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International Journal of Political Science ISSN: 2228-6217 Vol.3, No.6, Spring 2013, (pp.51-65)

The Political Thought of the Great (522- 486 B.C.), the Legislator of Achaemenid (A Study Based on Achaemenid Inscriptions in )

Awat Abbasi* Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies

Received: 5 Dec 2012 ; Accepted: 11 Feb 2013

Abstract: Darius offered the political order of “” to solve the political crisis of his era. He legitimized it based on an order of gods. In his belief, the nature of was based on a dualis- tic religious worldview that is the fight between true divinity and false divinity’s will and perfor- mance in the world. In addition, the chief true divinity’s law was introduced as the principle order in the world and eternal happiness in true divinity’s house. Therefore, it was considered as the pattern of political order following which was propagandized as the way to reach happiness in this world and salvation in next life. To protect this law, the chief true divinity bestowed the political power to the ruler. Therefore, what should be the political order and who should be the ruler, is justified in the context of the definitions of , world, happiness and salvation. The sovereignty of the ruler and, therefore, the domination of the chief true divinity’s laws in politics were considered as justice. This definition of justice denied and promoted absolutism. In justifying the ruler’s absolute power, even his laws and commands were considered as the dominant norms over the politics. The principal motif for the Achaemenid ruler to consider him the gods’ attributes originates from the his- torical competitions between warriors and priests. The Achaemenid ruler was belonged to the group of warriors. Since the historical trend of achieving the political ruling by the warriors was based on force and power, they could not legitimize their ruling without considering people’s reli- gious worldview. The Aryan priests claimed that they had the ability to communicate with gods and observe the rules created by the legislator god. Therefore, the Achaemenid king-warriors tried to enhance their spiritual status by calling themselves as selected persons and gods’ representatives on earth. Therefore, they considered gods’ attributes, such as wisdom, legislation and absolute power for themselves. However, due to the Achaemenid ruler’s worldview and the divine right of ruling, this claim had no influence in changing the nature of politics from a sacred basis to a secular one.

Keywords: , Political Crisis, Political Order, Political Legitimacy, Divine right of Ruling, Divine law, Human law * Email: [email protected]

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Introduction known as Fortification Tablets of , Political thought is a of ideas about how and particularly Darius’ inscriptions in Old to order the political aspects of human life. Persian (see: Hallock,1977;Koch,2000: 35-83; These thoughts propose a political order to Brosius, 2009: 192-224; Kuhrt, 2007; solve political crises based on their defini- Kent,1953).These inscriptions are called DB tion of the world, human being, justice, and (Darius, Behistan), DP (Darius, Persepolis), happiness. In this political order, in addition DNa, b(Darius,Naqš-iRustam), DS (- to the proposition of a desirable social and us,) , DZa,b,c (Darius,), DE(Darius, political structure, the nature, scope, and Elvand) and DH (Darius,).Having legitimacy of ruling are determined. This propagandized the ideology of Darius’ Empire, political order also answers the questions of these inscriptions, especially DB are the most who (which person or group) has the right to important sources to this paper . political authority and why. Here, these inscriptions have not been As far as the theoretical research of poli- investigated to describe the political tics is concerned, it can be claimed that, of ; rather, they have throughout the history, no political system been interpreted to answer the questions re- has been formed without the need to resort garding political thought. To this end, after to political thoughts. It is while; the study of describing the political crisis of that epoch, Ancient political thought has been limited to we have tried to investigate the following . However, the existence of magnifi- topics: in order to solve the political crisis, cent political systems in which political order has been proposed? In (such as Mesopotamian, Elamite and this political order, which group has had the Achaemenid ) could not be estab- right to political authority? How the ruling lished without political thought. In this and subordination legitimacy has been de- study, the political thought of Darius the fined? Based on which principles and norms Great has been explained based on the sur- the people have integrated into that political vived texts from his ruling epoch. The re- order. Here, Darius the Great’s beliefs about sults of this study can be helpful in the in- the world, time, human being, gods, death, vestigation of the roots of political thoughts happiness, justice, and liberty have been and theories of the history of ancient politi- discussed in relation to the right to ruling cal thoughts. Moreover, due to the intercul- and, in particular, the nature of politics and tural nature of the ideas, the results can have the nature of political order. significant contribution to the study of the Concerning Darius’ status as the legisla- process of formation, influence on and from, tor and the founder of the largest empire and the evolution of political thoughts in the world had seen, studying his political , , and the West, especially in the thought could be helpful for the theories of ancient and medieval times. the history of ancient political thoughts. Many texts related to this era have been Moreover, due to the intercultural nature of founded in various languages and different the ideas, the results of this study can have subjects. Among these, significant for the significant contribution to the study of the explanation of Darius’ political thought are process of formation, influence on and thousands of official documents in Elamite, from, and the evolution of political thought

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol.3, No.6, Spring 2013 in Iran, Islam, and the West, especially in stressful years, Darius the Great and his am- the ancient and medieval times. bitious disciples were preoccupied with a question or an idealistic vision: in the politi- Political Crisis cal history of ancient Near East, how was it Based on Behistan inscription, it can be possible to establish a durable political inte- inferred that there was a political crisis at gration under the authority of a the beginning of Darius the Great’s ruling; through creating a universal empire from the that is, after ’s murder (522 B.C.), northern Africa to the central which the lands, which had been taken under the au- would lead? thority of the Great (530-559 B.C.) and Cambyses II (522-530 A. C.), started to claim Ruling and the Political Order their previous political independence. The Based on what Darius the Great has men- main rebellionserupted in Ūvjaiy, tioned in many of the inscriptions, one can Bābiruš,Pārsa,Māda,Aθurā, Mudrāya, the problems related to independence seeking Parθava,Marguš,θatgu movements and political fragmentation in the š, and . Many of ancient Near East: these lands, including Ūvjaiy, Aθurā “…I am Darius the Great King, King of ,BābirušandMudrāya , already had a long history of mag- men, King in this great earth far and wide, nificent political systems. In fact, the long his- son of Hystaspes, an Achaemenian, a Persian, tory of very political systems in many of the- son of a Persian, an Aryan, having Aryan se lands was not comparable with that of lineage…”(DNa.8-15). the short period of and Darius the Great has called himself Cambyses II ruling. As a result, according “xšāyaθiya vazarka”. The term of “Xšāyaθiya to Behistan inscription, a large number of ” means a person who has the right to rebellion leaders named themselves after political authority. As Darius has mentioned their past mighty kings e.g. in Behistan inscription, the leaders of rebel- Nabukudračarafor lions believed that they are xšāyaθiya Babylonians, Imanish and Atamaita[Atta- as well. For example, while relating the first hamiti-] for Elamites and even rebellion, it has been said that a person for Medians in order to regain their named Āçina the son of Upadarmarises from previous political independence (See DB the land of Ūvjaiy announced to the I.73-82; DB II.5-64;DBII. 70-98; DBIII. 1- people: “adam Ūvjaiy xšāyaθiya amiy” . After that ;92 Using his courage and warrior tact during in Elam, disobedient Elamites gathered a 3-year period, Darius the Great was able to around Āçinaand crowned him as thwart all the independence seeking attempts xšāyaθiya (DB I.75-77). According to in 21 wars; however, after all these years of Behistan inscription, each of these insurgents war, he came to the understanding that “the claimed that they are xšāyaθiyain their spear of a Persian man” (DNa.43-44) was land. In order to unify these lands, Darius the temporarily able to keep these lands calm – Great did not restrict himself to the title of the the lands that had an old history in wars and a “king” of Persia; instead, he chose a superior more famous history in politics. During these title as “xšāyaθiya vazarka”, which means

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who rules all the lands, example, considering Darius the Great, we “xšāyaθiya dahyūvnām”. In a part of Naqš-i know that before coming to the , he was Rustam inscription, the lands ruled by Darius a member of the groups of warriors in the Ar- the Great are described as: yan tribe of Persia. He also used to be a lancer “…these are the lands which I seized out- and one of the commanders of the army of side of Persia…: , Elam, , , Cambyses II (522-529 B. C.) in the conquest , Sogdiana, Charisma, , of (, 3.139 see How & Wells, , Sattagydia, Gandara, Sind, 1961). Amyrgian, Schythians, Schythians with point- As a result, one can that, compared to ed caps, , Assyria, Arabia, Egypt, the political system in previous empires of , , , , ancient Near East, Darius the Great’s and his who are across the sea, , Petasos- successors’ had three main features: wearing , Libyans, , men of 1. In Darius the Great’s Empire, The title and .. (DNa.15…22-30)” dahyus has been changed to province Therefore, it might be stated that Darius or state in today’s terminology. the Great founded the political order of 2. The title of the top political figure of “xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām” in order to deal with the political xšāyaθiyato xšaçapāvan, fragmentation of these distant xšāyaθiyas which means a person who protects the prov- and dahyus, lands that were ince and the power of the Great King and was populated by people with different types of his indeed. cultural and political . In this political 3. Based on the researchers’ viewpoint the order, at the top of each of these lands there empire of Cyrus the great and Cambyses II was a ruler called xšaçapāvan , was administered by a loose federation of au- which means a person who protects the empire tonomous provinces whose officials were non- and the city. Darius the Great used the term Persian (see: Lehmann-Haupt, 1921: cols.82- manā bandakaas the title for 188; Ehtécham, 1946: 110-127; Petit, these lands and governors: 1990:16-97; Dandamaev, 1975:71-78; “Saith Darius the King: These are the lands Dandamaev, 1992; Bivar, 1985: 610-621; which came unto me… they were “my sub- Meyer, 1944 : 46-47; How & Wells, ibid: jects”…what was said unto them by me, either 3.89; 3.120-29; 4.165-67 ). This matter result- by night or by day that was done.” (DBI.17-20) ed in chaos and rebellion and led to the de- The Great King directly appointed these struction of their empire in 522 B.C.E governors. In addition, like the Great King, (Schaeder, 1941:32; Junge, 1944: 41-43 and some of these rulers had a Persian lineage . 51; Stolper, 1985: 6). However after sup- Another point that is important to know in pressed the rebellions, Darius the great inte- order to better understand this political order is grated the provinces in to a mighty empire finding out about the social origin of the great whose governors were Persian. “The Great king and his governors. They were belonged King” among , especially the royal to the group of warriors based on the house or of the six great noble families (Mey- Achaemenid reliefs and documents; that is, er, 1944: 47ff.; Schaeder, 1941: 18; Petit, they were in fact the war commanders. For 1990: 219-226; Cameron, 1973; , 1926:

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III. 695c-e) usually directly appointed these Aryan tribe. Darius the Great has mentioned governors. So, one can suggest that this new his clan as viθ- . This term has been also used structure was Darius’ innovation. for the (e.g. DPh.10, DPe.24, Based on researchers’ investigations, in or- DNa.53, DSe51, Also see Kent, 1953: 208). der to supervise the performance of these gov- The important point here is that no longer the ernors, The Great King always sent a commis- political decision making process was based sion of trusted men who were known as on the internal functions of tribal system and “eyes” and “ears” of the great king to the nomadic life. Instead, it relied on the internal provinces of the empire. Furthermore, in order functions of a civil system within a great em- to avoid giving absolute power to governors in pire. In this period, tribes lived around the im- these lands, some other authorities, such as portant cities of the empire, while at the same treasurer, commander of the garrison, and The time retained their ancient structural functions. Great King’s representative, were also ap- It can be inferred from Behistan inscription pointed by The Great King. They gave some that the title used for the head of these tribes reports to the Great King, which was inde- was maθišta, meaning the chief or the greatest pendent from that of the governors (Meyer: one (e.g. DBV. 20-30). Although these chiefs ibid, 39-89; Schaeder, 1934; Frye, 1984: 106- were somewhat independent, they worked in 126). However, after the Great King, the most cooperation with governors and under the po- senior official, whose status was even higher litical decisions of The Great King. These than that of governors, was the Great King’s tribes constituted a significant proportion of minister. He was the head of an extensive ad- The Great King’s army for defending the em- ministrative apparatus who commanded all pire borders and taking part in his . economic and political official of the empire, The establishment of the political order of hence the treasury tablets were written under Achaemenid Empire depended on the presence the supervision of him also he oversaw the of an authoritarian king like Darius the Great; correspondence, most of which bears sub- however, he knew that if he wanted this system scripts naming the scribes. In order to be able to persevere even after his death, he should lay to fulfill his duties, the great minister had an its foundations based on a codified doctrine. assistant and a large number of secretaries. In What can be inferred from Dairus the Great’s the era of Darius the Great, a person named inscriptions is that, like the principles of the Farnaka for a long time (Koch, 2000: 42-54, political order of Achaemenid Empire, this doc- 109) occupied this status. trine was based on two important principles: As it is observed, in the empire of Darius the great there is no trace of the Aryan’s an- 1.An Orderly and Efficient Bureaucratic cient political and social units such as System vərəzə na and airyamanor Zantu In his inscriptions, to name the empire’s bu- (Yasna32.1;Yasna33.3;Yasna46.1; Yasna49.7; reaucratic system, Darius the Great has used FarwardinYasht. 21,150 and 151; Mihr the title “manā dātā” which means “my laws” [DSe.20) and [manā ؛ DNa.21 ؛Yasht.17 and 18 , and see: Geldner,1896; (e.g. DB I.23 Humbach & Ichaporia, 1994). This should not framānā which means “[my] command” (e.g. be considered as an indication of the elimina- DNb.28, 37. Kent, ibid: 198). Darius the tion of the role of tribal life in the Achaemenid Great believed that the order and unity of political and social structure. It should be not- vast lands was the result of his laws and ed that Darius the Great himself rose from an command:

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“Saith Darius the King: … these are the lands constitute the most precious way for enlight- which I seized outside of Persia. I ruled ening us with regard to the realities of Darius (patiyaxšayaiy) over them; they bore the Great’s empire(Koch,ibid:340). Accord- to me; what was said to them by me, that they ing to researchers’ investigation, these tablets did; my law- that held them firm”. (DNa.15- give us valuable information in various do- 22; DSe.14-21) mains including monthly payments and re- On the other hand, as he has mentioned, wards of top rank officials such as the king’s Darius’ dātā had an end to the his- wife, minister, governors, treasurer, secretar- torical strife among these lands: ies, assistants, staff, workers in different “Saith Darius the King: …. Provinces branches, women, children, etc. They also were in commotion; one man was smiting the provide information on the enter and exit of other. The following I brought about…that passengers to lands and passport issuance, the one does not smite the other at all, ….My accurate accounts of the storage system and law- of that they feel fear, so that the stronger methods of filing the empire documents, ar- (tauvīyah-) does not smite nor destroy the my, everyday life, and religious affairs. As a weak (Skauθi- )”. (DSe.31-41) result, these tablets also make us familiar Now, after observing the of Darius with the empire’s orderly official and politi- the Great’s tomb in Naqš-i Rustam – where cal rules, social labor division and developed different people of the empire are carrying social justice. This efficient bureaucratic sys- the Great King’s throne on their shoulders – tem of Darius the great lasted for nearly two or the relief of Apadāna in Persepolis centuries and influenced the organization of – where in a friendly atmosphere the repre- subsequent states like Seleucid and Ro- sentatives of different lands of the empire are man empires(see: Junge,1944: 150 and holding the hands of the Great King’s repre- 198n.46; Kornemann, 1940:398 ff., 424 ff.). sentative and are carrying gifts for the Great Then Koch has concluded: King who is sitting on the empire throne “In final words, today’s western bureau- while holding lilies – one comes to the con- cratic system has originated from and influ- clusion that, for the first time in the history of enced by the Achaemenid governing sys- ancient politics, Darius the Great was able to tem”. (Koch, ibid: 347). unify these lands which had already been With regard to the way, these rules were engaged in long and frequent wars. This state approved in the Achaemenid Empire, Koch of unification was based on the laws of a - writes: gle Great King (See DSf.25-55) . “First, they got familiar with the Although in the inscriptions of Darius the rules, customs, tastes, and sensitivi- Great the details of these laws and the orderly ties of the people of the lands under and efficient bureaucratic system have not their ruling. Sometimes, they modified been mentioned, their descriptions can be them and then imparted them to their extracted from thousands of Fortification original land as ‘the king’s laws’. In Tablets of Persepolis. As mentioned by these modifications, ethnic features of Koch, since they are the documents of impe- each of the lands were always taken rial secretariat to accurately record the situa- into consideration. Therefore, king’s tion of empire, these Fortification Tablets laws were differed from one land to

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another” (Koch: ibid, 347). are the four steps of training which Socrates It can be inferred from the inscriptions [or Plato] has discussed in I as the that, for exercising and developing these laws steps of Achaemenid kings’ training (Plato, and commands, the Great King appropriately 1924a:AlcibiadesI. 121e-122 a). These are blessed the agriya – people who were loyal to the same features which in the the Great king’s laws –. In contrast, arika- book has ascribed to Cyrus as a was severely punished by the desirable ruler (Xenophon, 1989). One can Great King (e.g. DB I.21-24). Therefore, one also assume that these about can conclude that the Great King was not features of an ideal ruler had influence on only the top rank political decision maker and philosopher kings in Plato’s Republic (2013). legislator, but also the most important judi- cial figure. Ruling legitimacy What type of political legitimacy was propa- 2.The Introduction of Dairus the Great’s gandized to justify the obedience to Dairus Characteristics as the Example of an “Ide- the Great? al ruler” In different inscriptions, Darius the Great In Naqš-i Rustam inscription (DNb), which has explained the reason for his right to rule can be considered a unique text in terms of the people. This ideology has also been re- expressing the features of an “ideal ruler”, peatedly mentioned by his successors. Darius Darius the Great numerates “warrior”, “jus- the Great believed that Ahuramazda’s vašna- tice”, “restraint”, and “wisdom” as his four , upastā- and kāma- as a great king. >made him the king and Ahuramazda (the In the third and fourth lines of this inscrip- chief of true , means Wise Lord) be- tion, he has mentioned his xraөu- stowed that ruling to him: and aruvasta-< activity>. In DNb.34, Darius “Saith Darius the King: by the will the great says, “I am a good battle fighter”. In of Ahuramazda’s I became addition, in DNb. 40, he says, “as a bowman xšāyaθiya; Ahuramazda’s I am a good bowman both afoot and on bestowed the kingdom horseback”. In addition, in the next lines, by upon me.” (DBI.11-12). “By the saying Rustam dauštā ahmiy, he has referred to his justice kingdom”. (DBI.25-26) in dealing with able and unable individuals Also, he subscribed to the idea that it was (DNb.7).In another paragraph, where stating Ahuramazda’s will to overcome the rebels naiy manauviš ahmiy ,he has emphasized his restrain in reward the politically obedient people, and the time of anger (DNb.13, 14). By empha- severely punish the politically disobedient sizing uvaipašiyahyā daršam xšayamna ones (DBI.13-14, 67-68, 87-88, 94-95, ahmiy,, he has indicated his justice in re- regard to the actions that he took in the first warding obedient individuals and punishing year of his ruling, Darius the Great says: disobedient ones. He has also demonstrated “Saith Darius the King: this is what I did by his inclination to listen to the two parties in a the will of Ahuramazda’s in one and the same struggle and then make his judgment year after that I became king. XIX battles I (DNb.15-26).It seems that these four virtue fought; the will of Ahuramazda’s I smote them

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and took prisoner IX kings”. (DBIV. 3-7) “Saith Darius the King: Ahuramazda’s, when Furthermore, according to Darius the Great, he saw this earth in commotion, thereafter Ahuramazda has bestowed the lands to him: bestowed it upon me, made me king …” “Saith Darius the King: this is the king- (DNa.30-34). “Unto Ahuramazda’s thus was dom which I hold, from the Scythians who the desire: he chose me as (his) are beyond Sogdiana, thence unto ; man in all the earth; he made me king in all from Sind, thence unto Sardis – which the earth”. (DSf.15-18) Ahuramazda’s the greatest of the gods be- This explanation for the origin of the great stowed upon me...” (DPh.3-8) king’ rise to power indicates that every at- Advocating Ahuramazda’s desire, aid, and tempt to depose him was considered illegiti- will was also important for other kings who mate since it was supposed to be against came to power as the successors of Darius the God’s will and desire. Great. In other words, these kings believed From the viewpoint of political thought, that it was Ahuramazda’s desire to select the important question is how people were them. In order to explain why Darius the Great convinced to accept the political legitimacy selected him rather than his brothers as his of the great king. The investigation of Darius successor, I (465-486 B.C.) claimed the great’s inscriptions indicates that his le- that it was the desire of Ahuramazda’s: gitimacy was justified in the light of religious “Saith Xerxes the King: other sons of Da- beliefs about existence, universe, human be- rius there were, (but) – thus unto ing, and the way happiness is achieved. Ahuramazda’s was the desire – Darius my In Darius the great’s belief, the existence father made me the greatest after himself. is the arena for the fight between arta- and When my father Darius went away from the drauga- (DBI.33-35; DBIV.33-36 and see throne, by the will of Ahuramazda’s I became XPh. 40-41, 50-51, 53-54). Arta- means king on my father’s throne…” (XPf.27-36) truthfulness, good law, cosmic order, and As a result, it can be stated that the politi- justice, whereas drauga- means , bad law, cal legitimacy of Achaemenid kingship was chaos, and injustice. In addition, based on his “divine-right theory of kingship”. worldview the universe is the arena of For the great king, the discussions related baga’s and daiva’s will and performance. While when he attempted to prove a divine intention bagas try to bring order to the world and in his own by connecting the subject make it a better place based on arta-; daivas of politics with the subject of creation. Based try to bring chaos and destruction to the on this ideology, Achaemenid ruler was in world based on drauga-. As it can be under- fact a “selected person” and a “the savior” stood from Achaemenid inscriptions, who was created by Ahuramazda’s. Ruling Ahuramazda’s, which means “wise lord”, is was bestowed to such a person to renovate bagavazarka, signifying the chief of true di- “the earth in commotion”: vinity and the creator of arta- (DNa. 1, DSp. “Great Ahuramazda’s… he created 1 and see DBIV.61-62). Darius the King, he bestowed on How is this religious worldview combined him the kingdom; by the will of with politics? Ahuramazda’s Darius is King.”(DPd.1-5).

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According to the great king’s belief, arta- arta, which was advocated as leading to hap- is the basis of both order in the world and piness in this material world and blessedness eternal happiness in the true divinity’s house. in afterlife. On the contrary, disobeying the As a result, in order to overcome political and great king or rebelling against him was sup- social crises and achieve a desirable society, posed to be subordination to drauga, which human being should follow the example of was considered the cause of unhappiness in true divinity’s house by making moral and this material world and lack of afterlife bless- political aspects of arta- the dos and edness. The rebels who followed drauga and don’ts of his individual, social, and political claimed xšāyaθiya were supposed to deceive life. At the same time, he should avoid moral people and take the lands and their people and political aspects of drauga-. away from “arta”: In the inscriptions of Darius the great, ti- “Saith Darius the King: there are the prov- tles such as rāsta- and arštā- inces which became rebellious. The drauga have been made them rebellious, so that these (men) mentioned as the moral and political aspects deceived the people (DBIV. 33-36). After of arta-. These attributes are in fact framānā- that, people became evil . After that and dāta- of the drauga waxed great in the land, both in Ahuramazda’s . In contrast, moral and polit- Persia and in Media and in the other provinc- ical aspects of drauga have been introduced es (lands)…” (DB I.33-35) by titles such as drujana- , which means lying According to the doctrine, which indicates a and the performance which is based on miθa- close connection between the Achaemenid . ruler and Ahuramazda, Darius the great, had According to an inscription of , considered the right of absolute power for one can consider that Darius the great had him. Therefore, along with talking about the also believed that Ahuramazda’s “command” will of Ahuramazda’s, he had talked about and “law” dominating individual, political, the will of himself: and social norms are not the only way of “Saith Darius the King: by achieving happiness in this material world, the will of Ahuramazda’s but also following them can make human and of me much else was beings eternally blessed even afterlife: done …” (DBIV. 46-48) “… if thou shalt think, “Happy” may I be Also, according to this doctrine, in addition when living, and when dead may I be to the law of Ahuramazda’s, the great king “blessed” , have respect for that law had mentioned his own law as the dominant which Ahuramazda’s has established ; wor- rules and norms of the society: ship Ahuramazda’s and artareverent(ly). The “Saith Darius the King: man who has respect for that law …by the will of which Ahuramazda’s has established, and Ahuramazda’s these lands worships Ahuramazda’s and arta reverent(ly), showed respect toward my he both becomes happy while living, and be- law; as was said to them by comes blessed when dead.”. (XPh.46-56) me, thus was it done.” (DB Based on these justifications, since Darius I.21-24) the great was the selected representative and However, based on his worldview and the friend of Ahuramazda’s, subordination to his divine right of his ruling, Darius the great commands was synonymous with following could not believe in two origins for the laws

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dominant the society as the “law” and “com- for ancient people, the law and command of mand” of the great king and that of the great king was considered a proportion Ahuramazda’s. Since the great king became of Ahuramzada’s law and command and a the ruler because of Ahuramazda,’s will and gift from him. Therefore, like the “law” and desire, the great king’s “command” and “command” of Ahuramazda, loyalty to the “law” was not considered separate from that “law” and “command” of the great king was of Ahuramazda’s. Basically, the selection of supposed to lead to happiness in this materi- the great king for ruling was due to the moral al world and eternal salvation afterlife. On and political manifestation of artaattributed the other hand, any kind of rebel against the in his character. On the other hand base on great king was known as an action based on the claim of Darius the great, compared to injustice. other individuals who wanted to be king; he Darius the great had also considered him- was the only person who had followed the self as the owner of divine virtue/ accom- “command” and “law” of Ahuramazda’s plishments like xraθu- > , ušī- , and even manah- (see DNb.27-60) : Darius the great loved rāsta- and was against miθa was my command: when what has Ahuramazda’s desire (DNb. 8). been done by me thou shalt see or hear of, On the other hand, the etymological in- both in the palace and in the war-camp, this is vestigation of the term dāta- obvious- my activity over and above my thinking power ly shows how people understood this con- and my understanding”. (DNb.27-32) cept in the Darius the great’s empire. This Darius the great had stated that term has the same root with adadāt, which Ahuramazda’s had bestowed him these ac- means, “create”. The root dā- means posi- complishments or virtue: tioning, constructing, and creating . This “and the (physical) skillfulness’s which term was only used for gods because it was Ahuramazda’s has bestowed upon me and I they who were only considered the owners have had the strength to use them – by the will of wisdom, especially the wisdom of of Ahuramazda’s what has been done by me, I constructing and creating (For e.g. in DNa.1- have done with these skillfulness’s which .DSe.1-6 ،DSf.1-5) Ahuramazda’s has bestowed upon me.” (DNb؛6 Furthermore, in order to avoid interpreta- 45 -50) tions which are based on modern political The great king’s claim for these virtues has and legal view points, one must bear in mind been an influential factor in justifying his ab- that the basic objective of the great king solute power and superiority over others. Ac- for having political power had not been con- cordingly, Ahuramazda’s does not bestow sidered a political one such as solving politi- these virtues to all , but a number of cal and social crisis and improving people’s selective ones: life. In contrast, his basic goal has propagan- “O menial, vigorously make thou known of dized as a religious one, i. e. fighting against what sort I am, and of what sort my skillful- a larger disorder in the world, which results ness's, and of what sort my superiority from drauga, and protecting arta. As a result, (DNb.50-54)

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Political Crder legitimacy and punish disobedient people. Before the es- In Darius the great’s inscriptions, parallel with tablishment of the great Achaemenid Empire, the compound of xšāyaθiya xšāyaθiyānām each of the lands of this empire, such as for political order, Elam, Assyria, and Babylon, recognized the one can imagine a similar compound known chief god of their land, such as Inshushinak, as [baga] bagānām for gods Ashur, and , as a creator, legislator, ‘order. In these inscriptions, the Achaemenid the judge who decided which people could ruler is known as xšāyaθiya vazraka which means the chief of all kings in after life, and the source that bestowed (DBI.1; DPe.1, 2; DPh.1 ;…). In a similar political power to the rulers. Darius the Great vein, Ahuramazda’s is called baga vazarka, was aware that he could be the only ruler of the chief of “other gods” (DNa.1; DNb.1 ;…), ancient Near East only if there was a single who include the various gods of the lands of god who had the afore mentioned attributes, Achaemenid Empire as well as Aryan gods. In that is Ahuramazda’s, the god who he the inscriptions, Arian gods are known as claimed has bestowed him the political pow- viθaibiš bagaibiš, which means the gods of er. Otherwise, pretenders from different lands (royal) family or tribe (see: DPd.14, 22, 24). of empire were able to claim that they had In later inscriptions (Artaxerxes II, 359-404 received political power from the chief god B.C.), we become familiar with the name of of their land who was the creator, legislator, some of these gods of royal tribe, like and the source of happiness. After that, the and Mitra (A2Sd. 3-4). people of these lands would rebel against Therefore Darius the Great, tried to Darius the great in order to support these pre- achieve the political unification of various tenders with the aim of achieving happiness ancient Near East lands and establish a great in this life and salvation in after life. empire through the unification of all the gods As a result, it seems that to establish a of ancient near east, hence creating a great great empire in the ancient Near East, Darius of gods. In this new pantheon, the Great has not appeared in history only as a Ahuramazda’s has been introduced as the politician. Instead, to legitimize this great em- chief of all-ancient Near East gods. Similarly, pire, he tried like a prophet to propagandiz Darius the great has been presented as the new religious teachings for the people of new chief of kings of all lands. The attempts of religious teachings for the people of the an- Darius the Great to legitimize the political or- cient Near East. der of his empire reaches its peak when he propagandizes the creating, legislating and Conclusion judging status only for Ahuramazda’s, the An investigation of Darius the great’s political god who has bestowed political power to him: thought shows that to solve a political crisis, “great God is Ahuramazda’s, who created he propagandized “the king of kings” political this earth, who created yonder sky, who creat- order. This political problem or question was ed man, we created happiness for man, who how he could integrate all lands of the Near made Darius king…”( DNa.1-6; also see: East under the authority of a great empire. He DSe.1-6; DSf.1-5) legitimized this political order based on prop- One can understand that Darius the Great agandizing a new order of ancient Near East needed these new religious instructions in or- gods. In this new pantheon Ahuramazda’s, der to stabilize the great Achaemenid Empire who bestowed the political power to Darius

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the great, has been introduced as “the great duty created him. Human being’s duty was god” and the chief of all other gods. Similarly, following arta; that gave strength to the true in his political order, Darius the great has been divinities to defeat the false divinities and introduced as “the great king” and the chief of therefore develop the world. In addition, all kings. arta- has been considered as the basis of In Darius the great’s empire, the nature of both order in the world and eternal happi- politics was based on a religious worldview in ness in the true divinity’s house. As a result, which the cause of the natural and social in order to overcome political and social events was the will and action of true and false crises and achieve a desirable society, hu- divinities (bagas and daivas). While the true man being should follow the example of true divinities try to develop the world based on divinity’s house by making moral and polit- arta, which means truthfulness, good law, ical aspects of arta- dominate the dos and cosmic order and justice, the false divinities don’ts of his individual, social, and political try to destroy the world based on drauga, life. At the same time, he should avoid mor- which means lie, bad law, chaos and injustice. al and political aspects of drauga-. There- Based on this worldview, the political and so- upon, people must have an absolute obedi- cial crises were perceived and the political ence of the great king who was the earthly solution was offered. Any political and social representative of the chief of true divinities. crisis, such as insecurity, violence, poverty The great king’s answer to the questions and destruction, was considered the will and “who is human?”, “how did he come into be- action of the false divinities (daivas). In con- ing?”, and “what is his end?” was not the only trast, it was said that Ahuramazda’s has creat- way to justify his authority. He also connected ed Darius the great as a savior and bestowed the subjects of human’s afterlife destiny and him the earthly ruling in order to fight against the political power to legitimize an absolute the laws of the false divinities and propagate authority. He introduced Ahuramazda’s as a security and happiness in people’s life by pro- legislator and the one who bestows political tecting arta. According to this ideology, the power. He also recognized Ahuramazda is a sovereignty of Darius the great and, therefore, judge, the one who determines humans’ hap- the domination of Ahuramazda’s laws in hu- piness in this world and their salvation after- man life were considered as justice. life. According to this ideology, those who From the critical perspective, one can sug obeyed Darius the great is ruling, not only gest that this definition of justice promoted reached happiness in this material world, but absolutism and denied liberty. Since the gods also achieved salvation in afterlife. On the were used to be the cause of natural and social contrary, any attempt to riot and depose Dari- events, they were the only ones who had the us the great was considered an attempt against capacities of wisdom, activity, right and legis- the will and desire of Ahuramazda’s. These lation. In contrast, human being was not sup- rioters were the ones opposed to the nature posed to have such virtue. Therefore, he could and end of human creation and followed not bring security and happiness to the com- drauga. As a result, they reinforced the false munity as a wise and legislating creature. divinities to create chaos in the world. In fact, Their definition of the nature of human being along with the dual nature of “good” and was that Ahuramazda as a creature that had a “evil” in the great king’s worldview, he also

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International Journal of Political Science, Vol.3, No.6, Spring 2013 had a dual pattern of “friendship” and “- basis to a secular one. In addition, considering mosity (or loyal and disloyal people)” in his these virtues for the great king has been an policy. One cannot say with certainty which of influential factor in justifying his absolute these dualities has formed the basis for the power because Ahuramazda’s does not bestow other one. However, according to the inscrip- these virtues to all humans, but a number of tions, it might be said that these two dualities selective ones like Darius the great. On the have always been present along with each other hand, we can mention that the principal other. Those individuals who were the great motif for the great king to consider the gods’ king’s loyal friends were the followers of arta attributes (e.g. wisdom and legislation) for and the ones that were disloyal and were con- him originates from the historical competi- sidered enemy were the disciples of drauga. tions between warriors and priests. In the older The first group attempted to construct the period during which the king-priests ruled world according to justice and cosmic order; over Aryan’s tribes, they never claimed their the second group, however, tried to destroy own “law” and “command”. They believed the world according to injustice. As a result, that they had the ability to communicate with according to Darius the great’s inscription, gods and observe the rules created by legisla- the first group should be rewarded in this tor gods like Mitra-Varuna. In contrast, as the world by the great kind, as Ahuramazda’s historical trend of achieving the political rul- gives them their rewards afterlife. In contrast, ing by warriors like Darius the great was the great king in this world should punish the based on force and power; therefore, they second group, as they are punished by could not gain legitimacy over priests whose Ahuramazda’s afterlife. ruling was based on their spiritual roles. Due It can be assumed that during Darius the to the historical trend of king-warriors’ great’s empire, there have never been discus- achievement of political ruling did not match sions of liberty as a criterion or even as a part people’s worldview. They had to base their of happiness. This is because happiness was ruling legitimacy on religious beliefs. Howev- defined in justice (not liberty); even this type er, unlike priests, they could not claim sha- of justice meant following the laws of manic ability for themselves because of their Ahuramazda’s, arta, and therefore absolutely social origin. Therefore, they tried to enhance obeying the political ruler. In fact, since they their spiritual status in competition with the did not consider any wise and legislative status priests. As a result, they called themselves for human being, they could not have an un- selected persons and gods’ representatives on derstanding of the concept of liberty. Of earth. They also considered gods’ attributes, course, Darius the great propagandized some such as wisdom, legislation and absolute pow- virtue like those of Ahuramazdasuch as wis- er, for themselves. The peak of king-warriors’ dom, understanding, thinking power, and attempts to compete against the old history of power of will for himself. Based on these king-priests’ political ruling is when they de- claims, he also spread the idea that similar to pict their faces and figure similar to those of Ahuramazda’s he has “command” and “law”, their chief god in their reliefs. As Darius, the too. However according to the reasons that great depict his face like Ahuramazda’s in his were mentioned above, based on Darius the reliefs. great’s worldview and also the divine right of However, Darius the great’s laws brought his ruling, these claims had no influence in about a unique order and unity across the wide changing the nature of politics from a sacred lands with various cultures, religions, and po-

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litical histories, which lasted more than two Cyrus II to ), translated by hundred years and influenced on subsequent Hayedeh Mashayekh. : Mahi. empires. If the king–warrior’s status and Cameron, George G. (1973). The Persian Sa- claims like those of Darius the great are stud- trapies and Related Matters, Journal of ied within the context of the history of legal Near Eastern Studies, vol. 32, No. 1/2, and political thoughts, they can be regarded as 47-56. important challenges for divine laws. This Dandamaev, M. A. (1975). Forced Labour in challenge has gained the attention of intelli- the Place Economy of Achaemenid Iran. gent thinkers of ancient world to compare hu- In Altorientalische man’s legislation with that of god. Since Plato Forschungen II, 71-78.(1992). Iranians in (428-348 BC) began the Laws with this ques- Achaemenid Babylonia. Costa Mesa, tion: “To whom do you ascribe the authorship Calif [u.a.]: Mazda Publisher. of your legal arrangements, Strangers? To a Ehtécham, Morteza (1946). L’Iran sous les god or to some man?” (Plato, 1926: 624 a). Achéménides. Fribourg: Imprimerie St- Plato introduced Darius the great as the one Paul. who “thought good to manage the kingdom by Frye, Richard N. (1984). The History of An- enacting laws” (Plato, ibid: III. 695 c-d), be- cient Iran. München: Beck. cause for the first time in the history, Darius Geldner, Karl F. (1896). : the sacred had succeeded to unify various people and books of the . Stuttgart: cultures around a just law based on a multicul- Kohlhammer. turalism policy. About two thousand years Greenfield, J.C. & B. Porten (1982). The after Plato, Hegel (1770-1831) also praised Bisitun Inscription of Darius the Great: Achaemenids’ policy in unifying various peo- Version, Corpus Inscriptionum ple within the framework of a single state, Iranicarum, Part. 1, vol. V. London: while each of these people had retained its Lund Humphries. own individuality, manners, customs and Hallock, Richard. T. (1977). The Use of Seals norms. From Hegel's view, this issue was the on the Persepolis Fortification Tablets. outset of a process in the history, which he In Seal and Sealing in Ancient near called "consciousness of freedom”; the pro- East, ed. M. Gibson and R. Biggs. Mal- cess which began with the Achaemenid Em- ibu: Undena Publications. pire (Hegel, 1956: 173,174, 187). Hegel, G.W. F. (1956). The Philosophy of References: History, translated by J. Sibree. New Bivar, A. D. H. (1985). Achaemenid , York: Dover. Weights and Measures. In The Cam- How, W.W & J. Wells (1961). A Commentary bridge II, the Median on Herodotus, Vol. I and II, Oxford and Achaemenian Periods, (pp. 610- University Press. 639). Cambridge : Cambridge University Humbach, H. & P. Ichaporia (1994). The Her- Press. itage of Zarathushtra: A New Transla- Brosius, M. (2009). Shahanshahi tion of His Gathas. Heidelberg: Winter. Haxamaneshi: AZ Kurush bozorg ta Junge, Peter Julius (1944). Dareios I. König Ardeshir I (The Persian Empire from der Perser. Leipzig: Harrassowitz.

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