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Ethnic Identity, Acculturation, and Perceived Discrimination for Indigenous Mexican Youth: a Cross-Cultural Comparative Study of Yucatec Maya Adolescents in the U.S

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Ethnic Identity, Acculturation, and Perceived Discrimination for Indigenous Mexican Youth: a Cross-Cultural Comparative Study of Yucatec Maya Adolescents in the U.S ETHNIC IDENTITY, ACCULTURATION, AND PERCEIVED DISCRIMINATION FOR INDIGENOUS MEXICAN YOUTH: A CROSS-CULTURAL COMPARATIVE STUDY OF YUCATEC MAYA ADOLESCENTS IN THE U.S. AND MEXICO A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED TO THE SCHOOL OF EDUCATION AND THE COMMITTEE ON GRADUATE STUDIES OF STANFORD UNIVERSITY IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Saskias Y. Casanova August 2011 © 2011 by Saskias Casanova. All Rights Reserved. Re-distributed by Stanford University under license with the author. This dissertation is online at: http://purl.stanford.edu/kj081qx6916 ii I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Amado Padilla, Primary Adviser I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Teresa Lafromboise I certify that I have read this dissertation and that, in my opinion, it is fully adequate in scope and quality as a dissertation for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy. Hazel Markus Approved for the Stanford University Committee on Graduate Studies. Patricia J. Gumport, Vice Provost Graduate Education This signature page was generated electronically upon submission of this dissertation in electronic format. An original signed hard copy of the signature page is on file in University Archives. iii Abstract Latina/o immigrant adolescents often lack resources, are linguistically and culturally misunderstood in school, and constantly stigmatized in American society. Policymakers, practitioners, and educators frequently group Latina/o immigrant adolescents within a single homogenous category. This grouping creates a problem in understanding the diverse experiences of Latina/o adolescents. To explore these diverse Latina/o adolescent experiences this dissertation research cross-culturally compares patterns of ethnic identity and acculturation across a group of Indigenous (Yucatec Maya) immigrant Latino/a adolescents in the U.S. with Yucatec Maya adolescents residing in Mexico and with non-Indigenous immigrant Latina/o adolescents in the U.S. The mixed methods study intends to answer several questions. First, how do ethnic identity, acculturation levels, perceived discrimination, and sense of school belonging compare across Yucatec Maya adolescents in the U.S., non-Yucatec Maya Latina/o adolescents in the U.S., and Yucatec Maya adolescents still in Mexico? Secondly, in terms of ethnic identity, acculturation, perceived discrimination, and schooling, what roles do individual factors such as gender, language, generation level, and external factors such as family, cultural practices, ethnic community networks, and peer relationships take in the adolescents’ lives in the U.S. and in Yucatan? Lastly, how do the processes of acculturation, ethnic identity, perceived discrimination, and school belonging relate to and/or affect each other? This dissertation draws on ethnic identity and acculturation frameworks as they relate to perceived discrimination (the study of how the person targeted by iv discrimination reacts and interprets these acts) and to the adolescents’ feelings of belonging at school. Two hundred one adolescents from California and Yucatan, Mexico participated in the study. The participants included 65 Latina/o non-Yucatec Maya heritage adolescents living in the Los Angeles area, 66 Mexican Maya heritage immigrant adolescents living in San Francisco or the Los Angeles area, and 70 Mexican Maya heritage adolescents living in Yucatan, Mexico. All 201 adolescents took a survey incorporating measures of ethnic identity, acculturation, perceived discrimination, and school belonging. Furthermore, semi-structured interviews explored attitudes toward school, culture, discrimination, family, community, and peers influencing the adolescents. Thirty-eight of the adolescents participated in the interviews. Quantitative findings reveal the intra-group differences across Yucatec Maya and non-Yucatec Maya Latina/os adolescents and the discrimination faced by the growing population of Yucatec Maya adolescents within the Latino/a immigrant groups. The U.S. Yucatec Maya adolescents experience more instances of perceived discrimination than non-Yucatec Latina/o adolescents in the U.S. and Yucatec Maya adolescents in Mexico. However, both Yucatec Maya adolescents in Mexico and the U.S. feel equally distressed due to acts of discrimination perceived from adults. Language, gender, and generation all play roles in the amount of peer and adult perceived discrimination experienced and the distress caused by perceived discrimination across Indigenous and non-Indigenous adolescents. The quantitative findings ultimately show that Indigenous adolescents have different psychological and cultural experiences when compared to non-Indigenous Latina/o adolescents. Being v Yucatec Maya, first generation, male, and/or knowledgeable of Maya would put the adolescent at a higher risk of experiencing more perceived discrimination acts and distress. More perceived discrimination from adults also relates to adolescents in the U.S. (both Yucatec Maya and non-Yucatec Maya) resulting in lower levels of school belonging. The qualitative findings across the non-Yucatec Maya adolescents, Yucatec Maya adolescents in the U.S., and Yucatec Maya adolescents in Mexico reveal an in depth look at multiple perspectives surrounding cultural and ethnic identity, cultural practices, American culture, discrimination, school, family, and peers. Specifically for the Yucatec Maya adolescents, the interviews provided a lens into their sentiments about the Maya culture and preserving the culture for future generations. The interviews reflect the agency, reclamation of culture, and lived experiences that make up the Indigenous and non-Indigenous adolescents of this study. This dissertation study contributes to a better understanding of the racially and culturally diverse adolescents found within the “Latino/a” category. No other study to date has revealed the depth, complexity, and lived experiences of the Yucatec Maya adolescents as they (re)create and (re)claim their malleable Indigenous identity across the multiple geographical, social, psychological, and cultural spaces they find themselves in. The study exposes the Yucatec Maya youth’s resilient identity that emerges regardless of the discrimination they face from non-Latina/o/non-Mexican groups as well as from their own Latina/o/Mexican communities. This understanding is needed to provide more comprehensive resources and services to these adolescents. vi Acknowledgements When I decided to come back to Stanford for my Ph.D., I knew it would be a sacrifice, not only because I would not be able to help out economically at home, but because I once again had to leave the people that throughout my life have always grounded me and inspired me to do better: mi familia. So to them, I am indebted beyond belief for the consistent support and love they provide at my highest and at my lowest points. Five years later, I have had the privilege to meet so many individuals who have cared enough to support and guide me toward the completion of my dissertation and doctoral degree. I have to start by thanking my advisor, Dr. Padilla for his consistent support through my doctoral degree and through my undergraduate years at Stanford. Thank you for allowing and encouraging me to research the Yucatec Maya community. Dr. Markus, thank you for believing that I could pursue a Ph.D. and encouraging me to always push the established opinions and paradigms that exist in academia. Dr. LaFromboise, thank you for your guidance in making me a better researcher and teacher. Dr. Valdes, thank you for your consistent support, kindness and invaluable advice in incorporating the Mexican perspectives within this study. Dr. Moya, thank you for taking time out of your busy schedule to be the university chair at my hearing. To DARE: Thanks for teaching me so much. The professional development and support I obtained through the program has truly allowed me to be more prepared for the academic profession. To Ann Porteus and the DSG program: Thank you for improving my grant- writing skills and supporting my dissertation research. To Asociación Mayab de San Francisco and the other HTAs: Thank you for opening your doors to me and supporting my research of adolescent Yucatec Mayas. I hope that this research can serve to inform your programs and services to our youth. To Mr. Valdez: Thank you for always supporting my research and helping me build connections to make this dissertation possible. You are so inspiring and truly a mentor to all those youth in every sense of the word. To Abigail, Gener, Felipe, and Antonia: Thank you for being so candid and helpful in explaining the condition of the Maya culture and what opportunities there are in Mexico for the youth in Yucatan. To my dear friends: Thank you for supporting me through my Ph.D. journey. I do not think I could have come this far without our discussions about education, family, politics, and life. Greg, thank you for your consistent love and dedication. vii Gracias mami y papi por siempre entender que estoy tan ocupada todo el tiempo con la escuela. Gracias por traerme a este país para poder mejorarnos, y por siempre quererme tanto. Lizza, I cannot tell you in words how lucky I am to have you in my life, and to have been able to get your perspective on my research and most of all your consistent encouragement to keep going. Alvaro, thank you for your constant understanding, humor, and love throughout this doctoral process and most of all through my life. Y para los estudiantes de Yucatán, síganle echándole ganas! Gracias por hablar conmigo y dejarme saber sus opiniones sobre su cultura y otras partes de sus vidas. And for the youth here in the U.S., keep going and continue to pursue your goals. Thanks you all for opening up about your experiences and opinions about your culture. Gracias a todos los jóvenes inmigrantes que me dejaron saber un poco sobre sus experiencias en este país y su nostalgia por México.
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