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Darius I in Egypt: Achaemenid Authority and Egyptian Continuity

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Darius I in Egypt: Achaemenid Authority and Egyptian Continuity DARIUS I IN EGYPT: ACHAEMENID AUTHORITY AND EGYPTIAN CONTINUITY Rachael Tobin-Dodd A thesis submitted to the faculty at the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in the Department of Classics in the College of Arts and Sciences. Chapel Hill 2019 Approved by: Jennifer Gates-Foster Donald Haggis Hérica Valladares © 2019 Rachael Tobin-Dodd ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ii ABSTRACT Rachael Tobin-Dodd: Darius I in Egypt: Achaemenid Authority and Egyptian Continuity (Under the direction of Jennifer Gates-Foster) The ideological systems of the Persian Great King and the Egyptian Pharaoh were inherently in conflict. The Egyptian Pharaoh was responsible for defeating foreign enemies, including Achaemenid Persians, while the Persian Great King was the ruler of a universal empire. The Persian king, Darius I, had to embody both roles in order to maintain his rule over Egypt. By examining three Egyptian artifacts that depict Darius and originate from different socio-political spheres, I assess the different ways he was portrayed and consider the ways these images navigated the inherent ideological conflict between the Great King and the Egyptian Pharaoh. This analysis reveals a pattern in which Darius was presented to an Egyptian audience as an Egyptian Pharaoh that has taken on visual attributes of the Achaemenid Great King, but to a Persian audience, Darius was presented as an entirely Achaemenid conqueror. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................................ v I. Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1 II. The Achaemenid Empire and Egypt .......................................................................................... 3 III. Achaemenid Authority and Iconography .................................................................................. 4 IV. Egyptian Authority and Iconography ....................................................................................... 9 V. Statue of Darius from Susa ...................................................................................................... 13 VI. Suez Canal Stelae ................................................................................................................... 19 The Egyptian Side ............................................................................................................ 21 The Persian Side ............................................................................................................. 23 VII. Temple of Amun at Hibis in the Kharga Oasis ..................................................................... 26 VIII. Conclusion ........................................................................................................................... 33 FIGURES ...................................................................................................................................... 35 BIBLIOGRAPHY ......................................................................................................................... 45 iv LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1 – Naophoros statue of Udjahorresnet…………………………………………………..35 Figure 2 – Relief from Bisitun…………………………………………………………………...36 Figure 3 – View of Bisitun relief from the road…………………………………………………37 Figure 4 – Statue of Darius from Susa…………………………………………………………...38 Figure 5 – Line drawing of the Statue of Darius from Susa……………………………………..39 Figure 6 – Detail of Darius on the Apadana relief from Persepolis……………………………..40 Figure 7 – Relief at Naqsh-i Rustam…………………………………………………………….40 Figure 8 – Map of Egypt with Darius’ canal…………………………………………………….41 Figure 9 – Tell el-Maskhuta Stela……………………………………………………………….41 Figure 10 – Kabret Stela………………………………………………………………………...43 Figure 11 – Plan of the Persian period temple of Amun at Hibis……………………………….44 Figure 12 – Darius as the living Horus/Seth from the front of the temple at Hibis…………….44 v I. Introduction Scholars have noted the remarkable continuity of motifs in Egyptian art over time and how foreign kings assimilated to Egyptian taste rather than imposing their own iconography. Yet the ideological systems of the Persian Great King and the Egyptian Pharaoh are inherently in conflict. The Egyptian Pharaoh was responsible for defeating foreign enemies, including Achaemenid Persians, in order to maintain Ma’at, the Egyptian ideology of balance and order.1 Meanwhile, the Persian Great King cultivated an imperial ideology in which he was the ruler of a universal empire.2 Nevertheless, the Achaemenid king, Darius I, had to embody both roles in order to maintain his rule over Egypt. By examining three Egyptian artifacts – the statue of Darius from Susa, the Suez Canal Stelae, and the reliefs from the Amun Temple at Hibis – that depict Darius and originate from different socio-political spheres, I assess the different ways he was portrayed and consider the ways these images navigated the inherent ideological conflict between the Great King and the Egyptian Pharaoh without showing a preference for one imperial role. Each object integrates Darius’ simultaneous identities as the Egyptian Pharaoh and the Achaemenid Great King, a foreigner and a conqueror. Each artifact highlights or deemphasizes the aspects of the king’s sovereignty that were appropriate for each context. Nevertheless, a pattern emerges in which Darius is presented to an Egyptian audience as an Egyptian Pharaoh that has taken on visual 1Bard 2015, 138; Roth 2015, 156. 2Gates-Foster 2014, 177. 1 attributes of the Achaemenid Great King, but to a Persian audience, Darius is presented as an entirely Achaemenid conqueror. Through the use of traditional kingship motifs and inscriptions from Egypt and Persia, Darius was presented visually and in writing as both the Egyptian Pharaoh and, at the same time, the Achaemenid warrior king. Upon examination of the blending of the two iconographies, it becomes clear that they are more similar than their divergent ideologies might imply. Unless a viewer was well acquainted with both traditions, she would not necessarily recognize the subtle differences in iconographies. These three objects were initiated and designed by different strata of society such as the Achaemenid royal court – either by Darius himself or more likely one of his satraps on his orders – or by local Egyptian priests. These social groups each used motifs from different iconographic traditions to send a curated message to the intended audience. In this way, images of the Great King Darius in Egypt were deliberately multivalent, communicating with different populations throughout Egypt. This paper will first provide a brief history of the Persian conquest of Egypt, followed by an overview of how the Achaemenid rulers maintained authority over such a vast empire, and then provide a short discussion of the traditional and most salient motifs for this discussion within Egyptian Pharaonic art. Next it will focus on three case studies of images of Darius in Egypt: (1) the statue of Darius found in Susa, originally commissioned for an Egyptian setting; (2) the Suez Canal stelae set up by Darius as an imperial message; and (3) the reliefs from the Amun Temple at Hibis as an example of Egyptian priests emphasizing Darius’ foreign identity. For each object, I will discuss its Egyptian and Persian iconographic and thematic features and then turn to a discussion of the ideological messages being presented by their commissioners and to their various recipients. 2 II. The Achaemenid Empire and Egypt Cyrus the Great founded the Achaemenid Empire in 550 BCE, following his conquest of Media. He went on to conquer Anatolia, Bactria, and Babylon. He was succeeded in 530 BCE by his son Cambyses, who added Egypt to the empire in 525 BCE. The Achaemenid kings ruled Egypt as the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty for 121 years, from 525-404 BCE.3 Under Darius I, the Persian Empire reached its greatest extent, stretching from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River, from Egypt to the modern Central Asian Republics. Within these borders were twenty-three distinct subject people, who spoke different languages and worshiped different gods.4 The two main historical sources for the rise of the Twenty-Seventh Dynasty are the works of Herodotus and Egyptian documents contemporary with Persian rule. Herodotus describes the conquest of Egypt by Cambyses and his descent into madness at the end of his reign (3.1-30). Although the general outline presented by Herodotus is most likely accurate, the narrative is biased by the anti-Persian sentiment meant to satisfy his Greek audience.5 Contemporary Egyptian documents present a different interpretation of events. Cambyses forged links with local elites in order to facilitate acceptance of Persian rule. Just as Cyrus did in Babylon, Cambyses installed elites in honorary positions, without giving them political power. The autobiographical naophoros statue of Udjahorresnet (Fig. 1) records the aristocrat’s role in guiding the Persian King during his ascension: The Great King of all Foreign Lands, Cambyses, came to Egypt, the foreigners of all foreign lands being with him. He gained mastery over the entire land. They set themselves down therein since he was the great ruler of Egypt, the Great King of all foreign lands. His majesty handed over to me the office of the chief physician. He caused me to be beside
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