The Lithic Lectern Throne of the Christian Syrian Churches

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Article Geological Materials in Late Antique Archaeology: The Lithic Lectern Throne of the Christian Syrian Churches

Giovanna Bucci

Cultural Heritage Department, University of Padova, 35139 Padova, Italy; [email protected]

Abstract: The geological materials used in early Christian Syrian churches involve a lithic furnishing element: the lectern throne of the Syriac bema, a stone device used as a support for the holy books. Some inscriptions found in Syria suggest an interpretation for this artifact, located in the middle of the Syriac bema hemicycle, fronting the altar zone. These elements were made of basalt or limestone, depending on the geographical–geological context of the building. In this work, an unedited classiﬁcation of the main typologies of thrones is proposed with a collatio between geo- archaeological data, epigraphic texts, mosaic inscriptions, literary sources, and ﬁndings. The role of this uncommon piece of furniture, uncertain up to now, is explained with a new interpretation coming from archaeological–architectural data combined with ancient sources. The study thus locates this architectonical sculpture in the building stratigraphy and also describes decorations from the lecterns, thus contributing to chronology analysis of published and unedited Syrian sites.

Keywords: lectern throne; Syriac bema; church; Christian archaeology; Syria

Citation: Bucci, G. Geological Materials in Late Antique Archaeology: The Lithic Lectern Throne of the Christian Syrian 1. Introduction Churches. Heritage 2021, 4, 1883–1898. Geological materials in Syrian late Roman architecture are an important component of https://doi.org/10.3390/ cultural heritage, especially in the ambit of Christian archaeology. The stones were used to heritage4030106 build churches as well as elements of their interior design, including religious objects and furnishings, like the lectern throne. Academic Editors: Francesco Lithic heritage from northern Syria is a source of knowledge for Christianity studies, holding Soldovieri, Carlos Alves, persistent cultural information recorded in geological materials and supported by inscriptions. Carlos Figueiredo and Thanks to the characteristics of the geological materials chosen during Late Antiquity Jorge Sanjurjo-Sánchez by the architects, we have a great collection of structures still surviving in situ. The visual impact created by massive buildings is a demonstration of a vivid idea of communication Received: 1 June 2021 of religious themes. Accepted: 13 August 2021 Published: 17 August 2021 Christian Syrian churches between the 4th and the 6th centuries AD were built with the geological material available on-site: limestone and basalt. Local natural resources were preferred, except for some special liturgical furnishings for the altar and the ciborium (made Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in of precious smoothed marbles from across the Mediterranean area). The geomorphological published maps and institutional afﬁl- condition was decisive for the choice of building materials. The possibility of extracting iations. lithic material directly on-site enabled a great perspective in economic and energy-saving terms and allowed good agility for the work in progress. The Limestone Massif and the Basaltic Plateau from the late Pliocene are the geological units that were used to quarry for constructions because of their natural stratigraphy characterized by horizontal layers, which made them easy to cut and use as building materials [1–4]. This architecture is in Copyright: © 2021 by the author. fact characterized by monolithic blocs in the construction of walls, as well as in covering Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access article systems, ﬂoors, windows, doors, and architectonical elements, and has capitals that show distributed under the terms and very homogeneous massive structures [5]. conditions of the Creative Commons 2. Architectonical Characteristics: Buildings and Thrones Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ The buildings under study, widely diffused in the region of the Limestone Massif, 4.0/). but also near Hama and Idleb (Figure1), are characterized by longitudinal development

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2. Architectonical Characteristics: Buildings and Thrones Heritage 2021, 4 1884 The buildings2. Architectonical under study, Characteristics: widely diffused Buildings in the region and Thrones of the Limestone Massif, but also near Hama and Idleb (Figure 1), are characterized by longitudinal development The buildings under study, widely diffused in the region of the Limestone Massif, and they are usuallybut also divided near Hama into threeand Idleb naves (Figure by rows 1), areof columns;characterized the presbyteryby longitudinal area developmentis and they are usually divided into three naves by rows of columns; the presbytery area is organized withand a cancellum they are, usuallysynthronon divided, and into altar. three In front naves of by th rowse holy of structure, columns; thethe presbyterybema, area is organized with a cancellum, synthronon, and altar. In front of the holy structure, the bema, there is also theorganized Syriac bema, with aa largecancellum horses, synthrononhoe-shaped, and platform altar. In frontlocated of th one holythe main structure, axe the bema, there is also the Syriac bema, a large horseshoe-shaped platform located on the main axe of the central navethere ofis alsothe church.the Syriac The bema, hemicy a largecle horsesis flankedhoe-shaped by sitting platform banks located and joined on the main axe of the central nave of the church. The hemicycle is ﬂanked by sitting banks and joined with the lecternof throne, the central a lithic nave or of a thewooden church. liturgical The hemicy furnishingcle is flanked element by (Figuresitting banks 2; for and joined with the lectern throne, a lithic or a wooden liturgical furnishing element (Figure2; for more informationwith about the lectern the bema throne, churches, a lithic see or [6–9];a wooden for a liturgicaldefinition furnishing of Syriac bemas,element see (Figure 2; for more information about the bema churches, see [6–9]; for a deﬁnition of Syriac bemas, [10–14]; for informationmore information about bemas about and the thebema connection churches, withsee [6–9]; Syriac for bemas, a definition some of literary Syriac bemas, see seesources, [10–14 and]; for a possible[10–14]; information for reconstructi information about bemason about of the and bemas paraments, the and connection the see connection [15–18]). with Syriac with Syriac bemas, bemas, some some literary literary sources,sources, and a possible and a possible reconstruction reconstructi of theon of paraments, the paraments, see [ 15see–18 [15–18]).]).

Figure 1. Google EarthFigure satellite 1. FigureGoogle image 1.EarthGoogle of satellite north Earth andimage satellitecentral of north Syria image and with ofcentral north the Syriaarchaeological and with central the Syriaarchaeological sites withmentioned the site archaeological sin mentioned this work in sites this work (accessed 23 December 2020). (accessed 23 December 2020).mentioned in this work (accessed 23 December 2020).

Figure 2. Qirk Bize, Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, and Behyo churches: axonometric reconstruction (Tchalenko 1990). Figure 2. Qirk Bize, Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, and Behyo churches: axonometric reconstruction (Tchalenko 1990). Figure 2. Qirk Bize, Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, and Behyo churches: axonometric reconstruction (Tchalenko 1990). Despite there being more than ﬁfty Syriac bema churches [10,15], only nine exemplars of lectern thrones have survived; they come from Kfeir Dart ‘Azze, Kimar, Bafetin, Dehes,

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Heritage 2021, 4 1885 Despite there being more than fifty Syriac bema churches [10,15], only nine exemplars of lectern thrones have survived; they come from Kfeir Dart ‘Azze, Kimar, Bafetin, Dehes, Resafa, Qirq Bize, Behyo, Bettir, and Bennawi. Except for the last one, which is on displayResafa, in Qirqthe garden Bize, Behyo, of the Bettir,Damascus and Bennawi.National Museum, Except for they the lastare all one, on which site. is on display inThe the gardensurviving of theartifacts Damascus are made National of calcar, Museum, limestone, they areor basalt, all on site.with a quite trapezoidal or L-shapedThe surviving section artifacts and a parallelepiped are made of calcar, base. limestone, From the or morphological basalt, with a quitepoint trapezoidal of view, it isor possible L-shaped to sectionelaborate and a classification a parallelepiped of three base. main From typologies: the morphological (a) a monolithic point of block view, it withis possibletilted book to elaboratesupport and a classiﬁcation acroteria globes of three, with main a trapezoidal typologies: section (a) a (Bennawi, monolithic Qirk block Bize,with and tilted Resafa); book (b) support a monolithic and acroteria block globes,with a withsimple a trapezoidal L-shaped section section (Kimar); (Bennawi, (c) Qirk a compositionBize, and Resafa);of lithic (b)elements a monolithic with a rounded block with dossal a simple (Kfeir L-shaped Dart ‘Azze, section Bafetin, (Kimar); Dehes, (c) a Behyo,composition and Bettir) of lithic(Figure elements 3). with a rounded dossal (Kfeir Dart ‘Azze, Bafetin, Dehes, Behyo, and Bettir) (Figure3).

Figure 3. Proﬁles of the preserved lectern thrones: (a) Bennawi, (b) Qirk Bize, (c) Resafa, (d) Kimar, (e) Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, (f) Figure 3. Profiles of the preserved lectern thrones: (a) Bennawi, (b) Qirk Bize, (c) Resafa, (d) Kimar, (e) Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, (f) Bafetin,Bafetin, ((gg)) Dehes,Dehes, ((hh)) Behyo,Behyo, andand ((ii)) BettirBettir (elaboration(elaboration ofof tablestables fromfrom TchalenkoTchalenko 1990). 1990). The lectern thrones were very dense and massive artifacts; only in the upper parts do The lectern thrones were very dense and massive artifacts; only in the upper parts do some architectural details lighten this liturgical furniture. They would have been standing some architectural details lighten this liturgical furniture. They would have been standing on stone foundations, decorated to the rear with geometrical patterns, like circles, crosses, on stone foundations, decorated to the rear with geometrical patterns, like circles, crosses, meanders of swastikas, and phytomorfic rinceau (Figure4), as well as inscriptions (see infra). meanders of swastikas, and phytomorfic rinceau (Figure 4), as well as inscriptions (see The thrones were probably built to serve a special session of the celebration, during infra). which the clergy would move from the presbytery to the center of the main nave to read the holy texts (important texts of worship and prayer, as explained below). The books were placed on the slightly sloped support facing the altar zone on the lectern throne. The purpose of the Syriac bema was perhaps to enable the weekly reenactment of the cruciﬁxion and resurrection through its use in the liturgy of the Word. When it was time for the reading of the Gospel, the clergy would leave the sanctuary and carry the Word. From the symbolic point of view, the device underlines the connection between the heavenly Jerusalem and the terrestrial Jerusalem, or Golgotha. The complex of the bema with the Syriac bema represents a microcosm inside the church, as the earlier Christian sources explain, perhaps referring also to hetoimasia, also connected to Jerusalem and Bethlehem, Paradise and Earth [14,15].

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FigureFigure 4. 4.PreservedPreserved decorations decorations from from lectern lectern thrones: thrones: (a) Dehes, (a) Dehes, (b) Kfeir (b) KfeirDaret Daret‘Azze, ‘Azze, (c) Qirk (c )Bize, Qirk and Bize, (d) and Kimar (d) (elab- Kimar oration(elaboration from G. from Bucci G. 2020). Bucci 2020).

3. PhilologicalThe thrones andwere Epigraphic probably built Investigations to serve a special session of the celebration, during which3.1. The the Literary clergy would Sources move from the presbytery to the center of the main nave to read the holyThe texts throne (important was the mosttexts importantof worship part and of prayer, the Syriac as bema.explained Christian below). literary The sourcesbooks wereunderline placed the on presencethe slightly of asloped small support table in frontfacing of the the altar throne, zone a sorton the of small,lectern sigma-shaped throne. The purposealtar, complementary of the Syriac bema to the was throne. perhaps Examining to enable the thePatrologia weekly Graecareenactmentand Scriptores of the crucifix- Syri, we ionfound and textsresurrection explaining through celebration its use in movements the liturgy and of the prayers Word. that When document it was time the presence for the readingof the Syriacof the Gospel, bema with the itsclergy peculiar would structure leave the (Farioli, sanctuary Zaqzuq, and carry and Piccirillothe Word. suggest From the the symbolictext found point in theof view,Historia theEcclesiastica device underlinesby Eusebius the connection VII, 30, 9; between here, the the terms heavenly “bema” Jeru- and salem“throne” and arethe usedterrestrial together). Jerusalem, Eusebius or Golgot mentionsha. aThe letter complex written of by the the bema bishops with in the the Syriac Synod bemaof Antioch represents against a microcosm Paul from inside Samosata: the church “It is not, as even the earlier our duty Christian to examine sources the ambitiousexplain, perhapsvanity ofreferring whom, inalso the to church’s hetoimasia assemblies,, also connected aimed atto nothingJerusalem else and but Bethlehem, vain glory andParadise pomp, andat impressingEarth [14,15] inexpert. souls with such shrewd, who has had prepared for himself a court and raised throne, the like of which a disciple of Christ should not have”. 3. PhilologicalRemarkable and considerations Epigraphic Investigations from the Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium have been exposed by Sozomen in Historia Ecclesiastica, VIII, V, p. 1528–Migne PG 67. Sozomen 3.1. The Literary Sources explains the position of the Syriac bema with its throne; other specifications are provided by ConnollyThe throne in was the 1913the most edition important of the Anonymi part of the Auctoris Syriac Expositio bema. Christian Officiorum literary Ecclesiae sources Georgio underlineArbelensi the Vulgo presence Adscripta of ,a in small the commentarytable in front about of the thethrone,Tractatus a sortII.11. of small, Connolly sigma-shaped underlines altar,that Bemacomplementary in medio templo to the positum throne. est. ExaminingThe Tractatus the IV, Patrologia XIII–XV, givesGraeca other and details:ScriptoresElevatum Syri, wefuisse found bema texts a templo explaining certum celebration est; namque movements ministri illum and semper prayers ascendere that document dicuntur. the Spatiosum pres- encequoque of the fuisse Syriac necesse bema est, with quia episcopusits peculiar ibi, st unaructure cumpresbyteris (Farioli, Zaqzuq assistentitibus., and Piccirillo Manebat suggest usque ad thefinem text reponsoruu found in the mysteriorum, Historia Ecclesiastica quod cantabatus by Eusebius post missionem VII, 30, catechumenorum 9; here, the terms. “bema” and “throne”More data are comeused together). from Gabriel Eusebius bar Lipeh mentions of Qatar a letter in his writtenCommentary by the bishops to the Liturgy in the, 9 Synodand 16, of whereAntioch we against find some Paul aspects from Samosata: concerning “It the is movingnot even of our the duty clergy to during examine prayers the ambitiousand readings vanity [19 –of23 whom,]. in the church’s assemblies, aimed at nothing else but vain glory andThe pomp,Glossarium at impressing ad Scriptores inexpert Mediae etsouls Infimae with Graecitatis such shrewd,, sub vocem who hasβῆµα had(bema) prepared gives fora generalhimself definitiona court and of raised the presbytery throne, the area, like Locus of which in Templo a disciple ubi of consistent Christ should Sacerdotes, not have”.mentioning Canonis 69 of the Synodo Trullana, the Mystagogy of Germanus, the Carmina of GregoriusRemarkable Nazianzienus, considerations Palladius, from Eustatius,the Corpus and Scriptorum Simeon Tessalonicensis; Christianorum aOrientalium very impor- havetant been explication exposed is reportedby Sozomen in the in lemma Historiaβηµατικ Ecclesiasticaά (bematica),, VIII, V,preces p. 1528–Migne que in Ambone, PG aut 67. in Sozomen explains the position of the Syriac bema with its throne; other specifications are

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provided by Connolly in the 1913 edition of the Anonymi Auctoris Expositio Officiorum Ec- clesiae Georgio Arbelensi Vulgo Adscripta, in the commentary about the Tractatus II.11. Con- nolly underlines that Bema in medio templo positum est. The Tractatus IV, XIII–XV, gives other details: Elevatum fuisse bema a templo certum est; namque ministri illum semper ascendere dicuntur. Spatiosum quoque fuisse necesse est, quia episcopus ibi, una cum presbyteris assistentitibus. Manebat usque ad finem reponsoruu mysteriorum, quod cantabatus post missionem catechumenorum. More data come from Gabriel bar Lipeh of Qatar in his Commentary to the Liturgy, 9 and 16, where we find some aspects concerning the moving of the clergy during prayers and readings [19–23]. The Glossarium ad Scriptores Mediae et Infimae Graecitatis, sub vocem βῆμα (bema) gives a general definition of the presbytery area, Locus in Templo ubi consistent Sacer- dotes, mentioning Canonis 69 of the Synodo Trullana, the Mystagogy of Germanus, the Carmina of Gregorius Nazianzienus, Palladius, Eustatius, and Simeon Tessalonicensis; a Heritage 2021, 4 very important explication is reported in the lemma βηματικά (bematica), preces que1887 in Ambone, aut in solea, à Cantoribus vel Psaltis in Ecclesia concinunutur, also referring to the Psalmi graduales, whose reading or intonation could have been carried out near the bema, thesolea, ambo,à Cantoribus or perhaps vel Psaltis in the in Syriac Ecclesia bema. concinunutur About the, also word referring “θρόνος to the” (thronos) Psalmi graduales, [24], the Glossariumwhose reading mentions or intonation a “Θρόνος could δεύτερος have been” (thronos carried deuteros), out near a the place bema, to reach the ambo, during or liturgy,perhaps outside in the the Syriac presbytery bema. Aboutarea. Maybe the word the βηματικά “θ$óνoς” prayers (thronos) were [24 ],performed the Glossarium in the Syriacmentions bema a “usingΘ$óν otheς δε lecternύτε$o ςthrone,” (thronos the θρόνος deuteros), δεύτερος a place to(thronos reachduring deuteros), liturgy, as support outside forthe the presbytery holy texts. area. This Maybe means thethatβηµατικ the lecterάnprayers throne werewas dedicated performed to inthese the special Syriac read- bema ings.using the lectern throne, the θ$óνoς δεύτε$oς (thronos deuteros), as support for the holy texts. This means that the lectern throne was dedicated to these special readings. 3.2. Epigraphical Sources 3.2. EpigraphicalFrom the epigraphical Sources perspective, there are some remarkable indications concerning the structureFrom the and epigraphical the position perspective, of the lecter theren throne: are some the documentation remarkable indications comes from concerning Greek, Syriac,the structure and Judaic and theinscriptions. position of the lectern throne: the documentation comes from Greek, Syriac,A Princeton and Judaic University inscriptions. expedition, coordinated by Butler in 1899, documented in ZebedA a Princeton Greco-Syriac University inscription expedition, on a slab coordinated of the cancellum by Butler of the in presbytery 1899, documented area men- in tioningZebed aa Greco-Syriacthronos: AR(D)A inscription Rabūlā onmade aslab the throne of the cancellum(for moreof information the presbytery about area Zebed, mention- see theing Archaeological a thronos: AR(D)A Archives Rabul¯ a¯at made http://vrc.p the thronerinceton.edu/archives/items/show/47085)(for more information about Zebed, see [25] the. ItArchaeological is an attestation Archives of the aterection http://vrc.princeton.edu/archives/items/show/47085 of a throne by Rabula. The literal translation is)[ “made25]. It theis an throne”, attestation but that, of the of erection course, ofdoes a throne not necess by Rabula.arily mean The that literal he translationmade it himself. is “made In this the case,throne”, undoubtedly, but that, of it course, is the acknowledgment does not necessarily of a mean gift [26] that (Figure he made 5). it himself. In this case, undoubtedly, it is the acknowledgment of a gift [26] (Figure5).

FigureFigure 5. 5. Zebed:Zebed: cancellum cancellum of of the the bema bema with with inscription inscription (Littman (Littman 1930). 1930).

The word thronos could also be used in a metonymical way, a part for all, underlying, in this Christian archaeological ambit, the use of thronos as vox media: the U-shaped podium/place and the lectern (the Syriac word translated from thronos is sometimes metaphorically used for “altar”, as the throne of God). With regard to the donors of the bema and throne, there are also Judaic inscriptions from the ﬁrst half of the 5th century AD preserved in private collections, published by Salame-Sarkis in 1989, with the following content: In pious remembrance of Him, whose name is blessed/forever, the good and merciful One/For a throne (?) of the holy god/was this made by ba¯ [ ... ]. A unique case of a bema throne inscription, supported by the artifact itself, is the Bennawi throne, decorated at the rear with a Syriac Greek dedication; the second hypothesis of translation suggested by Chabot explains the direct allusion to the lectern or to the bema throne complex: For a good remembrance either for the priest Abraham, and for John, and for his mother who had it done [27] (Figure6). Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 6

The word thronos could also be used in a metonymical way, a part for all, underlying, in this Christian archaeological ambit, the use of thronos as vox media: the U-shaped podium/place and the lectern (the Syriac word translated from thronos is sometimes metaphorically used for “altar”, as the throne of God). With regard to the donors of the bema and throne, there are also Judaic inscriptions from the first half of the 5th century AD preserved in private collections, published by Salame-Sarkis in 1989, with the following content: In pious remembrance of Him, whose name is blessed/forever, the good and merciful One/For a throne (?) of the holy god/was this made by bā […]. A unique case of a bema throne inscription, supported by the artifact itself, is the Bennawi throne, decorated at the rear with a Syriac Greek dedication; the second hypothesis of translation suggested by Chabot explains the direct allusion to the lectern or to the Heritage 2021, 4 bema throne complex: For a good remembrance either for the priest Abraham, and for John, 1888and for his mother who had it done [27] (Figure 6).

Figure 6. Bennawi lectern throne: (a) photo by Bucci, (b,c) drawings by Chabot (1929). Figure 6. Bennawi lectern throne: (a) photo by Bucci, (b,c) drawings by Chabot (1929). Two more epigraphic documents record interesting data. TheTwo mosaicmore epigraphic ﬂoor inscription documents belonging record to interesting the second data. big panel of the central nave of TaybbatThe almosaic Imam floor church inscription (442–447 belonging AD), near to Hama the second [23,28 ,big29], panel mentions of the the central construction nave of

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEWofTaybbat the thronos al Imam(word church used (442–447 to indicate AD), the near throne Hama itself, [23,28,29], but also the mentio bemans in the a metonymicalconstruction7 way):of the thronosof Thedose (word praying used God to indicate with (his) the wife throne and sonsitself, paved but also with the mosaic bema (the in area)a metonymical behind the throneway): of(Figure Thedose7). praying God with (his) wife and sons paved with mosaic (the area) behind the throne (Figure 7).

FigureFigure 7. Taybbat7. Taybbat al al Imam: Imam: (a ()a perspective) perspective imageimage ofof thethe Syriac bema, bema, ( (bb) )relief relief of of the the bema bema throne throne inscription, inscription, (c) (mosaicc) mosaic withwith bema bema throne throne inscription inscription (Piccirillo, (Piccirillo, Zaqzuq Zaqzuq1990). 1990).

The inscription is immediately west of the Syriac bema, of which only the morphological trace of the foundation remains, thanks to the archaeological excavations and evidenced due to the musealization of the site. Similar U shapes in mosaic floors, fronting the presbytery area, are also attested, for example, in Rayan, at the same phase of the mosaic pavement; moreover, in Banassara, as reported by Khoury in a 2002–2004 excavations report, a lithic structure was over the mosaic floor: it seems that the Syriac bema was added in a second phase of use of the church, after a restoration, covering part of the mosaic decoration [30] (usually, Syriac bemas are instead part of the original project of buildings; see infra).

4. The Surviving Exemplars of Lectern Thrones: Description The mentioned Bennawi throne, preserved at the National Museum in Damascus, is the most famous bema throne (see Figure 6); it is made of basalt and comes from the church of Bennawi, south of Aleppo; it is mentioned in the reportage of Tchalenko (1950– 1953) and discussed in published work by Chabot [6,17,27]. The preserved section is the upper side, the lectern itself; it is characterized by a vertical dossal terminating with a tympanum on the external part; the oblique frontal part is the support for the book; two pairs of globes, flattened at the ends of the extremities, complete the furniture (0.2 × 0.61 × 0.50 m). The dossal is decorated with the mentioned Syriac inscription on four horizontal lines and two vertical rows: in the middle, a pseudo-laurel clypeus encloses a cross with expanded extremities. At the sides, there are two rectangular housings for the joints with the balustrade of the U complex. The lectern was made between the 5th and the 6th centuries AD. In Jebel el Ala, the church of Qirq Bize includes a compact limestone structure (Figure 8) holding the Syriac bema, enriched with a monolithic lectern throne, with great external decorations (IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-02562519/thumb) [31]: grooves, inverted grooves, and linear frames with a big arch in the lower part; a big clypeus with petals and a small concentric circle is arranged over two twin clypea with schematic monograms. The support for the book is inclined in the same way as the

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The inscription is immediately west of the Syriac bema, of which only the morphological trace of the foundation remains, thanks to the archaeological excavations and evidenced due to the musealization of the site. Similar U shapes in mosaic floors, fronting the presbytery area, are also attested, for example, in Rayan, at the same phase of the mosaic pavement; moreover, in Banassara, as reported by Khoury in a 2002–2004 excavations report, a lithic structure was over the mosaic floor: it seems that the Syriac bema was added in a second phase of use of the church, after a restoration, covering part of the mosaic decoration [30] (usually, Syriac bemas are instead part of the original project of buildings; see infra).

4. The Surviving Exemplars of Lectern Thrones: Description The mentioned Bennawi throne, preserved at the National Museum in Damascus, is the most famous bema throne (see Figure6); it is made of basalt and comes from the church of Bennawi, south of Aleppo; it is mentioned in the reportage of Tchalenko (1950–1953) and discussed in published work by Chabot [6,17,27]. The preserved section is the upper side, the lectern itself; it is characterized by a vertical dossal terminating with a tympanum on the external part; the oblique frontal part is the support for the book; two pairs of globes, flattened at the ends of the extremities, complete the furniture (0.2 × 0.61 × 0.50 m). The dossal is decorated with the mentioned Syriac inscription on four horizontal lines and two vertical rows: in the middle, a pseudo-laurel clypeus encloses a cross with expanded extremities. At the sides, there are two rectangular housings for the joints with the balustrade of the U complex. The lectern was made between the 5th and the 6th centuries AD. In Jebel el Ala, the church of Qirq Bize includes a compact limestone structure (Figure8) holding the Syriac bema, enriched with a monolithic lectern throne, with great external decorations (IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-025625 Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 8 19/thumb)[31]: grooves, inverted grooves, and linear frames with a big arch in the lower part; a big clypeus with petals and a small concentric circle is arranged over two twin clypea with schematic monograms. The support for the book is inclined in the same way as the BennawiBennawi example. example. Here, Here, the the parapets parapets of ofthe the hemicycle hemicycle are arestill still standing, standing, flanking flanking the lec- the tern.lectern. It is It attributable is attributable to the to thefirst first half half of the of the 5th 5th century century AD AD (Figure (Figure 9).9 ).

Figure 8. Qirk Bize: ( (aa)) drone drone image, image, ( (bb)) textured textured 3D 3D model, model, ( (cc)) shaded shaded 3D 3D view view from from the the so southuth side side (Tsuneki, (Tsuneki, Watanabe, Watanabe, and Jammo 2020).

Figure 9. Qirk Bize, Syriac Bema with lectern throne: (a) U-shaped structure with throne, viewed from above and (b) in perspective; (c) external part with decorations (elaboration from https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/medihal- 01810641/thumb).

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Bennawi example. Here, the parapets of the hemicycle are still standing, flanking the lectern. It is attributable to the first half of the 5th century AD (Figure 9).

Heritage 2021, 4 1890 Figure 8. Qirk Bize: (a) drone image, (b) textured 3D model, (c) shaded 3D view from the south side (Tsuneki, Watanabe, and Jammo 2020).

Figure 9. Qirk Bize,Bize, Syriac Syriac Bema Bema with with lectern lectern throne: throne: (a) U-shaped(a) U-shaped structure structure with throne,with thro viewedne, viewed from above from andabove (b) inand perspec- (b) in tive;perspective; (c) external (c) part external with decorations part with (elaboration decorations from https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/medihal-01810641/thumb(elaboration from https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/medihal-). 01810641/thumb). Another context with good conditions of conservation is the Holy Cross Basilica in Resafa [32], where the bema platform made of stones is preserved with the steps and the floor in its second phase (second half of the 6th century AD). The throne was made of three big blocks, following Tchalenko’s hypothetical reconstruction, and the higher section was similar to the Bennawi lectern (in this case, the lectern was made of limestone). In the Jebel Seman, in Kimar church (1960 IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives- ouvertes.fr/search/index/?q=kimar&submit=&submitType_s=file), the lectern was made of complementary limestone blocks (probably four): a monolithic L-section element, decorated at the rear by a cross with gems and expanded extremities, was supported by a simple parallelepiped stone, flanked by a couple of supports with crowned acroteria. The artifact belongs to the first half of the 5th century AD (Figure 10). In Kfeir Dart‘Azze (Jebel Seman), there is a bema church with foundations still standing. In between the ruins, collapsed and partially destroyed, the French mission of the Institut français du Proche-Orient (IFPO) detected pieces of the lectern throne, as documented by Tchalenko (1964 IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/ ?q=Kfeir+Dart%E2%80%98Azze+&submit=&submitType_s%5B%5D=). The furniture was made of two limestone blocks: a vertical dossal with a curvilinear upper section decorated, on the external part, with a clypeus, grids of squares divided by diagonals, a swastika meander, and frames with organic patterns. It is datable to the end of the 4th or the beginning of the 5th centuries AD (see Figure4). The same type of lectern, from the first half of the 5th century AD, can be found in Bafetin church [1]. Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 9

Another context with good conditions of conservation is the Holy Cross Basilica in Resafa [32], where the bema platform made of stones is preserved with the steps and the floor in its second phase (second half of the 6th century AD). The throne was made of three big blocks, following Tchalenko’s hypothetical reconstruction, and the higher section was similar to the Bennawi lectern (in this case, the lectern was made of limestone). In the Jebel Seman, in Kimar church (1960 IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives- ouvertes.fr/search/index/?q=kimar&submit=&submitType_s=file), the lectern was made of complementary limestone blocks (probably four): a monolithic L-section element, dec- Heritage 2021, 4 orated at the rear by a cross with gems and expanded extremities, was supported by1891 a simple parallelepiped stone, flanked by a couple of supports with crowned acroteria. The artifact belongs to the first half of the 5th century AD (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Kimar: ( (aa)) Syriac Syriac bema, bema, ( (bb)) lectern lectern throne throne internal internal side, ( c) external decoration with cross, (d) perspectiveperspective (Tchalenko 1980).1980).

In Déhès basilica (Jebel Barisha), the structure of the Syriac bema is quite well preserved, including the lectern throne on-site (IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives- ouvertes.fr/search/index/?q=D%C3%A9h%C3%A8s&submit=&submitType_s=ﬁle). The

U-shaped wall stands with two coursings of limestone blocks, externally decorated by linear frames, with grooves and inverted grooves. In an emphatic position, the throne shows the continuity in decorations from the same archaeological phase (second half of the 5th century AD); the lower part includes an arch and the central part displays a sort of meander decoration, with two bands with phytomorphic motifs ﬂanking the central panel. Also in Behyo (Jebel el Ala), there is a small basilica preserving a lectern throne made of three limestone blocks: an upper part, the support, and a mini-platform (IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/?q=Behyo&submit=&submitType_s=file Heritage 2021, 4 1892

and Archaeological Archives: http://vrc.princeton.edu/archives/items/show/46562). The dossal is vertical, curvilinear in the upper portion, and decorated on the outside by overlapping linear frames with grooves and inverted grooves; the inside part is structured as three large steps. The artifact is datable to roughly the second half of the 5th century AD. An example made of two blocks was documented by Tchalenko at the site of Bettir (1939 IFPO expedition: https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/search/index/?q=bettir&submit=&submitType_s=file), Jebel el Ala, which is maybe similar to the Kimar throne and attributable to the second half of the 5th century AD.

5. Comparisons and Stratigraphical Considerations: The Role of the Stones Analyzing the relationships between the wall stratigraphy of the Syriac bemas, the floors, and the walls, it is possible to deduct that the lectern thrones were parts of the original projects of the churches. The matrix of the stratigraphic units and the decorative continuity in the alignment of the frames, with the same base elevation and total uniformity of style, demonstrate that the levels of the lecterns on-site belong to the main chronological phase and document a unitary project. In the preserved thrones, we always find the use of the same geological material as the church structure itself. There are the same building methods and techniques, with the same laying spaces and absence of binder in the main walls, as well as in the complex of the bema throne. The installation of the lectern is an integral part of a special architectonical module. The reliefs of the wall structures can confirm the chronological attributions of the artifacts and can also be primary sources of information for the study of the structural design and construction techniques and for dating architectonical sculptures. Wooden thrones were perhaps present too, but they were supported by lithic elements of local stone; the Syriac bemas, even when stripped of the constructive elements—and therefore to be read through negative stratigraphic units—confirm the typology of the liturgical furnishing project. Two cases are emblematic for the definition of the structures and the periodization of the buildings, as well as for the chronology: Uqayribat and Taybbat. A new case of a Syriac bema with a U-shaped platform, connected with the mosaic floor, is in Uqayribat, an archeological site in the Hama district, accidentally discovered in 2018: it is a big church with a great mosaic floor, including a U-shaped bema foundation that has been spoiled, preserving the pavement. The site was discovered while the Syrian Army was combing the area for mines. The Directorate General for Antiquities and Museums of Syria (DGAM) worked to uncover the mosaic, which was later removed and transferred to the Hama National Museum under the coordination of the DGAM director Dr. Mahmoud Hamoud (http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=177&id=2390). The decorations on the Syriac bema show a panel with a palm tree representing the tree of life, with three couples of heraldic lambs framed by rhombs and triangles tangential to the tabula ansata, over which there is a unicorn with two laurel clypea. In the middle, the inscription mentions Bishop Alexander, the indictio, and the month of the execution of the mosaic. The ditch derived from the masonry stripping (see infra) testifies to the presence of a liturgical installation with typical morphology (Figure 11). If we analyze the context of Uqayribat, reading the layers of the archaeological excavations where it is still possible, we can see, on the basilica floor mosaic, the level of the spoliation trench of the Syriac bema hemicycle lithic structure (the spoliation is in phase with the spoliation of the architectonical elements, including the columns bases, which have for sure been reused somewhere else). The foundation system of the liturgical furnishing, holding all the blocks at the same level, dislocated in an artificial ditch with a flat bed and vertical sides, cuts the leveled splitting plane of the floor; it is possible to see the U-shaped spoliation trench, here emphasized by the 3D plan view and section (Figure 12). The continuity of decorations holding the U structure, including the throne, confirms the shape of the architectural project. The mosaic was completed after the construction of the Syriac bema. The most similar case is represented by Taybbat al Imam (the church already Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 11

that has been spoiled, preserving the pavement. The site was discovered while the Syrian Army was combing the area for mines. The Directorate General for Antiquities and Mu- seums of Syria (DGAM) worked to uncover the mosaic, which was later removed and transferred to the Hama National Museum under the coordination of the DGAM director Dr. Mahmoud Hamoud (http://www.dgam.gov.sy/index.php?d=177&id=2390). The dec- Heritage 2021, 4 orations on the Syriac bema show a panel with a palm tree representing the tree of 1893life, with three couples of heraldic lambs framed by rhombs and triangles tangential to the tabula ansata, over which there is a unicorn with two laurel clypea. In the middle, the inscription mentions Bishop Alexander, the indictio, and the month of the execution of the mentionedmosaic. The for ditch the bemaderived inscription from the above):masonry it stripping is the same (see architectonical infra) testifies andto the decoration presence projectof a liturgical (Figure installation 13). with typical morphology (Figure 11).

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FigureFigure 11. 11.Uqayribat: Uqayribat: mosaic mosaic of of the the bema bema (DGAM (DGAM Syria Syria 2018). 2018).

If we analyze the context of Uqayribat, reading the layers of the archaeological excavations where it is still possible, we can see, on the basilica floor mosaic, the level of the spoliation trench of the Syriac bema hemicycle lithic structure (the spoliation is in phase with the spoliation of the architectonical elements, including the columns bases, which have for sure been reused somewhere else). The foundation system of the liturgical furnishing, holding all the blocks at the same level, dislocated in an artificial ditch with a flat bed and vertical sides, cuts the leveled splitting plane of the floor; it is possible to see the U-shaped spoliation trench, here emphasized by the 3D plan view and section (Figure 12). The continuity of decorations holding the U structure, including the throne, confirms the shape of the architectural project. The mosaic was completed after the construction of the Syriac bema. The most similar case is represented by Taybbat al Imam (the church already mentioned for the bema inscription above): it is the same architectonical and decoration project (Figure 13).

FigureFigure 12.12. Uqayribat—studyUqayribat—study ofof thethe stratigraphicstratigraphic layers:layers: 3D3D mappingmapping andand sectionsection evidencingevidencing mainmain stratigraphicstratigraphic datadata (elaboration(elaboration ofof BucciBucci 2020).2020).

TheThe archaeologicalarchaeological datadata fromfrom thethe excavationexcavation encourageencourage thethe thoughtthought ofof aa lithiclithic foun-foun- dationdation forfor thethe U-shapedU-shaped structure,structure, includingincluding thethe throne.throne. TheThe spacespace insideinside thethe U,U, inin bothboth buildings,buildings, wouldwould havehave beenbeen openopen toto showshow thethe mosaic.mosaic.

The individuation of the stratigraphic main units of the building provides a great contribution to the chronology in relation to the original ancient projects and interior design makeover.

Figure 13. Plan views of: (a) Taybbat al Imam (Piccirillo, Zaqzuq 1990) and (b) Uqayribat (DGAM Syria 2018).

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Figure 12. Uqayribat—study of the stratigraphic layers: 3D mapping and section evidencing main stratigraphic data (elaboration of Bucci 2020).

The archaeological data from the excavation encourage the thought of a lithic foun- Heritage 2021, 4 dation for the U-shaped structure, including the throne. The space inside the U, in both1894 buildings, would have been open to show the mosaic.

FigureFigure 13. 13. PlanPlan views views of: of: (a ()a )Taybbat Taybbat al al Imam Imam (Piccirillo, (Piccirillo, Zaqzuq Zaqzuq 1990) 1990) and and (b (b) )Uqayribat Uqayribat (DGAM (DGAM Syria 2018). Syria 2018).

If we consider the example of Dehes, we can conceptualize a synthesis of the construction method and architectonical interconnection. In Dehes, the pavement is still on-site and is situated just against the bema structure; the bema foundation, including the throne, was projected from the original planning of the church; the continuity and homogeneity of the decorations with frames attest to the unitary system of the complex, bema and throne. The foundation of the structure is made of one course of orthostate elements (with semi-curved and rectilinear profiles), partially inserted in a shallow trench (about 20 cm); the second layer of stones comprising the hemicycle rests directly on the first course of blocks, without binder, fixed by gravity The throne, from the static–architectonical point of view, represent a key stone in the middle of the structure: the connection of the stone element with the masonry takes place with a system of interlocking housings, binding the lectern to the sides, gripping the element and ensuring its verticality (Figure 14). The analysis of the stratigraphic wall units (unit 1: limestone block foundation; unit 2: limestone blocks with support for wooden floor; unit 3: U-shaped limestone bema structure with throne and decoration)—and thanks also to the latitudinal sections of the Syriac bemas detected by Tchalenko in the churches of Bennawi, Qirk Bize, Resafa, Kimar, Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, Bafetin, Dehes, Behyo, and Bettir (Figure 15)—confirmed the phases of the lithic lecterns belonging to the original interior design projects of the churches (for more information about rock considerations, please see paragraph five below). Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 13

The individuation of the stratigraphic main units of the building provides a great contribution to the chronology in relation to the original ancient projects and interior design makeover. If we consider the example of Dehes, we can conceptualize a synthesis of the construction method and architectonical interconnection. In Dehes, the pavement is still on- site and is situated just against the bema structure; the bema foundation, including the throne, was projected from the original planning of the church; the continuity and homogeneity of the decorations with frames attest to the unitary system of the complex, bema and throne. The foundation of the structure is made of one course of orthostate elements (with semi-curved and rectilinear profiles), partially inserted in a shallow trench (about 20 cm); the second layer of stones comprising the hemicycle rests directly on the first course of blocks, without binder, fixed by gravity The throne, from the static–architectonical point of view, represent a key stone in the middle of the structure: the connection of Heritage 2021, 4 the stone element with the masonry takes place with a system of interlocking housings,1895 binding the lectern to the sides, gripping the element and ensuring its verticality (Figure 14).

Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 14 FigureFigure 14.14. Dehes: study of the stratigraphic layers (elaboration(elaboration from BucciBucci 20202020 ofof photophoto fromfrom https://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/medihal-01849272/thumbhttps://medihal.archives-ouvertes.fr/medihal-01849272/thumb). ).

The analysis of the stratigraphic wall units (unit 1: limestone block foundation; unit 2: limestone blocks with support for wooden floor; unit 3: U-shaped limestone bema structure with throne and decoration)—and thanks also to the latitudinal sections of the Syriac bemas detected by Tchalenko in the churches of Bennawi, Qirk Bize, Resafa, Kimar, Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, Bafetin, Dehes, Behyo, and Bettir (Figure 15)—confirmed the phases of the lithic lecterns belonging to the original interior design projects of the churches (for more information about rock considerations, please see paragraph five below).

Figure 15. Latitudinal sections of Syriac bemas with preserved thrones: (a) Bennawi, (b) Qirk Bize, (c) Resafa, (d) Kimar, Figure(e) Kfeir 15. Daret Latitudinal ‘Azze, (sectionsf) Bafetin, of (Syriacg) Dehes, bemas (h) Behyo,with preserved and (i) Bettir thrones: (elaboration (a) Bennawi, from ( tablesb) Qirk in Bize, Tchalenko (c) Resafa, 1990). (d) Kimar, (e) Kfeir Daret ‘Azze, (f) Bafetin, (g) Dehes, (h) Behyo, and (i) Bettir (elaboration from tables in Tchalenko 1990).

6. Mineralogical–Petrographic Considerations The data presented here came from direct investigations of sites completed between 1994 and 2010 by the author. The typologies of the rocks used for architectural purpose were detected in autoptic surveys and using bibliographical studies (see References). Spe- cific petrographic analyses have not been completed yet (because of the suspension of research activities connected to the civil war still ongoing in Syria). The building materials for churches and their liturgical furnishings were mainly extracted near the buildings, as mentioned in the introduction; therefore, the structures show homogeneous and monochromatic complexes. These structures were built with materials extracted from open quarries belonging to the surface lithostratigraphy [1–4] (Fig- ure 16).

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6. Mineralogical–Petrographic Considerations The data presented here came from direct investigations of sites completed between 1994 and 2010 by the author. The typologies of the rocks used for architectural purpose were detected in autoptic surveys and using bibliographical studies (see References). Speciﬁc petrographic analyses have not been completed yet (because of the suspension of research activities connected to the civil war still ongoing in Syria). The building materials for churches and their liturgical furnishings were mainly extracted near the buildings, as mentioned in the introduction; therefore, the structures show homogeneous and monochromatic complexes. These structures were built with Heritage 2021, 4 FOR PEER REVIEW 15 materials extracted from open quarries belonging to the surface lithostratigraphy [1–4] (Figure 16).

Figure 16. GeneralizedGeneralized lithostratigraphy lithostratigraphy of of Syria Syria based based on on surface surface observations observations and and drilling drilling records records (Brew, (Brew, Barazangi, Barazangi, Al- Al-Maleh,Maleh, and and Sawaf Sawaf 2001). 2001).

The majority of the artifacts here analyzed were made of SyrianSyrian limestone,limestone, a calcitecalcite rock that consists mainly of calcium carbonate (CaCO3), calcite, or aragonite and may also contain a high percentage of magnesium carbonatecarbonate (dolomite), in addition to some other components in small quantities, such as chlori chloride,de, iron iron oxide oxide hydrate, hydrate, feldspar, feldspar, and quartz. quartz. Limestone, marble,marble, andand calciumcalcium (CaCO3) (CaCO3) are are the the main main component component of of calcite, calcite, which which is oneis one of ofthe the most most widespread widespread raw raw materials material ins north in north and and central central Syria. Syria. CaCO CaCO3 is composed3 is composed of 56% of +2 +2 +2 56%CaO CaO and 44%and CO44%2. CO It also2. It containsalso contains impurities impurities such assuch Mg as, Mg Fe +2, andFe+2, Mnand Mnand+2 sometimesand some- +2 −2 timesPb or Pb SO4+2 or SO4are−2 crystallized are crystallized in a cubicin a cubic crystalline crystallin structure.e structure. Aragonite Aragonite consists consists of 56% of 2+ 3+ 2+ 2+ 2 56%CaO CaO and 44%and 44% CO2 ,CO with2, with some some impurities impurities such such as Fe as Fe, Al2+, Al,3+ Mg, Mg2,+, Mn Mn2+,, and and SO4 SO42.. ItsIts crystalline structure differs from that of calcite, as aragonite takes the form of chainschains ofof trigonometric carbonate roots (CO 2), located above each other and associating with Ca2+ trigonometric carbonate roots (CO332), located above each other and associating with Ca2+ to form columns extending along the C axis [[33].33].

7. Conclusions The lectern throne or Θρόνος δεύτερος (thronos deuteros) is a testament of lithic Chris- tian cultural heritage, an element characterizing the churches of northern Syria during Late Antiquity that demonstrates the use of geological materials in buildings and their furnishings in connection with liturgy. The three typologies here identified show a typical system, attested in a short chronological frame (5th to 6th centuries, with some later mod- ifications). As indicated by the ancient sources, the lectern throne is a liturgical furnishing device used during liturgy for the βηματικά (bematika), prayers performed when reading holy books, which lay on the lectern. It is a testimony for a religious rite that belonged to the

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7. Conclusions The lectern throne or Θ$óνoς δεύτε$oς (thronos deuteros) is a testament of lithic Chris- tian cultural heritage, an element characterizing the churches of northern Syria during Late Antiquity that demonstrates the use of geological materials in buildings and their furnishings in connection with liturgy. The three typologies here identiﬁed show a typical system, attested in a short chronological frame (5th to 6th centuries, with some later modiﬁcations). As indicated by the ancient sources, the lectern throne is a liturgical furnishing device used during liturgy for the βηµατικά (bematika), prayers performed when reading holy books, which lay on the lectern. It is a testimony for a religious rite that belonged to the liturgy of Late Antiquity; contextualized as a stone element, with its shape and decoration, it is also a terminus post quem useful for the chronological interpretation of the buildings.

Funding: This research received no external funding. Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable. Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable. Data Availability Statement: Not applicable. Conﬂicts of Interest: The author declares no conﬂict of interest.

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