A COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MEDICINE AMONG THE ANCIENT RACES OF THE EAST:

EGYPT, BABYLONIA, AND ASSYRIA

By PHILIP J. MOORAD, M.D.

NEW BRITAIN, CONN.

T IS quite essential, for a proper But with the development of his higher understanding of this interesting faculties he began to comprehend the subject, to show the state of things cause and effect of the things with before the Egyptians, Babyloni­ which he dealt. Ians and Assyrians appeared on the med­Along with his mental development ical horizon. One cannot lay a satis­ came his social development, beginning factory background for a good portrayal with the simplest social institution, the of this subject without an evolutionary family. Whether as a member of the history of man, no matter how assump­ family or, later, as a member of a clan, tive that history may be. The attempt the individual benefited from the is made to review briefly the develop­ pooled resources of the group. His ben­ ments from the beginning of the primi­ efits in medical ways were no less than tive man to the recorded history of these in food and protection offered by the ancient races, a period of many hun­ group. dreds of thousands of years. Only in the In their practice they probably used light of that evolutionary history can no prevention and their treatment at its we better understand and appreciate best could not have been more than pro­ the period. The evolutionary history of tection and assistance. Therapy, in the the period antedating these ancients was sense of giving or application of medi­ the foundation on which they built cines with curative intent, was most their civilization and culture. likely negligible. The state of medicine before the We have briefly indicated the early dawn of history is a matter of conjec­ man’s limitations and ignorance of med­ ture. We can only suppose what the icine. His ignorance in general matters primitive man did to avoid harm from was probably even greater. He had ac­ the elements, ubiquitous enemies, and cumulated some bits of medical facts in poisoning from toxic things he ate; or the school of life but in the sciences how he eased his discomforts. At first dealing with the world in which he he relied exclusively on his instincts. lived he had no means or opportunity We cannot say how or when he sup­ for learning. This general ignorance plemented his instincts with knowledge was a fertile soil for superstition and and intelligence for prevention and for belief in supernatural influences and the cure of his diseases and injuries. the existence of gods and devils at whose His knowledge, individually acquired, mercy he lived every minute of his life. was used for his own individual needs. This superstitious belief influenced his His memories of bitter experiences whole life and his every action. His were his sole protection and reliance. ideas about the causes of disease and its treatment were no exception to this in­ over-emphasize the spiritual approach. fluence. His sickness, as well as his fail­ These diametrically opposite points of ures and misfortunes, were seen and in­ view as to the causes and treatments of terpreted as the work of offended gods, human ills co-existed for many cen­ evil spirits and demoniacal influences. turies. His treatment naturally consisted of In his capacity of embryo-therapist, many ways of trying to expiate his er­ but omniscient representative of the rors, appease the angered gods, or drive spirits, he ministered to his fellowmen’s away the demons. sickened bodies and suffering souls. In such a setting the charlatan Through the long centuries that fol­ abounded. Assuming one form or other, lowed, knowing that his knowledge was depending on locality and period, he his power, he guarded with utmost se­ posed as priest, witch doctor, magician, crecy what he knew. His office became or even as another devil. He “shrouded hereditary and thus the diffusion of himself and his life in mystery for im­ medical knowledge was prevented. It is pressing his community with the super­ evident from the state of medicine natural powers he claimed to possess.” among the primitive races of our day His treatments assumed the form of that in those lands where the people prayers, charms, amulets, weird music, cling to the priest or the witch doctor grotesque costumes, contorting dances, and to his knowledge, medicine has barbaric chanting—anything and every­ been at a standstill. thing for impression and with intent to The steps of the evolution of medi­ drive out the offending spirit. Such cine from the beginning of time cannot treatment naturally yielded excellent be set more accurately because of lack of results in symptoms of functional or written records. The transition was not psychogenic origin, but in organic dis­ smooth and continuous and perhaps eases of course failed. The medicine took many thousands of years. Nobody man was not condemned but the blame can tell the duration of the primitive of failure was laid on the patient for stage nor the length of the period of the conspiring to keep the devil within. For superstitious empiricism; and we have selfish motives and to maintain his of­ only a fair idea as to the beginning of fice, he advanced the cause of demons the stage of rational observation and and practiced his quackery.* deduction. The charlatan, whether as a priest, It is most striking to find such a witch doctor, or devil fighter, had, how­ marked similarity in the stages of the ever, to reckon with the medical means. evolution of medicine among the dif­ He had undoubtedly observed cases ferent races, in distant localities, and in which did not respond to his charms various periods of time. The study of and prayers but were cured by the sim­ the medical history of different peoples plest medication and care. He was not who have had no racial, geographical or too blind to see that his office and influ­ temporal relations shows that all be­ ence were at stake if he continued to gan, as is natural, with a period of com­ disregard the value of manual rites. At plete ignorance; and then, through slow first he only allowed treatment. In processes, passed through ceremonial course of time he gave therapeutic practices; and finally, if ever, adopted a means a definite, though minor, place scientific approach. in his own practice; but continued to The medical evolution began at dif­ ferent times with different peoples. to fact and abounded with dogma and Among the Egyptians, Chaldeans and superstition. Babylonians it began about 6000 years The comparative study of the state ago. Among the Greeks and Romans of medicine among these ancient races the advance started about 2500 years (Egyptians in the Nile Delta and Baby­ ago. With some of the more recent peo­ lonians and Assyrians in the Mesopota­ ples the medical progress was initiated mian Basin) is attempted to show their during the Christian era. Some races relative medical progress, not so much have entered and begun to develop in the point of time as in the point of medically in the past hundred years. Of accomplishment. Their records show course, there are many peoples in the that they practiced a sacerdotal and various parts of the world who are still theurgical system of medicine. The fun­ very backward, in the various stages of damental belief in this system was that development between that of complete there were many gods,^ male and fe­ ignorance and belief in demoniacal in­ male, good and evil, causing or curing fluences as causes and cures of disease, illnesses, and each with his own set of and the simplest form of medical prac­ duties. This polytheistic creed was an tice. adoption or refinement of that of the The date of the beginning of evolu­ primitive races before them. Their gods tion is no indication of accomplishment. were different in origin, size, shape and The most advanced moderns, beginning appearance. Sometimes they had heads their interest in medicine only a few of birds and animals and were repre­ hundred years ago, have exceeded in­ sented in grotesque forms. These peo­ finitely the accomplishment of the an­ ples, more advanced in thought than cient Egyptians and Babylonians, and the primitive man, did not worship and the Greeks and Romans. Basing an regard these gods as forms but as sym­ opinion on the medical history of all bols of supernatural beings. In this re­ races from the beginning of time, it spect they were more like their follow­ seems reasonable to say that the peoples ers, the Greeks and Romans. who started medical advance the earli­ Much the same as the primitive man, est, took the longest to accomplish the these ancient races believed that the least. Conversely, those who have en­ gods rewarded or punished man for his tered the race most recently seem to various acts. The reward was in the have accomplished the most within the 1 The most prominent Egyptian gods were shortest period. This rapid cultural evo­ Ra (the sun god and the most venerated), Isis (the wife of Ra, the goddess of earth, the lution corresponds to biological: “On­ wonder worker, and goddess of medicine; tology recapitulates phylogeny.” most highly regarded in mythology, religion The Egyptian records in the form of and magic), Horus (son of Isis), Thoth papyri, and the Babylonian and As­ (moon god), Imhotep (god of medicine), and Set (god of evil and disease). Corre­ syrian records in the form of clay tab­ sponding to these, the Babylonians and Assyr­ lets probably represent the epitome of ians had Anu (the heaven god), Shomash their medical achievement. They had (the sun god, and god of justice), Ishtar (the undoubtedly reached this peak of ac­ mother goddess), Sin (moon god), Ea (god complishment having built upon the of protection and healing), Morduk (the god of mercy and kindness), and Nergel (the knowledge of their predecessors which, harbinger of suffering and death), and Nom- as already indicated, was negligible as taru (god of plague and evil spirits). form of good health, good fortune and practice among the Babylonians and As­ success; the punishment was meted in syrians was the same as that of the Egyp­ the form of sickness, injury, bad for­ tians, the various components of the tune and failure in his undertakings. system were different. These differ­ The influence of the gods on man was ences, as will be seen, indicate greater in direct contrast to the dealings of advance in the point of view of medical man with the gods, which had to be achievement. The Assyrian and Baby­ through an intermediary, the priest. lonian priests “enjoyed a high consider­ In such a system the priest held a ation” but did not have the power and unique position. Through him the influence over the people and their man’s thanks and pleas for corporal as rulers that the priests in Egypt did. In well as for spiritual things were pre­ Mesopotamia the priesthood did not sented to the gods. Using his office to have the caste system. According to the greatest advantage, the priest be­ Rawlinson, “Priests may have generally came wealthy, influential and, in time, brought up their sons to the occupa­ all-powerful. Due to his intellectual as tion; but other persons, even foreigners well as spiritual dominance, he wielded (and if foreigners, then a fortiori na­ an influence of untold effect on the fu­ tives) , could be enrolled in the order ture developments of his race. and attain its highest privileges.” They In Egypt the priests were organized seem to have been less sacerdotal and into a unified group having standards, certainly more intellectual than the rules of living and conduct, and places Egyptian priests. This learned body: for their official functions. Whether the son inherited it from his father or select . . . had a literature written in a peculiar language which its members were bound young men were chosen for the office, to study—astronomy, astrology, and all members of the caste became trained mythology were no doubt the chief sub­ along certain lines. They were wealthy, jects they studied; but history, chronology, independent and influential. The beauty grammar, law, and natural sciences most and magnitude of their temples sur­ likely occupied some of their attention. passed those of the palaces of the kings. They had special seats of learning, cor­ These temples were the seats of learn­ responding perhaps in some way to our ing. From them came the interpretation universities, the most famous of which of law, religion and ethics. Since they were Erech or Archae (Warka) and were recognized as healers, they treated Borsippa, the town represented by the the sick. Because of their position it was modern Bris-I-Nimrod. They were dili­ unlikely that they visited the patient. gent students, not wanting in ingenuity and not content merely to hand down the Probably the sick were brought to them. wisdom of their ancestors. [Rawlinson.] In many instances the diseased, the de­ formed and the demented came from Though some of these learned men long distances and spent their sojourn were submerged in the mystic beliefs of in the temples. Through gradual and astrology: necessary compliance with the neces­ There were always a certain number sity of taking care of the sick in the who kept within the legitimate bounds temples, these places became the primi­ of science and repudiated the astrologi­ tive hospitals, as well as the shrines, of cal pretensions of their brothers. The re­ ancient times. sult was considerable progress in all sci­ Although in general the system of ences, so that in the estimation of the Greeks and Romans the people of the velopment but greater differences in the Lower Euphrates were regarded as at practice of the theurgical and sacerdotal least equally advanced in civilization with systems of medicine between the Baby­ those of the Nile Valley and Delta. [Raw­ lonians and Assyrians on the one hand linson.] and the Egyptians on the other. There Such a scientific attitude of the intel­ is divergence of opinion as to the an­ lectual leaders of Babylonia and As­ tiquity of these records. Budge believes syria led to a gradual division of the like many others that Egyptian papyri double functions of the priest. There are the oldest available records, and was less intermingling of religion and “give evidence that it was among that medicine in caring for the sick. people that medicine such as it was had Whether there was a division so that its beginning.” This is based on the certain members practiced one, and estimated age of papyri between 4000 others the other, or the same person and 6000 years. The clay tablets which claimed to possess both powers, it is have been recently unearthed at Koyun- reasonable to say that even in the latter jik, Nimrod, Khosrabad, Coloh, and case, the Babylonian and Assyrian priest from the royal library of Asshurbanipal acted as a priest in religious matters and are believed to be as old if not older as a physician in physical matters. To than the papyri. Be this as it may. the Babylonians and Assyrians goes the The medical contents of these records credit of initiating a break of medicine are of special interest to us. They are from religion. similar in that they are anonymous, Although this break was introduced their source of information is unknown, many thousands of years ago there has there is no indication of the age of the never been a complete separation. Just prescriptions before they were re­ as in the ancient times certain peoples, corded, and no ownership is expressed. for instance the Egyptians, attached a The discovery of papyri at the site of far greater significance to the healing the temples in Egypt and of the clay influence of spirits than they did in tablets in the seats of learning in medicine, so do certain races and peo­ Babylonia proves first that these records ples of our times overemphasize re­ belonged to the state; and that in the ligious healing and practically neglect former, they were supervised and pro­ medical means of curing their ills. tected by the priests, but in the latter, These proponents of spiritual healing by the priests and learned men. The are not only the primitive and unciv­ fact that Babylonian tablets have not ilized races of the dark regions of the been discovered in or near temples is earth but certain schools of thought and again proof that there was a split be­ practitioners of certain cults in our tween the priests’ religious and medical midst. On the other hand, and it might functions; and that the temples were be said safely that, in no country and not used for the care of the sick. In among no people, no matter how high these respects again they show their their medical achievements, is there greater advancement. complete absence of medical supersti­ In these prescriptions no attempt is tion. We have traveled long and far, but made at diagnosis. The Egyptians have not completely lost our primitive headed their prescriptions “for banish­ superstitious empiricism. ing,” “for drawing out,” “for terrify­ We have seen some similarity in de­ ing,” or “for killing” the evil spirits in the patient. The Babylonian and As­ longer inhabit the part involved; this syrian prescriptions began with a series treatment having for its fundamentals of signs and symptoms in one or other the belief that disease entered and left parts of the body, such as “If a man’s the body as a spirit. Just as the prescrip­ head hurteth him,” “If a man’s object tion was offensive to the person, so it of vision is multiple,” or “If a man has could be to the spirit.^ a toothache. . . .” The bodies of the The Babylonian and Assyrian pre­ prescriptions were essentially the same. scriptions are decidedly different and They called for unspecified amounts of more rational in that they contain less substances from the vegetable, animal mysticism. Few of them are followed by and mineral kingdoms. The rarest sub­ asking for divine intervention. The oral stances and least available materials rite in the Egyptian prescriptions is were set down.^ common. In the Babylonian and As­ Their dosages were indefinite. In syrian prescriptions, recitation of spells, both cases each ailment had several al­ incantations, charms, etc. are minimal. ternative prescriptions; and the same They emphasize manual rites consisting one might be given for different ail­ of active treatment by hand and medi­ ments. Some prescriptions were recom­ cation for internal and external dis­ mended to be used singly, others in eases. All these indicate that the Babylo­ combinations and still others alter­ nian and Assyrian healers were more nately. The Assyrian prescriptions were physicians than priests and believed in more specific and clear in their use and the physical pathology rather than de­ administration. moniacal influences. A very striking resemblance in these No better idea of medical treatment prescriptions is that they called for of the period can be given than to pre­ nauseous and offensive ingredients: ani­ sent sample prescriptions. For my mal dung, feces of man, cats, dogs and source of these prescriptions I rely ex­ fowl; urine of harlots and old women; clusively on Thompson’s interpretation and objectionable anatomical parts.® The purpose of these recommendations of the Assyrian cuneiform tablets. He was chiefly to offend the esthetic sense. has given a masterly rendition of their The idea was to make the affected part contents despite the great handicap the so offensive that the disease could no tablets presented in the way of wear and tear and break of many centuries. In 2 This recommendation was meant to en­ hance the value of the prescription rather addition, there are parts which cannot than make it more expensive, as some may be deciphered, and terms for which think. First, we have no proof that any busi­ there are no English equivalents. For ness was transacted in the use of these pre­ the sake of clarity but with due apology scriptions; and second, the priest and learned to his scientific and accurate interpre- men might have had many duties to perform, but did not act as apothecaries. They gave This general idea still survives among the prescriptions, but others filled them. the Eastern races. Their folk remedies call 3 The pharmaceutical art and refinement for the treatment of like with like. Sores, in the preparation of drugs was left to the boils, pustules and discharging infections are physicians and alchemists of the Arabian Pe­ treated by application of excreta. For inter­ riod, from 7 to 13 centuries, a.d. It was nal diseases, in which vomiting is desired, among them that attempt was made to make they feed the patient dishes made of the prescriptions more pleasing in odor, appear­ flesh of puppies, pulverized human bones ance, and palatability. and excreta of animals. tation, a relatively free rendition is ture. Let this dry, then powder and given. strand in beer. Apply this paste to the The majority of the prescriptions, as head and let it stay for three days. On the in the papyri, deal with the diseases of fourth day when you take it off, wash the the eye. Those who have lived in the head in hot urine. East where it is dry and dusty and liv­ If a man’s tooth on the right side trou­ bles him, let him chew on his tooth the ing conditions and hygiene have been ladybird which runs about the desert, and the poorest, realize the prevalence of put the gum of the galbanum in his left eye affections. It is natural that the rem­ ear.'’ edies should be proportionate in num­ If a man is hit in the mouth, scoop out ber and kind to the incidence and vari­ the right eye of an Arsuppa fish and the eties of diseases of the eye. left eye of a Puradu fish, put them in salt If a man’s eye perceive dazzling, it is for three days, then take them out and the hand of a ghost—but pound into a apply the right eye of the Arsuppa to powder, magnetic iron, mineral of lead, the right side, the left eye of the Puradu mil’u salt, sulphate of iron, S.A.B. stone, to the left side. With their eyes take lapis lazuli, seed of female cuperus, and asafetida, liquid amber, and fennel, and arsenic; bray the powder in suet of the thread them on the wool of a virgin ewe- kidney of a black ox, like tannin on cop­ lamb and the hair of a virgin kid, and per, and apply continuously to his eyes, twist the wool and the hair; put on the and he shall recover. patient’s neck and he shall recover. For amblyopia they prescribed fixing The foregoing, being typical of the of fat of black snake, fat of a lion, asa- prescriptions, lack oral rites and mysti­ fetida gum, opium, salicarnia, alkali in cism. In order to remove the possible equal parts in copper dust in mountain impression that the Babylonian and As­ honey, to be brayed and applied to the syrian prescriptions showed no such in­ eyes. clination I am presenting the following. It should be repeated that such as fol­ If a man’s eyes are full of blood and low are minimal compared to those of the middle of the eye is red, his eyes Egypt but show oral rites in the form [vision] are dim, paining day and night, of charms, incantations, etc. reduce roses in cow’s milk or in the milk of a harlot, knead and apply to the eyes. If a man’s eyes suffer from night blind­ In the morning take it off; bray arsenic in ness, thread makut of the liver of an ass curd and put on a plant with a bronze and flesh of its neck on a cord, and put blade and apply to the eyes. A thread it on his neck; on the morrow spread a of blue wool and white wool thou shalt cloth in the sun, prepare a censer of pine spin, twist and bind on—his temples and gum; then let the patient stand behind both eyes—thou shalt take it off. the cloth in the sun. A priest shall take If a man’s head gets an itch [favus or seven rounds of bread, and the patient seborrheic eczema of the scalp], shave shall take seven rounds of bread; then his head, anoint it with fish oil before he the priest shall say to the sick man, “Re­ sleeps, bray certain roots and seeds with ceive, oh clear of eye’’; the sick man shall cattle urine and then apply to his head say to the priest, “Receive, oh dim of eye.’’ and bandage; then wash with beer. Then ® The idea of curing a toothache by block­ take other seeds [among which are man­ ing the extra-auditory canal of the ipsolateral drake, linseed, sumach, etc.] and juices ear survives in the East to the present day. of certain plants, dry, powder and sift The practice of today calls for the use of cot­ them into rose water and knead the mix­ ton. Then chop up the makut of the liver, mix eases, especially the chronic diseases curd and the best oil together, and apply that did not yield to the usual methods. to his eye. Oh, wicked consumption, villainous The exchange of bread is symbolic of consumption which never leaves a man, the transfer of eye trouble from the consumption which cannot be driven out, patient to the priest. According to their consumption which cannot be induced belief, the priest, being immune, could to leave, bad consumption, in the name take the disease from the patient with­ of Heaven be placated; in the name of out contracting it himself. Earth I conjure thee. The oral rite was deemed of as great “If a man has a toothache, mix beer, or greater importance than medicines millet meal and add together, repeat and was carried out for speeding recov­ the incantation over it three times, then ery. A common charm follows: Spin red put the mass against the tooth.” The wool and white wool separately, tie incantation follows: seven and seven knots in each, and as Oh, Shamash, because of my tooth you tie recite the charm. Tie the thread which hurteth me, some unburied ghost of red wool over his “sick” eye and the to whom I have not offered food nor thread of white wool on the whole eye poured forth water is angry. I pray to thee and he shall recover. that I may shut him in and cover him As it has been noted in these prescrip­ over like a sealed tablet; like a moth tions and others not quoted, there is whose tooth hurt him not, so shall my frequent call for wool, of one origin or tooth, too, not hurt me. other, plain or variously colored, for The universal lay idea about worms bandaging the eyes after application of causing tooth decay and toothache goes treatment. It is difficult to say whether back to this ancient period of at least it was meant to eliminate light and thus 6000 years ago. give the eyes a rest, or the priests, figura­ After Anu made the heaven, the heaven tively as well as literally, “pulled the made the earth, the earth made the rivers, wool over their eyes.” the rivers made the canals, the canals made These treatments are usually ac­ the marshes, the marshes made the worm. companied with chants such as these: The worm came weeping unto Shamash Oh, clear eye, oh doubly clear eye, oh and came unto Ea, her tears flowing: eye of clear sight, oh darkened eye, oh “What wilt thou give me for my food; what wilt thou give me to destroy?” “I doubly darkened eye, oh eye of darkened will give thee dried figs and apricots.” sight, oh eye of sleepless sight, oh eye of [The worm discontentedly answered], evil sight, oh failing eyes, oh painful eyes, “Forsooth, what are these dried figs to me, eyes like the slaughter of sheep, like a cup or apricots? Set me amid the teeth and let of sour wine thrown away. The charm me dwell in the gums that I may destroy is not of ... it is the charm of Ea (and the blood of the teeth, and of the gums Marduk—the charm of Nin-Aha-Kudda) chew their marrow. So shall I hold latch the mistress of the charm. Gula quicken of the door.” [To this iniquitous wish the recovery, thy gift shall be . . . they put the curse]: “Since thou hast said Then the patient promised to make a this, oh worm, may Ea smite thee with his mighty fist.” sacrifice. Charms, incantations, threats and The conception expressed in this conjurations were applied to other dis­ unique way also tells us of the ideas Babylonians and Assyrians had about tions and other adjuncts and practices the cosmos, and of man and the earth. tell only part of the story of the med­ It appears to agree more with the pres­ ical achievements of the time. Medical ent scientific explanation of the course science, being a product of all other sci­ of events in the coming into existence of ences, has always kept pace with gen­ our earth—evolution, than the Biblical eral progress. It has been aptly said, view—creation. In their accounting of “The history of medicine is the history creation of the universe, the creation of of civilization.’’ This is not only true man’s coming is not mentioned. If they of universal history, but the history of ventured any guesses, they probably any race, country or time. Just as one gave him an evolutionary development, can tell of the medical achievements of rather than the creation of perfect man a modern race by knowing the state of in the image and resemblance of God, their civilization, so should one be able for whose pleasure the ^vorld was cre­ to tell of the medical progress of cer­ ated. tain ancient peoples in the light of the The cure-alls of modern times; the history of their civilization. It is with medicines claimed to possess the power this idea that I will touch on the gen­ to cure baldness, biliousness and bun­ eral accomplishments and advances of ions, as well as cancer and consumption, the Babylonians and Assyrians. or whatever ails the victim, are sur­ Babylonians inherited some of vivals of similar claims among Babylo­ their knowledge from Proto-Chaldeans nians and Assyrians. The charlatans whom they followed. Through their ef­ may change their names with change of forts they increased that knowledge in time but never change their claims. a marked degree. To Babylonia belongs the If a man’s head hurts him, his mouth pricks him, his eyes trouble him, his ears genius which excogitated an alphabet, ring, his throat chokes him, his neck mus­ worked out the simpler problems of arith­ cles hurt him; his fingers, his fundamen­ metic, invented implements for measur­ tals, his breast, his shoulders, and his loin ing the lapse of time, conceived the idea hurt him; his fingers are cramped, his of raising enormous structures with the stomach is inflamed, his bowels are hot; poorest of material—clay; discovered the his hands, his feet, and his knees ache; art of polishing, boring, and engraving either his bowels are affected or his kid­ gems; reproduced with faithfulness the neys are upsetting him; or he is sick of outlines of human and animal forms, at­ retention, either restriction of constipa­ tained high perfection in textile fabrics, tion or restriction of breath;—or is sick studied with success the motion of the of curse, or is sick of the demon, raiser of heavenly bodies, conceived of grammar as the head for evil [evil eye];—to assuage a science, elaborated a system of laws, saw his obsessions give poppy, stone of poppy, the value of an exact chronology—in al­ artemesia, balsam, sagaperrium, licorice, most every branch of science made a be­ root of licorice, male mandragora, Kadu- ginning, thus rendering it comparatively sumach, ledrusu, salicarnia, alkali, fennel, easy for other nations to proceed with the fennel root, sasumbu, arnoglosson, sa- superstructure. [Rawlinson.] lanum. In many respects they were consid­ There is as wide a latitude in choice of ered the leading people in arts and sci­ symptoms as diagnosis and treatment. ences. Their civilization and scientific These ancient records of prescrip­ accomplishments had a long life before they reached their political zenith. Neu- riage and death. A woman who had burger states: given birth to a child was considered unclean and contaminated everything Long before the time when Greece first appeared on the horizon of history, the she touched. After a set period of time, Babylonians were able, with marvelous ex­ she had to go through certain rites and actitude, to undertake astronomical ob­ ablutions before her former status in servations and calculations; the style of the family and community was restored. writing, pictorial representations, the mil­ “The consummation of the marriage itary tactics, and the jurisprudence of rite made both the man and the woman many nations were directly or indirectly impure, as did every subsequent act of influenced by Mesopotamia. the same kind. The impurity was com­ municated to every vessel that either Speaking of their achievements, Raw­ might touch.” To remove this impurity linson says: “Their civilization equalled the pair were required first to sit down that of almost any ancient country, and before a censer of burning incense and it did not fall unmeasurably behind the then to wash themselves thoroughly. boasted achievements of the moderns.” Thus only could they re-enter into the Regarding the source of the knowledge state of legal cleanliness. A similar im­ of Greeks, we are told that: “To Baby­ purity with corresponding means of re­ lonia, far more than to Egypt, we owe moving it was attached to those who the art and learning of the Greeks. It came in contact with human corpses. was from the East, not from Egypt, that The taboos and restrictions of Babylo­ Greece derived her architecture, her nians had many ideas of public health sculpture, her science, her philosophy, and hygiene behind them; and un­ her mathematical knowledge—in a doubtedly, the Babylonians fully appre­ word, her intellectual life.” The physi­ ciated them. cal and social hygiene of the Jews was In the case of Egypt, we may conjec­ learned during their Babylonian cap­ ture that there were physicians, but tivity and subsequently from the Zoro- among the races of Mesopotamia, Baby­ astrians (Persians), who themselves had lonia and Assyria we have written rec­ originally copied it from Babylonian ords to prove it: laws. Greeks were not the only bene­ factors. One is remarkably impressed The recognized social and legal posi­ with the great influence that these peo­ tion attained by medicine and surgery in Western Asia before 2000 b.c. was re­ ple had on the course of civilization. vealed by the presence of a legally estab­ Their legitimate successors, the Assyri­ lished tariff for the services of both the ans, and their conquerors, the Persians, physician and the surgeon in the Code of owed every bit of their art, science and Hammurabi (2200 b.c.) when that ex­ civilization to Babylonia. Their ene­ traordinary document was discovered a mies as well as their allies, their neigh­ generation ago. These legal regulations of bors as well as peoples very distant to medical and surgical practice toward the them—in India, China, etc., derived the end of the third millennium b.c. would benefit of their accomplishments. indicate that medicine in ancient Babylon The religious system of the Babylo­ was already centuries old at that time. nians had set rules and regulations [Breasted.] about physical, moral and legal cleanli­ The code of laws of Hammurabi set ness and uncleanliness. Take for in­ regulation on the practice of medicine stance the rules regarding birth, mar­ and surgery. The law read: If a physician make a deep cut with cessors to their civilization and medical an operating knife of bronze and effect a achievements as well as to their political cure, or if with such a knife he opens a power. There is a general agreement tumor and thus avoids damaging the pa­ among the historians that the Assyrians tient’s eye, he shall receive as his reward themselves made no great contribution ten shekels of silver. If the patient is an emancipated slave, the fee shall be re­ to the mass of scientific and medical duced to five shekels. In the case of a knowledge they inherited from the slave, the master to whom he belongs Babylonians. They, however, main­ shall pay the physician two shekels. If a tained their intellectual interests and physician make a deep cut with an oper­ activities. In addition, they gave free­ ating knife, and the patient’s eye is lost dom for the continuation of learning thereby, the operator shall be punished among the peoples they conquered and by having his hands cut off. If a physician added to their Empire. Hence, the mass operating upon a slave or a freed man, of knowledge thereafter accumulated, make a deep wound with an operating irrespective of its source, may rightfully knife of bronze and thus kills the patient, be called Assyrian, because, being the he shall give the owner a slave in ex­ masters, they were the benefactors. Un­ change for the one killed, and if in open­ ing a tumor with such a knife, the physi­ fortunately, we have no historical data cian destroys the slave’s eye, he shall pay to show how far they progressed or to the latter’s owner one-half the slave’s what degree of perfection they brought value. their science and medicine. This leaves rather indefinite, as to time and degree, The punishment or even the mate­ rial loss meted out in unsuccessful cases the intellectual climax during the As­ syrian domination of the Mesopota­ made the practice of surgery too risky mian lands between the years 1270 and and unprofitable. Only the very best 538 B.C. could practice the art. The fear of loss The anticlimax occurred in the year of hands must have discouraged many, 538 B.C. when the conquest of Assyria not only in the practice but even in was accomplished by a practically un­ the study of surgery. It is appropriately said that this and similar laws killed in known race to the east of them, the infancy the surgery of the East. This Medes and Persians. The records of unjust regulation automatically took these conquerors, though dealing chiefly the art and science of surgery from the with political campaigns, have occa­ hands of the trained physician and put sional reference to the arts and sciences them in the hands of the layman, the of the period. The historical data of this butcher, the barber or the servant. Be­ transitional period are collected from cause of this change, for many centuries the records of Cyrus and Cambyses in later and even in the Golden Period of Pasargade; the records of Darius from Arabian Medicine the Eastern physi­ Behustan Rock, the Palace of Persepo- cians looked upon surgery as a trade, lis, and his tomb at Naksh-I-Rustam; rather than a profession; a menial work and the records of Darius and Xerxes rather than an art; and something too from Mount Alvand. These records degrading for a physician even to show stand today, having survived the rav­ interest in. ages of twenty-five centuries, in the As the Assyrians, gradually and in the form of tombs, sculptures, stone docu­ course of centuries, supplanted the ments, and inscriptions on huge rocks. Babylonians, they became the suc­ In addition to the data from these sources, we learn considerably more far-sighted. Morally they were energetic, about the state of medical knowledge courageous, and known the world over for from Zenda Avesta, the religious book their truthfulness and honesty. The men of the ancient Persians (Zoroastrians). were trained, in times of peace, to be good The reliable history of Greek and Ro­ horsemen, hunters, and finished for a man writers on the political and sci­ pompous court life; and in times of war entific state of affairs during the build­ to be valourous soldiers, far-sighted lead­ ers, and builders of the Empire. ing of the ancient Persian Empire makes our knowledge fairly complete. The soil was not fit for implanting and The conclusion is that the Medes and growing intellectual interests. Persians added little or nothing to what Many years later, however, after the was left to them; but they left undis­ political security was established and turbed the progress of the people under the people had tasted the sweet fruits them. In fact, they gave freedom and of intellectual pursuits, the Persians patronage so that progress in art and showed interest and zealous effort in the sciences continued. According to medical and other sciences. Beginning Rawlinson, the schools of Archae, Bor- in the reign of King Shapur, 240-273 sippa and Melites flourished under A.D., there was show of great interest their sway. No adoption, importation or and untiring effort to establish seats of establishment of art and science was learning in Persia. To do this, men undertaken. They were content to leave from various parts of their extensive for others intellectual and scientific pur­ empire were brought to Persia, either suits. Not until a thousand years later, as political captives, hired teachers, or and in the building of a new Persian even scholars seeking freedom of Empire, did they show interest. thought. To enhance this, unfavorable The apparent lack of interest of the political situations outside the empire ancient Persians in the various branches drove into Persia hundreds of the then- of knowledge, particularly medicine, renowned men of science and letters. left by the Babylonians and Assyrians, Thus was gathered together a group of can be readily explained. In the first learned men from schools of Mesopota­ place, they lacked a background. Com­ mia and Syria, chiefly Assyrians and pared to the conquered races, they were, Greek scholars from these and other if not uncivilized, certainly uncultured. regions. These men, in their respective Secondly, as it has happened in the be­ places, had kept alive the flickering ginning of almost every empire, all the light of the Golden Period of Greek resources of the people, time, interest, Culture. In the new land, with com­ effort, and brain power as well as man plete freedom and under royal encour­ power were used for extension of the agement, they laid a foundation which territory, increasing the power of the in a few years made Persia the outstand­ ruler, and making his empire strong ing country in medicine and a foun­ and lasting. In the early years of the tain head for the spread of medicine ancient Persian Empire the circum­ and science throughout the Arabian stances were just such. Empire, and through them to the Rawlinson explains the lack of in­ Europe of the Renaissance. terest by their temperament: The so-called “Arabian” medicine They were quick and lively, keen­ comprises chiefly the works, teachings witted, ingenious, and, for the ancients. and contributions of the Persian physi­ cians and scholars of the eighth to thir­ ter of medical history, Arabian Medi teenth centuries a.d. These contribu­ cine, will be adequately studied for a tions were erroneously called “Arabian” better and more accurate understand­ by the earliest European scholars be­ ing of the period. cause the writings were in Arabic, the language of the Empire. The error has The author expresses his grateful ap­ persisted. The credit which rightfully preciation to Dr. George W. Corner of the belongs to the Persians is commonly University of Rochester, School of Medi­ given to the nomadic Arabs. cine, for looking over the manuscript and It is hoped that that interesting chap­ for many valuable suggestions. References Abbott, J. Cyrus the Great, the Founder of Duruy, V. General History of the World. the Persian Empire. Phila., Altemus, Rev. and cont. to 1901 by E. A. Gros­ 1900. venor, N. Y., Crowell, 1925. History of Darius the Great. Phila., Garrison, H. Introduction to the History Altemus, 1900. of Medicine. Ed. 4, Phila., Saunders, History of Xerxes the Great. Phila., 1929- Altemus, 1900. Jackson, A. V. W. Persia Past and Present. Breasted, J. H. Edwin Smith Surgical Papy­ N. Y., Macmillan, 1906. rus; in Facsimile and Hieroglyphic Kraus, A. C. Assyro-Babylonian ophthalmol­ Transliteration, with Translation and ogy. Ann. Med. Hist., n.s. 6:42-55 (Jan.) Commentary. Univ. Chicago, Oriental 1934- Inst. Publ., V. 3-4. Univ. Chic. Press, Neuburger, M. Essays in the History of Med­ 1930- icine. N. Y., Med. Life Press, 1930. Buck, A. H. Growth of Medicine from the Rawlinson, G. The Five Great Monarchies Earliest Times to About 1800. New of the Ancient Eastern World; Chaldea, Haven, Yale Univ. Press, 1917. Babylonia, Assyria, Media, and Persia, Budge, Sir E. A. T. W. Syrian Anatomy, ed. 2, 3 V., London, Little Brown, 1891. Pathology and Therapeutics; or. The Thompson, R. C. Assyrian medical texts. Book of Medicines. Syriac text. ed. from Proc. Roy. Soc. Med., Sec. Hist, of Med., rare ms., with an English trans. 2 v. 17:1-34 (Feb.) 1924; 19:29-79 (Oct.) London, Oxford Univ. 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