Feudalization of Key Words : Feudlization, Gudhapurusas, Coragraha, Ancient Indian Police Corarajjukas, Cauradharanika, Mahasamanta, Mahadandanayaka, Dasaparadhika, Dandadhi- Organization (300 karin, Sthanadhikaranika, Dauhsadha- sadhanika, Gudhapurusha, Lexicographer, A.D. to 750 A.D.) Rajasthaniyas, Upakarika Umesh Kumar Singh, I.P.S.* Abstract : In view of paucity of materials, it is very difficult to know the exact ancient police structure. An It is an indispensable necessity of all attempt has been made to collect materials kinds of government to have a machinery regarding police organization of ancient India, in administration to enforce law and to Covering a period of nearly four hundred and fifty prevent its breaches. This work is years (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.). Similar strenuous presently done by a very well organized efforts have been made to collect and present such system of police administration, but in facts which indicate sufficiently the feudalization the olden days police organization was of police personnel of those days along with their amalgamated with the revenue and other fellow civil and revenue officers. Frequent grants of civil administration and the revenue lands and villages to the bureaucrates as a token of rewards for their good works, specially to the officers besides, discharging the revenue military personnel, free from all the taxes and with and other civil works were many administrative rights, keeping and simultaneously entrusted to carry out additions of pompous and big titles, of their the policing jobs also, which, in course of designations, liberty and rightful claims for forced time, came in to gradual existence. Thus labour from villagers, all these led to the the organization of the police conversion of feudal character of the police officers department was considered as one of the and their atrocious and despotic behaviour and most important functionaries of the state unbearable sufferings of the general masses of the in order to protect the society from evil- society. It is an attempt to enable the police officers minded out-laws, criminals and the of to-day to know their past. Presentation is based strong. Hence before mentioning the on the original and authentic source materials, furnished by eminent historians. impact of feudalization on the police administration during the period 300 A.D. to 750 A.D., it is necessary to describe in short the existing police organisation. The most common activities of police force were uniformed patrol, criminal investigation and identification of culprits, and their detention, prevention and detection of crime1. It was the duty of * D.I.G. of Police, Koshi Range, Saharsa. the state to maintain peace and protect (Bihar)

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 21 all by deterring persons from Accounts of Kalidas also indicated commission of crime, and deviation from unsatisfactory performance of urban the normal path of duty2. Sukra had police personnel and integrity of observed that punishment was offecials was also portrayed to be introduced to prevent the wicked from questionable and blemish. They are said commission of unlawful acts3. Yajna to be experts in accepting bribes and Valkya says that detection of crimes and alcohol addictions prevailed among arrest of the suspicious, protection of them11. Police patrolling in the nights, civil population and prevention of illegal specially in the streets of urban areas, acts were the basic functions of the was their routine night round works, as police4. Kautilya too had held the same mentioned by Dandini, besides their view5. Village was the smallest movements to catch thieves12. They were administrative unit for policing described and shown as patrolling on arrangements of villages under the sole roads and highways alone, holding responsibility of the village-headmen6. truncheons (Danda) in their hands13. Village councils were required to detect Suspects including ladies also were crimes committed, in response to some intercepted by them while on duty, if obligations to villagers in providing their movements attracted any security measures, which continued in suspicion. Almost all the important some forms till the twelfth century A.D. If corners of the towns were covered by the articles were lost in the village, they police presence and even the cemeteries were to be recovered and restored to the were covered by police deputation14. victim by the members of the village Gate keepers and royal guardsmen used community. A Chauhan inscription of this to be alerted by the police of the city to period records that the villagers Dhalop avert occurrence of crime15. Kalidas has agreed solemnly to provide their own mentioned oppressions and tortures to security measures7. Manu recommended simple and innocent travellers by the that the police stations should be frontier guards and the police established through out, one being personnel16. In case of need, military intended for two, four or five villages8. assistance was given to meet any big Towns in those days, even if smaller in crisis17, Hiun Tsang mentions size, used to be walled up from all the four "summoning of military personnel is sides, mainly from protective safety ordered to meet and maintain internal angles. A Tibetan expedition by Srong- law and order problems in the seventh Tsang, after the death of Harsha, century A.D." He himself was provided mentions the common practice of walling with a military escort. He mentioned the towns in those days9. For securing that some troops not only guarded the full safety, towns were under the charge borders but even were found engaged in of efficient police department and chief punishing the refractories and the police officer during the time of Kalidas mounted guards used to keep strict was called Nagaraka10, and normally a surveillance during the night18. Mention Nagaraka was assisted by Raksinah of some important among the police (constables). personnel or civil officers, discharging

22 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.) police job, is very essential, the list of title of Harisena, the composer of such names with their normal assigned Allahabad Pillar inscription. works is as follows:- The Pratapgarh inscription Gudhapurusas or Caras, were spics, mentions one Mahadeva, the Chieftain of engaged in crime control works19. Ujjayinie with the epithets Kautilya had enumerated in details Mahasamanta Dandanayaka and one importance and usefulness of spies in the Tantrapala as Mahasmanta field of politics20. Kamandaka says that Mahadandanayaka36. They were great Duta was an open spy (prakash) and the feudatiories, connected with the army37 Caras were the secretly discharging and their help used to be sought by the duties, keeping their presence, civil administration in the case of need38. completely, concealed. Perhaps they originally belonged to the Coragraha, probably a thief catcher army, stationed in various districts to and it finds mention in Narada Smriti help the police and civil officials in and Katyayan's works21. Corarajjuka, maintaining law and order and to and officer assigned the taks of arresting prevent crimes. Their titles appear to be robbers and fettering them22. hereditary also39, and the kings also very often established matrimonial relations Cauraddharanika, designation of an with them40. Varahamihira considered officer in charge of the recovery of stolen and places the queen, the crown, prince property, or detection and extermination and the Dandanayaka on the same of thieves. This term occurs in many footing in connection with the staff inscriptions of the western and eastern (Danda) to be prepared for them41. They part of the country such as the Valabhi were undoubtedly the high rank police grant23 and the Palitana plate of and civil officials. Seals of Dharasena-II24, Khalimpur plate of Dandanayakas have been found in Dharmapala25, the Bhagalpur plate of abundance from Bhita sites42. These Narayana Plala26, the Naihat plate of seals depict the officers, bearing the Ballalasena27, and a grant of Laksenana emblem of a standing police man with a Sena28. Caurodhartr, an another official staff in his hand43. for catching a thief29. Many inscriptions depict one another Caurika, found mention in the police officer Dandapasika, who holds Kalvan jain plates of Yasovarman of the the fetters or noose of punishment44. time of Bhoja Paramara to denote a Mudraraksasa45, the Yasatilaka police officer in charge of thieves and Campy46, and the Kathasaritasagara robbers30. Dandanayaka, and officer of describe this officer. It is presumed that Kusan period31. This term designate this officer used to execute the officer has been differently understood. sentences. Many seals of this designate Aurel Stein interprets it as a "Prefect of officers have been found from Basarh. Police,"32 where as R.S. Pandit accepts it as a "Commissioner of Police"33. Some P.V. Kane mentions Dandabhogika, scholars call it as a general, or a enjoying the same position as Magistrate34. Mahadandanayaka35 was a Dandapasik47. It also occurs in Walplate

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 23 of Guhasena along with other officers48. the king as a royal duty to protect and In the Deo Baranak Inscription of compensate the people from undue Jivitagupta II49 the Bhagalpur plate of harassment caused by these officers61. Narayana Pala50, the Nalanda plate of Brahaspati also expressed a similar poor Devapala51, and a host of other opinion about these police officers62. contemporary inscriptions, another Bana has also mentioned about their police officer Dandika is mentioned. unpopularity among the, then people63. Dasaparadhika, in charge of ten That was the reason of special mention specified kinds of criminal offences, or about the prohibition of entry of Chatas Aparadhas52, Dauhsadhasadhanika, a and Bhatas to some of the donated group of officers, probably, whose duty villages or lands by the king. It must have was to catch dangerous robbers and been due to their intolerable tortures, culprits, ordinarily difficult to be being committed on the innocent arrested53. Some Pala inscriptions people64. mention the term Rajasthaniya, mentioned in Mahadauhsadhasadhanika54, Mandasor insciption of Yasodharman Dauhsadhika, another police officer, and Visnuvardhana65, the Banskhera discharging the same job55, inscription of Harsha66, Palitana plate of Dandadhikarin, a chief police officer, Dharmasena67, Bhagalpur grant of mentioned in Rajatarangini of Narayana pala68 and a host of others. Kalhana56. Sthanadhikaranika appears Kalhan accepts this officer as a judicial to be in charge of the sthanas or police designation69. Where as Buhler stations57. Araksika a mere watcher or interprets the term that also occurs in watchman in charge of vigilance, the Ksemandras Lokaprakasa70. "Who sunaokala plates of Sangamasimha of carries out the object of protecting 540-41 A.D. from Broach refer to this subjects and shelters them, is called a designation58. Rajasthaniya"71. Cata-Bhata are two names, often Nagarika, a term used to denote a occur jointly in different inscriptions59. chief of the police72. They are said to be the officers in charge Dandasakti a police officer, but of the investigation of crimes. The Surat nothing is known about his office73. plates of Maharaja Vyaghrasena of 490- Mahapratihara, and officer in charge 91 A.D. throw sufficient light on their of the door-keepers. R.C. Majumdar calls scheduled duties, and it mentions that him a high official in the police and small piece of land, that was granted to military department74. Kadambari of the donee should not be entered by the Banadhatta and the Rajtarangini of Catas and Batas except to arrest the Kalhan also make a mention of this robbers, or persons guilty of high officer75. treason60. These officers are branded as the most notorious for their cruelty, R.C. Majumdar interprets Khola as malpractices and ugly behaviour. That is an officer in charge of the intelligence 76 the reason yaznavalkya had suggested department or a spy .

24 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.)

It finds mention in Khalimpur administrative errors, massive inscription of Dharmapala77. exploitation of the poor, down-trodden, Gudhapurusa is said to be a secret ladies, peasants, traders and even the service main78. The lexicographer lower ranking bureaucrats, all Amarasimha makes a mention of his empowering them and getting engrossed special functions79. Cara is shown as a to the full feudalization of the entire simple spy80. administrative and policing apparatus. Besides the above mentioned police The myth of millenary stagnation of officers, there were many other revunue early Indian society has been ably and civil officers also, who, sometime, exploded by D.D. Kosambi and R.S. hold collective reponsibility of ensuring Sharma81, who marked definite stages in the entire criminal justice system the development of its social polity till smoothly run and they were entirely held the beginning of feudalism from about responsible for prevention, control and middle of the first millennium82. detection of crimes, maintenance of law Kosambi holds that a later stage, a class and order, dispensation of justice, as well of land owners develped within the as collection of revenue and security and village between the state and the protection of borders from foreign peasantry, gradually to wield armed invasions. Earlier the concept of power on the local population - a process Mauryan emperors was much more to he calls" feudalism from below"83. ensure the real welfare of the people but Sharma does not apparently hold this during the Gupta Empire onwards view and produces evidence which historians of Marxist school have arrived contradicts the two-stage-theory of at a conclusion that the mode of Indian feudalism84. According to him administration of the rulers was much feudalism in India, unlike in Europe, more of feudal in nature due to various began with the land grants to the reasons. One of the prime factors was brahamanas, temples, monasteries and decentralization of central powers in the officers, from the Ist. century B.C., which hands of local chiefs and officers, the mulitplied by Gupta times, when village headmen, and the kith and kin of villages, together with their fields and the royal family. Tendency to make inhabitants with fiscal, administrative liberal grants and donations of lands and and judicial rights with exemptions from villages with population to even the the interference of royal officials used to officers as their rewards for good works be transferred to the donee85. and sometime in their remuneration of Dr. R.S. Sharma has enumerated in acts of valour and bravery and with that great details various reasons and their authorization to rule locally with contributory factors with many examples all autonomy and autocratic behavior, of feudal processes in his famous book later on, penal rights of punishing the "Indian Feudalism". To study in culprits without king's approval were feudalization process the book furnishes also transferred in some cases. This had very rich and substantial materials, opened the flood gate of many including valuable epigraphical

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 25 collections for the historians to enlighten the second was the surrender of Police on many new aspects of Indian History. I and administrative functions. am narrating and mentioning some of the Grants of the second century relevant portions of the book for the mentions the transfer of the king's subject under study to elucidate and control only over salt, which indicates enlighten on the points of feudalization retention of other sources of revenue. of state administrative apparatus in But, in later grants, from the time of general and police organization in Pravarasena-II Vakataka onwards (5th particular. century A.D.), the ruler gave up his Mr. Sharma, in his book Indian control over almost all sources of Feudalism, has expressed the view, revenue, including Pasturage, hides and "From the past Maurya period, and charcoals, mines for the production of specially from Gupta times, certain salt, forced labor, and all hidden political and administrative treasures and deposits89. What is more developments tended to feuded to significant is that the donor, not only feudalise the state apparatus"86. He abandoned revenues, but also the right to assigns its reason, primarily to the govern the inhabitants of villages, that practice of land grants to the brahmanas were granted. Hence, in Gupta period at and with it the surrender of state least half a dozen instances of such grants administrative rights to them. Quoting to the brahmanas are available, in which the early Pali texts of the pre-Maurya people were asked to obey their period refer to the villages granted to the commands. In two other land grants of brahmanas by the rulers of Kosala and the post - Gupta times royal commands Magadha. Mr. Sharma points out that the were issued to government officials, Pali texts do not mention the employed as Sarvadhyaksha and also to abandonment of any administrative regulate soldiers and umbrella bearers rights by the donors. He also says that the that they should not cause any epigraphic rcord of land grant of a village disturbance to the brahmanas90. It as a gift in the Asvamedha sacrifice also indicates the evidence of the surrender supports the same theme87. of the administrative power of the state Administrative rights were perhaps and more autonomy to the local given up for the first time in the grants administrative officers which made them made to Buddhist monks by the feudal. Satvahana ruler - Gautaniputra The inscriptions of the 5th century Satakarani in the second century A.D. To A.D. reveal that the ruler was retaining quote him, "The land, granted to them, the right to punish the thieves, which could not be entered by royal troops, formed the basis of the state power, but disturbed by government officials, or by such transfer of grants to brahmanas interfered with, by the district Police88." and with that the transfer of He says that from fifth century A.D. administrative rights to punish all onwards two important features are offences against family, property, person, noticeable regarding grants, - first, being etc. This indicates that state has let loose the transfer of all sources of revenue and their control over administration by

26 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.) allowing other sections, or and lands and there by creating sub-in- individuals to avail a monopoly over a feudation of the soil. The secular particular region, giving birth to feudal obligation of the priestly beneficiaries tendency in the officials, including those, are rarely laid down, the only example is discharging police functions. In central the Chammak copper-plate of the and western India some royal donors Vakataka king Pravarasena II, which conferred upon the grantees the right of imposes certain obligations on one trying cases in the donated villages. thousand brahmanas, who are granted Their grants use the term one village95. It lays down that they shall Abhyantarasidhi,91 which has been used not conspire against the king and the variously91A. It does not amount to kingdom, commit theft and adultery, slay merely an adjudication of internal Brahamanas and poison king etc, disputes in such donated villages, but further they shall not wage war and do amounted to complete self dependence92. wrong to other villages96. Mr. Sharma Thus the widespread practice of making clearly states, "This may be taken as land grants in the Gupta period paved another presage of the feudalization of the way for the rise of Brahmana the state apparatus"97. feudatories, who performed Second big change in the Gupta administrative functions, not under the period was regarding the mode of authority of the royal officers but almost payment to the officers, employed by the independently93. It amounted to state. Officers during the Maurya disintegration of state power and dynasty were paid normally in cash, the unusual growth of abrupt and sudden maximum salary being 58000 panas and feudal ruling class and a new set of the minimum 60 panas, probably per persons discharging police and civil month98. All this is found in the section functions. Bhrtya-Bhara-Niyan, maintenance of Consequently the number of land servants, which prescribes the various owning brahmanas increased and scales of pay for all the royal comprehensive competence, based on functionaries, high and low. Many centralized control in Mauryan time, officers are named, and in several cases it gradually gave way in post-Maurya and is stated that similar functionaries Gupta periods. Maintenance of law and should be paid similarly98A. Except for order and the defense of the border, some functionaries, who are granted hitherto being performed by the state land in new settlements, in addition to officials, were now, step by step, their regular remuneration in cash, all abandoned, first to the priestly class and officers in the Kautilyan state were paid later to the warrior class94. It marked the in cash. The law book of Manu, compiled beginning of feudalization of the whole probably in 2nd century, provides for the administrative machinery in the ancient payment of fiscal officers by grants of Indian History. Subsequently the land99. Brihaspati, also in the fifth feudatories also started marking century, mentions that such a grant is religious grants without royal consent. It made by the king, when pleased with the proves creation of tenants on the donated services, valour etc of a person, he grants

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 27 him a district or, the like100. It is not Vardhamanabhukti, when the Maharaja definitely clear about the mode of Vijayasena was ruling there as a vassal of payment of the officers under the Gupta the Maharajadhiraj Sri Gopacandra empire. The Chinese evidence on this about A.D. 507109. It has been suggested points is not quite clear. Legge's that this officer was probably a translation of a passage from Fahien Jagirdar110. Some Bhogpaties oppressed informs us that the king's body guards the rural communities. The Harscarita and attendants, all have regular mentions that in course of the military salaries101. But the Beal translates the march of Harsha, villagers made false passage differently, "the chief officers of complaints against Bhogpatis111. the king have all allotted revenues, and Another feudal funcitonary in the time of recently a Chinese scholar has Harsha was Mahabhogi, not mentioned translated the crucial passage". "The in contemporary inscription from north king's attendants, guards, and retainers, India, but mentioned in some epigraphs all receive emoluments and pensions"102. from Orissa112. Bana refers to the It is clearly known about the time of presence at the door way (Dvara- Harsaverdhan that high officers were prakastha) of hundreds of paid in cash for their services to the state, Mahabhogis,113 in the Kadambari, while for one fourth of the royal revenues was describing the Antahapura in the palace earmarked for the endowment of great of king Tarapida. The early Kalachuri public servants103. According to Harsha's inscriptions introduce a new official inscriptions, these high officers would Bhogikapalaka,114 who may have acted as include Daussadhasadhanika, superintendent over the Bhogikas115. Paramatara, Rajasthaniya, Uparika Rajukas of the Maurya Empire were and Visayapati104. Satvahanas and appointed by the emperor where as the Kushanas made cash endowments to the Kumarmatyas, their counterparts in the guilds of artisans, where as under the Guptas were appointed by the Uparika Guptas land endowments were made to (Governor). Hence Kumarmatyas of the officials and others for the same Gupta were devoted to their immediate purpose105. lords than to the overlords. It was only in Bhogika and Bhogapatika were two the heart of the Guptas empire, or in category of officers who were enjoying areas nearer their home that even the the revenues most rather than the head of the Visaya was appointed by the exercising of the royal authority over the Gupta emperors, as in the case of subjects106. Sometimes they held the Sarvanaga, Visayapati of Antarvedi or office of the Amatya also107. The office of the Country lying between the Ganga the Bhogika was generally hereditary, for and the Yamuna116 but significantly at least three generations of Bhogikas enough here also, says Dr. R.S. Sharma117, are mentioned in several cases108. he was the terms of the appointment of the a powerful overlord, comparatively free district officers refer not to the from the control of the central authority. administration, or welfare of the The Bhogapatika is mentioned as one of subjects, but to the enjoyment of their about a dozen officers stationed in territory by the Visayapati118. A Gujrat

28 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.) inscription (A.D. 541) mentions practice of combining several officers in name of Rajasthaniyas, Uparikas, the same person125. Kumarmatyas, Catas, Bhatas and others Feudalization of officers is also as designations of officers, who received confirmed by their pompous titles, some- grant of land by the Mahasmanta time, to be imposed and conferred by Maharaja, Sangamasimha, conveying themselves. This is a sufficient his order to his subordinates119. Towards indication of beginning of a new trend of the end of the reign of the imperial feudal functioning, which was earlier not Guptas, R.S. Sharma says, the known. Officers, from the seventh Kumaramatya Maharaja Nandana century onwards, began to be invested making a land grant without the with pompous, feudal-titles. permission of over-lord, which suggests Bhaskarvarman's treasurer that by the middle of the sixth century (Bhandagaradhikrt), Divakara-Prabha A.D., the Kumaramatyas had emerged as held the title of Mahasamanta126. Officers defacto lords of villages which they could of Harshavardhana were similarly give away120. designated as Mahasamanta. The chief Mr. Sharma mentions the growing executor of a grant of Bhaskaryarman hereditary character of the divisional was known as Prapta-Panc- and district officers, from the Gupta amahasabha127. Early Gurjara king period onwards, undermined central Dadda-II held this title128. In western authority and tended to feudalise the India and passed it one on to the administration further. Although Sendrakas in the third quarter of the Kautilya laid down the officials seventh century129. (amatyas) and soldiers should be During the Gupta period the village hereditary, we have hardly any headmen, appointed by the king, were contemporary epigraphic evidence to also becoming semi-feudal officers, support this. But the inscriptions of the primarily concerned with their own Gupta period show that the posts of gains and Mr. R.S. Sharma says" what Matrin and the Saciva (Sachiva), who was done in the Mauryan period by the served with the Gupta emperor, were superintendent of agriculture in the hereditary121, so was the post of Amatyas interest of the state, was done by the in central India122, and Vaisali123. Further village headman (Gram-Adhipati- the Surname Datta of the Uparikas in- Ayukta) for filling his own granary130. He charge of the Bhukti of Pundravardhan, further says, that "during the Gupta suggests that they probably belonged to period there arose a new type of village, the same family124 . R.S. Sharma further which served as the resort of royal says "theoretically the emperor enjoyed favourites". It is mentioned in a Purana the power of dismissing his officials but text that such a village was mostly in practice they and their descendants inhabited by the wicked and powerful continued to be in office because of their people, who, not owning any fields local strength. They further gained in themselves, lived upon the fields of power and influence because of the others131.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 29 During the sixth century A.D. the Kadambari140. Humiliation to a defeated term, used for conquered feudatories, king was considered a privilege by was Samantha. Harshacharita provides them141. The Allahabad Inscription a kind of gloss on the precious little furnishes us the information about the extracted from the inscription of obligation of presenting daughters to the Samudra Gupta. Puspabhuti had made conqueror. Bana mentions "the defeated his Mahasamantas, as his tributaries Samantas furnished minor princes or (Karada)132. In the areas administered by son to the conqueror142." They were the Samantas, the emperor realized trained in the imperial traditions to grow annual taxes from them and not from the loyal to their overlord. The wives of noble subjects133. Where the vassals were free Samantas consecrated her with water to increase the taxes or to impose fresh from golden pitchers and thus offered ones, is not clear, but they held her to their services on the occasion of accountable for royal taxes in the areas the installation of Yasovati143. It appears held by them134. to be an obligation in the time of peace. Mr. Sharma mentions that the Bana calls the defeated chiefs Satru- "Kadambari mentions five modes of Mahasamanta and they were regained to saluting the king (Pranam-agamana) by serve in various ways. the defeated kings, who were certainly R.S. Sharma has mentioned servility reduced to the position of Samantas. of the people towards the barons, These included salute by bowing the landlords and officials in a very head, bowing the head and touching the distinguished manner, which establish feet of the emperor, bowing the head and richly deep rooted feudal approach. touching the plam of the feet of the Feudalization of ancient administration emperor by the defeated Samanta on his or policing those, who were granted head in the Harsacarita, and finally lands, were described as people living on placing the head on the earth near the the feet of the overlord. (Padopajivi or feet of the emperor135. According to the Padapadenopajivi). They are depicted as Agarwal Nos IV and V are covered by the lying bent and prostrate (Pranata). It term Sekhari-bhavantu-Pada-Raja- suggests an attitude of servility towards Rajamsi136. Similarly, the defeated kings, the king, the lord or the overlord144. Most apparently reduced to the position of the of the Lords or the overlords used to Samantas, were made to vender three discharge police and Judicial functions kinds of services to king in the court. also and those officials, who were They held chouries, as the conquered granted villages or lands they also were hostile vassal chiefs did in the court of supposed to behave in the similar fashion Harsa137. They served as door keepers in before the king and the same they used to the court by holding a road of cane in the get or expected from the people and hand138, and they sound as reciters of others below them. R.S. Sharma has auspicious words, uttering 'success' described, "sanded magnets heightened (Jaya)139. These three modes of serving by sense of self respect amounting to vanity, the defeated kings, (Patricariki-karana) who were considered the fountain head are enumerated by Bana in the of all favors developed a great sense of

30 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.) ego and created terms, indicating protectors of the king's subjects152. prestige and authority". He quoted Narada exempts the owners of horses Bhartrihari who says" a great person, and elephants on the ground that they even when he is in straitened are protectors of the subjects153. He circumstances, should behave according prescribes punishment to the owners of to his status." He adds that even a hungry horses, who deliberately allows animals lion does not eat straw145. Similarly age is to do so154. This also reveals that in the not considered superior to rank. We are Gupta period, the owners of elephants told that a lion's cub attacks, an elephant and horses, who were probably local and not a dog, or jackal, when he needs chiefs, were regarded as natural food146. protectors of people, a function which Samantas, living in the court, had to was earlier discharged by regular carry out certain social obligations also. officers of the state155. They took part in the various Narada lays down that those, who amusements such as gaming, dice- appease the king and prevents the playing, playing on the flute, drawing payment of taxes, should be dealt with by portraits of the king, solving puzzles similar people156. Such advice clearly etc147. Similarly their wives also had to indicates that officials under the direct attend the court on festive occasions148. central of the state, were incapable of Hence they (vassals) were liked with the dealing with certain powerful lords socially also. individuals who, in all probability, We learn from Megasthanese that in approximated to the status of feudal the Mauryan period no private person intermediaries157. The grants of the was allowed to keep either a horse, or an Gupta period from central India show elephant, for these animals were held to that the peasants had to render labor be the special property of the king149. service (visti) to their kings. The Strabo, further states that royal stables Vakataka and some other central Indian were provided for horses and elephants grants made by the feudatories of the and a royal magazine for arms, because Guptas state that villages granted to the soldier had to return his arms to the religious donees were made free from the magazine and his elephant to the imposition of forced labor158. These stables150. Since the number of elephants grants have been enumerated in Maity. and horses was considerable, kautilya The Economic life of Northern India in provides for the posts of superintendent Gupta period. The grants of Pravarasena of horses and elephants151. In the pre- II use the term Sarva-Visti158A. A Maurya and Maurya-periods horses, and Rashtrakuta copper-plate of the fifth elephants do not seem to have been century from Maharastra mentions the owned by private individuals. But this grant of an Agrahara free from all types monopoly was undermined in the Gupta of Ditya and Visti159. It is clear from all period. Narada lays down that owners of these that the ruling chief exacted labor elephants and horses should not pay any service in the Gupta period in central fine for mischief, caused by these and western India160. From the grants of animals, for they are looked upon as Valabhi from the last quarter of the sixth

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 31 century A.D., donees-right to forced varieties of dues and forced labor. The labor is made explicitly clear. A grant of use of forced labor for agriculture is Dharasena-I (of about 575) confers on the clearly indicated by the Kamasutra of religious grantee the right to impose Vatsyayana, according to whom such forced labor as occasion might arise161. labor was used not for the services of the The same exact exemption is granted by king but for those of the village headmen Siladitya-I, in his Charters of 605162. The and other officials also. Village headmen phrase used is S-otapadyamana-Visti, occupied a very significant official which is translated by Mirashi as with position and were rendering both the right to forced labor arising there revenue and police functions. The text from163 and of 610-11164. From the 2nd half suggests that in Gupta and post Gupta of the seventh century the technical times labor services were appropriated term, conveying the Donee's right to by the village headmen for their forced labor is frequently mentioned in comforts169. the Valabhi grants165, and even in grants According to it peasant women were made by lesser chiefs such as the compelled to perform unpaid work of Sendraka chief Allasakti (656) of various, nature, such as filling up the Gujarat166. The grantees could determine granaries of the village headmen, taking the occasion of utilization of such forced things in to or out of their house, clearing labor at their own discretion. or decorating their residence, working in The early law books required artisans their fields, and spinning yarn of cotton, to work for a day in a month for the king wool, flax or hemp for their clothes170. in lieu of taxes. It was similar to the R.S. Sharma views the inclusion of forced labor concept, though many working in the fields of the headman in scholars do not view it a forced labor. In the list of labor services cataloged here Mauryan times it was meant for the marks the beginning of an important Dasas and Karmakaras, who along with feudal practice, which would be all the Chavers, measurers, guards, weighters, more pervasive in villages transferred to supervisers of grinding etc. all engaged the donees with the right to labor in working in the store house, service171. It seems that during the Gupta constituted the class that provided the period the villages had to pay forced labor force167. The Vakataka, contributions of money or supplies to Rashtrakuta, and the Calukya records royal troops and officials when they indicate that the practice was extended halted at, or passed through the to the western part of central India, village172, which can be likened to the tax Maharashtra and parts of Karnataka. known as Senabh-akta in the Forced labor assumed a wide magnitude Arthasasthra of Kautilya173. Further in central India, where it came to be they had to furnish cattle in relays for known by the term Sarvavisti168. Some transport174. They were also under the grants from western India of the fourth obligation of supplying flowers and milk and fifth centuries, dated in the to the royal officers on tour174A. These kalachuri-Cedi era, use the term forced contributions were designed to Sarvaditya-visti168A, which means all meet the needs of the army and the state.

32 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.)

The judicial and administrative some sort of organization, for their authority, which the donees enjoyed, leaders were known as vargins.184 All must have added to their economic there reasons may have undermined the power over the inhabitant of the institution of slavery. Fragmentation of village175. The servitude of the peasants land through the process of partition and can be felt by their transfer to gift was the main contributory factor to beneficiaries. Fahien clearly states that this development. Laws of inheritance, monasteries built for the monks were mentioned in the law books of Manu and furnished with houses, gradens and Yajnavalkya, did not mention the fields, with husbandmen and cattle to partition of landed property. For the first cultivate them176. Obviously the time it is mentioned in the codes of inhabitants were bound to serve the Narada185 and Brahaspati.186 It suggests donors as long as they lived under them that in the middle or towards the end of and to serve the beneficiaries, when they Gupta period large joint families, owning transferred to the latter. Megasthenese large stretches of land, began to break in stated that there were no slaves in India. to a smaller units.187 Kulyavapa was a There were some male slaves in the little larger than an acre, according to seventh century. R.S. Sharma writes Pargiter.188 One Kulya was equal to eight that "there are some indications that Dronas on this basis a Dronapa will be from the Gupta period the number of even less than two acres.189 S.K. Maity slaves engaged in production declined, holds that the Kulyavapa was between and the Sudras became increasingly free them. A survey of land grants made by the from the obligation to serve as slaves177". Maitraka rulers of Valabhi in Gujarat Kautilya's provisions for manumission of shows that the average plot of land did slaves generally apply to those who are not exceed two or three acres in size.190 born of Aryan parents, or are Aryans The Vaisyas were peasant, recurs in themselves178. But Yaznavalkya the literature of post Maurya and Gupta invisages a revolutionary principle when times.191 In the Amarkosa words for he asserts that nobody can be reduced to cultivators are listed in the Vaisya- slavery without consent179. According to Varga (Section).192 But later on Sudras a later commentary this means that a also are believed to become peasant in Sudra, a Kshatriya, or a Vaishya good number. Several law books show employed in servile work against his that the land was rented out to the will, shall be released by the king180. Thus Sudras for half the crop.193 Narada Yajnavalkya completely reverses Manu's includes the Kinasa (peasant) among precept, which provides for the forcible those, who are not fit to be examined as enslavement of a sudra181. Narada and witnesses.194 A commentator of the Brhaspati Strongly deprecate the seventh century A.D.195 explains this attitude of the wretch who, being term as Sudra,196 which shows that the independent, sells himself.182 Narada peasants were thought of as Sudras. lays down detailed ceremonies for the Brahaspati provides very severe emancipation of slaves.183 A passage of corporal punishment for the Sudra, who Katyayana implies that the slaves had acts as a leader in boundary disputes

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 33 relating to fields,197 which again suggests of the villages had got an autonomous that such Sudras were owners of fields. character and they were also Hsuann Tsang describes the Sudras as a simultaneously feudalised. class of agriculturists,198 a description, Emergence of local units in existence which is confirmed by the Narsimha is also evident from the paucity of coins of Purana,199 compiled before the tenth common use from the Gupta period century A.D. Hence the view that the onwards. It led to sharp decline of farmer population was largely composed internal trade and the consequent of Sudras,200 seems to be more true of the necessity of producing local commodities Gupta and post Gupta periods than of to meet local needs. The colonizing and earlier times. Thus from the point of view large scale commercial activities during of the rise of feudalism, the the early medieval period were confined transformation of Sudras from the to the enterprising people of the coastal position of slaves and hired laborers in to area, and do not seem to have brought any that of agriculturists, should be regarded substantial change in the economy of the as a factor of great significance.201 interior.203 Method of paying officials by For continuity and development of grants of revenue or in kind indicates their economy the beneficiaries were sufficiently gradual weakening of the more dependent on the local artisans and power of the center, leading to cultivators than on the officials of the feudalization of policing and central government. They were entitled administrative agencies. for all kinds of local dues, a part of which Emergence of feudal structure is they were investing in local evidently proved by the detailed rules understandings. The main idea behind laid down in the law books, regarding the tying down the peasants to the fields they functioning of the corporate bodies of cultivated, was to preserve to self artisans and traders. Decline of central sufficient village economy. authority is also proved from the fact that According to the Kamasutra of the king is required not only to observe Vatsyayana, the village headman might the laws of the guilds but also to enforce compel peasant women not only to work them. It is coroborated by the views in his fields but also to spin yarn, so that expressed by Brahaspati, who enjoins his clothes might be supplied to him the king to approve of whatever is done locally.202 Some of the commodities, by the heads of the guilds whether harsh produced, were also put on sale, or kind towards other people.204 The apparently to cater for the simple needs traders are required to pay to the state a of the villagers.202A Hence the central number of frontier taxes, customs and control on trade and commerce of the sales tax, but in return they are allowed Mauryan state regulations was given immunity from the entry of royal official way to the management of these offers by in their area and the payment of dues and the chiefs of local production units. It is rations for supporting royal officials. 205 clear from these economic diversions The guilds of the merchants were free to that the local police and revenue officers manage their affairs, according to the

34 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.) two charters issued by Bhogasakti, the important function of the sovereign Chalukya king of the Konan area, in the power.210 Similarly the issue of seals by beginning of the eighth century A.D. Nalanda villages, which glorify They were instructed to supervise themselves as Janapadas even in Gupta annual religious processions and were times,211 indicates that they were exempted from payment of tolls and emerging not only as politically rations for royal officers.206 In another a independent but economically, self deserted town was resettled and granted sufficient units. along with three neighbouring villages to The Agraharas or villages granted to two merchants, who were assigned a brahamanas bear some resembalance to kind of municipal Carter, and these manors, for in some cases the merchants were exempted from tolls beneficiaries enjoyed the right of laying through out the kingdom of Bhogasakti in forced labor of all Varieties on their perpetuity, and the crown had neither tenants. Keeping in view the wide scope the right to confiscate their property, if of forced labor, it appears that the village they died sonless, nor could royal headman, who compelled peasant officials enter their houses and demand women to work in his fields and allowances and provisions.207 Of course, residences was developing as a manorial fines were to be imposed on the lord.212 It is not possible to indicate with merchants, guilty of sexual and physical precision the hierarchical stages in the offences, but the decision rested with feudal organization, or the exact relation eight or sixteen senior men of the between Samanta, Uparika, Bhogika, town.207A The merchants enjoyed Pratihara, Dandanayaka etc. The practically the same immunities and appearance of a large number of privileges as were enjoyed by priests and hereditary intermediaries tended to perhaps by some feudal barons in the reduce many of the free peasantry to a villages granted to them. These Charters semi-servile status by the end of the led to the feudalization of merchant by Gupta period, C.A.D. 500. The turning them in to some kind of landed abandonment of fiscal and criminal intermediaries.208 administration to the religious The guild seems to have been beneficiaries, the beginning of authorised to levy taxes, varying remuneration in revenues to officials, according to the status of the house growth of obligation of Samantas, holder, to realize fines for theft and restriction on the moments of peasants, minor delinquencies and for the ten artisans and merchants, the transfer of offences, and to escheat the property of peasant, all these constitute certain childless persons.209 The practice of broad features of feudalization of state issuing coins by the Nigams during the administration including the policing of post Maurya and Gupta periods, seems this period. Most of the officials behaved to provide further evidence of the rise of like the lords and they were exploiting self sufficient economic units. This the general masses like the land lords. accelerated the process of political They too were taking free labour from the disintegration, for issuing coins was an male and female of the villagers as a free

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 35 gift for their domestic works. So it can be 21. Nar., Appastamba Dharma Sutra-18, fully accepted that the Indian Police and Katyayan on Vyavahara, P. V. Kane, page- general administration were under 844. feudal behavioral grip. Its deep 22. As. 2, 6, 4, 13. continuous impact has not freed even 23. Indian Antiquary, XV, p-364 now the feudal behavioural attitude of high civil and police officers and they are 24. E1, XIV, P-156. seen with contemptuous eyes by the 25. Ibid, XI, P-6. people and junior subordinates. 26. I. A. XV, P-156. References 27. E1. XIV, P-156. 1. Encyclopadia of Social Sciences, XI-XII, P-185. 28. Ibid, XI, P.6, Quoted in Sukla Das, op. cit page 87. 2. Manu, VII, 14, 18, 22, Matsya, 227, 9. 29. Yaj, 11, 271, Kat, quoted in Apararka, 3. Sukra, IV, Sect.-6. p-844, Ibid.

4. Yaj., II. 269-71. 30. E.L. XIX, P-69 f, Ibid.

5. Arthashastra. 11.36. 31. B. N. Puri, The Gurujara Partiharas, Bombay, 1957, p-111. 6. A. S. Altekar, the Rashtrakutas, p-259. 32. R.t. VII 951. 7. Epigraphic India, XI, p-40. 33. Ibid, tr. by R. S. Pandit. 8. Manu VII. 114. 34. EL., VII, App. No. 291, 292, 296. 9. Indian Antiquary, 1911, p-111. 35. C.I.I, III, pp 213, 216. 10. Abhijnan Shakuntalam IV. 36. Proceedings of I.H.C., Aligarh, p-90, quoted 11. Sak. VI. by Sukla Das, cit op page-87.

12. D. C. Ryder, P-85. 37. E.L. VI, p-92, C.I.I.III, p-10.

13. Ibid, p-196. 38. I.A, V-49.

14. Ibid, 129, 178. 39. C.11, 3, p-10, EL. VI, 92.

15. Ibid, Page-63. 40. E.I., XX, P-1 ff.

16. Malavikagnimtra, V. 41. Brah., 72.4.

17. Abhi. Shak, VI. 42. R.C. Majumadar, and A.S. Altekar, the Vakataka, Gupta Age, Lahore1946, p-264, 18. Life, p-191. Quoted by Sukla Das, in Crime quoted by Sukla Das-Ibid, p-87. and Punishment in Ancient India, Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, p-85. 43. A.S.I, 1903-04, P-108.

19. Amarkosha, 11, 8, 13. 44. E.I.II, P-323, IV P-253, IX, PP 1-10, XI, P-86, XII, P-9, XIX(1), P-55 ff, I.A., XV, P-187, 304. 20. As. 1, 13, 4, 43.

36 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.)

45. Mudra, 1.22. 73. E.I., IV., p-253.

46. Y.C., P-50. 74. R.C. Majumdar, ed., History of Bengal-I, Dacca 1943, p-286. 47. K.S.S., Taranga, 4. 75. R.T., IV., 142. 48. E.L., XIII, P-339. 76. R.C. Majumdar, History of Bengal, pp.278, 49. C. 1.1.III, pp-213, 216. 286.

50. I.A., XV, P-304. 77. E.I., IV., P-250.

51. E.I.X VIII, P-321. 78. Ibid. XXII, P. 156.

52. Ibid, XVII, P-321, I.A., XV, P-304 79. Amar, 11, 8.13.

53. E.I., IV, P-211. 80. E.I., XXXVI, P. 199.

54. I.A, XV, P-304., 306, E.I., XVII, P-310, 321. 81. The writings of Kosambi, Sharma and Romila Thapar generally give an idea of 55. E.I., XII, P-9 changes in early Indian Society. Specific 56. R.T., VII, 591, VIII. 640. mention of their following writings, however, may be made: Kosambi, Early 57. E.I. III, P-323, The Ganesagad, plates of Stages of the Caste System in Northern Dhruvasena I, 526-27 A.D. India.; JBBRAS, XXII (1946). 33-48, idem, Ancient Kosal and Magadha, Ibid, XXVII 58. Beni Prasad,The State in Ancient India, p-192. (1951), 180-213, idem, The Basis of Ancient Indian Hostory, JAOS, LXXXV 59. E.I.III, pp 258, 261, IV, PP. 208, 211, XIV, (1955), 35-45, 226-37. R.S. Sharma, P.156, C.I.I., III, P-106. Aspects of Polictical Ideas and Institutuions in Ancient India (2nd . Edn. 60. E.I., XI, P. 221. Delhi, 1968), chapters-XVII and XVIII, 61. Yaj., 1.336. idem, Perspectives in Social and Economic History of Early India, Delhi, 1983, chap. 9 62. Brah, quoted in Apararka, p-792.. and 10, Indian Feudalism, Macmilan, 2003, Early Medieval Indian Society, 63. H.C.NS. P, PP. 242, 249, E.I., XI, P.176. Orient Longman 2003, Romila Thapar;s articles focusing on social change in early 64. C.I.I. III, PP, 242,249, E.I. XI, P.176. India,compiled in Ancient Indian social 65. C. II, III, p.158. History, Delhi, 1978, ef. D.N. Jha, Social Change in Ancient India. Economic and 66. E.I. IV, PP.208,211. Political Weekly, XIV. No. 31 (1st Septermber 1979, 1499-500). 67. I bid, XI P. 306. 82. D.N. Jha, The Feudal Order, Manohar, 68. I.A., XV, P.306. Delhi, 2002, page-02.

69. R.T., VIII, 26.18. 83. D.D. Kosambi, An introduction to the Study of Indian History, Bombay, 1956, page, 70. Lokaprakash, IV. 275-76

71. I.A., V.P.-,207. 84. R.S. Sharma, A Survey of Land System in India c.200 B.C. to A.D. 650, JBRS, XIIV 72. Sak., VI, D.C. Ryder, p-96. (1968). 225-34, R.S. Sharma and D.N. Jha,

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 37 Economic History of India up to A.D.1200, 104. Epigraphia India, Culcutta and Delhi, II, trends and Prospect, JESHO, XVII, PT, 1, 29,1,19. 1974, page, 48-80. 105. R.S. Sharma, Cit.op, P-9. 85. D.N. Jha, op. cit. pages-3. 106. R.S. Sharma, Ibid, page-12. 86. R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, Macmilan India LTD. Second Edition, page-2. 107. Corpus Inscriptum Indicarum. I-III. London, 1888-1928, IV, Ovtacamund, 87. R.S. Sharma, Ibid page-2 Select 1955, (C-II) III, 23, 11, 18,20,26,11,22-3. Inscription, I.D.C. Sircar, Calcutta, 1942. 108. C-II, 26, 22-3. 88. Select Inscription I, P.P. 192, 194-5, Quoted by R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, page-2. 109. Sel. Insc. P-360, 11,3-4.

89. Select Inscription-I, D.C. Sircar, Calcutta, 110. Ibid, p-360, fn. 9. 1942, quted by R.S. Sharma, Ibid p-2. 111. Harsacarita. Bana, p-212. This probably 90. R.S. Sharma, Politico legal Aspects of the shows the bias of Bana against the Caste System, JBRS, XXXIX, p-325. peasants.

91. C-ii corpus Incriptionum Indicanun, I III, 112. Binayak Mishra, Medieval Dynasties of London, 1888-1929, iv, quoted by R.S. Orissa, p.p. 24-5, Inscr. No.-1. Sharma, Ibid page-3. 113. V.S. Agarwal, Kadambari, p-103. 91A. Ibid. 114. C-II, IV, 1, 3, 1, 4, 18, 1, 9. 92. Ibid, III, 189-90 115. Ibid, Introd, p-exli. 93. R.S. Sharma, Ibid page-4 116. C-II, III, Ibid, II, 3-4. 94. R.S. Sharma, Ibid p-4 117. Ibid page-16. 95. Cit-Ibid, III, 55, quoted by R.S. Sharma, Ibid page-5. 118. Antarv-Vedyam Bhog-adhivrddhaye Varttamane, ibid, II, 4-5. 96. Ibid, 11, 39-43, Ibid. 119. C-II, II, 11, 1-3. 97. R.S. Sharma, Ibid pages-8. 120. R.S. Sharma Ibid, page-17. 98. Arthasastra, V-3 121. Sel. Insc., pp 282-3, II, 6-7, c-II, III, 6, 11-3-4. 98A. Albid 122. Ibid pp-18. 99. Manu, VIII, 115-20.

100. Quoted in Vyavaharamayukha, Tr. P.V. 123. Dikshitar, the Gupta Polity, pp. 149-50. Kane and S.G. Patwardhan, P.P. 25-7. 124. Sel. Insc., p-284, 1.3, 1-3, p-224, 1,2,p. 101. A. Rccord of Buddistic Kingdom, p-5, 328,1.2 quoted by R.S. Sharma, Ibid page-9. 125. R.S. Sharma, ibid, page-17-18. 102. Travels of Fahien, P-55. 126. R.B. Pandey, Historical and Literary 103. Watters, On-yuan Chwang's Travels in Inscriptions, 56.1.50. India, p-176. 127. R.B. Pandey, Ibid, 31.47-8.

38 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Feudalization of Ancient Indian Police Organization (300 A.D. to 750 A.D.)

128. C-II, IV, 16.1.31. 151. A.S.II.30-2.

129. El. XXVIII. 34; plate A. 11-12, plate B; 1-16. 152. Narada, IX.32.CF.30.

130. Kama Sutra. V. 5.5, quoted by R.S. sharma, 153. Narada, XI.32. Ibid page 18-19. 154. Nar, XV, XVI.32. 131. Markandeya Purana, p, 49.49; M.N. Dutta's tr. of this passage seems to be 155. R.S. Sharma, cited above, p-26. better than that of Pargiter, R.S. Sherma 156. Nar, X.4.5, and 7. Ibid, page-19. 157. R.S. Sharma, ibid page-28. 132. Karadikrta Mahasamanta, Harsacarita, p-217, quoted by R.S. Sharma, ibid 21. 158. C-II, IV Intro, P-C-IXXI.

133. Agarwal, Harsacarita, p-217. 158A. Ibid.

134. R.S. Sharma, Ibid p-21. 159. M.G. Dikshit (ed), Selected Inscriptions 135. Agarwal, Kadambari, p-128. from Maharashtra, p-8.

136. Ibid, p-128. 160. R.S. Sharma, cited above. P-39.

137. Harsa Carita, p-60. 161. EI,XI, 80.

138. Harsacarita, p-194. 162. IA, VI.P-12, 1.6.

139. Agarwal, Kadambari, pp-127-8. 163. C-II, IV.89.

140. Agarwal, ibid, pp-127-8. 164. EI, XI, 17, 1.26.

141. Harsacarita, p-60. 165. Ibid, XXI, 18, 125.

142. Harsacatita p-45. 166. CII, IV, 21.1.27. IA, VI.12.

143. Harsacarita, page-167. 167. AS, II-15.

144. R.S. Sharma, Early Medieval Indian 168. EI, XXIV, 10.1.23. The term is commonly Society, Orient Longman, page-278-79. used in the grants of Pravarasena II.

145. Bhartrihari Nitisatakam, Verses-23-24. 168A. Ibid.

146. Ibid, Verse 32, quoted by R.S. Sharma in 169. R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, cit-above, op. cit book page-279. page-41.

147. Agarwal, Kadambari, p-100. 170. Vatsyayana, Kamasutra, V, 5.5.

148. II.C.P-143. 171. R.S. Sharma, Ibid, page-42.

149. Strebo, XV. 41-43, Mc Crindle, Ancient 172. A-Bhata-Chatra-pravesya.cII, III, P-98 India as described by Megasthenese and FR.2. Arrian, p-90. 173. AS, II.1.5. 150. Strabo. XV. 52 Mc Crindle, Ancient India, as Described in Classical literature p-55. 174. A-parampara-go-Balivardda. EI, XXVII, 16,1.29.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 39 174A. Ibid. 194. Narada I.181.

175. R.S. Sharma Cit-above, p-43. 195. H.C.I.P. III, 299.

176. Chinese Literature, 1956,3,153. 196. Asahaya's comm. to Nar. 1.181.

177. R.S. Sharma, ibid, page-18. 197. Brahspati, XIV.6.

178. AS, III. 13. 198. Watters, on Yuan Chwang's Travels in ndia, 1.168. 179. Yazn II. 182. 199. Narsimha Puran, 58-10-15. 180. Cole Brooke, Miseellaneous Essayas, II, 23. 200. CHI, 1, 268.

181. Katya, V-722 repeats the dictum of Manu. 201. R.S. Sharma, ibid, page-51.

182. Nar. V.37, Br. XV. 23 Cf. Kane II. DS, II,182. 202. Vatsyayana, Kamasutra V. 5.5.

183. Nar. V. 42-43-cf. rules of Manu-Mission in 202A. Ibid. Katya,V-75. Nar. however, adds that certain classes of slaves can not be 203. Quoted by R.S. Sharma, Indian Feudalism, emancipated, Nar.V.29, except by the favor ibid, page, 53. of the owner. 204. Br, XVII. 18. 184. Katya. V. 350. 205. El, XXX, 1.6. 185. Narada. XII. 38. 206. C11, iv, 31.11.25-49, 56-62. 186. Brahaspati XXVI. 10.28., 43, 53 and 64. 207. Ibid, 32.11.27-28. 187. R.S. Sharma, ibid, page-49. 207A. Ibid. 188. II-XXXIX, 215-16. 208. R.S. Sharma, Ibid page-58. 189. History of Bengal, 1.652.

190. K.J. Virji, Ancient History of Saurashtra, 209. El XIV, 190. pp-246-7, 267ff. 210. R.S. Sharma Indian Feudalism, page-59. 191. Santiparva, 60, 24-6, 92-2. 211. Majumdar and Altekar, The Vakaataka- 192. Amarkosa II.9.6. Gupta Age, page-267.

193. Manu, IV. 253, Visnu, I.VII.16. Yaj, I.166. 212. R.S. Sharma, Ins. Page-59.

40 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Women, Violence Key Words : Violence against women, International and Related Rights Instruments on women’s rights, Crimes against women, Women’s Rights, Trends In Crimes against in India: women. Sexual harassment. Domestic Violence, A Situational Contemporary legal initiatives. Abstract : Analysis While, the Constitution of the Republic of India guarantees, besides other rights, protection of life Dr. P. Madhava Soma Sundaram * and personal liberty and provides adequate safeguards against the arbitrary deprivation thereof by the State and others. for women, in Introduction India. there is no dearth of human rights violations against them. Apart from the While human right as a concept that constitution at the National level, there is a has been constantly tinkered, tampered plethora of United Nations documents on and fiddled with quite frequently, the fact protecting the rights of children and women. at is it has been evolving throughout human International level, applicable to India as well. . history. They have been intricately tied Also, if crimes against women, committed in India, to the laws, customs and religions are to be considered as an indicator of rights throughout the ages. Human rights are violations, this paper makes a situational analysis rights possessed by people simply as, and of violations against women and children in India because they are human beings. The term with a tight focus on the various forms of crimes. The study highlights that there is an increase of has only come into common currency 29.24% of incidences of crimes against Women during the 20th century. Throughout from 1995 to 2002.Focussing on the forms of much of history, people acquired rights violations this study reports that in the year 2002. and responsibilities through their Torture was the common crime against women membership in a group -a family, with 33.3%, and the other forms of crime were indigenous Nation, religion, class, .Molestation (23%), Rape (11.1), Kidnapping &: community, or State. Most societies have Abduction (9.8%), and Sexual harassment (6.9%). had traditions similar to the “golden This paper takes a peep into the salient features, rule” of “Do unto others as you would the protection mechanisms envisaged in the have them do unto you.” The Hindu various United Nations Covenants, and analyzes the existing situation in India. Vedas, the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the Bible, the Quran (Koran), and the analects of Confucius are five of the oldest written sources, which address questions of people’s duties, rights, and responsibilities. Documents asserting individual rights, * Head, Department of Criminology & such the Magna Carta (1215), the English Criminal Justice, Manonmaniam Bill of Rights (1689), the French Sundaranar University, Tirunelveli- Declaration on the Rights of Man and 627 012, Tamil Nadu

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 41 Citizen (1789), and the US Constitution The Human Rights Covenants: A and Bill of Rights (1791) are the written preamble precursors to many of today’s human With the goal of establishing rights documents. Yet many of these mechanisms for enforcing the UDHR, the documents, when originally translated UN Commission on Human Rights into policy, excluded women, people of proceeded to draft two treaties: the color, and members of certain social, International Covenant on Civil and religious, economic, and political groups. Political Rights (ICCPR) and its optional Nevertheless, oppressed people Protocol and the International Covenant throughout the world have drawn on the on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights principles these documents express, to (ICESCR). Together with the Universal support revolutions that assert the right Declaration, they are commonly referred to self-determination. to as the International Bill of Human The Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The ICCPR focuses on such Rights (UDHR), commonly referred to as issues as the right to life, freedom of speech, religion, and voting. The the international Magna Carta of human ICESCR focuses on such issues as food, rights, extended the revolution in education, health, and shelter. Both international law ushered in by the covenants trumpet the extension of United Nations Charter -namely, that rights to all persons and prohibit how a government treats its own citizens discrimination. The area of human is now a matter of legitimate Rights encompasses and overlaps many international concern, and not simply a disciplines like Law, Medicine, domestic issue. It claims that all rights Sociology, History, Criminology and are interdependent and indivisible. Its Justice Professionals. There have been Preamble eloquently asserts that: extensive researches in this area and Recognition of the inherent dignity they have been carefully documented. and of the equal and inalienable rights of (See: Gandhi, 2000: Alfredsson, 1999; all members of the human family is the Shelton 1999; Johnson & Symonides, foundation of freedom, justice, and peace 1998; Lawson, 1996; Brownlie, 1981). As in the world. of 1997, over 130 nations have ratified these covenants. The influence of the UDHR has been substantial. Its principles have been In addition to the covenants in the incorporated into the constitutions of International Bill of Human Rights, the most of the more than 185 nations, now in United Nations has adopted more than the UN, including India. Although a 20 principal treaties further elaborating human rights. These include conventions declaration is not a legally binding to prevent and prohibit specific abuses document, the Universal Declaration has like torture and genocide and to protect achieved the status of customary especially vulnerable populations, such international law because people regard as refugees (Convention Relating to the it ‘’as a common standard of Status of Refugees, 1951), women achievement”.

42 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Women, Violence and Related Rights in India : A Situational Analysis

(Convention on the’ Elimination of All discrimination against women and sets Forms of Discrimination against Women, up an agenda for national action to end 1979), and children (Convention on the such discrimination. Rights of the Child, 1989). The Convention defines discrimination against women as UN Conventions related to women “...any distinction, exclusion or There are about five international restriction made on the basis of sex which covenants related to women and related has the effect or purpose of impairing or issues. These covenants are: nullifying the recognition, enjoyment or ● Convention on Political rights exercise by women, irrespective of their of women (1954) marital status, on a basis of equality of men and women, of human rights and ● Convention on the nationality of fundamental freedoms in the political, married women (1958) economic, social, cultural, civil or any other field.” ● Convention on the consent of marriage, minimum age of By accepting the Convention, States marriage age registration of commit themselves to undertake a series marriages (1964) of measures to end discrimination against women in all forms, including: ● Convention on the elimination ● To incorporate the principle of of all forms of discrimination equality of men and women in against women (1979) their .legal system, abolish all ● Optional Protocol to the discriminatory laws and adopt Convention on the elimination appropriate ones prohibiting of all form$ of discrimination discrimination against women; against women (2000) ● To establish tribunals and other Of these documents instruments, the public institutions to ensure the Convention on the elimination of all effective .protection of women forms of discrimination against women against discrimination; and gains importance in the Indian context, ● To ensure elimination of all acts as well as in many other countries. of discrimination against women by persons, The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of organizations or enterprises. Discrimination against Women The Convention provides the basis (CEDAW) (1979) for realizing equality between women Adopted in 1979 by the UN General and men through ensuring women’s Assembly, is often described as an equal access to, and equal opportunities international bill of rights for women. in, political and public life -including the Consisting of a preamble and 30 articles, right to vote and to stand for election as it defines what constitutes well as education, health and

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 43 employment. States parties agree to take female child grows up with a constant all appropriate measures, including sense of being weak and in need of legislation and temporary special protection, whether physical social or measures, so that women can enjoy all economic. This helplessness, forced by their human rights and fundamental the society and its culture, has led to her freedoms. exploitation at almost every stage of life. The Convention is the only human The family socializes its members to rights treaty, which affirms the accept hierarchical relations expressed reproductive rights of women and in unequal division of labour between the targets culture and tradition as sexes and power over the allocation of influential forces shaping gender roles resources. and family relations. It affirms women’s While there are many feminist rights to acquire, change or retain their explanations for the violence committed nationality and the nationality of their against women [see: Ahmad (1989), children. States parties also agree to Bethke Elshtain (1995), Bhabha (1996), take appropriate measures against all Binion (1995), Cook (1994), Nicholson forms of traffic in women and (1990), Peters et al., (1995), Rao, (1995)], exploitation of women. some concentrated on specific groups Countries that have ratified or like the women in the Muslim world, acceded to the Convention are legally (Afkhami, 1995), poverty stricken women bound to put its provisions into practice. (Beneria and Feldman, 1992), women in They are also committed to submit the third world countries national reports, at least every four (Charlton,1984), women’s health and years, on measures they have taken to their rights (Cook 1994), women in the Justice system (Maraskin, 1999), women, comply with their treaty obligations. Governance & Human Rights Why Violence Against Women? (Sadasivam, 1997), women in the war torn areas (Vickers, 1993), and women in Violence against women is partly a the indigenous societies (Vinding,1998). result of gender relations that, wrongly” Ahuja (1998) noting the rise in violence assumes men to be superior to women. against women attempts to answer Such assumptions are not only a fact in questions regarding the nature of and India, but also form a basis in many other causes for violence against women, if any countries of the world. Given the theoretical analysis could be offered subordinate status of women, much of explaining the etiology of violence and gender violence is considered normal the effectiveness of women’s groups in and enjoys social sanction. With different tackling issues of sexual exploitation and processes of socialization that men and .harassment of women. women undergo, men take up Considerable amount of literature stereotyped gender roles of domination has been generated in India on women and control, whereas women are forced and their rights. Some studies have to take’ up that of submission, focused on the marginal position dependence and respect for authority. A occupied by the Indian woman in the

44 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Women, Violence and Related Rights in India : A Situational Analysis society and also in the political process historical and socio-economic roots. The due to socio-economic constraints and issue includes economic and sociological the probable role of women in the context explanations, geographical distributions of the 73 rd Amendment Act (Mishra, of dowry deaths, legal strategies to curb 1997). The role of gender equality in dowry and its effective implementation, decision making bodies (Narayana, and the increase in the incidence of 1998), the issue of gender and law reform dowry related violence .among Sikhs and with reference to the politics and history Gujratis settled in Britain. . on India (Agnes, 1999; Kishwar, 1999), The offence of Dowry is prohibited in about the girl child and their status in India by a special Law,” The dowry India (Lalitha 1996, Mita, 1999), sex Prohibition Act of 1961. The Act was determination tests and unwanted introduced in the Parliament with the daughters (Madhu 1995), and abortion object “to prohibit the evil practice of and reproductive rights (Raju & Bhatt giving “& taking dowry”. The Act was 1997; Lal 1996). Some social practices, in amended in 1984 and 1986. The 1986 India, directly violate special rights of amendment introduced new sections 8-A women and lead to specific crimes and 8-B. Under sec 8-A, the burden of against women. They are: proving that one has not committed the ● Dowry offence is on the person charged. ● Widowhood However, the Supreme Court (AIR1996 SC 2186) has held that conviction cannot ● Gender harassment be based on such presumptions without ● Wife abuse offence being proved beyond reasonable ● Sati doubt. ● Infanticide Rape ● Bigamy ● Molestation While rape is one of the serious forms of violence against a woman, it is also one ● Cruelty by Husband & his relatives. of the most frequently committed violence ● Kidnapping & Abduction against women. NCRB (2004) statistics ● Rape show that 44 women are raped in a day; ● Dowry Death and 1 woman is raped every 32 minutes, in India. New Delhi continues the dubious ● Indecent representation of women distinction of not being a women-friendly ● Importation of Girls city in India, with the numero uno position ● Under-age mothers as far as the rape incidences are considered. This is partly due the fact that Dowry there exists a low conviction rate for rape Focusing on dowry, Menski (1998), cases. Of the 300 cases heard in 2004, only suggests dowry is treated not only as a 70 have resulted in convictions of the matter of criminal or property law, but accused (TOI, 2004). This is partly due to also as a complex phenomenon with the fact that, the victims themselves

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 45 turned hostile in 200 cases. In 70 % of the Under-Age Mothers: A Growing victims turned hostile fearing Trend humiliation in court (TOI, 2004). In Child labour in India, may now several cases the victim turned acquire a whole new meaning -children untraceable & did not show any interest to in labour for delivery of babies. Close to 3 appear before the courts. This situation of lakhs girls under the age of 15 are not low conviction emboldens the rapists & only married, but also already borne there is an increase in rape (TOI, 2004). children, once. The following are the statistics (census 2001) Widows: A unique Social Problem ● 15 lakh girls under 15 years of Chen (1998) in the study of the status age are married and condition of widows as a marginalized group of Indian society, ● 20 % of these, 3 lakhs, have at explored the ideological construction of least one child widowhood in India, including patriarchal constructs, the practice of ● 74,082 (Under 15s) in urban levirate and property rights under areas have 1 child, 43,151 have 2 customary and modern statutory law. children The following aspects needs to be ● 2.7 lakhs (under 24) have 7 or considered along with widowhood, like more children each property rights, social security, employment and social identity based on case studies of actual practice and Women & Workplace: Gaining individual histories. This study also Momentum provides a framework for analysis of Taking cognizance of the increasing widowhood in India, which includes number of women in the total workforce concepts such as Patrilocality, of countries of the world and the Patrilineal Inheritance, Remarriage consequent emerging patterns of social Practices, Employment Restrictions, interaction views the work place as a new Maintenance and Social Isolation. domain of conflict in the ‘running battle Considering Widow remarriage, of the sexes’. Sikri (1999) presents a Chowdhary (1994) explores the comprehensive profile of the working apparently progressive practice of force in India drawing upon data from widow remarriage in the state of decennial Censuses, National sample Haryana in India, which has several surveys and small-scale socio-economic possible repressive aspects, including surveys. This study includes women’s forcible remarriage into mismatched and occupational profile as well as the social undesirable alliances, polygamy and mores and family values that determine being deprived of inheritance rights. behavioral patterns specifically in the Widow remarriage in its levirate form is workplace. These survey results are popular among the landowning classes as analyzed for a further interpretation of it emanates out of the desire to retain the components of sexual harassment landed property within the family. and male-female relationship in the

46 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Women, Violence and Related Rights in India : A Situational Analysis workplace. Working women’s search for Crimes Against Women In India: A identity is also addressed in the context Situational Analysis of the traditional pattern of gender and A look of comparative statistics from sexual exploitation. In another study of 1995 to 2002, of violence/crimes against Sexual Harassment, Madhu (1992), women, is provided by the Government focuses on the more insidious and of India (NCRB 2002). Fig 2 reveals this routine forms of sexual harassment, detail and from this figure it can be seen women have to deal with. when they step that the incidence of crimes against into the world to earn a livelihood or take Women and the rate has been constantly part in social, political and educational increasing over the years. From the activities. Also, sexual slander is used as figure it can be seen that there is an a weapon to keep women in a perpetual increase of 29.24 % of incidences of state of fear, the fear of losing izzat crimes against Women from 1995 to 2002. (honour) in a way that can affect a Also the positive slope in the line graph woman’s very chance of survival and suggests that the trend for the future result in loss of family, job and being a years will be increasing in the future social outcaste. years also. Social Action (1993) in its study Figure 2 gives the different forms portrayed the exploitation of domestic committed against woman, in India in the women workers. It emphasizes that the year 2002. From this figure it can be seen structure of the family affects that Torture is very high at 33.3 % exploitation directly as well as indirectly followed by other forms of crime, like while stay with the employer results in Molestation (23%), Rape (11.1 %), direct exploitation.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 47 Kidnapping & Abduction (9.8 %), year prison term for the culprit. Immoral Traffic Prevention Act (7.6 %), According to section 498 A of IPC Sexual Harassment (6.9 %), Dowry Death “cruelty (both mental & physical) by (4.6 %), Dowry Prohibition Act (1.9 %), the husband or his family towards his Other forms of crimes against women wife includes (1.8 %). ● Conduct that is likely to drive the Violence against women and women to suicide Legislations in India: ● Causes her grave hurt or danger Contemporary Initiatives. to life or limb a) Domestic Violence ● Harassment to force her to hand over property or other valuables Indian Penal Code (IPC) continues to be a major source of protection of women ● Harassment because the women experiencing violence in India. Sec 498 A, does not agree to an unlawful introduced into the Indian Penal Code demand”. three decades ago, gives recognition to As per this law, the forms of cruelty the ugly reality of domestic violence recognized by courts in India, include against a wife. The section makes cruelty by a husband or his family towards a ● Persistent denial of food married woman a cognizable and non- ● Perverse sexual conduct bailable offence and can result in a three-

48 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Women, Violence and Related Rights in India : A Situational Analysis

● Locking a women out of the c) Initiatives by Supreme Court of house India The Apex Court in India has sought to ● Denying a women access to her redefine the concept of marriage in India, children thereby causing with some recent judgments on mental torture matrimonial disputes in certain Hindu households. The width of the ● Taunting a women maintenance law has been enlarged so as ● Confining her to the house to bring in its ambit illegal marriages also. Once a marriage is declared illegal ● Abusing the children in front of or void under the Hindu Marriage Act, her Neither of the spouses could claim maintenance. The law was to an extent ● Threatening divorce unless beneficial to the husband. In the recent dowry demand is met initiatives the Supreme Court has ruled that a bigamous marriage may be illegal ● Litigational Cruelty in Law, it cannot be held to be immoral foe as to deny maintenance to an affected b) Domestic Violence Bill spouse, financially weak and economically dependant. This judgment With the Parliament considering the has far-reaching consequences to the Revised Domestic Bill, battered women women who are taken by men by deceitful may have the power to drag their violent means and subsequently, denied alimony, husbands to courts. In the revised by seeking the provisions of an domestic Violence Bill, Domestic antiquated law. Violence is defined as “Kinds of physical d) Gender Security and Hindu injuries that may be inflicted upon the Succession victim and also includes sexual, verbal, emotional & economic abuses”. This Bill The recent initiatives in amending the Hindu Succession (Amendment) Act, apart from the usual penalties like a jail 2005, is a landmark event in addressing term & monetary fines,’ also, gives the the issue of violence against women and courts powers to drive the abusive enhancing gender equality. In this husband out of the house (he shares with amendment, some of the persisting his wife). It also has provisions for a gender inequalities in the Hindu Protection order, to prohibit the husband succession Act (1956) have been reduced. from entering the work place of the The 2005 Act covers inequalities on victim. The court will also be given property, parental, house, and some of powers to stop the abuses from accessing the widows rights. the bank accounts, lockers or any other These amendments will have far joint assets he may hold with her wife. reaching consequences for women in India. Gender equality in agricultural

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 49 land can, not only enhance a women’s Tamil Nadu is one of the Progressive right, but also reduce her family’s states as for as enactments of laws to curb poverty, increase her livelihood options, violence against women. Besides the education and health. It will also reduce effective implementation of the domestic violence, dowry deaths and provisions of the IPC, Special laws like the Tamil Nadu Prohibition of empower women, in the process. Studies Harassment of Women Act, 1998, The have already shown that women’s risk of Tamil Nadu Prohibition of Ragging Act, physical violence from husbands is 1997, and the Pre-Natal Diagnostic dramatically less if they own land or Techniques (Regulation, Prevention & house. Misuse) Act. Another significant change that all women can become coparceners in joint Conclusions family property has a great consequence While the available statistics for women. Apart from enhancing the indicate that the violence against women women’s security, economically -by is existent and newer manifestations of giving birth right in property- it gives such violence has emerged like gender them symbolic importance in the family. harassment, the State and Courts in Since women can become ‘kartas’ of the India are taking steps to curb the same property, symbolically, it signals that all and to protect Women. In this context there are a few things that will make the daughters and sons are equally process both effective and easy. Those important members of the parental suggestions are given below: family. If the marriage is broken down, ● Enact a special bill to combat she can now return to her birth home by the violence against women right. ● Protect the women to protect These amendments will enhance the their rights, without fear or self-confidence and self-efficacy of the interference such as women and give her a bargaining power ● Right to work in the society. ● Right to stay in her matrimonial home. e) State initiatives ● Right against trafficking Some states in India have focused ● Right to develop & participate. their attention to the problem of violence ● Ensure immediate monitory against women, which are either relief to women victims through rampant in their states or unique in some appropriate .compensation and ways, in their areas. Maharastra, for restitutive practices & example, is in the process of developing a procedures. comprehensive Bill to check atrocities ● Awareness creation among against women. This Bill seeks to award women victims about their stringent punishment to assaulters and rights, legal assistance eve teasers (TOI, 2004). available to them

50 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Women, Violence and Related Rights in India : A Situational Analysis

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42.Social Action, (1993). Exploitation of 49. Convention on the nationality of married Domestic Women Workers: Case Studies women (1958). from Karnataka, Kerala and Tamilnadu, Vol.43, April-June, p.p. 235-241 50. Convention on Political rights of women (1954). 43. Tamil Nadu Prohibition of Harassment of 51.Convention on the recovery abroad of women Act, The (1998). maintenance. 44. Prohibition of Ragging Act, The, (1997). 52. Vickers, Jeanne (1993). Women and War. 45. Times of India (2004), Mumbai dated 30th London: Zed Books. Sep, 2004. . (2004), Mumbai dated 11th 53. Vinding, Diana, ed. (1998). Indigenous December, 2004. Women: The Right to a Voice. 46. UN Convention on Optional Protocol to the Copenhagen, Denmark: International Convention on the elimination of all forms Work Group for Indigenous Affairs. of discrimination against women (2000).

47. Convention on the elimination of all forms of discrimination against women (1979).

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 53 Reconciliation for Key Words : Interpersonal relation in police, lack of cordial Better Policing : relation among personnel, The prominent factors, value based training, work culture and welfare, Training, Work boost in the efficacy of police organization. Culture and Welfare Abstract : of Woman Police in Interpersonal relation in police has much significance in ensuring effective work and its Gujarat impact on the society. It is the lack of cordial relation among personnel of various levels that are Dr. Pavithran G. Nambiar * responsible for rising violence and suicide in police and their low image in public eye. The prominent Right belief and attitude lead to doing factors that have to be considered for improving the right act. Hence, one way to reduce relationship between different levels in police wrong action is to spawn factual organization are value based training, work awareness so that the credence, concept culture and welfare. If sincere efforts are made to or attitude cannot go off-beam. Such an bring improvements in these areas, there will be a boost in the efficacy of police organization, and exercise would also help to positively thus its reputation. A study conducted on Woman channelize the way of thinking. Here lies Police in Gujarat by this writer (for Ph.D. thesis, the importance of training and work 1999), depicts their dismal condition in the culture and these are absolutely true in aforesaid areas. In such a situation, how effective case of police. In this context, the functioning of police organization can be expected? reconciliation of orientation of Giving significance to police welfare, inculcation of manpower towards a new work culture ethics and moral values in police through formal in police assumes greater significance and non-formal training are key suggestions, for The legacy of using police for which initiation must come from senior officers. ‘suppression and control’ during British rule, and absence of sincere endeavor to rectify those drawbacks through implementation of new systems and proper training in police in post- independent era, resulted in to their indecent behaviour with public which subsequently led to their poor reputation, created a chasm in police- public relationship and hampered the police efficacy. Kuldip Sharma has *Asst. Sub Inspector, rightly pointed out: “It is a well known fact that the treatment meted out to a Police Research Centre, citizen in a police station is so harrowing C I D (Crime & Rlys.), Police Bhavan that he feels more like an accused than a Gandhinagar, Gujarat.

54 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Reconciliation for Better Policing : Training, Work Culture and Welfare of Woman Police in Gujarat complainant. Public apathy – turned into work place, medical care, social services, antipathy in extreme circumstances – retirement insurances, housing towards the police, therefore, is natural” assistance, education, care for children (The Essence of Policing, The Times of and adults and so on. It may also include India, Ahmedabad, 12/1/1995). hygiene and sanitation at work place, Aim: A modest attempt is made here crèches for care of children of working to analyze the work culture, welfare and mothers, transport facilities, fair price training of Indian police, with special shops, regular medical check-ups, reference to policewomen in Gujarat. providing safety equipment (mask at These factors play crucial role in making traffic junction, etc.) during work, and breaking relationship between recreational and cultural facilities, co- different levels of personnel working in operative credit societies and so on. the police, which have its over all impact Thus, the concept of ‘welfare’ suggests on their function and the efficacy of the many ideas, meanings and connotations, organization. such as the state of well-being, health, happiness, prosperity and the Culture: The way of life of a development of human resources. particular society or group of people, including patterns of thought, beliefs, Welfare of police has been a gag behaviour, customs, traditions, rituals, subject. It is less told, the better. Result dress and language, as well as art, music is mounting discontent which adversely and literature (The Hutchinson affected functioning of the organization. encyclopaedia, eighth edition, London, Similar is the state of motivating factor. 1988). Quoting Herskovits, Sinha J.B.P. Society expects a lot from police. To (1990) mentiones, ‘culture is the man- fulfill the expectations, police must be made part of the environment. It reflects properly equipped, motivated and make the way of life of a people, their aware about the developments that occur traditions, heritage, design for living, in society. Training can play an etc. Thus, work culture is the very air important role in preparing police to they breath and the spirit that permeates meet these requirements. their life, which they imbibed from the Training - Objectives & Impact: work place. It is the totality of beliefs, Today, the pitiable condition is that the norms, and values which is related to the authorities at the helm of power never patterned regularity in people’s ready to accept the fact that lack of right behaviour’. type of training has led to this state of Welfare: Welfare, congenial work affairs. In the words of K.F. Rustamji, “It atmosphere and motivation are some of will never be accepted by those in the important factors that boost the authority that failures are primarily due morale of human resource of an to lack of the right type of training”. (The organization. The term ‘welfare’ has Imperatives of Training, SVP NPA much broader concerns. As far as a Magazine, Vol.45 No.1, Jan-June 1993). working individual is concerned, it is the Unless the drawbacks are identified and facilities/services that are available at accepted, chances of its rectification are

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 55 remote and the failure will continue among police and thus a better unendingly. functioning and reputation. Regarding the prevailing chasm in The present system of punishment police-public relation and the need for postings to police officials in training proper training, former Prime Minister schools/colleges has created an image Mrs. Indira Gandhi said, “The police that those institutions are the place for force is an instrument of social change. A dumping ill-reputed officials. What change can be brought about through contribution such officials could make for imaginative understanding at the higher the institution and what role-models the levels of the force and intensive training trainees could expect from them? There at lower levels. I have repeatedly should be a system of screening work emphasized the importance of training efficiency and morality of officers/ for members of the police force at every instructors before posting them in such level. There is apparently something institutions. Their character and wrong with our training which prevents teaching efficiency should be monitored the police force from being friends of the and curriculum be evaluated regularly. people” (G.V. Rao, Thoughts on the Indian Such a system does prevail in America. Police, Government of Karnataka, According to R.P. Joshi (1993), “The Bangalore, 1982). monitoring (of police training) is As a police person, his/her way of conducted by the Bureau of Municipal thinking can be influenced by so many Police as well as the local agencies in the factors prevailing in the society. It could US. A comprehensive network has be due to opinions appearing through evolved for monitoring, consisting of media, owing to politicization of truth, observing the administration, the generalized and popular way of thinking learning environment, instructors and amongst mass (e.g. prejudiced mind student. This is followed up by post towards a particular community), etc. monitoring functions, which require But through right way of training wrong completion of the report and that it be notions can be removed by highlighting submitted to the Commissioner and the harmful motives with which such conducting follow-up monitoring as propaganda was made to spread and it assigned (Police Training in Community can be replaced with exhibiting truths. Relations, Rawat Publications, New Training the mind to think in a right way Delhi). To attract talented people, can accomplish this goal. Right provisions of financial as well as knowledge of duties, responsibilities and promotional avenues should be offered to commitment to effectively perform it can instructors in training institutions. Only be achieved through imparting the right sincere, competent and dedicated training. And top of all, ethics and officers can play a vital role in inculcating morality in policing which have gone ethics and moral values in the trainees down to the lowest stratum have to be and modeling best police for tomorrow. given the highest priority which could in There are many in-service trainings the future bring attitudinal changes conducted by the police organization. In

56 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Reconciliation for Better Policing : Training, Work Culture and Welfare of Woman Police in Gujarat many cases, persons selected for the changes in their attitude towards their course, especially technical one, do not job and self-esteem. The trainees should have any inclination or interest towards be convinced that an attitudinal change it. The authorities responsible to send, is required to fulfill the responsibilities just select a person without knowing his of job in the fast changing world scenario interest or the basic criteria required for and for the progress of the trainee, too. the course. Thus, it becomes waste of Apart from periodical refresher energy and time. The trainer is given a courses, police personnel of all ranks specific module to be completed in a time should be encouraged to improve their frame and he is interested only to finish educational qualifications. By attending the syllabus and not interested to see evening classes or through distance whether the trainees are following what education system they can acquire he is teaching. Thus, he acts as a machine higher qualifications with which they can and there is no devotion towards his have better prospects in the department. profession. So, for him also the work of In a study conducted on policewomen in teaching is burden, wastage of time and Gujarat, it was found that higher the energy. After the training is over, the level of education, higher was the respect trainees are not put in the same field to they commanded from their colleagues improve the knowledge that they as well as from the society. Hence, once acquired during training and over a they take up the occupation, they need to period of time he forgets what he learnt be encouraged to do higher studies which in the training. If the training system has will raise their status, enable to to be improved and fruitful result is to be understand things in better way and to achieved, right persons should be selected for the course, and once the discharge their functions effectively. training is completed, they should be Police atrocities have become a posted in that specific field so that the common phenomenon as they do not have organization will be benefited. Hence, the right knowledge of human rights, identifying the right person and ethics and morality. There is great need analyzing how he/she will be useful to the for them to understand their own role in organization after completion of the in- a democratic society and the rights of service training is an important factor to citizens, which a right training can only be considered. There is also a need to provide. In addition to police atrocities, give emphasis to give periodic refresher now a days we hear about incidents of trainings to constabulary as they are the violent behaviour among police meted personnel who have to be always in out to their own colleagues/seniors. contact with people and it is the support Many of those incidents took place as the and co-operation of public that makes an police person behaving so was not fully efficient police system. Trainings should aware of the exact meaning of their be devised in such a way that the police duties and responsibilities, coupled with personnel must be able to open their the nature of service conditions, and closed minds and to fill it with positive unable to cope with the mental stress. ideas and concepts so as to bring about Subjects relating to behaviour pattern,

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 57 stress management and ethics need to be ● A considerable (80%) number of included in the training curriculum. respondents opined that there Inclusion of such subjects in the was no child-care center, where induction and refresher trainings could they can keep their kids while help in minimizing suicide deaths and they go for their job. violent behaviour under stress among ● Seventy-four percent police personnel, which have been on the respondents did not have rise during the last one and a half government dispensary in their decades. police lines.

A Study on Work and Welfare of ● Almost all (98%) respondents Woman Police in Gujarat said that they did not undergo The Work & Welfare: In a study medical check up every year. conducted on policewomen (constable to ● Similarly, there was no school in inspector) in Gujarat (1999) by the their police line, according to present writer, it was found that almost 87% of the respondents. all the respondents were a disgusted lot due to various reasons. Some of them are: ● Policewomen have the habit of ● A greater part (87%) of the using abusive language, respondents performed more smoking, taking drugs and than 12 hours of duty daily. liquor for which they hold their work environment as the ● A majority (57%) of the responsible factor. respondents were not happy with the promotion Training: During the study it was opportunities available to them. found that policewomen had male police instructors during their training. ● A substantial (83%) number of However, they preferred women police respondents opined that their as their instructors. Out of the total salary was less, taking into policewomen interviewed, 13% opined account the nature of work they that the character of instructors was performed. ‘bad’. Some of them even disclosed their traumatic experience with the instructor ● A significant (76%) number of as they (respondents) had refused to ‘act’ respondents disclosed that according to the requirements (wishes) their male superiors harassed of the instructor. Similarly, the them in many ways to establish respondents were of the opinion that the illicit relationship. instructor used abusive and indecent language during the training sessions. ● Daad-Fariad-Samiti was not Two per cent of the respondents said that capable of solving the problems their instructors expected (demanded) of policewomen, agreed almost cash/kind from them. The study also saw all (97%) the respondents. that 69% of the respondents used abusive

58 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Reconciliation for Better Policing : Training, Work Culture and Welfare of Woman Police in Gujarat language at their work place and some of Policewomen, Deep & Deep Publications, them used such language even at their New Delhi). As opined by Kiren Bedi, a home. Exposure to abusive language senior woman IPS officer, the right from the training stage must be policewomen must undergo tough and playing a role in policewomen picking up rigorous training. There should not be such language. Personal observation as any discrimination as far as training is well as informal talk with male police/ concerned. Undergoing such training officers made it clear that the would undoubtedly boost their morale. policewomen are not being given tough The study also attempted to explore and rigorous training. Such a negligence the extent to which policewomen are and shortcoming in the training is an aware about the rapid developments that important reason for the policewomen’s taking place in the society and how far inability to perform all types of work they are equipped/efficient to meet such independently. Mahajan (1982) has challenges by undergoing refresher rightly found in his study that the trainings. It was found that 78% of the training given to policewomen was respondents did not undergo any kind of inadequate. Even senior police officers refresher training, which is depicted in were of the opinion that there was an the following table, along with the break- urgent need for improvement in the up of their duration of service they have training of policewomen (Indian put.

Whether undergone Refresher training

Duration No Yes Total of service Less than 5 years 13 0 13 (16.66) =>5 & <10 years 5 0 5 (6.41) =>10 & <15 years 16 4 20 (20.51) (18.18) =>15 & <20 years 20 3 23 (29.48) (13.63) =>20 & <25 years 14 4 18 (17.94) (18.18) =>25 years 7 11 18 (8.97) (50) Total 78 22 100 (99.99) (99.99) (Note: figures in parenthesis show percentage)

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 59 Among those respondents who have prevailing work culture, welfare and undergone refresher training, majority training, how cordial relation between have put more than 25 years service. As various levels and thus effective a whole, the data depicts an functioning of police organization be unsatisfactory picture of refresher anticipated ? If training does not act as training the respondents have an effective tool for enhancing the undergone, from which it can be professional competence by changing the understood how much they are ill- attitude of police, the entire system equipped, lacking in motivation, least involved in this exercise would loose its expectation for growth and fulfillment of image and turn out to be of no importance aspirations, recognition of merit, etc. to the society and nation. Unless sincere and concerted efforts are initiated to And Finally inculcate ethics, moral values and attitudinal change in police through Police organization is making various training and work culture, all other efforts to improve its function. One such attempts would turn out to be just show- attempt is the organizing of All India off and squandering of time, energy and Police Science Congress, which is being money. The initiation should come from held in one state every year. This year it senior officers who could act as role is being held in February 2005 in Gujarat. model to their subordinates. Thus, an Officers and specialists from all over the intensive and continuous attempt from country are holding brain storming all quarters, over a period of time, only sessions and comes out with innovative can ensure a better policing. ideas for improving the function of police and to perk up police-public Suggestions relationship. How far these suggestions are being implemented is a matter of ● Subjects like ethics, morality, concern. In this context, the Director behavioural pattern, stress General of Police, Punjab expressed his management, national and apprehension in his keynote address in international developments 2004 at the 35th All India Police Science etc. need to be included in the Congress. He said, “ I wonder if this curriculum of induction- concept can ever become reality in the training as well as refresher- Indian context”. training. Society has high expectations from ● Punishment postings in the police, and to meet those demands, training schools/colleges/ police must be well equipped and institutions be stopped, sincere, motivated. But the wide gulf in demand talented and dedicated officers/ by the society and inability of police to instructors be given posting in fulfill it owing to various factors, such institutions, and prominent being the lacunae in training, incentives should be offered to have adversely affected police image and attract talented people police-public relationship. With the

60 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Reconciliation for Better Policing : Training, Work Culture and Welfare of Woman Police in Gujarat

● A system of monitoring the appreciating and motivating function of instructors, their subordinates for better selecting right candidates for performance special trainings and utilizing them in that field, has to be ● Last but not the least, there is a evolved need for periodical evaluation of work of senior officers to see ● Refresher trainings need to be how far their performance has organized at regular intervals been useful to the organization, for the ranks of constables to and not to their personal gain. inspectors so that they will acquire knowledge on the latest The prevailing unwritten skills in their job which will system of supporting wrong- boost their morale and interest doers (seniors and their in their profession favourites) has sent wrong signals among the rank and file. ● Police personnel need to be Unless steps are initiated to encouraged to continue their raise the image of police and education after taking up the job make the system more valuable,

● Seniors should not only undergo cordial relation between trainings in attitudinal change different ranks and effective but implement it in practice too, functioning of the organization and cultivate the habit of seem to be a mirage.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 61 A Study of Spatial Key Words : Mobility of offenders, Journey to crime, Mobility of Property Environmental opportunity, Commuting of offenders, Commuting Index, Origin and Offenders Destination of offenders, Choropleth and Isopleth maps. A. Sivamurthy* Abstract : Introduction: Since the pattern of journey by offenders varies from one part of the city to another even for the The incidence of crime is subject to same type of offense, the analysis of spatial pattern extreme areal variations as crime itself of movement of offenders deserves a close attention. has a strong spatial component. Thus With the improvement in quality of data and identifying the geographical component methodology and the availability of GIS mapping in crime is a necessary pre-requisite for techniques, the study is aimed at understanding making judgment as to how far the social the mobility of property offenders in Chennai city. state of the city departs from the just The analysis shows that the pattern of journey to crime is related to the physical and functional ideal. As the city develops, typical characteristics of different parts of Chennai city. patterns of differentiation become In the localities where the environmental apparent. Different areas become opportunity is low, the degree of commuting is associated with particular type of relatively higher. In the commercial and high- population and certain systematic income residential areas on the other hand, the rate relationship between geographical space of occurrence of theft and burglary is high owing to and social space appear (Timms, 1971, greater environmental opportunity and in such P.211). areas the commuting of offenders is relatively lower. The Choropleth, and Isopleth maps drawn The spatial patterning of crime is with the help of GIS software identify the areas of mainly the outcome of processes in high and low level of commuting out of offenders. society. To understand such processes, it Such an identification may help the police for is necessary to study the pattern first. In better law enforcement planning. other words, the study of location must be starting point in tackling the problems of understanding crime. The criminal and often the victim are movable. For a crime to occur, a person who is motivated to commit an offense and an attractive target must intersect in time and space. At a broader geographical level, patterns of crime in *UGC Emeritus Fellow, cities, regions or countries may relate to Department of Criminology, spatial flows of people, goods or employment (Brantingham and University of Madras, Brantingham, 1984, P.232). Chennai-600005, India.

62 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 A Study of Spatial Mobility of Property Offenders

The journey to crime is a reflection of emphasized in the earlier studies. Many environmental opportunity, type of of the general theories concerned with offense, operational convenience and criminal behaviour have tested individual decisions. This is a journey empirically either limited numbers of that starts from the criminal’s residence individuals or samples of subjects and ends at the place of operation. The otherwise not broad enough to be mobility (journey) patterns of offenders representative of communities total living in different parts of the city can population (Pyle and others, 1974, P.143). also be seen to reflect differential While spatial studies can hardly be patterns of mobility in the general expected to account for the totality of population, the spatial mobility of individual behaviour, some knowledge offenders in a city is a special case of about collective behaviour with regard to general mobility. urban crime can be discovered. Movement patterns are dynamic and Lind (1930) was among the first the analysis of criminal and victim researchers to analyse the relationship movement patterns are an important between the residence of offenders and part of the spatial analysis of crime the place of their offenses. He found two (Brantingham and Brantingham, 1984, separate patterns of group crime in P.237). The study of spatio-temporal Honolulu: (1) Neighbourhood triangle of patterns of crime may help us in delinquency (two or more offenders live understanding the power of attraction of in the same neighbourhood in which the different neighbourhoods and the level of delinquent act is committed. interaction between origin and (2) Mobility triangle of delinquency destination of offenders. The mobility of (two or more offenders live in the same persons (offenders) and of commodities neighbourhood yet commit their offense inevitably widens the area within which outside that neighbourhood). control becomes necessary (Sutherland, Reiss (1966) found in Seattle that 1985, P.29). offenders are much more likely to move Previous studies: out of heir neighbourhood in connection with crimes against property than for Most of the previous studies of spatial crimes against persons (P.33). Morris nature have in fact, failed to explain (1957) found evidence to suggest that criminal behavior in geographic space. crimes are committed where the Only a few writers such as Pyle and practical opportunities are greatest others (1974) in Akron and Baldwin and (P.33). Schmid (1960) also looked to Bottoms (1976) in Sheffield have opportunity structure as an explanation analysed the patterns of distance and for the higher frequency of types of crime spatial interaction of offenders. in one milieu rather than in another. However, the spatial pattern of As far as India is concerned, a movement of offenders and its pioneering effort was made by relationship to the individual areas of Sivamurthy (1979) to analyse the spatial destination have not been significantly pattern of commuting of property

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 63 offenders in Madras city by taking Index was calculated. It is assumed that Census divisions as areal units. commuting of an individual from one area to another is owing to a lack of Objective: opportunity in his own area. A Since the pattern of journey by Commuting Index has been computed in offenders varies from one part of the city the following manner for each of he 78 to another even for the same type of police station jurisdictions. offense, the analysis of spatial pattern of movement of offenders deserves a close Total no. of offenders living in attention. With the improvement in the police station jurisdiction(B) quality of data and methodology and the Commuting availability of GIS mapping techniques, Index: the study is aimed at understanding the Total no. of offenders who live mobility of property offenders in and commit crimes in the Chennai city. same police station jurisdiction(C) Data and method: As per the police station records, The higher value of Commuting Index Chennai city has recorded 6594 shows that there is lack of opportunity in incidences of theft and burglary during the area and therefore outward the year 2002. However, the offenders commuting is necessary for offenders. are known only for 2391 cases and out of However, when Commuting Index is which 389 offenders have originated merely based on the number of offenders from outside the city. For the rest of the who commit crimes locally and not on 4203 cases, the offenders are yet to be those who move out, it may not represent traced. commuting in relation to opportunity. In other words, commuting in relation to The police station wise data local opportunity may be known only if pertaining to the place of occurrence the total number of crimes in the area for (destination) and place of residence which offenders are known is taken into (origin) of property offenders (if known) account. Therefore, a Relative charged with theft and house burglary Commuting Index is computed which is have been collected from the First nothing but a commuting index Information Report (FIR) Index from 78 expressed as a proportion of total crimes police stations in Chennai city for the committed in the area for which year 2002. More fully, the origins and offenders are known. It is derived as destinations of trips by the offenders below (Table 1) have been identified. The analysis of origin and destination reveal much of the spatial dynamics of movements and Relative Commuting Index (B)/(C) interactions in a city. In order to analyse Commuting the attractiveness of the area in terms of Total crimes for which Index: movement of offenders, a Commuting offenders are known (A)

64 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 A Study of Spatial Mobility of Property Offenders

Table 1: Relative Commuting Index for Police Stations in Chennai City

Police Station Total No. of Total No. of Total No. of Relative Jurisdiction crimes offenders living offenders Commuting committed for in the police who live and Index (%) which offenders jurisdiction (B) commit crimes (RCI)= are known (A) in the same B/C/A x 100 jurisdiction (C)

B1 23 8 7 4.96 B2 18 7 7 5.55 B3 2 6 1 300 B4 0 1 0 0 C1 40 22 16 3.43 C2 28 23 15 5.47 C3 39 36 7 13.1 C4 0 0 0 0 C5 20 0 0 0 D1 46 45 22 4.44 D2 32 8 6 4.16 D3 12 22 10 18.33 D4 10 6 2 30 D5 4 0 0 0 D6 3 0 0 0 D7 3 0 0 0 D9 5 3 2 30 E1 29 39 12 11.6 E2 38 18 15 3.15 E3 22 25 7 16.23 E4 47 18 12 3.19 E5 4 38 1 950 F1 25 63 16 15.75 F2 23 11 1 47.82 F3 39 9 3 7.69 F4 38 35 22 5.1 F5 12 16 1 133.33 G1 40 22 9 6.11 G2 14 10 1 71.42 G3 32 18 7 8.03 G5 27 3 1 11.11 H1 38 59 11 14.11 H3 25 38 9 16.88 H4 9 47 2 261.11 H5 22 26 10 11.81

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 65 H6 12 7 1 58.33 H8 23 57 14 17.7 J1 24 48 15 13.33 J2 40 20 11 4.54 J3 24 90 19 19.73 J4 20 8 4 10 J5 13 3 1 23.07 J6 37 53 26 5.5 J7 38 71 31 6.02 K1 47 36 12 6.38 K2 55 25 10 4.54 K3 125 48 36 1.06 K4 21 10 4 11.9 K5 13 19 2 73.07 K6 21 12 9 6.34 K7 16 4 1 25 K8 32 25 6 13.02 K9 21 1 0 0 K10 8 9 3 37.5 M1 7 1 1 14.28 M2 0 0 0 0 N1 33 23 11 6.33 N2 14 15 6 17.85 N3 9 8 1 88.88 N4 14 0 0 0 P1 17 89 7 74.78 P2 74 84 39 2.91 P3 11 103 10 93.63 P4 3 1 0 0 P5 14 1 0 0 P6 21 74 10 35.23 R1 63 40 16 3.96 R2 15 15 5 20 R3 55 11 3 6.66 R4 39 3 3 2.56 R5 19 41 4 53.94 R6 15 5 3 11.11 R7 25 15 6 10 R8 11 14 4 31.81 V1 39 73 24 7.79 V2 70 61 33 2.64 V5 60 69 35 3.28 V6 16 27 4 42.8

66 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 A Study of Spatial Mobility of Property Offenders

Mapping and analysis: Peravalur (K5) in the North West, R K. Nagar (H6), Vyasarpadi (P3), Muthialpet As mentioned above, the Relative (N3), Periamet (G2) and Pulianthope (P1) Commuting Index is the level of in the North and Choolaimedu (R5) in the commuting expressed as a proportion of Central Chennai. These areas are total crimes committed in the area located at some distance from the main (Table 1). By treating police station commercial and industrial area. These jurisdictions as areal units, Chropleth, are also characterized by physical and Isopleth maps were prepared to congestion, high population density and show the spatial pattern of commuting by low house-hold income and lesser using GIS software Arc View 3.2. The environmental opportunities lower value of the index indicates that (Sivamurthy, 1981). Therefore, the the area depends very little on outward offenders living in those areas commute commuting since the area itself is out in large numbers to commit theft and rich in environmental opportunity. burglary elsewhere. For the same Conversely, the higher value shows the reason, the majority of the areas in North lack of opportunity in the area and Chennai show a higher degree of therefore the outward commuting is commuting as compared to South necessary for offenders. Chennai. A comparison of pattern of The lowest value for commuting is occurrence of theft and burglary (Fig:1 & noticed in Aminjikarai (K3), Pondy 2) with the pattern of commuting of Bazaar (R4) and Anna Salai (D2) in offenders (Fig:3 & 4) reveals that the Central Chennai; Virugambakkam (V2), areas which record greater degree of Thirumangalam (V5) and Ayanavaram commuting of offenders are (K2) in the west; Triplicane (D1) in the characterized by lower rate of incidence East; Otteri (P2) and Flower Bazaar (C1) of theft and burglary. In other words, the in the North; and Adyar (J2) in the South. areas which record higher rate of The lower degree of commuting of incidence of theft and burglary are offenders in these areas indicates that assumed to have greater environmental majority of offenders commit crimes in opportunities and therefore, the degree their own area. It is observed that these of commuting out of offenders is low. areas, especially, Pondy Bazaar and Anna The spatial pattern of commuting: Salai in Central Chennai; and Flower Bazaar in North Chennai are essentially An examination of the Choropleth characterized by commercial and service map (Fig: 3 ) showing the pattern of functions. The other areas, namely, distribution of Relative Commuting Aminjikarai in Central Chennai; Index reveals that the highest degree of Virugambakkam and Thirumangalam in commuting is found in Foreshore Estate the West; and Adyar in the South are (E5) in the East followed by Korukkupet mainly the high-income residential (H4) and Fort (B3) and Chetput (F5) in areas. These areas also provide greater the North. The other areas showing environmental opportunity for property significant degree of commuting are: offenders. A relatively lower percentage

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 67 68 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 A Study of Spatial Mobility of Property Offenders

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 69 70 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 A Study of Spatial Mobility of Property Offenders

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 71 of commuting is also found in the characteristics of the areas. The peripheral parts of South Chennai that Choropleth and Isopleth maps drawn are characterised by industrial and high with the help of GIS software also income residential functions. identify the areas of significantly high The Isopleth map (Fig: 2) that gives a and low commuting out of offenders. better picture of commuting of property Such identification may help the police offenders in Chennai city shows that the for law enforcement planning. East and North East Chennai exhibit several peaks in commuting. The References: gradient decreases from the East to the 1. Baldwin, J. and A. E. Bottoms (1976), The West and South West. It shows the trend Urban Criminal: A study in Sheffield, that the property offenders commute in Tavistock Publication, London. large numbers only from the East and 2. Brantingham, P.J. and Brantingham, P.L. North East Chennai to the other parts of (1984), Patterns in Crime, Macmillan, the city. The peripheral parts of West Publishing Company, New York. Chennai show lowest degree of 3. Lind, A. W. (1930), Some ecological commuting. This is because these areas patterns of community disorganization in are the potential areas for commuting for Honolulu, American Journal of Sociology, 36(2), P.206-220. theft and burglary. This is represented more clearly in Surface map (Fig:3 ) 4. Morris. T.(1957), The Criminal Area: A where the concentration of high degree study in social ecology, Routledge and of commuting (Hotspot like feature) is Kepan, Paul, London, P.33. found distinctly in the South East and 5. Pyle, G.F., et al (1974), The spatial North East Chennai. The distinct dynamics of crime, the University of locations are expressed visually on the Chicago, Department of Geography, Research paper No.159. Surface map. 6. Reiss, A. J. and A. L. Rhodes (1966), The Conclusion: distribution of juvenile delinquency in the social class structure, American The analysis shows that the pattern Sociological Review, 26(5), p.720-731. of journey to crime is related to the 7. Schmid, C.F. (1960), Urban Crime Areas, physical and functional characteristics of Part I, American Sociological Review, 25 different parts of Chennai city. In the (4), P.527-542. localities where the environmental 8. Sivamurthy, A. (1979), Spatial pattern of opportunity is low, the degree of commuting of property offenders in commuting is relatively higher. In the Madras city, The Indian Geographical commercial and high-income residential Journal, Vol. 154 (2), P. 79-83. areas on the other hand, commuting is 9. Sivamurthy, A. (1981), Urban ecological relatively lower owing to greater aspects of crimes in Madras city, The environmental opportunity. Thus, the Indian Journal of Criminology, Vol. 9 (2). study helps us to understand the 10. Sutherland, E.H. and Cressey, D. R. (1985), relationship between mobility pattern of Principles of Criminology, The Times of property offenders and the India Press, Bombay.

72 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Violence Prone Key Words : Police, Police Brutality & Violence, Organizational Police Officers Style, Training Interventions.

Sankar Sen* Abstract : IPS (Retd.) In police there are both trigger happy, violence In modern democratic societies, the prone officers as well as officers who are idealistic police is vested with authority of using and considerate. In USA Christopher Commission legitimate and situationally justified ( 1991) referred to the presence to aggressive violence prone officers in Los Angeles Police force against the citizens. Albert Reiss1 Department. It has been found by the has aptly said that, “at law police in criminologists and police scholars that very often modern democracy possess a virtual organizational style and culture influence the monopoly of legitimate use of force against outlook of the police officers and encourage hard- civilians and to examine the police use of nosed policing. Many police departments also force is to examine an activity at the core of encourage instead of discouraging an aggressive politics and society”. Policing and improper use of force. Whenever there In India very often there are justified is clear evidence of misuse of force and display of and shocking complaints about misuse or brutality by police officers, there should be no hesitation to discipline them. Protecting the black abuse of force by police. An impression sheep through silence or inaction will not help. prevails that the police force in the Police over-reaction is also influenced by the country are full of bloodthirsty maniacs expectation of danger in job and bureaucratization and sadists who relish the sight of broken of the department. Training interventions can skulls and blinded eyes. In police force successfully reduce police violence and train police everywhere there are always some personnel to maintain their temper under stressful officers and men who are violence prone situations. and trigger-happy, but there are also many others who are idealistic, considerate and have empathy for the public. Unfortunately, regarding these aggressive trigger-happy Police officials and their motivation and characteristics, very little empirical research has been done in India. In USA Christopher Commission looked into the use of force by the Los Angeles Police (1991) after the Rodney King incident and pin pointed a group of *Senior Fellow, Institute of Social officers who are aggressive, violence- Sciences, New Delhi. Former Director, National Police 1 The Police and the Public: Yale Academy, University Press, 1971. Former DG, NHRC.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 73 prone and resort to improper use of goes to create a mentality that alienates force2. The Commission identified by police officials from the community. going through the records of the Los Again, in many police organisations Angeles Police Department, (LAPD) that there is an ‘ethic of masculinity’. This there were about forty-four officers with leads many officials to hanker after man- six or more allegations of excessive use of of-action image. A young police recruit force or improper tactics during the who does not manifest a man-of-action period from 1986-1990. The Christopher image is not held in high esteem by his Commission, however, also pointed out colleagues and very often not accessible that higher number of cases of use of force to inner circles of the organisation3. by an officer may not always show that he is violence-prone. Active officers Peer Approval assigned to high -crime areas or officers I t is also a known fact that in many on specialized duties will use force more police organisations rough and ready use often and generate more complaints of force meets with peer approval. In against them, than an ordinary officer order to gain peer approval new officers, performing routine duties. The seek out encounters which can turn out Commission also noted that there were to be violent and which have potential for many successful and productive officers conflict. Dispensing street justice may in high crime areas, who do not become an accepted style of working and accumulate many complaints against a convenient rationale for these action- them. oriented officers4. It is also a fact that some of these officers become dispensers Organizational Culture of street justice, because they have According to many criminologists limited verbal or interpersonal skills, and police scholars, frequent use of force which they try to cover up by display of and violence by an officer is influenced by authority. They are also oversensitive to organizational style and culture. In affronts. They equate disrespect as police forces in India as well as many aspersions on their authority or other countries officers are evaluated by masculinity. It is these officers who, the number of arrests made, cases lacking poise and confidence in detected, charge sheets submitted and themselves, become oversensitive to calls attended. They are appreciated for affronts and often act violently. their ‘hard-nosed policing’ and not for Scholars like Niederhoffer5 have felt displaying concern for the public. This that many police officers who constantly kind of assertive hard-nosed policing witness man’s inhumanity to man, turn

2 Independent Commission of the Los 4 Van Mannen John; Policing, A View Angeles Police Department, 1991. From the Street, 1978 3 Harris R.N., 1978, The Police 5 Arthur Niederhoffer; Behind the Academy; The Professional Self Shield; Police in Urban Societies

74 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Violence Prone Police Officers cynical and this cynicism has a corroding result of the flawed procedures for effect. Many of them become disoriented investigating the complaints. Further, and display violent streaks in encounters sanctions imposed on the police officers, with the citizens. In this connection against whom charges of violence and perhaps it will be good to make a improper use of force substantiated had distinction between brutality and been light and failed both as a deterrent unnecessary use of force. Brutality is and as a message that such behaviour was wrongful and wilful use of force by inappropriate. The commission also exceeding the bounds of the office, but concluded that Los Angeles police unnecessary use of force occurs when department’s incentive structure police officers who could have easily influenced directly officers’ behaviour tackled the situation by peaceful means and there was a link between formal resort to use of force. Very often young administrative structure and informal officers resort to unnecessary use of organizational culture. force, which could have been avoided by Some research on the use of deadly experienced and capable officers. It is force has further shown that strict this unnecessary and avoidable use of administrative control has a restraining force that causes considerable friction effect on the frequency with which between the police and the community. officers use their firearms. Policies Police brutality, on the other hand, often laying down clear rules regarding deadly takes place out of public sight and police use of force and providing for strict and also take precautions to see that their effective enforcement of the rules have brutal deeds escape detection and public reduced the number of shootings. notice. It is true that police encounters are The report of Christopher very often complex and ambiguous and it Commission makes references to LAPD’s is difficult to make judgments about an assertive style of law enforcement as the officer’s culpability. However, there are main reason for aggressive confrontation many occasions of clear and wanton with the public6. It traced this style of misuse of force. Whenever there is clear policing to a professional organizational evidence of misuse of force and display of culture cultivated by LAPD through brutality by police officers, there should training and incentive structure. be no hesitation to properly discipline Officers in LAPD were rewarded for them. If police want citizens to know that “hard nosed” policing which is likely to police brutality is aberrant, they must bring police in conflict situations with isolate officers who are trigger-happy the citizens. The Commission noted that and prone to violence. This calls for the administration of Los Angeles Police solidarity against and not on behalf of Department failed to discourage improper use of force. Many complaints 6 that were filed against the police Independent Commission on the Los personnel could not be substantiated as a Angeles Police Department 1997, Page 97.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 75 aggressive officers. Protecting the found that police officers who face malefactors through silence and inaction greater dangers in their job are less will not help. inclined to see their job as helping the In USA, Black and Reiss7, 1967, made citizens in the community8. These a large-scale observational study on officers also tend to believe that behalf of President’s commission on Law community is more hostile to them than Enforcement and Administration of is actually the case. This is more so in the Justice. In this study, emphasis was case of more prejudiced and less placed on detailed descriptions of police- educated officers, who are more prone to citizen behaviour, the social and overestimate hostility towards them9. demographic characteristics of the Similarly, research has also established participants etc. In analyzing the data that police officers who were less Reiss found that many instances were satisfied with their jobs showed a greater there where the citizens behave acceptance of physical and verbal abuse antagonistically to police officers and of the suspects10. “many encounters with deviants did not The likelihood of the use of force involve uncivil conduct or misuse of force increases with the bureaucratization of a by the police”. But, however, it has been particular department. It has been found found that many police officers share the that an officer is more likely to use force view of the general public that some when there are other officers to provide offenders are despicable people and physical and psychological brutality against them is justified. In reinforcements. India also downtrodden and marginalised groups become targets of Training Interventions police aggressiveness and their human Proper and well-conducted violence rights are wantonly violated. reduction training can have some effect Another factor also influences police in influencing the conduct and reflexes of overreaction. The expectation of danger the police officers. One of the major in job has an impact on the attitude and purposes of training should be to enable response of a police officer. It has been officers to handle their work-related problems better than laypersons. 7 Patterns of Behaviour and Citizen Though training may not compensate for Transactions, In President’s inadequate recruitment of personnel, Commission on Law Enforcement and bad temper and proclivity towards Administration of Justice, Studies in violence are conditions that can be Crime and Law Enforcement in successfully reduced by training. Major Metropolitan Areas, Field Studies III, Vol. II, Sec. I. Washington: 9 Crawford T.J.; (1973): Police Over US Government Printing Office. preception of Ghetto Hostility. 8 Lester David: Police Role, Discretion 10 Carter, David L. (1976): Police and Danger. Brutality.

76 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Violence Prone Police Officers

Maintaining one’s temper under uselessness. Training should also stressful and confrontational conditions address the role of police officers during is a skill that can be taught. Attitudinal non-working hours. Administrative transformation may not be possible by authorities must define what they expect training, but the modest goal should be to off-duty officers to do and to refrain from suppress hostile impulses and replace doing. There are cases of off-duty officers them by more kindly and positive using their police powers and feelings. prerogatives to resolve personal In U.S.A., the case of Monell vs disputes. There are also instances where Department of Social Services11, good faith, attempts of officers to established the principle that public intervene in personal disputes or less employers could be held liable if it could serious crimes have turned into be shown that constitutional violation tragedies. committed by employees were caused by During training, focus should be on official customs and practices as well as conduct of officer rather than outcome of inadequate training. incidents. This is important, because However, in devising training interaction between police and the strategies, precautions should be citizens is a two way process. Sometimes taken not to make matters worse by police officers act in inappropriate ways. creating a sense of paranoia among the There might also be out burst of violence police officers. During training, inspite of reasonable behaviour on the officers have to be convinced that there part of the police. are dangers in police jobs, but such dangers should not be exaggerated. References: Paranoid officers often over-react with 1. Reiss, Albert J., Jr. (1968a) “Police needless violence to minor Brutality-Answers to Key Questions.” provocations or no provocations at all. Trans-actibn 5(8): 10-19. In training programme, very often some worst -case scenarios are 2. Independent Commission on the Los presented, but there should also be a Angeles Police Department (1991) Report strong message that such incidents are of the Independent Commission on the Los usually exceptions in law enforcement. Angeles Police Department. Los Angeles, CA: Independent Commission on the Los Further, training for reduction of Angeles Police Department. violence should be continuous. There is need for constant refresher training in 3. Harris, R.N. (1978) “The Police Academy violence prevention skills, otherwise, and the Professional Self-Image.” In Peter skills learnt are likely to atrophy into K. Manning and John van Maanen (eds.) Policing: A View From the Streets. Santa Monica, CA: Goodyear Publishing 11 Monell Vs. Department of Social Company. Services; (436 U.S. 658 (1978)

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 77 4. Van Maanen, John (1973) “Observations 8. (1983) “Why Do People Become Police on the Making of Policement.” Human Officers.” Journal of Police Science and Organisations 32: 407-18. Administration 11: 170-74

5. Niederhoffer, Arthur (1967) Behind the 9. Crowford, T.J. (1973) “Police Over Shield: The Police in Urban Society. Garden perception of Ghetto Hostility.” Journal City, NY: Doubleday. of Police Science and Administration 1: 168-74. 6. President’s Commission on Law Enforcement and Administration of 10. Carter, David L. (1976) “Police Brutality.” Justice (1967a) A N~tional Survey of In A. S. Blumberg and E. Niederhoffer Police- Community Relations: Field Surveys (eds.), The Ambivalent Force. New York: V. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Holt, Rinehart and Winston, pp. 321-30. Printing Office. 11. Monell Vs. Department of Social Services; 7. Lester, David (1982) “Civilians Who Kill (436 U.S. 658 (1978). Police Officers and Police Officers Who Kill Civilians.” Journal of Police Science and Administration 10: 384-87.

78 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Date Rape Key Words : Acquaintance, perpetrator, club drugs, Lt. Col (Dr) Ravi Rautji, Rudra A, flunitrazepam, ketamine. Lalwani S, Dogra TD * Introduction Abstract : Crime - whatever its nature, is traumatic for the Date rape, as the name itself victim, however never more so than rape. Rape is a suggests, transpires when the involved violent crime engineered through sexual acts that individuals have a definitive or defined are forced, degrading and totally devastating. The relationship at the time of the incident. idea is to control, humiliate, force, harm and The commonest victims of date rape are overpower the victim. The age old myths regarding college students, as it is they who indulge rape and sexual assault, as being invited, confined in the social trend of dating more often. A only to women or stranger motivated can no longer survey carried out in USA gives credence be said to hold true. Sexual assault does not to this, wherein about 25% of the college always necessarily involve a female victim and a women reported being the victim of rape male stranger lurking in the dark. It is now a universally accepted fact that rape occurs between and 84% of their assailants were dates or acquaintances and also individuals of the same 1 acquaintances. sex, and this makes the act no less disgusting, Dating violence is perpetrated by degrading or devastating. both males and females and occurs usually wihin heterosexual dating relationships. Attitudes toward physical aggression, including those of peers, and abuse by siblings predict later violence, as victim or perpetrator.2 Abusive experiences during dating relationships may disrupt normal developmental process. This disruption manifests itself through thoughts, feelings and behaviours.3 Demographic characteristic that increase vulnerability to date rape include younger age at first date, early sexual activity, earlier age of menarche, a past history of sexual abuse and violence towards women. Other risk factors include alcohol and drugs of abuse such as flunitrazepam.4 In India, dating is not as widespread or as widely accepted as in the western *Department of Forensic Medicine and countries. Even so, the incidence of date Toxicology AIIMS, New Delhi-29 rape is not uncommon in the [email protected]

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 79 metropolitan cities. The percentage of people involved. The victims may often occurrence however cannot be feel as if they were responsible for the specifically outlined as no such study has incident in some manner as they are close been carried out. This type of rape is to the perpetrator and yet were unable to usually not reported because of the judge him. Hence, they may experience stigma attached, difficulty in the additional burdens of betrayal and prosecuting, and quite often due to lack self-accusation, along with a sense of of pertinent information or even specific personal failure regarding their ability details, and more often than not, to avoid to select dating partners. further trauma for the victim. Date rape ‘Date rape drug’ is a common term can be coerced both physically and given to a growing number of substances emotionally. Physically overpowering rapists use to pacify their victims in the victim in date rape is just as common order to sexually assault them with little as emotional blackmail. Threats to or no physical resistance. They are also defame or malign the reputation of the called club drugs or predatory drugs. victim, name-calling, threats to break up Usually, the rapist slips the drug into the with the victim etc, are other forms of unsuspecting victim’s drink when he or emotional coercion. Date rape is made she is not paying attention. There are a more complex by dating norms and the number of drugs that can be used for this extent of the relationship between the purpose. Date Rape Drugs

S. No. Drug name Description Effects on body 1 Rohypnol It belongs to benzodiazepam family Dizziness, temporary paralysis, (flunitrazepam) and is used for the treatment of anxiety amnesia, blackouts, loss of and sleep disturbances. It is tasteless, inhibitions. Effects are colourless, odourless and readily pronounced if mixed with alcohol dissolves in liquids. It comes in pill and other drugs. Symptoms form and is ten times more powerful appear within 15 to 30 minutes. than Valium. It is commonly known The effects of Rohypnol peak as Roofies, Roche, Rib or Stupefi. within two hours, and usually rohypnol is odorless, colorless, and last 8-12 hours tasteless and dissolves within seconds in any type of beverage.

2 Benzodiazepines Most commonly prescribed drugs. They Drowsiness, dizziness, confusion. are used for their sedative and Sedative effect in increased, if mixed tranquilizing effects. with alcohol.

3 Marijuana It is a mixture of dried shredded flowers Feelings of detachment, and leaves of the hemp plant. It contains disinhibition, euphoria, elation, at least six active chemical constituents, dreaminess, sleepiness, laughing, the most important of which is disorientation, altered sexual tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) which feelings. affects the brain most.

80 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Date Rape

S. No. Drug name Description Effects on body 4 Barbiturates It is used mainly as a sedative. They Drowsiness, confusion, dizziness, were the most common drugs of nausea. Alcohol and other drugs addiction in the past. They are available intensify the above affects. in the form of pills, capsule and syrup.

5 Gamma It was initially used by body builders to Decreased inhibition, drowsiness, Hydroxybutyric stimulate muscle growth. It is used by shallow breathing, hypotension, Acid (GHB) college students, expecially in rave type seizures and amnesia. Symptoms party. It is a tasteless, odourless and start appearing in 15 to 30 minutes. colourless drug and can be easily slipped into a drink. GHB usually comes as an odorless, clear liquid. However, it sometimes comes in a white powder form. It has a salty taste, which is easily masked in alcoholic drinks or sodas. GHB is also known as Liquid X, Easy Lay, Grievous Bodily Harm, and Georgia home Boy. GHB taken in high doses, or with alcohol or any other depressant drug, can be fatal.

6 Propoxyphene It is a narcotic analgesic, mainly used to Drowsiness, dizziness, treat mild to moderate pain lightheadedness, nausea and vomiting.

7 Opiates It is available in the form of brown Body feels warm and heavy, dry chunks or powder. mouth, insensitivity to pain, sweating and slowed breathing.

8 Ketamine It is used as a veterinary anesthetic. It Produces a dissociative effect, can be snorted, smoked or mixed with nightmares, hallucinations, irrational water. behaviour, delirium, psychosis and euphoria.

9 Cocaine It is used as a veterinary anesthetic. It Feelings of pleasure and confidence. can be snorted, smoked or mixed with Increase in heart rate, blood water. It is a white crystalline powder, pressure, respiratory rate and body soluble in water. It is a brain stimulant temperature. Effects are short lived. and one of the most highly addictive drugs. It can be injected, snorted or smoked.

10 Burundanga One of the most obscure date rape Disorientation, retrograde amnesia drugs. Highly soluble and tasteless. and trans-like state.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 81 Date Rape Drugs and the Law alone. Try to walk home with a Giving a person a drug without his or friend or in groups. her knowledge, with the intention of • Don’t give too much information committing a violent crime against the about yourself to a person you person, is punishable under section 328 have just met. of IPC with a maximum punishment of 10 years. • Never walk home through Non-consensual sex, coerced sex, sex deserted areas like parkland or with a person under the influence of railroad tracks. alcohol or drugs, and therefore not able • Do not hitchhike. to give consent, is rape (Section 375 of IPC) and is punishable under sectin 376 • Anyone who suspects that they of IPC. have ingested a tampered drink or sedative-like substance Prevention should report to a hospital • Always keep your beverage in emergency room Be sure to ask sight. for a urine sample and try to keep a sample of the beverage • Never accept an open drink for analysis. from anyone. • Avoid drinking punch at social What to do if Exposed to a Date gatherings-date drugs can Rape Drug: easily be added to an open bowl. • Seek medical attention • If you are going to a party, immediately. establish a buddy system with a • If you are in a social setting and friend, watch out for each other. you have been drugged, do not • If your friend experiences any of leave with anyone you do not the aforementioned symptoms, know and trust. Take a trusted do not leave their side for a friend along and get medical second. help. • Bear in mind that the initial • Request an immediate test for effects of these drugs appear date rape drugs-Rohypnol very similar to the effects of cannot be detected 60-72 hours alcohol. after ingestion and GHB cannot be detected after 8-12 hours. • Avoid people who make you feel uncomfortable. Conclusion • When you’re leaving, don’t Date rape is the vilest form of rape, as announce that you’re walking the perpetrator is known and trusted by

82 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Date Rape the victim. This not only leaves the victim 2. Rickert V I, Vaughan R D, Wiemann C M. with physical scars but also emotionally Adolescent dating violence and date rape. cripples the victim for life. They loose Curr Opin Obstet Gyneco,. 2002 Oct; 14(5): their ability to trust people and may also 495-500. be unable to form emotional ties with 3. Ackard D M, Neumark-Sztainer D. date people. It degrades and devastates the violence and date rape among victim to be sexually assaulted by a adolescents: associations with person they hold in a position of love and disordered eating behaviors and trust. psychological health. Child Abuse Negl. 2002 May; 26(5): 455-73. Reference 4. Rickert V I, Wiemann C M. Date rape 1. Olshaker S J, Jackson M C, Smock S W. among adolescents and young adults. J Ped Forensic Emergency Medicine. Ed. 2001, Adolesc Gynecol. 1998 Nov; 11(4): 167-75. Philadelphia, W W Lippincott: 33-34.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 83 Role of Police in Key Words : Industrialization, Urbanization, Development, Changing Indian Environment, Changing scenario.

Scenario Abstract : Dr. (Mrs.) Anupam Sharma* In India, today the socio-economic and political scene of the country has considerably changed due Until independence, the common to constitutional amendments, planned economic man was successfully or unsuccessfully; development, spread of education, political assured of security by the kings, feudal awakening, social awareness in the masses, erosion lords and colonial masters and he of moral and social values, criminalization of accepted it with a sense of. gratitude, as politics and politicization of crime, party politics, increasing collective violence, crime and terrorism, he had no right to participate in the sociological change with modernization, economic system. However, in the post development and its impact on masses. In this independence period constitutional changing environment police are expected to act as provisions were made to ensure that the a barometer of the current state of a society. Police people get an equal opportunity to has to play role in socio, economic, cultural and participate in the political, political field also because political conflict, social administrative and economic systems at tension and different developments have been all levels. In this context, at the grass root creating pressure in the external environment. level local self-administrative institutions were made operative and people at village and town level were provided with the right of not only to elect their representatives but also to participate in the system in real sense of the term. The purpose of electing these representatives was that they could look after the welfare and security of the common people and implement development programmes enunciated by the government under the supervision of experts. This blue print of change posed new challenges before the administrative system. Police was not an exception to this. However, as has been stated the base on which the entire edifice of the police administration was based remained, colonial in its nature, hence whatever the new system wanted *Lecturer-Deptt. of Political Science from the police, perhaps was contrary to the set-up and therefore problems were I.N.M. (P.G.) College, Meerut (UP)

84 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Role of Police in Changing Indian Scenario bound to erupt from within the police contributed to dismal performance of the organization and also due to the pressure policeman. form outside. If the political conflict, social tensions and different The Changing Indian Scenario developments have been creating In a fast changing society, which is pressure in the external environmental undergoing fundamental changes; the service conditions question of ‘police often face emotional ambivalence accountability, decentralisation of job and normative contradiction in the specialisation and demand of authority choice of alternative in decision making have been the problems of the and role performance’. In India, today we organisation. notice that the socio-economic and Rapid changes in the society have political scene of the country has often complicated social control. The changed considerably due to the forces of social control operating in following factors: pluralist societies have always to ● Constitution of India and its confront the perplexing problems. In subsequent amendments from view of the conflicting demands made by time to time. the various segments of the society, the policeman lives and works in an ● Planned economic development environment of cross-fires in a highly and successive five-year plans changed atmosphere of mistrust and their implementation. disbelief and uncertainty. External and internal stresses of varied nature make ● Sociological change with the job of the policeman today, an uphill modernisation. task. The external stresses of growing ● Spread of education and plurality of faiths, belief values, and life- knowledge. styles, old order yielding place to new, social environment reflecting a ● Political awakening and social challenge to old values peoples’ becoming awareness in the masses. more assertive of their rights without commensurate mindful of their duties ● Party politics and its indirect and obligations, over-increasing influence in various fields. interference by the unscrupulous ● Criminalisation of politics and politicians in the day to day police politicisation of crime. functioning, general degeneration of values with the least regard for social ● Demand for dignity of institutions all have exposed the policing individuals and security of the system to unimaginable situations. The state at the same time. internal stresses comprising interalia, ● Communalisation, regionalism unrealistic establishment, under- and linguistic demands and staffing, limited finances, poor working their impact on community. conditions and antiquated tools have

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 85 ● Erosion of moral and social like prohibition of immoral traffic etc. values and changing social Thus police may be turned as a catalyst pattern. for the social change. It may not be out of place to mention here that whenever any ● Increasing collective violence social change takes place there is bound and crime. to be a conflict between traditional

● Awakening in rural masses. progressive forces in the society. This may not go violent and disturb the place ● Increasing terrorism and other is the responsibility of police. Similarly internal security problems. on economic side considerable change has been experienced in the national ● Indiscipline in school and community in last four decades and the colleges. police has to play role in this direction ● Economic development and its also. impact on the masses. Economic development not only signifies an increase in the gross national In changing environment police are product but also its equitable expected to act as a barometers of the distribution, which requires current state of a society. The concentrated efforts both on the part of constitution lays down some specific government and people. The instructions for the development. For constitution in this respect, in the instance while discussing social chapter 7 ‘directive principles of state development, the constitution envisage policies’ has specifically mentioned that - that their must not be any discrimination “The ownership and control of the between man and man on the basis of material resources of the community are caste, creed, colour and sex and for this it so distributed as best to sub serve the is the job of police to look that no such common good”, and in this context discrimination takes place. Similarly, it various programmes have been enacted is again job of the police to assist local and implemented by the government. It institution in the implementation of is the responsibility of the agency of law social reforms as proposed by the and order to see to it that the legislature from time to time. The social programmes are properly carried out. legislation as has been reported by the Thus the police is suppose to work as a National Police Commission includes catalyst of development in the economic laws concerning to marriage, divorce, sector also, that is to say that the police adoption, inheritance, discrimination force should create suitable conditions against women, dowry, begging for economic growth, but prevent the prohibiting the consumption of economic offences and keep a positive intoxicated drinks and drug to attitude towards the economic change. prohibiting the social vice like gambling Police is supposed to keep pace of lotteries and helping in the industralisation smooth by containing rehabilitation of handicap and weaker labour troubles, by helping in the process of section of the society I enforcing rights

86 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Role of Police in Changing Indian Scenario urbanisation and also containing the spurt equality to all, where all have been of crime due to rising rate of crime allowed to participate in the political unemployment. Thus, as admitted by Pt. process at all levels, it is but natural that Jawahar Lal Nehru, the Police is there could be conflict in the interest of responsible to create the conditions in individuals, groups and parties owing to which development is possible. Further the freedom granted by the article 19 (1) police may help, not only, in the a, b and c of the constitution to each implementation of progrpammes but in individual to express himself, to containing offences also. The national assemble peacefully and to form police commission has stated that ‘tax associations and unions. There is always evasion, manipulation of stock and shares, a possibility of demonstrations and fraud in licences and permits, black political mobilization in the villages and marketing, hoardings, adulteration of towns. To see that it remains peaceful is drugs and food and other essential the duty of police. Apart from this commodities are example of economic terrorism, violent, resistance, riots, offences'. collective and communal violence etc. In this context it may be mentioned have started to find place in the national that it is the duty of police to implement community. Again, it is the duty of police the act like, essential commodities act, to ensure a smooth passage of political 1958, prevention of adulteration act, process so that stability and change both 1954, prevention of corruption act, 1957, may move together. However the vested criminal breach of trust etc. By interest and selfish leadership impedes implementing such laws, which are the functioning of democratic polity and negative in, nature, police can keep the therefore it becomes imperative for the economic growth in right direction. It police to face the vested interests and the may be mentioned here that with the hooligans while preserving the political implementation of different economic values and process. Obviously this is a programmes in the rural setting a very delicate situation. The government conflict between have and have not of the day in the states and their attitude, erupted. The conflict has further the followers of the ruling party, their intensified because of coming into worker etc. try to take law in their hands existence a new lower middle class. and police is supposed to obstruct such Whereas the higher class wants to keep designs while maintaining the peace. even this new class under its This has given rise to a high rate of conventional dominance, the new class disturbances in the near past. Rapid refutes to submit as such there have been cultural transformation has also turned numerous incidents of collective the tides towards crime and as such violence, murder, abduction and rape in police is supposed to grapple with the the national community. It is there that situation. police force may be of considerable use in The growing affluence of the middle keeping the conflict more constructive. class and its ostentatious the growing In a democratic country like India affluence of the middle class and its which ensures political justice and ostentatious consumerism are fomenting

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 87 major problems for the police. First, the The primary responsibility for such runaway growth of cars is choking the reform lies with the police leadership. already congested streets, which has After all in the final analysis, the test of rendered traffic management to leadership is the scale of success, which nightmare. Second, traffic-related crime it achieves in improving the quality of the on city streets and highways, like men in its organisation. drunken driving and hit-and-run cases, is growing. Favourite haunts of the References yuppies, like night clubs, restaurants 1. Basu, D.D. ‘An Introduction to the and pubs, are multiplying apace, where constitution of India. problems like obscene dances, drunken 2. India 1983. brawls and use of illegal drugs, are the emerging crimes. 3. Mulik, B. B. ‘Nahru on Police’ Patil and The role of police is changing Indian Dutt Publishers, Dehradun, 1970. scenario. Police has to play role in socio; 4. Pandey, A.K. ‘Development Administration economic cultural, and political field and Local Police’ Mittal Publications, also. But the question is that how can we Delhi, 1978. meet the challenges so we must make 5. Rao, S.V. ‘Facets of Civil in India’ Allied attitudinal reforms, organisational Publishers, Bombay, 1967. reforms, developing a special of public 6. Shah, G.R. ‘Indian Police’ Cosmo service. And side by side improving Publication, New Delhi, 1989. image and physical fitness, better professional knowledge and technical 7. Sharma, P.D. ‘Police and Political Order in skills and use of modern equipment and India’ Research Publications, New Delhi, 1984. technologies.

88 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Dealing with Job- Key Words : Psychological Phenomenon, work efficiency, Oriented obvious neglect, selection criteria, victimization, adaptive deterioration, distorted perception, Frustration and defensive behaviour.

Dissatisfaction in Abstract : Police Service. Frustration is one of the major psychological issues arising in a work situation. Due to frustration Naparajit Mukherjee, IPS* performance is affected and best output from the human-resource is not available. In a police Frustration is one of the organization this leads to visible levels of psychological phenomenon which inefficiency. This organization being always severely affects the work efficiency of a matter of public scrutiny is subjected to criticism person in his job assignment. Frustration on falling levels of efficiency. There are several mechanisms to deal with frustration. The superior leads to weakening of the will power to officers should share his guilt, his feelings his act and to function efficiently thereby frustrations with his subordinates. Again, he has to badly affecting the output of a worker. As help his employees understand their problems, a result, overnight a highly efficient overcome the same and come up with alternatives. worker may turn out to be ineffective at Such constructive approach will help to overcome his job. In the process he may lose his frustration by joint efforts. The superiors have a esteem, importance and ultimately his greater role to play in this regard since they are goodwill at his work place. Therefore, it responsible for controlling various factors is extremely essential that at the generating frustration in an organization. Thus managerial levels job oriented they have to keep it under check and deliver the frustration should be identified properly best results. as well as tackled adequately. In an organization like police where there is constant dealing with members of public and tasks of extreme sensitive nature are performed it is essential that frustration should not set in among the members of the organization. In case it does so then the consequences that would follow would be severe and the overall “health of the organization” would be affected.

Genesis of frustration:- Causes of frustration are many. If we relate to police organization we can find many examples. A police personnel of the *Additional Commissioner of Police, rank of Sub- Inspector is able to arrest a Kolkata.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 89 notorious criminal or detect and inherent weakness in the system become successfully investigate a difficult case responsible for the increasing but the credit goes to his superior. frustration in the work atmosphere of an Another instance could be that in a police- official. Analysing, causes of frustration unit say a Police Station there are fifteen could arise out of manifold factors -some Sub-Inspectors stationed, out of them generated deliberately, some resulting only two (2) are effectively functioning. from utter neglect and disregard for However, it is noticed that the “Non- human sensitivity. Some cases of functioning” and “inefficient” are being frustration could be purely psychological neglected. Such obvious neglect and crass -out of a sense of perceived neglect; some acts of partiality only generates frustration could also arise from frustration among the good and efficient personal problems (relating to family workers. Rewards/punishments is an matters), which are very often reflected area where extreme caution and careful in the work place. In a real life situation assessment is required. Very often in a specially related to an organization like police organization there is no criteria police examples could be as-a sub- fixed for rewards. Moreover, the selection inspector has a rival in the same police criteria is not clear. For example, the station. He always perceives that his officer-in-charge of the police station superiors give more importance to his recommends rewards for the competitors /colleagues, than to him constabulary to his Superintendent. But thereby having a perception of neglect there is often allegations that those who which in turn leads to psychological actually deserve have not been problems/frustrations. recommended. The Superintendent does not have The Dynamics of frustration:- the scope or time to verify such There are several factors which recommendations as a result of which, contribute to frustration. These are all perhaps, the deserving candidates do not goal related. According to Pareekh get the reward. Similar situations arise following could be the formula for in case of punishments where very often frustration- questions of victimization of lower ranks F = E x V x O + I + P by senior officers arise. Where- The factors of Frustration:- F = Frustration As mentioned in the previous E = Expectation to achieve the goal paragraph there are several causes of V = Valence (Attractiveness of the frustration. Most common factor being goal) that non-fulfillment of desire or O = Opportunity to achieve the goal expectation by an employee or deliberate in near future (low) downgrading of an employee in I = Investment of efforts and other comparison to his peer/peers thereby outputs in the achievement of hurting his ego/esteem. Thus, such the goal.

90 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Dealing with Job-Oriented Frustration and Dissatisfaction in Police Service.

P = Publicity of the expected In a cycle of frustration a police achievement (Knowledge of personnel due to frustration starts others). neglecting his work thereby leading to There variables viz E, V, 0 have general deterioration in his multiplicative effect thereby enhancing performance. This isolates him from his frustration faster. If one of these staff/superiors as they feel that he is multiplicative factors become zero the neglecting his work. Such isolation leads resulting frustration would be zero. Thus to distorted perception -or fantasies of if an official does not expect to get his performance or neglect. In the promotion soon he would not be process he starts defending himself frustrated. Again if the goal is not leading to a defensive behaviour. attractive or valuable then the degree of On the contrary a cycle of hope leads frustration is less. In case the goal is a disappointed person to analyse things attractive the obstacles are greater for correctly with greater objectivity & achieving the same. The more frequent trying to understand where things have opportunities a person has in achieving gone wrong. This leads to collection of the goal less is the frustration caused by facts /exploration which causes better deprivation of the goal. The other two understanding to the whole problem. factors viz efforts invested & publicity of Both these cycle are self perpetuating expected reward have additive with the cycle growing stronger on its functions. They add to frustration but not advancement. To quote a specific in the same proportion. More efforts example relating to police organization invested in achieving the goal the degree pertaining to cycle of hope —A Sub- of frustration becomes more if the goal is Inspector of police working as SHO in a not achieved. Also the more others know police station is passing through the about achieving a goal frustration would cycle of hope period. There are certain be more on not achieving the same. For important problems to be resolved example one Sub-Inspector of police is regarding serious out break of dacoity in due for promotion as Inspector & this is the police station area. He has to known to all. However, due to certain urgently resolve the situation (problem) reasons he has not been given the in order to build confidence among promotion. This fact increases his members of public, restore his trust frustration. among superiors and also respect of his subordinates. He collects basic facts Circularly of frustration:- relating to dacoities, persons involved, Frustration of person triggers of a likely gangs, areas and localities cycle of hope or frustration. Frustration involved. After this exercise he analyses cycle is as follows: adaptive deterioration - in details and then grapples with the isolation- distorted perception -defensive problem to arrive at a solution. In this behaviour. The hope cycle is just the manner being hopeful he is able to bring opposite of it: realistic analysis - out a positive solution to the whole exploration -insight -problem solving. problem rather than leaving it alone.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 91 Coping behaviour:- very defensive. Instead of giving a patient hearing a defensive mechanism A man or woman who is a subject starts working with the result matter of frustration has to deal with the justification takes primary importance situation in order to overcome the same. rather than the attitude of resolving the This is known as the coping behaviour. An problem. In such circumstances it Officer-in-Charge of a Police Station is becomes imperative that the art of facing a serious problem resultant to patient hearing should be developed by outbreak of crime in his area. His typical senior officers to resolve disputes. behavioural pattern could be as follows:- ii) Share own feelings of a) Be angry with his subordinates ------disappointment:- aggression. A senior police officer should be able b) He may rush to solve the problem to keep his level with his junior himself ------regression. colleagues. This will enable the senior c) He may explain away the problem to officers to ascertain the feelings, his seniors ------flight. frustrations, problems of the juniors. The d) He may hold a meeting with staff, seniors should share his feelings of analyse and then react ------frustration with his subordinate staff in exploration. order to build-up a rapport with them. This should certainly not be considered Different forms of coping as a “gimmick” but should be taken behaviour:- positively in order to share the same feelings. i) Listening to the feeling of the staff/ iii) Share feelings of Guilt: - subordinates:- At the time, the Commanding Officer At the very beginning the employees of an unit viz. S.P./C.O. or the Officer-in- should be given a patient hearing so that Charge of a Police Station promises they are able to state their negative certain things to the employees/his feelings. Such feelings could be acted subordinates. This raises the expectation upon to take corrective steps. Further, it among such subordinates. However, due helps reassure the subordinates staff to certain compulsive reasons those that the superior officer has given a expectations could not be achieved patient hearing to their grievances thereby leading to frustrations among the thereby attempting to solve their employees. By explaining to the problems. Patient hearing to staff and to subordinates the reasons for failure to subordinate officers is one of the deliver those expectations the superior prominent and primary procedure of officers may share his feeling of guilt coping behaviour. In police it is often thereby assuage the feelings of his seen that superior/ subordinate officer subordinates. Such sharing of feeling of react in similar fashion when problems guilt brings out the honesty, sincerity and are narrated. They develop a negative commitment of a senior officer towards attitude to the entire issue and become his subordinates. It also shows his

92 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Dealing with Job-Oriented Frustration and Dissatisfaction in Police Service. simplicity, transparency and open minded vii) Develop alternatives to solve the view towards his subordinates and his problems:- attitude towards problem solving. The Supervisors/managers/superior iv) Help the subordinates to own the officers should help the subordinates in feelings :- generating alternatives so that the frustrated staff can progress his career The Commending Officers’ behaviour on that basis rather than remain in sharing his feelings and owning up the stagnant. Most often it so happens that feelings of guilt helps the employees/ the frustrated employees are subordinate staff. The behaviour of the dumbfounded and are totally unable to superior acts as a model for the generate any creative alternative. In subordinates. The subordinate such a situation the superiors try to help employees may own up their feelings of them by finding out various alternatives frustration and anger which in the long thereby creating an atmosphere where run helps in taking constructive steps. the employees could progress, do away with their frustration and try and v) Help the employees to accept and achieve their best once again. confront reality :- The initial step or beginning could be Causes of frustration as made by acknowledging the reality of the experienced in police situation. This would be a constructive organization scenario:- step in sorting out the problems. This Some of the major causes of would clear the misapprehensions frustration which crop up in a police between subordinate and their superiors organization could be summarized as and the new situation would be clearly follows:- accepted. vi) Help the employees to assess the a) Rewards:- damage caused by frustration: - Monetary/non-monetary rewards The superiors must take their are a major source/cause of heart- subordinates into confidence and make burning and frustration. Superior- them assess what all damage has been officers do not apply their mind while caused to them as a result of frustration. rewarding subordinates nor are there Normally, damage is caused Physically any yard-sticks or norms or judgmental (tension, sleeplessness, loss of appetite criteria fixed for rewards. As a result, it is often alleged that those who are etc.); social effects (on personal close to certain senior officials are relationship, loss of social contacts etc. ); frequently rewarded but those who effects on work ( neglect of work, errors, really work hard and produce good fall in quality of work) etc. The results are ignored since their cases subordinates need to understand these are not at all highlighted. The senior issues and adequately rectify the situation. officers, it is often complained that

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 93 they do not apply their mind in giving d) Issues relating to promotion :- rewards to the deserving personnel. Very often it is observed that the Thus, disparities are generated better officer are overlooked whereas leading to frustration. the less efficient officers are promoted. This is one of the major causes for b) Punishment related issues:- generating frustration in a work It has been a common experience that environment. Promotions are over- recommendations/reports for looked mainly because of inadequacies in punishments coming to unit in charges annual confidential reports, rewards, like CO/SP must have to be scrutinized punishments etc. Proper evaluation of very thoroughly. Very often it has been performance of a subordinate officer is observed that such recommendations, at not carried out as a result of which times, are extremely motivated in aberration in matters of promotion occur. nature. The person who is actually guilty This generates lot of frustrations among at time is let-off and blame shifted to the the staff/subordinate officials. innocent and not so guilty. Therefore in Therefore, a very balanced view is to be order to ensure better man- management taken while evaluating the performance and remove causes of frustration it is of an officer. essential to have a positive approach. Extreme caution is, therefore, to be e) Dealing with issues relating to exercised in cases of awarding frustration in a Police punishments in order to avoid Organization :- frustration among staff and better man- Police being a high-result oriented management. government department needs optimum c) Distribution of work :- utilization of its human-resources. If over 50% of its human- resources remain In various police units, specially unutilized then overall output badly police stations distribution of work deteriorates and the public impact is among subordinate staff often become a very adverse. Moreover, taxpayers sore point leading to frustration. It is money is totally misutilised in such a often observed that those who work hard scenario. Therefore, it is very essential are given the maximum work-load. Those that the entire human-resource be who are shirkers or are comparatively utilized and levels of frustration be kept inefficient are generally avoided by under check. The superior-subordinate superior officers. In such a situation a relationship should therefore be at a handful of subordinates are made to cordial level. The superiors should share work whereas the rest enjoy “sabbath”. his feelings of guilt with subordinates. This creates a disbalance in man- He should bring his level with that of his management leading very often to heart subordinates so that a proper rapport is burning. Also there is lack of proper established. Also they (superiors) should utilization of human-resources causing assist and help the subordinates to inefficiency and lesser output.

94 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Dealing with Job-Oriented Frustration and Dissatisfaction in Police Service. ascertain causes of frustration and ways idealizations are better said than done. It and means to overcome the same. The is extremely hard and difficult to remove superiors should also help the frustrations of different levels and subordinates to find out creative degrees among organizational members. alternatives to come out of a situation First and foremost is to identify the thereby producing better results. The causative factors of frustration. After superiors also have a major role and proper identification it is then essential responsibility in keeping levels of to find out ways and means for a solution frustration under check. In various to this problem. Once the ways and aspects of man-management proper means have been identified the same has judgment and discretion are to be to be implemented on the ground in order exercised so that arbitrariness is to remove the problem. Once such reduced to a minimum and proper justice actions are initiated the process of is done to all. problem solving commences. However, this effort cannot be a one-time affair and Conclusions :- requires con-stant monitoring. In case Frustration is a psychological there is lack of close monitoring on the phenomenon which “eats up an part of senior managers then there is employees mind just like cancer”. every possibility that the Therefore, for proper functioning and “FRUSTRATION CYCLE” will efficient output it is essential that a commence once again thereby negating police organization should remain free the earlier efforts of removing this from frustrated employees. However, “managerial evil” from the system. such ideal situations are very hard to Bibliography: - achieve. Thus, we must strive to ensure that frustration levels should be Organisational Behaviour &. Processes minimized by joint efforts of superiors — Uday Pareekh (Rawat, 1998). and subordinates. This will help in Bases of Power proper utilization of the available human-resources. However, such — Uday Pareekh (Unpublished).

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 95 Design Flaws Key Words : Highly Motorized Countries, Side impact air bags, Shatrujeet kapur* Anti-lock Break System (ABS), Crumple Zones, fluorescent emergency warning triangle, Electronic Stability Control, Crash worthiness standards, There has been a spurt in traffic Pedestrian impact standards. density on Indian roads in recent times. Vehicle population has grown from 0.3 Abstract : million in 1951 to over 60 million now, More than 90000 persons are killed every year in and so have the accidents. More than road accidents in India. Even more worrisome is 90,000 persons get killed and nearly the fact that this number is growing at a rate of 130,000 are crippled for life every year in almost 5% i.e. nearly 4000 per annum. our country in road accidents. One in Comparison with Highly Motorized Countries every ten persons killed in accidents in (HMCs) reveals that fatality rate in those countries the world is an Indian. Worse, the is less than 2 per ten thousand vehicles as against fatalities are growing by about 5% i.e. 14 in India - a difference of 600 percent! This nearly 4000 per annum. In economic highlights the utterly poor state of affairs in the terms, the estimated loss of life and country. Even though poor driving skills and bad property is 55000 crores per annum. It is roads are two major causes of accidents in India, a huge tragedy. design flaws and lack of safety features in vehicles plying on our roads is an important contributory A comparison with highly motorized factor. For example, body of commercial vehicles countries (HMCs) is appalling. UK with like trucks, buses and LCVs, tractor trailers etc. are its 25 million vehicles has less than 3500 fabricated by roadside mechanics using outdated designs. The structure often exceeds permissible deaths per annum; Germany having dimensions with a view to facilitate overloading. almost the same vehicle population as Similarly, design of passenger vehicles also suffers India has 8700 fatalities; USA with more from several flaws. As ordinary buyers are not in a than four times the number of vehicles position to evaluate design features, there is a need has half the number of deaths; Japan is to set up an independent safety regulator in the even better with just 9940 deaths in road country on the lines of National Highway Traffic traffic accidents for its 84 million Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the US. This vehicles. Fatality rate in these countries will go a long way in developing and works out to less than 2 per ten thousand implementing minimum safety standards, crash vehicles, as against India’s 14 – a worthiness standards, pedestrian impact difference of 600%! Even Asian countries standards, mandatory safety devices, etc. Motor vehicle Act 1988 contains enough provisions like Malaysia, Indonesia, and Korea etc. empowering the government to make rules & law far better than India with less than half need to be utilized to ensure compliance of safety the fatality rate. Such a sad state of standards in the country. affairs can only be attributed to extreme inept handling, or rather no handling, of the situation. Logically speaking, lower average *Deputy Insperctor General of Police speed of traffic should lead to less fatal (Trg.), CBI Academy, Ghaziabad.

96 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Design Flaws accidents, but exactly the opposite is years. Today, one can see LCVs with body happening in our country. Despite lower as big as that of a truck. Height of the speeds, India has much higher fatality body always exceeded that of the cabin, rate. The situation is likely to worsen but now even the width can be seen when the ongoing road-building projects exceeding, on both sides, by at least 6 to 9 are completed, as improved highways inches. There are hardly any indicators would mean higher traffic speeds and on the rear, leading to poor visibility at more fatalities. night. This poses grave risk of accidents, especially in case of slow moving vehicles All three - man, machine and the road like tractor-trailers. Not that the – have a bearing on road safety. Out of automakers cannot produce these, man behind the machine remains scientifically designed body or trailers, the biggest cause of accidents, with lack but they do not do so because of of road engineering being a contributory commercial considerations. The factor. However, the machine itself is no government too has failed to regulate less important, even though its this important aspect of road safety. importance is often overlooked and the entire focus is on the other two factors, A few years back, enterprising namely, driving skills and road farmers in north India went a step ahead engineering. and fabricated a multi-purpose vehicle using locally available resources. This Several important questions arise in vehicle - known variously as ‘Jugar’, this context: Are vehicles plying on ‘maruta’ etc - became very popular in Indian roads designed as per rural areas. As they were being plied international safety standards? Are without the authority of law, Punjab & automakers in our country paying Haryana High Court intervened and enough attention to road safety? If no, is ordered their confiscation on the ground anyone watching? inter-alia that safety of the common man India, even today, remains one of was endangered. Going by this criterion, those countries where manufacturers of a large number of commercial vehicles commercial vehicles - trucks, LCVs, plying on our roads should be buses etc. – sell only the chassis and the confiscated. Poorly designed and badly body is fabricated by small overloaded, often with the cargo jutting entrepreneurs called bodybuilders. out on all four sides, these killer These small scale units use outdated machines move on the highways like designs with liberal dose of hard edges, monsters. Nearly 70 % fatal accidents in sharp projections, chains, hooks etc. Not India involve a heavy vehicle and more only their designs are unscientific, than two-third of the victims are quality of workmanship is poor too. The vulnerable road users (VRUs) like structure invariably exceeds permissible pedestrians, cyclists and two-wheelers. dimensions in order to facilitate This underlines the need to develop safe overloading. In fact, the situation has designs which are ‘friendly’ to vulnerable grown from bad to worse in the last few groups.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 97 It is said that a good driver has to standards, pedestrian impact standards, keep an eye on the road ahead as well as mandatory safety devices, etc. Crash on the traffic behind. For this purpose, worthiness standards require rearview mirrors are provided that serve simulation of vehicle crashes under as rear eyes of the driver. Nearly all different conditions in order to develop Indian cars lack a rearview mirror on the crash resistant technology such as left hand side. Even the inside rearview energy-absorbing crumple zones, steel mirror and the one on the right hand side safety cages, air bags, safety belts, are not day night variety, the one that collapsible energy-absorbing steering would safeguard us from being dazzled by columns, padded instrument panels and the lights of vehicles from behind. As a side-guard door beams. Similarly, result, most drivers are forced to fold developing pedestrian impact standards them at night due to the glare. So much involves simulating vehicle accident so that a vast majority never learn to use with pedestrians. A series of tests are them even during the day. Similarly, conducted using dummies to assess almost all Indian models lack a rear impact to the head, upper legs and lower wiper; accessories do not include legs of a victim. The results are analyzed fluorescent emergency warning triangle; to improve frontal design of vehicles in hazard-warning switch is poorly located order to minimize pedestrian fatalities, on the steering rod rendering its which form a sizeable chunk of total operation risky while moving. In short, fatalities in road accidents. compromises are made in design Automotive Research Association of features in the name of cost cutting. India (ARAI), an organization overseeing There are no mandatory safety norms. As testing and research in the country, is the a result, road safety suffers. Today when nearest that we have to a safety world’s top manufacturers are talking of regulator, but it cannot be expected to side impact airbags, Anti-lock Brake function in a free and fair manner as it System, electronic stability control, has been floated by automobile crumple zones, rear parking sensors, companies themselves. impact absorbing materials etc., Indian automakers are governed more by profit As accidents are almost always considerations. blamed on irresponsible driving and bad roads, instances of automobile An ordinary buyer is not in a position manufacturers being held responsible to evaluate design features and to verify remain unheard of in our country. the claims of auto-manufacturers. Only Situation in developed countries is an expert body can do so. But different, where accidents are minutely unfortunately, there is no independent analyzed and automakers are sued for safety regulator in the country, unlike for defects in the design of vehicles. Courts example, National Highway Traffic too come down heavily on such flaws and Safety Administration (NHTSA) in the award exemplary compensations, US. The country needs a similar body to running into million of dollars, to the develop and implement minimum safety victims. In India, on the other hand, standards, namely, crash worthiness

98 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Design Flaws human life is not valued as much. No in- (f) speed governors; depth analysis of the causes of accidents is ever made. Police ends up filing charge (g) the emission of smoke, visible sheet against the driver of the bigger vapour, sparks, ashes, grit or oil; vehicle on the basis of statements of a few witnesses. Courts too appreciate the (h) the reduction of noise emitted evidence mechanically. Compensation by or caused by vehicles; awarded to the victims is meager and is paid by the insurance companies. Role of (i) the embossment of chassis automobile manufacturers is never number and engine number and critically examined. the date of manufacture; Section 109(1) of the Motor Vehicles (j) safety belts, handle bars of Act 1988 says, “ Every motor vehicle shall motors cycles, auto-dippers and be so constructed and so maintained as to other equipments essential for be at all times under the effective control of safety of drivers, passengers the person driving the vehicle.” and other road user;

Similarly, as per Section 110 of this (k) standards of the components Act, the Central government can make used in the vehicle as inbuilt rules regulating the construction, safety devices; equipment and maintenance of motor vehicles and trailers with respect to all or (l) provision for transportation of any of the following matters, namely:- goods of dangerous or hazardous nature to human life; (a) the width, height, length and overhand of vehicles and of the (m) standards of emission of air loads carried; pollutants;

(b) the size, nature, maximum (n) installation of catalytic retail price and condition of convertors in the class of tyres, including embossing vehicles to be prescribed; thereon of date and year of manufacture, and the maximum (o) the placement of audio-visual or load carrying capacity; radio or tape recorder type of devices in public vehicles; (c) brakes and steering gear; (p) warranty after sale of vehicle (d) the use of safety glasses and norms therefor. including prohibition of the use of tinted safety glasses; Thus, law empowers the Government and at the same time, it also casts a (e) signaling appliances, lamps and responsibility on it to act. As an example, reflectors; many precious lives can be saved if

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 99 bicycle-manufacturers can be directed to The country has made impressive provide effective reflectors that will strides in controlling vehicular emission in improve their visibility at night. recent years. International emission Likewise, commercial vehicle norms have been effectively implemented. manufacturers can be directed to design Similar initiative is needed to improve the body and trailers as well, instead of road safety in the country. While the focus leaving this task to roadside mechanics. has to be on sustained enforcement of Well-designed vehicles will not only save traffic laws and on building better roads, lives, the profile of traffic on our roads there is also a need to evolve better designs will also improve. Remember, we should and to make vehicles ‘safe’ in order to not only become a developed country, we minimize the carnage on our roads. should look like one too.

Table 1 - Highly Motorised Countries (HMC)

Country Reported Reported MV in use Popula- Fatali- Repor- Motori- Per Total GNP Fatalities Injuries 1996 tion ties ted sation Capita (millions 1996 Fata- Level GNP US$) ('000) lity Risk Portugal 2,100 66,627 4,330,600 9,930 2,100 21.1 436.1 11,024 109,472

Greece 2,068 31,658 5,206,776 10,475 2,068 19.7 497.1 11,688 122,430

United 41,967 3,399,000 208,801,157 265,284 41,967 15.8 787.1 29,339 7,783,092 States

France 8,080 170,117 30,558,000 58,375 8,807 13.8 523.5 26,409 1,541,630

Australia 1,970 17,048 10,956,000 18,312 1,970 10.8 598.3 20,899 382,705

Italy 6,198 264,213 35,394,150 57,380 6,694 10.8 616.8 20,224 1,160,444

Germany 8,758 493,158 45,821,425 81,912 8,758 10.7 559.4 28,335 2,320,985

Canada 3,082 230,885 17,171,776 29,964 3,082 10.3 573.1 19,856 594,976

Japan 9,942 942,203 84,067,073 125,761 12,925 7.9 668.5 38,264 4,812,103

United 3,598 316,704 24,001,000 58,782 3,598 6.1 408.3 20,946 1,231,269 Kingdom

Sweden 537 20,810 4,218,258 8,843 537 6.1 477 26,225 231,905

100 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Design Flaws

Table 2 - Asia & the Pacific Countries

Country Reported Reported MV in use Popula- Repor- Motori Per Capita Total Fatalities Injuries 1996 tion ted sation income GNP 1996 Fata- Level (US $) (million (‘000) lity (US $) Risk Malaysia 6,304 47,171 7,449,053 20,565 30.7 362.2 4,775 98,195

Thailand 16,782 43,541 17,666,202 60,003 28 294.4 2,761 165,659

Korea, 12,653 355,962 11,990,882 45,545 27.8 263.3 - -

SriLanka 1,916 16,824 770,000 18,300 10.5 42.1 808 14,781

Singapore 225 6,718 639,546 3,044 7.4 210.1 33,454 101,834

India (1996) 59,927 307,089 29,534,000 945,121 6.3 31.2 378 357,391

China 71,495 154,734 27,356,000 1,215,414 5.9 22.5 868 1,055,372

Indonesia 10,990 21,814 14,454,809 197,055 5.6 73.4 1,124 221,533

Nepal 807 22,037 3.7 - 221 4,863

Pakistan 4,288 8,986 2,462,552 133,510 3.2 18.4 484 64,638

Myanmar 924 252,000 45,883 2..0 5.5 - -

Bangladesh 2,041 3,301 458,700 121,671 1.7 3.8 362 44,090

Bhutan 6 14 14,000 715 0.8 19.6 441 315

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 101 Book Review

Towards a Complete Persona about the self-development programme and enhancing over potential. The The book Towards a Complete approach of the writer is very down to Persona written by Dr.G.P.Bhatnagar, earth and practical and easy to adopt by IG,BSF (Retd) dedicated to the members readers. of unoformed services and his wife, Uma. The book published by M.B. Publications 2. Hand Book Of Forensic Science in association with Learning Wheels, Maharajpur, Gwalior (M.P.). The book The book Hand Book of Forensic contains 196 Page with a price Rs.150 Science edited by Prof.(Dr.) Vimala and reviewed by Ms. Preeta Verma, AIG/ Veeraraghavan. The foreword of the book Asstt. Director, BPR&D. written by Dr.M.S.Rao, Director-cum- Chief Forensic Scientist, Ministry of 1. It is the first edition of the book Home Affairs with a price of Rs. 200/- . authored by Dr. G.P. Bhatnagar a retired The book published and Distributed by IG, BSF. He has actively been involved in Selective and Scientific books ( Post Box Human Resource Development and his No. 429), GPO, New Delhi- 110001and book is an helpful guide for bridging the reviewed by dr. A.K. Jaiswal, NICFS , gap between potential of individual and Delhi, Shri Praveen U. Sanganalmath, their performance. FSL, Dept. of Police, Madivala, 2. This book provides for ‘self Bangalore and Dr. M.Gupta, Chemical learning’ facility at home itself, it helps Dept., Gorakhpur University, the reader in improving their outer Gorakhpur. appearance and inner self which in turn would enhance their personality and The hand book consists of 19 productivity. academic papers in the form of chapters. The contributors are forensic experts in 3. In the present time when there is so their respective fields. These fields much emphasis on success and include crime scene investigation, achievement, this book will prove to be a useful guide for all those who are questioned document examination, entering the competitive world in some finger print experts, psychology, way or the other, whether as students, anthropology, toxicology, serology, executives or entrepreneurs. The book chemistry and ballistics. There are also also addresses the issue of anger, selected court materials covering some conflict, time & stress management, of the major forensic areas. which are areas that need attention if one Each chapter deals with a particular has to have a complete persona and strive subject, provides the scientific for a successful life in all its facets. background of the methodology involved 4. The book is divided in five parts, i.e. and then uses the case histories to Self-Evaluation Exercise, Body assemble the information to their Management, Infusion Management, conclusion. Self Development and Self Control. The Some chapters are technical without author has given the basics of how to go being tedious. Generally all the chapters

102 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 Book Review are adequately referenced so that the respective chapters deal with their further follow up information about the themes on the basis of extensive first- scientific basis of the method used can be hand knowledge. pursued independent of this book. In the last chapter, the concluding In the very first chapter, the author part by the editor is magnificently has highlighted the need of awareness illustrated covering all the facets of about forensic science to the public, forensic science, which add great value to medical officers and law enforcing an interestingly edited and informative authorities. In the subsequent chapters handbook. we will find topics dealing with types of This book provides the frame work in forgeries, forgery and fraudulent which, the contributors have been keenly documents, hand writing evaluation, arranged and editing has been restricted latent finger prints, computer forensics, to the minimum necessary to achieve a forensic psychology, forensic well organized, comprehensive book that anthropology in which the author has will be of great use to post graduate systematically explained the relevance students, for review by the experienced of bone fragments in skeletal investigators and all those working in examination, forensic toxicology, the field of forensic science. The use of forensic serology, DNA finger printing, basic terminology and definitions will be chemistry, ballistics in which the need valuable in courts. The language used is for collection and documentation of fire simple, comprehensive and lucid. arms evidence is illustrated with Adverse comments are minimal. important cases and finally the chapter More emphasis is given to chapters on on forensic engineering. questioned document examination and needs to include chapters on At pp. 135 there is an interesting photography, forensic physics and other description of a case of death after disciplines of forensic science. consumption of ‘Prashad’, apparently due to synergic effect of alcohol and Overall this book is readable, 1oban. The topics are all of great comprehensive and useful for students as well as for forensic professionals. theoretical and practical importance to forensic scientists, and the authors of

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 103 From the desk of Director (R&D)

Use of Hi-tech Camera to fight Crime

Welcome to the brave new world of can immediately decrease crime to a metro policing, where cameras are substantial extent, in any area. These strategically positioned on street cameras can become a popular crime- corners in high-crime neighborhoods to fighting tool across any nation. scare off gang-bangers and drug dealers The recent innovation, such as a 360 and curb the nation’s leading homicide degree spherical lens called a fish eye rate. If you live in a community plagued that enables the camera to follow a with guns, gangs, rape and drugs, where person far enough makes surveillance public is screaming out for any help, it cameras more effective. These cameras enables to keep an eye on several do not have any blind spot as compared to different street corners at the same time fixed cameras. Moreover, the computers with minimal additional manpower. in the cameras can be programmed to These Cameras sit atop light poles 20 look for particular faces-like those on feet above the ground, flashing blue watch lists by measuring the distance lights. Their rotating bulletproof lenses between a person’s eyes or the length of with all-weather night vision can survey their noses. If the computer recognizes a an area up to 20 feet away and can be face, the camera can freeze-frame & zoom directed by a remote control joystick in a in. The video can also be enhanced for portable suitcase. extreme close-ups, for example, to read Video policing by using surveillance the license plates. Some computers can cameras in public places can be a even recognize suspicious behaviour. So powerful law enforcement tool. The if someone drops a bag & the bag is technology is a force “multiplier” that unattended for sometime, you can get allows police to be more effective & acts software to recognize that automatically as a crime deterrent & as an investigative & make beeps. Anything suspicious that tool. Video policing is already a reality & calls for attention can be dealt with by is here to stay. deploying officers to the scene immediately. Images from some of the 2,00,000 surveillance cameras in London were CCTV has repeatedly proved its key in cracking the July 7 subway & bus effectiveness in the fight against crime & bombings there. Therefore the video the fear of crime. Knowing that there is camera can be an important weapon in an extra set of eyes watching over their the fight against crime & particularly communities helps to reassure people terrorism. Putting a camera in a location that they will be safe. As the system is

104 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 From R & D Desk digital there are no videotapes & images The use of surveillance cameras in are transferred instantly from camera to policing has inevitably attracted frowns computer, where data can be transferred from civil liberties groups, who see them to police stations by the Internet. as an infringement on individual rights. These cameras as a public amenity are Although CCTV cameras might be here to stay but the arguments about useful within a broadly based anti-crime usefulness legality & ethicality have strategy, turning the nation’s city & town only just begun. streets into seamless, surveillance zones is itself no substitute for proper policing.

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 105 List of Awardees of Gallantry Medals awarded on the Occasion of Republic Day -2005 President’s Police Medal for Gallantry

J&K Late Shri Krishna Bahadur, Constable (Posthumously) Late Shri Lal Hussain Mirza, ASI (Posthumously) Shri Amit Kumar Saxena, Asstt. Comdt Shri Raju, Constable Late Shri Amba Ram Malviya, Constable Shri Vijay Kumar, S.P. (Posthumously) Jharkhand Shri Bacha Lal Yadav, Constable Shri Siyaram Prasad Gupta, SI Shri Sabhapati Singh, Constable Late Shri H.L. Gupta, Inspector Orissa (Posthumously) Late Shri Marshal Khaka, Jamadar Late Shri Anand Solanki, Constable (Posthumously) (Posthumously) Late Shri Bibhuti Bhusan Mohananda, Shri S.S. Parihar, Asstt. Comdt. SEPOY/539 (Posthumously) Late Shri Labh Singh, Constable (Posthumously)

BSF ITBP Shri Sukumar Brahma, Constable Shri Bhagwinder Singh Negi, HC/GD Mohd. Ashraf Mir, Constable Shri Sant Ram, Const/GD Late Shri Prakash Chand, LNK (Posthumously) Police Medal for Gallantry Late Shri Murlidhar Semwal, SI (Posthumously) Bihar Shri D.S.Sandhu, Dy. Comdt Shri Amrit Raj, IPS, ASP Shri Shiv Pujan Singh, Inspector CRPF Shri Aman Kumar, SI Shri Jalandhar Pandey, HC Shri Shashi Shekhar, SI Late Shri Nandji Singh, HC (Posthumously) Shri Parshu Ram Roy, SI s Late Shri Vrikodhar Singh, Constable Late Shri Ashok Kumar, Constable (Posthumously) (Posthumously)

106 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 List of Awardees of Gallantry Medals on the Occasion of Republic Day -2005

Haryana Jharkhand Late Shri Hans Raj, SI Shri Satish Chandra Jha, SI (Posthumously) Madhya Pradesh Shri Ranbir Singh, EHC Shri Raghuvir Singh Meena, Addl. S.P. J&K Shri Mahendra Singh Chouhan, SI Shri Raghbir Singh, SI Shri R.S. Meena, S.P. Shri Abdul Hamid, Constable Meghalaya Shri Jaspreet Singh, Constable Mohd. Qasim, HC Smt. C.A. Lyngwa, DY. S.P. Shri Swayam Prakash Pani, SP Shri Kamal Thapa, ASI Shri Bashir Ahmad Khan, SP Shri Buddha Gurung, Constable

Shri Raghubir Singh, Inspector Manipur Shri Abdul Hamid, SI Shri Phijam Arunkumar Singh, Shri Deep Singh, ASI Rifleman Shri Parshotam Lal, SG/CT. Md. Abdul Matalib, Rifleman Shri Ashwani Kumar, Constable Maharashtra Shri Ranbir Singh Manhas, DY. SP. Shri Rajaramsingh Dharamsingh Shri Pawan Kumar Parihar, DY. SP. Chavan, Police Naik Shri Madan Lal, ASI Shri Bahadur Ram, DY. SP Nagaland Shri Farooq Ahmed, ASI Shri Lichamo, Inspector Shri Ajay Singh Chib, PSI Punjab Shri Babu Ram, Constable Shri Kewal Singh, Head Constable Shri Syed J.M. Gillani, SSP (ASI/ORP)

Shri Haseeb Mughal, DY. SP Uttar Pradesh Shri Abdul Rashid Paul, SDPO Shri Rajeshwar Singh, DY. S.P. Shri Jagdesh Singh, SG/CT. Shri Neelesh Kumar, S.P. Shri Hibib-Ur-Rehman, Constable Shri Raj Kumar Singh, HC Shri Anil Kumar, HC Shri Navniet Sekera, SSP Shri Kuldeep Singh, Constable Shri Shaukat Ali, Constable Shri Vikram Singh, Inspector

The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005 107 Uttaranchal Shri R. Thomas, Constable

Shri Ashok Kumar Bhatt, DY. S.P. Shri Manjeet Singh, Constable Shri D.C.S. Rawat, Inspector Shri Naval Singh, HC Shri Lokesh Kumar Sharma, SI Shri Nemi Chand, HC Shri Ravindra Singh Bhandari, Shri Ashok Kumar, 2IC Constable Shri Krishan Kumar Singh, Inspector West Bengal Shri Farooq Ahmed Bhatt, Constable Shri Sidh Nath Gupta, S.P. Shri Abdul Hamid, Constable Shri Basudeb Sarkar, S.I. Shri D.K. Dubey, Constable Assam Rifles Shri B.S. Parihar, Inspector Shri Kharak Singh, Rifleman Shri Member Singh, Inspector Shri Sunil Kumar, Rifleman Shri Mohan Dan, Inspector Shri B Aowati AO, Rifleman Shri Babu Singh, HC Shri Manoj Adhikari, Rifleman Shri Om Veer Singh, Constable Shri Phata Bahadur Chhetri, Subedar Shri I. Ponnu, Constable Shri Bijoy Kumar Subba, Subedar Major Shri Prithvi Chand, HC Shri Pawan Kumar, Rifleman CRPF Shri Budhi Singh, Naib Subedar/GD Shri T. Ramesh Bhai, Constable/GD Shri M.V. Unnikrishnan, Havaldar/GD Shri B.S. Rathore, Commandant Shri P K Sivadasan, Havaldar/GD Shri Desh Raj, Constable BSF Shri Shish Ram, HC Shri GM Sadashiva, Constable Shri Sandeep Yadav, CT/GD Shri Javed Iqbal, Constable Late Mohd. Sadiq, Constable Shri Tichanpal Singh, Constable (Posthumously) Shri Byre Reddy, Constable Minstry of Railways Shri Tasweer Hussain, Constable Shri Binoy Kumar Rai, SI/RPF Shri Sudhir Kumar, Constable

108 The Indian Police Journal ♦ April - June 2005