnic conflict was not dependent on factors canbeexplained that factors on not dependent was conflict ethnic of the intensification and would decrease. theKurdish state, nationalism be and seperatist lessradical violent, demands would and believe thatI Therefore, Turkey. itthan other iscountry another in clearerlive to choose would they said respondents that absent the maltreatmentsurvey and the wrong policiesin the In addition, but 2000,174). as Kurds’” stay byWhite in (cited wanted to Turkey, of the they Turkish said surveyed those of majority ‘overwhelming “the that written is it report, the In madea survey with Kurdishinthe population Turkey valuable reveals this clues about aspect. violentmeans expressingof their A in demands. question Do to much be theKurdish and resort population radicalized this would of Turkish state, the upon boundaries anduponculture” (74). lastly, is notonly of product policy an inturn conflict,the upon and end “itconflict reacts for example homogenizing…” (74) and Emerging can cultural alter boundaries patterns, The third is process that“groupboundaries arenotsimply of product common culture. effect theshape firmness and boundaries,the of for example bypressuring endogamy (74). may (ibid, ethnicconflictSecond, the happens 74). boundariesthese partly the conflict during arenotfirm,groups especially The before conflict. the construction and reconstruction of is boundariesThe first of ethnic thatthe conflicts. influenceethnic thatpolicies four processes can accordingconflict ordecreased to beismentions increased, policy the followed. that He (1985, 73-4).Whileby may be influenced policy oftheconflict, existence the outcomes other cause each both arereciprocal, phenomena these that underlines and this discourse with disagrees Horowitz Yet, relationship. andeffect cause and unidirectional a sequential To summarize all, I feel the need to reemphasize the argument that the radicalization the that argument the reemphasize to need feel the I summarize all, To All in all, I do not think that without the maltreatment and the assimilationist policies Perceptions andExpectations in theKurdish Question The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 49 ÷ u Ergil’s (1995)based report on only 26.4% of only of Kurdish the 26.4% CEU eTD Collection getting involved in conflict. of oflikelihood indicator asan conflict, ethnic andthe Kurds towards Turks ofthe attitudes in conflict. involved of getting likelihood of asan indicator andtheethnic conflict, Turks Kurdstowards the of 3.4 Hypotheses level conflict. the ethnic on of modernization modernization, with the influence of effect of total the and considering movement nationalist Kurdish statethe radicalization of policies andand attitudes, mobilization of rate the strengthened state the there of attitudes the and should policies the be no effect of and factors, effectof political the demonstrate to I havebeen able I believethat considered, All things of theories. from these perspective the issue the ifweonly neglected considered Kurdish individuals.aselaborately above, political the But, discussed would variables be inequalities,moredue tothe by identity based mobilization modernized andwell-off the uneven modernization by modernized less the portions an of Kurdish the population, or new, growing who elite “sought recognition” andsecondly (ibid, 89), areaction as to the firstly due to was anincrease in effect happens. ethnic conflict, the Theother ethnic conflict lessandof adeclineintheintensity involvedwho therefore becomes in ethnicconflict are people the means numberof whichdiffusion inthe a decline theory Deutsch of predicted, as communication, thesocial I argued of whatto bearesult 89), of individuals (1997, some effects wasanassimilation on mobilization. One hadsociety Kurdishopposite the ethnic two by only one of the theories above. According to Kiri H2–Turks: Modernization individual atthe level has relationship a positive with the H1–Kurds: individual Modernization hasat the level no relationship with attitudes the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 50 ú çi and Winrow, modernization of the CEU eTD Collection large scale surveys conducted in Turkey in largesuch surveysconducted Turkey scale as for my is this thepurposes better survey far Therefore, of other how. comparedstudy, to by andif yes, conflict, inquires ifthe effected weredirectly question the individuals the that the individuals with the conflict, or the degree that they were effected by the conflict, such of involvementthe thedegreeof it specificquestions about individuals,levelasks ordinary of as conflict. Also, since on issues the ofidentity and citizenship 2011,12),which (Konda can beclosely relatedtothe the survey is aimingwere atissue that exploringdevelopments their survey,andthe perceptions atthe time of also to reveal other and theconflict the about thought causes citizen ordinary the what understanding were ofsurvey the ethnic conflictin Turkey. The writerson of the report, that was thebased on the survey, explain that the aims of this Kurdish question Kurds andnon-Kurds the on of andrevealexpectations the theperceptions villages. The total number of respondents were10393 (Konda 2010). 81 total, Turkey,in throughout andcity 374 counties andin andcenters neighborhoods 902 based in is sampleIstanbul, random, Turkey.in The the surveywasconducted of cities 59 out ve Beklentiler Survey. The dataset that is used for the statistical analysis is from is survey the from analysis statistical is for the used that The dataset andData 4.1 Sample Chapter 4: Research Design The most important reason I chose this dataset is that it was specifically designed to designed itwas specifically is that this dataset I chose reason important The most The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey . It was in . It conducted KondaJuly 2010 by ResearchandConsultancy the firm, 51 European SocialSurvey Kürt Meselesi’ndeAlg or World Values Õ CEU eTD Collection higher education indirectly higher education provides. that income high the of because do to afford can they things the or live they place of kind tothe life thanks more modern of ways to be exposed to canbeexpected parents educated also behighly of predictive modernization level the moreof child.Thechildren the of of should individual the of father the of level education the this, to addition In modernization. we iscan Asanindividual modernization. a higher more educated, expect degree of itisas anindependentvariable, totesthis easier expectation. levelplace a veryimportant constitutes in diffusionthe with theory Deutsch, itof employing Income a western life-style. to exposition family and within the generations next educated income level can modernize anindividual someafter period of time, such as leading toamore a higher itcan be that argued of income. Also, a higherdegree we can expect educated, highly modernization.With higher for level a instancemodernization, of livingin thecity and being for totheformer the five, Kurds.addition all sample and for level feelingsecularization and household same in the live who people of number ofin, the lives one a belonging to a clan and level,variables areincomelevel,education variables. The independent kindofbuilding the giving one’s own political discussed Smith’sfrom (1999)works, valuesattitudes, above, andsocio-demographic decisions, in The independentvariables are partly constructed considering Inkeles’ (1974),and Inkeles and seven questions extra Kurds, for in the two addition ones to the TurkishI usedfor the people. from fiveoperationalize this variable forquestions people different ofethnicity Turkish and level. individual I at the ofmodernization is The independentvariable degree the 4.2.1. The Independent Variable ofthe Variables 4.2 Operationalization 2) Education level: The level of education is one of the key factors in the level of 1) Income level: Level incomeof isusually positively withcorrelated levelof the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 52 CEU eTD Collection whogive their decisions and political own whogive decisions political under influence the of thethat modern individual is so Iacceptpossesses individualspolitization (Inkeles 1983,31), underinfluencefigures of traditional (Inkeles power andAnotherfactor Smith 1999, 290). of the modern individual is the ability to givethe clan, which is nota modern type of social organization,one’s should be weakened. to ties the ownmodernizes, one as since politicalindividual the of development of level the of indicative decisions, without being secularization. numeric values of the answers to these two questions in order to constuct a single variable of modernized. secular when tobemore is individual expected isand the secular A modern society family, only consisting of the parents and the children. modernization,more and more families abandon this lifestyle and start to live with the nuclear Kurdish familiesnormally livein households, with crowded their With extended families. conditions. worse with buildings other or towns in shanty example, housesmodernizedlive, for life will less better inwhile conditions and therefore better live modernized more are thatpeople who Itmakes houses. sense in live better modernization and asinglevariable level of iseducation constructed. 7) Giving one’s own political decisions (only asked to Kurds): An important property Kurds):7) Giving one’s Animportant to decisionsown (only political asked be Kurds): shoulda clan Thisquestion to asked belonging (only 6) Feelingof to I construct this variable from differenttwo questions in survey.the Iwill add the theories. modernization of factor key is another Secularization level: 5) Secularization 4) Thenumberlive of people who samehousehold: in The the traditional and Turkish 3) The lives ofbuildingkind can be in:thatpeople one It with argued a higherlevel of is added father his/her and individual level the of education the value of The numeric The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 53 CEU eTD Collection coded asnon-modern forcoded this variable. beinginfluencetheir figures and moremodern of underthe party are rest, the as traditional The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 54 CEU eTD Collection 5 asking the most important figure while one gives political decisions. 4 Muhtar is the head of the village or the neighborhood. the or village ofthe head the is Muhtar K Õ ble is the direction to which Muslims orient themselves while praying. Here, it is used as a metaphor of Seculariza Seculariza one’s own household Education Feeling of Feeling Education belonging of people decisions Question in the Variable Survey one lives one The The kind the same the to a clan a to living in living building Number Father’s political tion – b tion – a Income Giving Level Level Own level of Table 1-The Independent Variables, asasked inthe questionnaire. The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey what is the highest degree highest the is what everybody’s andallkind? you to define yourself by: yourself define to you inhabited (To be filled by Everyone defines oneself defines Everyone What isyoureducational “k according to the features the to according educational background; political evaluations and (including children) live The kind of the building of the kind The Do you feel that you are you that feel you Do Yourreligion/ religious which of these are more are of these which background; what is the Muslim in order to be a How important is it for According to you, how you, to According How many individuals What is yourpolitical they care about most. necessary is it to be a What is your father’s your is What household, including Õ What is the average the is What ble highest degree you degree highest member of a clan? of a member influential in your Turkish citizen? the interviewer) the income in your in income in this house? 4 he obtained? he ”? In other words, decisions? obtained? sect building complex, Luxurious building orvilla) TL, 1201-2000 TL, 2001-3000 TL, Over3001 1-6 (Illiterate with no schooling, Literate with 1-6 (Illiterate with no schooling, Literate with respect, Local administrators like muhtar like administrators Local respect, Apartment with external coating, House in a house,Apartment with externalno coating, 1-6 (Under 300 TL, 300-700 TL, 701-1200 community, Elderly of the family whom I Graduated middle school,Graduated high Graduated middle school,Graduated high no graduation, Graduated primary school, primary Graduated graduation, no no graduation, Graduated primary school, primary Graduated graduation, no 1-6 (Shanty house, Traditional detached 1-5 (Lowervalue means less important) 1-5 (Lower value means less necessary) less means value (Lower 1-5 mayor, My party, None; I give my own 1-6 (My tribe and tribalchieftain, My religious leader –sheikh – religious 55 Dichotomous (Yes-no question) (Yes-no Dichotomous 1-2, 3-5,6-8, thanmore 9 school, College or above) or College school, school, College or above) or College school, Coding and Level Coding and Categorical Categorical Categorical Categorical Continous Continous Ordinal Ordinal TL) 5 or Applies to Applies Kurds Kurds and Kurds and Kurds Kurds and Kurds Kurds and Kurds Kurds and Kurds Kurds and Kurds Kurds and Question Group Kurds Kurds Turks Turks Turks Turks Turks Turks Turks Both Both Both Both Both Both Both only only The the CEU eTD Collection indicator of attidutes towards the other group. For instance, if one says he/she will be if he/shewill onesays For instance, group. of other towards the attidutes indicator willingness of the indiviudal indicator believethis islaw/spouse, neighbor andof business partner: question Iagood that with the people of other ethnicityfor theKurds.operationalized and therefore it is andfourth first, second for are Turks, threeof the first areoperationalized these a decent solving the Kurdish question; and the thewillingness individualthe of liveto inTurkey. The in order to be a Turkish citizen; the level of agreementif military solutions is the only way for child-in-law,neighbor, and perceives partner;howone necessary business Turkish ethnicity ethnicity as, from other individual accepting an variables: Thereare4dependent group. other The dependent variable is attitudesthe of the individual the ethnictowards conflictand the Variables Dependent The 4.2.2. Variable and Abbreviation The number of people who of people number The Giving one’s ownpolitical household same the in live Feeling of belonging to a to ofbelonging Feeling The kind of building one of building kind The father’s education level education father’s 1) Accepting an individual from individual1) Accepting from ethnicity an other the as (Turk/Kurd) their, child-in- Income level (income) level Income The sum of own and decisions (pol_dec) lives in(building) (secularization) Secularization (household) clan (clan) clan The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey (edu) Table 2-The Independent Variables - recoded coating, Apartment with external coating, 1200 TL, 1201-2000 TL, 2001-3000 TL, Housebuilding in a complex, Luxurious 1-6 (Shanty house, Traditional detached 0= Traditional figures, 1=According to 1-6 (Under 300 TL, 300-700 TL, 701- house, Apartment with no external no with Apartment house, 0-3 (more than 9, 6-8,3-5, 1-2) the party or own decisions own or party the Coding and Level Coding and building or villa) Over3001 TL 0=Yes, 1=No 0=Yes, Dichotomous Dichotomous Categorical Categorical Continous Ordinal Ordinal 56 0-10 0-8 The Group the Variable the The Group is Operationalized for BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks Kurds Only Kurds Kurds Only Kurds CEU eTD Collection the problemsthe and demandsof side,itis other the highlyunlikely person that that will be open conflict.military solution If the as individual ignoring sees an to solution,operation only the for apeaceful people of the the willingness reflects variable Kurds, this the of radicalization means ismilitary eliminatingoperations, thePKK,which intensifies which,in the turn, individuals(Operationalized for Turkish Considering that only): eliminating the ‘terror’ increase theconflict. increase, whichwill further could demands secessionist country, the to belong not do they that feel if they since important is feeling country. the degreeof the answerbelongingtheir This to thisof the question to shows groups live Kurds, otherfrom side,Kurdsmay help perception of the On the peacefully. two are not fixed”are not (Kiri ‘boundaries’ between ofethnic “Largelygroups psychological leading sources conflict. the viewit of showsTurks, how they perceive cultural demands byKurds, which is one of the of from Also, point the peacefully. live together ethnicity people of that different chances the a conflictual environmentand decrease lead to people, other could this in of theperceptions ethnicity. individual If an sayswho sheis an ethnic Kurdis accepted not as a Turkish citizen this question also should reflect how open individuals are to live with the people from other as negative. thiscode variable I then isnegative, at questions of these leastone to answer If aspositive. this variable code I then positive, are these all to answers If partner. business iii- neighbor, ii- child-in-law, or conflict. of a possible indicator be an can which ethnicity, other from people with live peacefully accept to to beless willing will people these that be itexpected can ethnicity, from other the with a spouse uncomfortable 3) Agreeing whether eliminating ‘terror’ is the only way to the solution of the conflict 2) Perceiving Turkish ethnic origin necessary to be a Turkish citizen: The answer to citizen: The necessary tobeaTurkish ethnicorigin 2) Perceiving Turkish I from variable operationalize this people accepting from ethnicity other as :i- spouse The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey ú çi and Winrow 1997, 121), therefore an inclusive attitude towards Winrow aninclusive 1997,121), the çi therefore towards and attitude 57 CEU eTD Collection country, the likelihood of likelihood of country, the radicalization will be lower. involvedwouldmore if get be likely but in to livingthey a conflict, with are content in this butTurkey live have still here to haveno since they living opportunity elsewhere,they of in minority a being like not do individuals Kurdish the If only): individuals Kurdish for Kurds themselves. of ofKurds violence.attitudes by is Theviolence towards to implied this question directed incentiveswill have strategy. aviolent tofollow more government and people. this,viewif popular state the addition isthe inthepublic, In this to most the Kurdish with together he/she canlivepeacefully that itis unlikely a peaceful solution and to Perceiving Turkishethnic way to the solution of the as spouse orchild-in-law Degree of willingness to Accepting an invididual Accepting an invididual Accepting an invididual from the otherethnicity from the otherethnicity from the otherethnicity origin necessary bea to necessary origin Agreeing if eliminating if Agreeing live in Turkey and be a as business partner - b the ‘terror’ is the only Turkish citizen Turkish citizen as neighbor- c neighbor- as Variable live4) Degreeof to bea willingness inTurkey and Turkish citizen (Operationalized I usethisfor only thisbe question peopleTurkish because not indicative question will conflict - a Table 3-The Dependent variables, asasked inthe questionnaire The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey an ethnican Turk in order to eliminating ‘terror’ is the How necessary is it to be I would choose to live in be accepted as a Turkish your: spouse orchild-in- ethnicity (Turk/Kurd) as ethnicity (Turk/Kurd) as ethnicity (Turk/Kurd) as Question in in the Survey Question Turkey even if I had the only way to the solution opportunity of living in living of opportunity your: business partner? business your: individual from other from individual individual from other from individual other from individual Would you accept an you accept Would Would you accept an you accept Would an you accept Would Do you agree that agree you Do your: neighbor? your: another country conflict? citizen? of the law? 58 1-5 (Lower value means value (Lower 1-5 1-5 (Lower value means value (Lower 1-5 1-5 (Lower value means value (Lower 1-5 Coding and Level Coding and more disagreeing) more less necessary) less Dichotomous Dichotomous Dichotomous less willing) Continous Continous Continous The Group the Question the Group The BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks Kurds Kurds only Kurds Kurds only Applies to Applies CEU eTD Collection with them. with from lived vi- people maltreatmentin the who place same ethnic the If they received conflict, tothe related of a reason because on put trial and/or tothepolice station taken they were threatened), iii-If Ifthey they migrated ii- died, or were injured was family close their duefrom someone i- If subjecttosub-questions: six from thevariable conflict, to forced iv- If this Iconstruct they hurt. they are personally since can bemore radical by effected conflict the displacements(my economically suffered, v-village If wasindividuals on this specific issue.Therefore, I will control for pastand possible votes. future burnt by the army or I was ethnic his/herconflict. to propensity females. But,Idonot think thegender that of theindividual has any effect on significant variable. on dependent the ageof respondent any the the of notdoeffect expect I 4.2.3. Control Variables in-law / neighbor / business partner Agreeing if eliminating the ‘terror’ the eliminating if Agreeing other ethnicity as spouse orchild- Accepting an invididual from the is the only way to the solution of necessary to be a Turkish citizen Turkish be a to necessary Perceiving Turkishethnic origin Turkey and be a Turkish citizen Degree of willingness to live in Variable and Abbreviation (eliminating_terror) 4) If the interviewee was directly effected by the conflict: The people who are directly who The people bythe conflict: effected wasdirectly interviewee 4) If the 3) Vote Choice: isIt possible that the party choice is effecting the perceptions of the 2) Gender:be individualsmaybeargued Male more to radical and mobilized thanthe 1) Age:Oldermaydecrease be age radicalization individual. arguedto the of the Yet, (living_together) (perceiving_tr) (living_in_tr) the conflict the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Table variables, recoded4 –TheDependent likely to get involved in conflict) likely to get involved in conflict) likely to get involved in conflict) 1= Accepts, 2= Does not accept 2= Doesnot Accepts, 1= 1-5 (Higher value means more 1-5 (Higher value means more 1-5 (Higher value means more Coding and Level Coding and Dichotomous Continous Continous Continous 59 The Group the Question is Question the The Group BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks Operationalized for Kurds Kurds only Turks only CEU eTD Collection operationalized for Turks. analysis.it was the only way Into include the Kurds all subsetvariables the for of Kurdishfortested since subsample. the dependent I three last model, I tested the first three models, I tested the in Icreated So, amodel from with subsetsTurks. two Turks and Kurds. dataset, the Inthe beKurds includedis and not were onlyasked aretwoquestions that can there subsets that to for creating reason Another variables. interaction with ethnicity afterwards and to according modelsdifferent aretested accordingwhich to group variablethe first applies, in subsets group, for ethnic one whichonly apply variables anddependent independent Since thereare Building andModel 4.3 Methods isvariable codedasnegative. yes, then this variable is coded as positive. If answers to all of these questions is no, then the (effected_conflict) Past Vote choice Vote Past Gender (gender) effected by the Being directly Future Vote Age (age) Variable (vote_p) (vote_f) conflict This variable is reconstructed as such: If at least one of the answers to this question is this question least answersto asthe one of issuch: Ifat This variable reconstructed choice The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 1(AKP), 2(CHP), 3(DYP), 4(GP), 5(MHP), 6(ÖDP), 7(SP), 8(DTP) 1-3 (18-28,29-43, more than 44) 4(BDP), 5(SP), 6(DSP), 7(DP), 1 (Not effected), 2(Effected) 1(AKP), 2(CHP), 3(MHP), Table 5 - The Control Variables - recoded Categorical, Nominal 1(Female), 2(Male) Coding and Level Coding and Dichotomous Categorical Categorical clan 8(ÖDP) living_together, perceiving_tr Interval and pol_dec 60 eliminating_terror variables, only in thatKurds, applied to the The Group the Question Applies to Applies Question the The Group BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks BothKurds and Turks and living_in_tr variable, which was only variables only CEU eTD Collection satisfied the OLS regression assumptions. OLSregression the satisfied variables and the they were continous since OLSregression variables, Iused dependent three the other For variable isdichotomous. dependent becausethe logistic regression I used variables that are specific for the Kurds. for are specific the that variables independent duetothe bemeaningful casewould variablesin not interaction with this includenot independentvariables the two thatonly Kurdsapplied to sincedoing analysis the andliving_together perceiving_tr; thevariablesapply both that groups.Theseto models did are variables dependent variable.for The specific that beinga KurdandTurk between is a difference if there see easy is very itto is method that of this advantage The variables. and beingindependent, aKurd control between the and the interaction variables, calculating Two different methodsdifferent areusedFor dependentvariables. differentTwo for interaction using models whole sample, I built from part,the latter two In the The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 61 living_together, CEU eTD Collection ***p<0.001 **p<0.01 *p<0.05***p<0.001 **p<0.01 .p<0.1 (yes) effected_conflict BDP for voting pol_dec (modern) (no) belonging clan secularization household size building type education income intercept Variable perceiving_tr Variable: Dependent *p<0.05***p<0.001 **p<0.01 .p<0.1 (yes) effected_conflict (male) gender age3 ( >44) age2 (29-43) pol_dec (modern) (no) clan secularization household size building type education income intercept Variable living_together Variable: Dependent 5.1.1 The Analysis with the Subsets Results 5.1 Discussion and Results Empirical 5. Chapter Table7- Results for Perceiving Turkish Ethnicity as a Prerequisite The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Table 6-Resultsfor Willingness toLiveTogether -0.644 -0.704 0.532 0.303 -0.189 -0.431 -0.208 -0.208 -0.148 0.132 0.153 0.961 Coefficient Regression Method:Logistic Kurds Sample: 0.239 -0.576 -0.306 0.389 -0.165 0.076 0.053 0.022 0.023 2.152 Coefficient OLSRegression Method: Kurds Sample: 62 0.242 0.223 0.322 0.272 0.224 0.266 0.069 0.144 0.085 0.059 0.098 0.449 error Standard 0.098 -1.192 0.091 0.112 0.028 0.058 0.034 0.024 0.041 0.182 Error Standard 0.015 0.0006*** 0.0009*** 0.0005*** 0.000*** 0.193 0.123 0.357 0.563 0.000*** p-value 0.007** 0.001** 0.099 . 0.265 0.398 0.105 0.002** 0.149 0.082 . 0.025* 0.120 0.032* p-value CEU eTD Collection ***p<0.001 **p<0.01 *p<0.05***p<0.001 **p<0.01 .p<0.1 (yes) effected_conflict age3 ( >44) age2 (29-43) secularization household size building type education income intercept Variable eliminating_terror Dependent Variable: *p<0.05***p<0.001 **p<0.01 .p<0.1 (yes) effected_conflict pol_dec (modern) (no) belonging clan secularization household size building type education income intercept Variable living_in_tr Dependent Variable: The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey Table 9-Results for Thoughts onEliminating Terror Table8- Results for Willingness to Live in Turkey 0.035 0.093 0.025 -0.104 -0.006 -0.021 -0.001 -0.022 4.238 Coefficient OLSRegression Method: Sample: Turks -0.213 -0.055 -0.335 -0.164 0.100 0.120 0.040 -0.040 1.653 Coefficient Method: OLSRegression Method: Kurds Sample: 63 0.028 0.038 0.034 0.008 0.020 0.010 0.007 0.012 0.068 Error Standard 0.129 0.106 0.129 0.032 0.068 0.040 0.028 0.047 0.213 Error Standard 0.216 0.014* 0.470 0.000*** 0.742 0.045* 0.833 0.078 . 0.000*** p-value 0.010 . 0.605 0.010* 0.000*** 0.144 0.002** 0.154 0.392 0.000*** p-value CEU eTD Collection ***p<0.001 **p<0.01 *p<0.05***p<0.001 **p<0.01 .p<0.1 vote for BDP vote for MHP effected_conflict(yes)*kurd (yes) effected_conflict gender(male) *kurd (male) gender age3 ( >44) age2 (29-43) secularization*kurd secularization household size*kurd household size building type*kurd building type education*kurd education income*kurd income kurd intercept Variable perceiving_tr Dependent Variable: *p<0.05***p<0.001 **p<0.01 .p<0.1 vote for BDP vote for MHP effected_conflict(yes)*kurd (yes) effected_conflict gender(male)*kurd (male) gender age3 ( >44) age2 (29-43) secularization*kurd secularization household size*kurd household size building type*kurd building type education*kurd education income*kurd income kurd intercept Variable living_together Variable: Dependent 5.1.2 The analysis with Interaction Variables Table 11- Results for Perceiving Turkish Ethnicity as a Prerequisite, Interactions Added a Interactions as Prerequisite, TurkishEthnicity Perceiving for Table 11-Results Table Added 10- Resultsfor Willingness toLiveTogether, Interactions The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey -0.303 0.241 -0.210 0.008 -0.194 -0.002 0.068 0.059 0.140 -0.285 0.070 0.051 0.038 0.006 0.002 -0.001 0.108 -0.054 -0.775 3.421 Coefficient OLSRegression Method: Turks and Kurds Both Sample: -0.671 0.666 0.610 0.092 -0.063 -0.124 -0.203 -0.086 0.010 -0.231 -0.288 0.0005 -0.026 -0.099 0.083 0.027 0.026 -0.028 -1.607 1.529 Coefficient Method: Logistic Regression Turks and Kurds Both Sample: 64 0.122 0.064 0.106 0.028 0.103 0.026 0.037 0.034 0.031 0.007 0.065 0.020 0.040 0.010 0.027 0.007 0.047 0.012 0.202 0.065 Error Standard 0.338 0.150 0.251 0.062 0.229 0.057 0.082 0.076 0.072 0.017 0.148 0.043 0.091 0.022 0.061 0.016 0.103 0.027 0.044 0.143 Error Standard 0.013* 0.0002*** 0.048* 0.774 0.059 . 0.935 0.071 . 0.086 . 0.000*** 0.000*** 0.281 0.010* 0.337 0.551 0.929 0.839 0.022* 0.000*** 0.0001*** 0.000*** p-value 0.047* 0.000*** 0.015* 0.139 0.005** 0.030* 0.013* 0.255 0.880 0.000*** 0.051 . 0.989 0.775 0.000*** 0.171 0.099 . 0.016* 0.303 0.0003*** 0.000*** p-value CEU eTD Collection have no significant effect, in contradiction to my expectations and only the only and my expectations to in contradiction effect, significant no have significant positive relationship. Again, interestingly, secularization increases the willingness the increases secularization interestingly, Again, relationship. positive significant the 0.001level.the Turkish the For sample, live than with Turks are liveTurks willing to Kurds. with Thevariable kurdissignificantat variables also revealsresults. important Firstimportantly, andmost Kurds aremore willing to other. live with the to less willing are from conflict the effected are directly is who and people Turks second the ethnically radicalize. Interestingly, radicalize. ethnically probably tosomeexposed ethnic the between groups, get discrimination and therefore become longer, can inequalities aware of the people beingeducated psychological theories: live for ethnic A with other the reason possible group. canbeprovidedthis bythesocio- housing, in individuals asthe less to that havemoreand live they are better willing education 0.1 at means latter level 0.05level atthe This theformer and the significance. correlated, of attention. First is attract variables control two Lastly, affiliations. andethnic religious above identity, new seculatization leaddiffusion, individualcan of the to by aspredicted a Deutsch and create different involved less secular inconflict, get likely are people More levelto 0.01 significance. of than all other variables. The explanationvariables The significance. statistical have forvariables independent Otherthree as expected. in lives, accept Turks daily their willingness to this relationship can be that political decisions, income In for subsetthe four independent Kurds, the variables, together live to willingness for results of Discussion ofResults Discussion 5.2 The analysis of the same dependent variable on the whole sample, with interaction with sample, whole the on variable dependent same the of analysis The The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey gender , that is, that themales, surprisingly,more are willing tolive together with and household size secularization income, buildingtype 65 education do not have an significant effect on the on effect significant an have not do variable has a negative significance atthe significance hasanegative variable belonging toaclan,givingone’s own and building type and household sizehousehold edu are positively variable has a variables CEU eTD Collection hand, who do not feel belonging to a clan are morebelonging toaclan likely to get involved in conflict. household size On the other thesubsetFor of fourKurds, independentvariables, citizenship Discussionethnicity asaprerequisite ofresultsforperceiving Turkish ofTurkish gender Male on Turks. Kurdish individuals likelymore are beto willing live to with Turks. Kurdsis income effect the of Also, of significantlyloweron than gendereffect on Turks. and higherTurks is effect theincome Kurds,the than onKurds of of significantly effect the mentioning.worth While all no independent variableshave differencebetween other the willinglive to with the other group than any other party voter. Some control variables are also party, living BDPdecreases of likelihood aremorethe BDPvoters rejecting with Turks. conflictto liveKurds andrejecting with 0.001level,Kurd on the voting to the ethnic forthe Turkish nationalist party, MHP,has a positive relationship with likelihoodthe of being open dependent variable with the nationalist party for the Kurds and the Turks. While voting for the to live with Kurds. Two points that are remarkable is the different relationships of the results. Kurds aremuch less likelytosee,with 0.001 significance, Turkish necessary ethnicity in direction. opposite the haveeffect variables some other direction, in a certain haveeffect has effect, imply modernization positive tolevel of which Iexpected whilevariables, some each other, contradict These results in involved toget conflict. likely less are figures traditional of influences the of independent decision political their give who thesecular, and ones more are who Theindividuals both. for level significance the of 0.001 secularization The sample for the whole population, again, revealed both expected and unexpected and expected both revealed again, population, whole the for sample The The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey have no significant effect has a positive effect on significance,meanshasindividuals 0.001 effectthe on which a positive and giving own politicaldecisions on the dependent variable, as expected. The variable The expected. as variable, dependent the on 66 income, education,building type have a negative significant effect, on effect, significant negative have a and CEU eTD Collection conflict, the individuals who live in better housing conditions are more likely to get involved get to likely more are conditions housing better in live who individuals the conflict, clan, should which be indicator an of modernity,is less likely beinvolvedto in ethnic live in the Turkish to state, individuals Kurdish of in willingness the on different effect significant in have lives one building the directions. While the one who feels lessmy belongingexpectations to a and difficult to explainis against significances respectively. levels It 0.001 0.05 and positive of on the relationships that feeling of a belonging to a clan and the type of has a negative relationship with significance, 0.01 has anegative relationship with giving own politicaldecisions analysis onlyfor Kurdish the variables,Four subset. forSincevariable Kurdish the thisdependentthe wasonly sample, Idid operationalized Turkey in live to willingness for results of Discussion on ethnicity as a level the beingsignificantly prerequisite different 0.05. of with 0.001 significance –from lessvoters, Turkish citizenship, BDP often regard Turkish While for voters MHParemuch morelikely exclude to people ethnic from other – groups differences. crucial makes parties nationalist ethnic the for voting Again, level. significance prerequisite of Turkish citizenship compared toTurks, former the 0.0010.05 andthelatter on make Turkish morea Incomeregard Kurds difference. andsecularization ethnicity as and household size moreflexiblein ethnic in includingother groups Turkish the citizen definition. Only the negative effects, on levelsthe of More 0.001 significance. secular andindividuals richer are better way to live together. For the Turks, For the live together. wayto better be the identity perceive assimilation while to undera as Turkish national citizens, Turks civic in order to be a Turkish citizen. Thismeans that Kurds are more likely perceiveto themselves building The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey type have no significant effect. Two interaction variables show significant show variables interaction Two effect. significant no have type variable has a positive effect, on the level of 0.01 significance, and have no significant effect, as expected. Variable asexpected. effect, nosignificant have 67 income belonging toa income, education, household size income, education, and seculatization clan and secularization havesurprisingly building type education have and CEU eTD Collection towards the other group and the ethnic conflict, as an indicator of likelihood of oflikelihood of getting indicator as an conflict, and ethnic group the other the towards may notbe perfectly measuring what I want tomeasure, that is the attitudes of the individuals the Turks, yielded different results for at least one dependent variable. for especially variables, independent other all But, them. of any with relationship significant no had it variables, dependent three all for Kurds the for expectations my confirmed 0.01 level. The significance level of 0.001 for all dependent variables, exceptfor one that is significant on the with ahigh both groups, from individuals hostileof the attitudes the secularization decreasing direction forindependentWhat variables. is worse,some variables pointed a to relationship in opposite the the Turkish on subsample. attitudes the individualsisnotmany confirmed of Turkish the dependent for and of the effect positive a have should and group, other the and conflict the to indiviuals But, Kurdish the of there are attitudes the have level noeffecton should modernization my that On also whole, expectation the some consistent5.2.1 General Discussion of Results results, suchindividual may decrease theintensity of ethnicthe contrary conflict, my to hypothesis. as increasing modernization of variables relationship that reveal the that imply a negative relationships while my expectations. Variables my expectations. This variable,was that only operationalized for the Turkish sample, didnot confirm any of Discussion ofresults for agreeing ifeliminating ‘terror’ istheonlyway toend the conflict radicalization, significanton the 0.1 level. increases thechanceof from asexpected, being variable conflict, effected Control contradicting theories. two confirm interestingly differentresults two These in conflict. A likely reason for getting such different results can be that my dependent variables The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey level of income level of education income, building type income, and and the household size number of the people living number of in thehousehold 68 and haverelationships. nosignificant The secularization have significant negative also CEU eTD Collection modernization increases ethnic conflict, is wrong. Although in exceptional instances we instances can in is exceptional Although wrong. increases ethnic conflict, modernization some variablesrelationship asexpected. insteadof nosignificant for is relationship so more dominant, there significant can be therefore and common more instances of all types of effect of modernization, assimilation,figures. and different of influence mobilization, under decisions political one of these political decisions recoding of some variables may also be problematic,for example again for asthe such categories dichotomous into some restricted further I and ordinal or categorical mostly were they but survey, in the continous and infinite variables were of None independent variablesthe the insomebe problematic cases. can huge of money amount and live inbetterhousing conditions. In addition, operationalization of comes from a rural background, any without education may and a pre-modern attitudes earn who individual an and periods, time short in this change to easy is relatively It building. of argued nottobe modernization to individual, directly for of the examplethethe type related before, the independentpossesed that weredefined inInkeles (1983) andInkeles As and Smith (1999). Imentioned variables that I couldWhilemodernization, measuringfollowed I properties the modern the that individual pick were limited, and some of them canin includedwere not analysis. the that conflict be intensify ethnic the factors degreeof the that Theremaybe other getting inconflict. involved buta group, problem may be that these attitudes are notdirectly implying the likelihood of and other the conflict the towards reflectlikely attitudes are most to the that from questions its wereoperationalized intensity. and variables These therefore ininvolved ethnic conflict, For the Turkish case, there is also a very high possibility that my hypothesis that, my hypothesis that possibility high very a is also there case, Turkish the For thereare although be that case,can Kurdish for the I canspeculate, reason One last variables. independent the about be may operationalization the about problem Another The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey variable, I lose the information between the individuals who give their give who individuals the between information the lose I variable, 69 giving own political decisions political giving own giving own . My CEU eTD Collection the Turkish nationalism. Turkish the analysis of the complex dynamics ismore theory and amoredetailed a robust construct better phenomenon understand the of Turkish society, and mobilization relationship, see positive and radicalization of The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey I believe that this is only coincidence and the only solution to solution only the and coincidence only is this that believe I 70 CEU eTD Collection this survey contained mostly categorical. Finally, regarding the complexity of the case, a more itof operationalization still but variables, the needs a survey different in since thequestions includedproblematic and many questions wouldthat formeasuring be useful modernization not were in it. Anotherused here, as far as I know,way survey measurement. the Nevertheless, of problems can help thepossible conflict overcome is the tobest thatobtain fits thesesurvey, abouttherelationship specifically designed modernization between and ethnic purposes more although many further scrutiny.beThis study can improvedmore ways. inseveral Firstly, encompassing a robust variables are needs results andtherefore it seems than ismore complicated conflict this be that can result single can be a different inapproaches socio-psychological literature. the the conform to Turkish to society group, thecore of mobilization the hand,Iexpected other way of Kurdish society could be causesunderstood of mobilization and different consequences of modernization, from the radicalization of theperspectives carrying of different examples explained that, by hypothesized theory. or I perspective, one of several different from one only be understood not could problem the argued that I and were discussed theories. On the believe study that this importantaspects raises of the attention. problem to I myfitmost of not expectations, did analysis statistical the of Although the results conflict. relationshipthe between level the individual modernization and theintensity of ethnic the of problem. The aim of this thesis wasmulti-dimensional and to explore complex a very is question the Kurdish the causes elites, between rivalry of the conflict from one aspect, on Having into evolved abloody isconflict visible that in dailylives,starting from a political 6. Conclusion Chapter The inference that can be made from the quantitative analysis, which did not yield any yield not did which analysis, quantitative the from made be can that inference The multi-dimensionality andintricacies problem of the the the parts, In thequalitative The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 71 CEU eTD Collection findings that were not consideredwere not here. that findings improve this onelonger can study, in a case, the and analysis of investigation deepand detailed elaborate, and overcome its weaknesses, or even negate the expectations with any The Effect of Modernization on Ethnic Conflict: The Kurdish Question in Turkey 72 CEU eTD Collection Be H. Robert in 1974. EthnicBates, Africa. and Competition Contemporary Modernization Ba Barkey, Henri J. and Graham E. Fuller. 1998. Barkey, Henri J. 1993. Turkey’s Kurdish Dilemma. Altan.Dünden Çetin. 2002. ve Yar Allardt, Erik.Allardt, A 1964. 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