Analyzing International Radio Stations – a Systems Approach

Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

ANALYZING INTERNATIONAL RADIO STATIONS – A SYSTEMS APPROACH

Andrew M. Clark University of Texas at Arlington

and

Olaf Werder University of New Mexico

Keywords: Systems theory, international broadcasting, foreign policy, public diplomacy,

Paper submitted to The International Communication Gazette

Author’s Note: Andrew M. Clark (Ph.D., University of Florida, 2003) is an Assistant Professor in the De- partment of Communication at the University of Texas at Arlington.

Olaf Werder (Ph.D., University of Florida, 2002) is an Assistant Professor in the Depart- ment of Communication and Journalism at the University of New Mexico.

Address all correspondence to the first author at: Department of Communication, Fine Arts Bldg., Rm. 118, University of Texas at Arlington, Arlington, Texas. Phone: (817) 272-1246. Email: [email protected].

Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

ABSTRACT

For many years international radio broadcasting has been used by nations around the world as a foreign policy tool. As the world political system changed following the end of the Cold War so the importance of international radio broadcasting to some nations has changed. Although there has been some scholarly work devoted to international radio broadcasting, such work has focused mainly on the station and has neglected the system in which the station operates. This article uses systems theory and organizational communication principles to develop a framework for analyzing how and why nations are using international radio broadcasting.

Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

For many years government sponsored international radio stations such as Voice

of America, BBC World Service, Deutsch Welle, Radio Netherlands and others were

seen as essential tools of government foreign policy. They were the means of articulating

a country’s foreign policy to the rest of the world. However, as the world political sys-

tem changes many countries are rethinking their need for, and use of, their international radio stations. Some governments have shut down their stations, while others are focus- ing on other means of transmission apart from shortwave. The goal of this research is to develop a framework to help analyze how and why countries are using international radio broadcasting.

Stations like Voice of America, Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty, and the BBC

World Service have been subject to much analysis over the years (see for example Fred- erick 1984, Alexandre 1985, Moffett 1987, Bookmiller 1992, Rawnsley 1996, Zhang

1996). However, much of the research is descriptive in nature and lacks a solid framework from which to conduct detailed analysis between the various components of the international broadcasting system. This research uses General Systems Theory as a framework for analyzing and developing the various influences on an international broadcasting system.

General Systems Theory

The systems theory approach was first proposed by Hungarian biologist Ludwig

Von Bertalanffy in the 1940s. His idea was that a system’s main properties are not its in- dividual parts, but rather the dynamic interaction among those parts. According to Lon- gres (1995), a system is influenced by the environment of which it is a part, compounded

Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

by the fact that the environment is not static but is in a constant state of flux and ever-

changing. Infante, Rancer, & Womack (1997) define a system as "a set of interdependent

units working together to adapt to a changing environment" (p. 93). As such a systems

approach is particularly suited for the investigation of organizations. In conclusion, this

approach has a positive side because it is flexible and covers all aspects of interactions

and relationships within a system. Also, there is no attempt to make universal generaliza-

tions; rather the generalizations that may come from a systems perspective are situation

specific, or culture specific. In the field of communication, Farace, Monge and Russell

(1977) contributed greatly to the understanding of a system perspective on organizational

communication.

Infante, Rancer, & Womack (1997) note that critics of the approach believe there

is not much explanatory power in the systems perspective and that systems theory does

not shed light on why things happen. However they note “scientists developed theories

which predicted the motion of planets before they had one that explained it” (93-94). In other words, understanding how organizational systems function within a changing environment plays an important part in explaining why systems succeed or fail.

This article applies systems theory to suggest a research approach to the study of the mission and operation of international radio stations. In applying systems theory, a

question such as "why does a station offer the programming it does?" can be answered

when one understands the relationship between the station, the government agency that

oversees its operation, the government itself and its foreign policies, and the audience.

Similarly, the question "why does an international radio station use the languages it

does?" can be answered by understanding the foreign policy priorities of its government

2 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

and again the relationship between the radio station and the government. Finally, the question "why do people listen to the radio station?" can be answered in part by understanding the motivation that drives listeners to engage themselves with the program.

In general, systems theory is a useful framework in that it illustrates that radio stations do not operate in isolation or some type of vacuum. Instead, they are a part of a system where they are both influenced, and influence other parts of the system and the environment.

The systems theory approach to organizational analysis

Miller (2003) argued that "at its most basic level, a system is an assemblage of parts, or components" (p. 73). Many systems researchers, in fact, compare organizational systems to biological systems. Whereas parts in the latter are comprised of cells and or- gans, parts in an organization are comprised of people and departments, or alternatively for a society the parts are organizations and institutions. Hall and Fagen (as cited in Reu- ben & Kim, 1975) define a system as "a set of objects together with relationships between the objects and between their attributes" (p. 52). Hall and Fagen elaborate by de- fining objects as the parts or components of a system, attributes as the properties of the objects, and relationships as "those that tie the system together" (p. 53). The most important step in describing and analyzing any system is to identify the components of the system. After identifying the components, the researcher can then look at how they are arranged (hierarchy) and how they work as part of the system (interdependence, openness).

Hierarchical ordering. Systems theory does not assume that a set of components exists undifferentiated within a larger context. To the contrary, it assumes a strict hierar-

3 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

chy among the components. This hierarchical order of a system includes the existence of

subsystems – existing within the system - , and supersystems – encompassing the original

system as their own subsystem. Ultimately, systems theory envisions complex hierarchies

of systems existing within each other. A simple illustration of this concept would be the

structure of the military. An army battalion, for example, includes various companies

(usually lettered A company, B company, etc.). The battalion itself is part of a larger unit,

such as a corps. This in turn is ultimately part of the Armed Forces Defense structure.

Similarly, international radio stations are made up of subsystems or departments

such as news, programming, audience research, and technical. But, the stations also are part of a larger system which includes the radio stations, the government that owns and funds the stations, the organizations that provide programming, and the audience which, as will be illustrated later, is important among other things for providing feedback.

Interdependence. Kuhn (as cited in Reuben & Kim, 1975) argued in Action Sys- tems there are “mutual cause-effect relations between at least two elements, A and B. A change in each element, by movement of matter-energy or information, induces a change in the other(s)” (p. 124). In the system in which, for example, Voice of America exists,

there is a relationship between Voice of America and the government which operates and

funds it, between Voice of America and the Broadcasting Board of Governors, and be-

tween Voice of America and the audience. A change in spending priorities by the government for 2006-07 has lead to a proposed reduction in revenue for Voice of America.

The reduction in revenue may lead to Voice of America reducing shortwave broadcasts to various countries and cutting back some of its English language broadcasts. Alternative- ly, a change in government may lead to a change in foreign policy priorities, and the

4 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

change in foreign policy priorities could then lead to a complete change in the focus of the radio station. This has been particularly true with Voice of America where the Mid-

dle East has become a point of focus for the current administration. Instead of VOA’s

Middle Eastern service being strengthened, it was cut back in favor of the new initiative

Radio Sawa.

The key idea is that no component within the system can function effectively without active assistance from other components (Miller, 2003). While it could be argued that a government functions well without its international radio station, in terms of foreign policy and its efforts to establish and maintain relations within its region of influence and interest, the radio station is proving to be an important part in the equation, and the government does not function as well in its foreign policy endeavors without the station.

Permeability. The third characteristic of a system is its “permeable boundaries that allow information and materials to flow in and out” (Miller, 2003, p. 88). It is this openness of the organizational system that marks an important departure from other approaches to organizational communication. While we agree that some systems are more closed to their environment than others (e.g., the National Security Council compared to a faculty senate at a university), no system is completely closed. Therefore, the analysis of any system needs to allow for the dynamic interplay of the system and its environment, including the effects of those outside influences.

For instance, the role of a radio station such as the Voice of America is shaped by political developments over time. No one would argue that today VOA’s mission is different from the Cold War era. VOA, as a system, adjusted to the changes in the global political landscape to remain an effective messenger of American values and opinions.

5 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

Hall and Fagen (1975) noted that

In a sense, a system together with its environment makes up a universe of all things of interest in a given context. Subdivision of this universe into two sets, system and environment, can be done in many ways which are in fact quite arbi- trary. Ultimately it depends on the intentions of the one who is studying the particular universe as to which of the possible configurations of objects is to be taken as the system. (p. 56)

Kuhn (as cited in Reuben, 1975) made the point that “a system does not respond

to its total environment, but only those aspects which impinge upon it” (p. 121). He noted

that “it is only to the extent that system has itself been modified by its environment that it

can respond to it, and in the strict sense the system responds only to these modifications,

not to the environment as such” (p. 121).

In the case of Voice of America, the environment in which its system functions

comprises a number of variables including, technological developments, changes in the

regional political system, and change in the world system. Both technological and politi-

cal developments greatly influence the system. For example on a global scale, the end of

the Cold War and the subsequent changes in the world led to many countries reevaluating

the need for international radio stations. The war in Iraq, and the focus on the region fol-

lowing the 9-11 attacks, heightened the need for international radio broadcasts from the

United States to the Middle East region. Changes in the technological environment has

opened up new, and in some cases, more effective means of communication with the au-

dience.

Feedback. To guarantee the smooth operation of its interdependent components, a system uses constant feedback mechanisms. Feedback exists both in the form of “corrective feedback” to ensure the maintenance of the system, and “positive feedback” to cultivate growth and positive change (Kim, 1975; Miller, 2003).

6 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

For example even international stations have target audiences and broadcast pro-

gramming designed to reach that audience. One way the station finds out if the program-

ming is reaching its desired target audience is through feedback in the form of letters

from listeners, qualitative and quantitative audience research, and phone calls to call-in

programs on the station. This feedback either validates that the stations programming is

indeed reaching the desired target, or enables the station to adjust its programming strate-

gy in order to reach the intended audience (corrective feedback). Feedback can also be

used to diversify and broaden program structures to expand its audience (positive feed-

back). The key concepts of the system, therefore, are the interdependence of its parts and

its overall openness to the environment.

A systems model for international radio networks

By borrowing from systems concepts on organizational communication (Farace et al., 1977; Katz & Kahn, 1978) and extending it to an international media model, this research explores how we can understand the significance of international radio stations for their countries or regions within which they operate. In so doing it incorporates the aforementioned variables that are archetypal for a system. The resulting model combines knowledge from research on international radio broadcasting with variables of systems theory to explain the functioning of international radio stations. The objective is to intro- duce an international radio broadcasting framework that addresses the following topics:

1. Explanation of the organizational structure of an international radio sta-

tion and comparison potential between nations.

2. Exploration of the changes that international radio stations go through

over the years as a result of internal or external influences.

7 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

3. Advancement of a new approach toward analyzing media organizations.

The proposed framework

The framework illustrated in Figure 1 shows the international radio station as part

of a system within an environment of technological and political change. The model illus-

trates how the station functions in the system, but is also a product of everything from the country that operates it to the environment in which it exists.

Wells (1974) provided an important perspective in analyzing the system that the stations function in. He listed finance, control, target audience, programming, and feedback as key dimensions in understanding a media system. These dimensions provide a holistic approach to analyzing any media system from that which a local station in a small town operates in, to the system in which international broadcasters are a part of.

Although Wells’ did not focus on international broadcasting as mentioned in this research, the categories are useful and are incorporated in varying degrees into the framework (Clark and Christie, 2005).

Government

In Wells’ dimensions, control is the most important factor in analyzing media systems. In regular terrestrial broadcasting, control is usually associated with ownership.

As McQuail (2000) notes, the most important issue in understanding the media’s relationship with ownership is “the extent to which media organizations can claim to exercise autonomy” (p. 259). Or, the extent to which ownership and the investors, advertisers or sponsors who are providing the operating funds influence, or seek to influence, the content of the station (McQuail, 2000).

8 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

International radio stations face similar issues of interference, although they are

not owned by a government. However, depending on the country, the government in

power does exercise control and operates the station. Hence, control in the case of the

model in Figure 1 is labeled as Government.

Most international broadcasters receive funding from their government through a

specific agency. For example Radio New Zealand International’s budget is provided by

the Ministry of Culture and Heritage (Clark, 2006); in the case of Voice of America funding is allocated by Congress. Therefore the content of the programming should reflect the foreign policy priorities of the government or the government department responsible for the broadcaster. The funding is not uniform for all stations and is often an indication of the value a particular country places on its international radio broadcast operation.

Some governments provide their station with ample funding while others are continuing to cut back often leaving the station to operate on a less than sufficient budget.

One key seems to be proportionality. If a station's funding is cut, but it is still ex- pected to fulfill the same obligations that could make the task harder for station person- nel. If the mission of the station is reduced along with the funding, then even a cut in funds could still mean the station has ample money to carry out its goals. For example in

2006 the United States government announced an increase of four-point-three percent in the budget for international broadcasting. However changing foreign policy priorities meant that the money went to some newer initiatives and it led to cutbacks in some more established areas. In a press release addressing the issue, the BBG said,

The budget proposes reductions in English language programming, by eliminating

VOA News Now radio while maintaining VOA English to Africa, Special English

9 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

and VOA's English website. The budget reflects the Board's commitment to Eng-

lish language programming in the medium of the future, the Internet, and for ex-

cellence in Special English programming. Other proposed reductions include the

elimination of VOA broadcasts in Croatian, Turkish, Thai, Greek and Georgian.

VOA radio broadcasts in Albanian, Bosnian, Macedonian, Serbian, Russian and

Hindi would end while television programming in these languages would contin-

ue. (Broadcasting Board of Governors, 2006).

It is a difficult task for an international broadcaster to be perceived a trustworthy

and credible when its identity is tied to the government that operates and funds it. One way that stations such as Radio Australia and the BBC World Service have achieved a level of credibility is that their identity is not tied so much to their respective governments, as to an intermediary. This intermediary provides a buffer between the station and the government. In the case of Radio Australia and the BBC World Service, the intermediary is the countries national public broadcaster.

Intermediary

The intermediary may be a national broadcasting corporation, such as the British

Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) with the BBC World Service or the Australian Broad- casting Corporation (ABC) with Radio Australia. It may also be an agency such as the

Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), an independent body of the United States government that oversees U.S. international broadcasting such as Voice of America. The dif- ference is that the BBC or ABC are government funded broadcasting organizations able to provide programming, staff, and training to the international broadcaster, whereas the

BBG is more analogous to a board of directors. Ultimately, the government still has the

10 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

power to institute reviews of the station's operation and withhold funding or ask for

changes in the languages used to broadcast. However the role of an intermediary such as

a national public broadcaster provides a much needed illusion of independence. Associa-

tion with an organization such as the BBC or ABC also gives the international station a slightly different identity. The international station reaps the benefits of the reputation that the public broadcaster has and the goodwill it has generated, both at home and

around the world. On the other hand, all the BBG does is to provide a buffer between the

Voice of America and the government, but it does not do much to change the identity of

the VOA as a tool of the United States government. It is important to realize that if the

national public broadcaster is itself subject to strict government control, then it may not

add much to the international station apart from being a source of programming.

One other intermediary factor to consider are what McQuail (1994) termed “institutional arrangements (such as editorial statutes) designed to safeguard the integrity of editorial policy” (p. 163). McQuail noted that “professionalism, codes of conduct, public reputation (since media are always in the public eye), and common (business sense) are supposed to take care of the seeming ‘problem’ of undue owner (or in this case state) influence” (p. 163). For example part of Radio New Zealand International’s mission statement reads, “To earn and keep the interest and respect of listeners, RNZI will: maintain programme (sic) and editorial policies which follow the traditions of public broadcasting, and ensure honest and impartial treatment to listeners and contributors” (Radio

New Zealand International, 2007). Part of Voice of America’s charter which was signed into law in 1976 says “VOA will serve as a consistently reliable and authoritative source of news. VOA news will be accurate, objective, and comprehensive” (Voice of America,

11 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

2007). Although these institutional arrangements may, in varying degrees, provide a buffer between the international broadcaster and the government it is important to realize that the government still has ultimate control because it controls the funding for the stations.

Radio Station

Operation of the radio station includes everything from hours of broadcast to languages used, to regions targeted. It is the result of input from many variables in the system, but it also affects those variables as well.

Browne (1982), in his seminal work on international broadcasting, The Limits of the Limitless Medium, identified eight roles that are useful in understanding the function of the station. The most pertinent to this study are: instrument of foreign policy, mirror of society, symbolic presence, coercer and intimidator, educator, and entertainer (Browne,

1982). That is not to say that each station fulfills only one purpose, rather a single station may for example be an instrument of foreign policy, but its programming may also mirror society and be educational and entertaining.

When referring to international broadcast stations as instruments of foreign policy, Browne (1982) argued that policy can be divided into two parts: policy making and policy execution. Government-operated international radio stations have no direct impact on the making of policy, rather they are tools used to execute policy. One way foreign policy is reflected in international radio stations is through the languages the station uses and the amount of time spent on each language. Browne (1982) mentioned that one country may react to events in another country by doubling or tripling the broadcast hours and/or frequencies for certain language services. Voice of America’s program schedule

12 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

shows that it broadcasts more hours, and on more frequencies, in Mandarin to China than

it does in Swahili or Hindi. This indicates that as far as Voice of America is concerned, listeners in China are more of a priority at the moment than those in parts of Africa or

India (Voice of America, 2006). It is not uncommon for languages to disappear or frequencies to change once a crisis is over or a country or region is no longer a priority. For example Voice of America currently broadcasts in 45 languages down from 52 a couple of years ago.

Hachten (1999) synthesized the use of international broadcasting stations during the Cold War into two terms: public diplomacy and international political communication. He defined public diplomacy as “a government’s overt efforts to influence another government” (p. 109). International political communication, on the other hand, actually encompasses public diplomacy and is defined as “the political effects that newspapers, broadcasting, film, exchanges of persons, cultural exchanges, and other means of international communication can achieve” (p. 110). Both Browne and Hachten described the total output of the station (i.e., the programming that is transmitted over the airwaves or whatever medium is being used). Like any broadcast station, the programming is transmitted with a specific target audience in mind.

Audience

The output of the international radio station is directed to audiences who are often in different countries. Previously shortwave broadcasters primarily received feedback from the listeners through letters or QSL cards or by anecdotal information. Although letters are still received and appreciated, the Internet now enables broadcasters to receive feedback instantaneously. If the show is live the hosts can respond on-air to e-mails from

13 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

audiences all over the world making this a much more interactive enterprise. For exam-

ple the hosts of Radio Australia’s Breakfast Club program

(http://www.abc.net.au/ra/breakfastclub/) encourage e-mails and text messages to be sent to them while they are live on the air. The Breakfast Club has its own web page complete with a blog, web links, and photo galleries. The show positions itself as a viable alternative to local broadcasters in the various countries it broadcasts to.

The audience is very important to the government as they represent the target of

the government’s foreign policy goals and as with any broadcaster it is important that the station give the audience every reason to continue listening to the station. One way to understand the importance of the audience is by examining a station’s charter. Voice of

America’s charter states in part that “The long-range interests of the United States are served by communicating directly with the peoples of the world by radio. To be effective, the Voice of America must win the attention and respect of listeners” (Voice of America,

2007). This is obviously an overarching goal and each language service has more detailed target audiences. Kim Andrew Elliott, a VOA broadcaster and researcher in talking about the English language service notes “the target audience is the global community of Eng- lish speaking people. This is an elite audience, the movers and shakers of the world. What they lack in quantity, they make up for in quality” (RW Online, 2006).

Understanding the target audience enables broadcasters to provide programming that is useful and interesting and useful to the audience. This is a challenge as an international broadcaster may be reaching everyone from the educated elite to someone with lit- tle to no education.

14 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

Environmental Forces

Environmental Forces are those variables continually affecting the whole system-

ic loop. These could include political change such as internal political in the form of a

military coup or global issues such as conflict in Afghanistan, the war in Iraq, or even the end of the Cold War. Military coups in Fiji have affected the programming and operation of Radio Australia and Radio New Zealand International (Clark, 2003). Increasing focus on the Middle East has led to the creation of new and innovative international broadcasting efforts by the United States (Clark and Christie, 2005). Environmental

Forces could also include technological innovations.

McQuail (2000) says new communication technology causes change for broadcasters because as these technologies come along they “constantly open up the potential for new markets and undermine old ones” (p. 204). One important example of new technology affecting international broadcasting and undermining an old market is the Inter- net.

The BBC World Service cut broadcasts to the United States, Canada, Australia and New Zealand because it found more people were accessing the service on-line than via shortwave (Anderson, 2005). At the time then BBC World Service Director Mark

Byford was also interviewed on the BBC program Newshour and said

It's about recognizing changes in listening patterns in different areas of the world.

In the United States, one of if not the most mature broadcasting marketplaces in

the world, more people are listening to us today through those FM rebroadcasting

partnerships than on shortwave. And on the Internet, 168 million today are con-

15 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

nected in the US to the net, and you can listen to the World Service on that net

site in higher quality sound than even shortwave. (Save BBC, 2002)

Byford reiterated that the decision to cut transmissions to some parts of the world was all about "recognizing that we have different delivery methods for different markets and different audience groups” (Save BBC, 2002). He said that in today's age it is not possible for the BBC to be solely a shortwave broadcaster, or to switch completely to the Internet.

Either way would mean the audience would decline. In his view, using the Internet to target some areas and shortwave to target others is the best of both worlds. Recent sur- vey results show he may have been on target. The BBC World Service for example now has a record “163 million weekly listeners to its 33 language services” (BBC World Ser- vice, 2006, p.1). The BBC World Service is available on FM in 150 capital cities and

“Shortwave and medium wave listening also showed an increase of around five million, particularly in rural areas in parts of East Africa and SE Asia (Burma, India and Nepal)”

(BBC World Service, 2006, p.1). Online audiences to the BBC's international facing news sites have also shown significant rises. The BBC World Service site “now attracts around 33 million unique users each month, up from around 21 million unique users a year ago” (BBC World Service, 2006, p.1).

Radio Australia, Voice of America, the BBC World Service, and other international broadcasters podcast popular programming and maintain archives for their listeners to use on demand (www.abc.net.au/ra; www.voanews.com; www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice). Voice of America also has a feature entitled ‘VOA mobile’ (VOAMobile.com) which enables people to get the news on their mobile phone or

PDA for free. VOAMobile is offered in ten languages. The BBC World Service has

16 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

something similar called ‘News on the go’ (http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/help/6364381.stm)

where news is delivered to a mobile phone or other handheld device.

Making use of these new technologies enables international broadcasters to be

more relevant and competitive as they battle for listeners in a crowded global market-

place where there are many voices demanding the listener’s attention. The problem is

that not everyone in the world has access to the Internet or mobile devices. By catering

to the elites or the haves there is a risk of alienating the have not’s.

Conclusions

This article develops a framework grounded in systems theory and organizational communication principles for analyzing international radio stations, and as such suggests a new approach toward the study of international radio broadcasting. The framework at-

tempts to explain and illustrate the many variables that influence the output of the inter-

national radio station. The station is not an isolated island; it is the product of the gov-

ernment, the intermediary, the audience, and external environmental forces. Not only is

the station influenced by the many variables within the system, it in turn influences the

many people who listen every day around the world.

International radio broadcasting is still an important part of foreign policy and

public diplomacy efforts by governments around the world. It is also an important to

many people around the world, even if the way they listen is now more diverse than ever.

International broadcasters are influenced by technology, global politics, budget con-

straints and many other issues. It is hoped that the holistic approach taken in this article

provides a better understanding of the systemic influences on international radio stations

17 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

and will lead to the creation of more effective analysis of international broadcasting issues.

18 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

REFERENCES

Alexandre, L. A. (1985). Broadcasting public diplomacy: The Voice of America during détente and beyond (Doctoral dissertation, University of California, Irvine, 1985). Dissertation Abstracts International, 46-12A, 3522-3939.

Anderson, A. (2005). Changes at the BBC World Service: Documenting the World Ser- vice's Move From Shortwave to Web Radio in North America, Australia, and New Zealand. The Journal of Radio Studies, 12 (2), 286-304.

BBC World Service (2006). BBC World Service Audiene Hit All-time Record Levels. Retrieved My 8 207 from http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/pressreleases/stories/2006/05_may/15/world_se rvice.shtml

Bookmiller, K. N. (1992). The war of words without the war: Radio Moscow, the Brit- ish Broadcasting Corporation World Service, and the Voice of America in the old and new international order (Doctoral dissertation, University of Virginia, Char- lottesville, 1992). Dissertation Abstracts International, 5407A, 2720-3032.

Broadcasting Board of Governors. (2006). Broadcasting budget targets war on terror. Retrieved October 31, 2006 from http://www.bbg.gov/_bbg_news.cfm?articleID=133&mode=general

Browne, D. (1982). International Radio Broadcasting: The limits of the limitless medium. New York: Praeger.

Clark, A. (2003). Your Asia Pacific Network: The Use of Radio Australia by the Aus- tralian government. The Pacific Journalism Review, 9, 80 – 101.

Clark, A. and Christie, T. (2005). Winning Hearts: A Framework for Understanding the Use of Facilitative Communication in the Middle East. The Journal of Radio Studies, 12, (2), 270-285.

Clark, A. (2006). Radio New Zealand International: The Voice of New Zealand, Broad- casting to the Pacific. The Journal of Radio Studies, 13, (1), 102-115.

Farace, R., Monge, P., & Russell, H. (1977). Communicating and organizing. Reading, Mass: Addison-Wesley.

Frederick, H. H. (1984). Ideology in international telecommunication: Radio wars between Cuba and the United States, 1 & 2 (Doctoral dissertation, American Uni- versity, Washington, DC, 1984). Dissertation Abstracts International, 45-04A, 979-1751.

Hachten, W. (1999). The world news prism: Changing media of international communication (5th Ed.). Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.

19 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

Hale, J. (1975). Radio power: Propaganda and international broadcasting. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.

Hocking, B. (1997). Finding your niche: Australia and the trials of middle powerdom. In A. F. Cooper (Ed.), Niche diplomacy: Middle powers after the cold war (pp. 129-146). New York: St. Martin’s Press.

Infante, D., Rancer, A., & Womack, D. (1997). Building communication theory. Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.

Katz, D., & Kahn, R. (1978). The social psychology of organizing. New York: Wiley.

Keohane, R. (1969, Spring). Lilliputians’ dilemmas: Small states in international politics. International Organization, 23(2), 291-310.

Longres, J. (1995). Human behavior in the social environment. Itasca, IL: F. E. Peacock.

McQuail, D. (1994). Mass communication theory. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

McQuail, D. (2000). Mass communication theory, 4th ed. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Miller, K. (2003). Organizational communication: Approaches and processes (3rd Ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.

Moffett, E. (1987). Voice of America news: An organizational study of its struggle for objectivity (Doctoral Dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens). Dissertation Abstracts International, 48-03A, 0501-0757.

Monge, P. (1973). Theory construction in the study of communication: The systems para- digm. Journal of Communication, 23, 5-16.

Morgan, G. (1986). Images of organization. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.

Rawnsley, G. D. (1996). Radio diplomacy and propaganda: The BBC and VOA in international politics, 1954-64. New York: St. Martin’s.

Radio New Zealand International (2007). About Us. Retrieved May 8, 2007 from http://www.rnzi.com/pages/about.php

Reuben, B., & Kim, J. (Eds.). (1975). General systems theory and human communication. Rochelle Park, NJ: Hayden.

RW Online. (2006). VOA should broadcast in English. Retrieved October 31, 2006 from http://www.rwonline.com/reference-room/special-report/08_rw_guest_voa_2.shtml

Save BBC World Service. (2002). Transcript of Newshour interview aired on June15, 2001. Retrieved February 5, 2003, from http://www.savebbc.org/newshour- transcript.html

20 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

Voice of America. (2006). Frequencies A to Z. Retrieved October 31, 2006 from VOA web site: http://www.voanews.com/english/about/frequenciesAtoZ_s.cfm

Voice of America. (2007). VOA Charter. Retrieved May 4, 2007 from VOA web site: http://www.voanews.com/english/About/VOACharter.cfm

Wells, A., Ed. (1974). Mass communication: A world view. Palo Alto: National.

Zhang, L. (1996). The ideological impact of VOA newscasts on young Chinese intellec- tuals of the 1980s (Doctoral dissertation, University of Georgia, Athens, 1996). Dissertation Abstracts International, 58-02A, 332 512.

21 Analyzing International Radio Stations – A Systems Approach

Figure 1. International Radio Broadcasting Systems Model

Radio Station

Government

Intermediary

Enviro nmental Radio Station Forces

Audience