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Xerox University Microfilms 300 North Zeeb Road Ann Arbor, Michigan 48106 76- 24,615 HIGHFIELD, Arnold R., 1940- THE FRENCH DIALECT OF ST. THOMAS, UNITED STATES VIRGIN ISLANDS: A DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR WITH TEXTS AND GLOSSARY (VOLUMES I AND II). The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1976 Language, linguistics

Xerox University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, Michigan 48io6

0 1 9 7 6

ARNOLD R. HIGHFIELD

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED THE FRENCH DIALECT OF ST. THOMAS, UNITED STATES

VIRGIN ISLANDS: A DESCRIPTIVE GRAMMAR

WITH TEXTS AND GLOSSARY

Volume I

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Arnold R. Highfield, B.A., M.A.

*****

'^he Ohio State University

1976

Reading Committee: Approved by

Prof. Hans E. Keller

Prof. David A. Griffin

Prof. Aristobulo Pardo Adviser Department of Romance Languages and Literature This study is gratefully dedicated to Larry Gumbs, without whose friendship, unselfish cooperation and insightful criticism this present work would not have been possible.

11 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The assistance, encouragement and friendship of many people have made this work possible. In addition to Larry

Gumbs, I would like to express my special thanks to Annicia

Quetel, Margaret Turbe, Dorothy Danet, Eugenie Greaux and

Flaville and Marie Danet, who all spent many long hours patiently instructing me in the intricacies of their rich language. I extend my sincere appreciation also to Evelyn

Greaux, Albert Olive, Olivia Aubaine, Frederick Bernier,

Eugenie (Noo-noon) Greaux, Mr. and Mrs. Felix Gumbs,

Felicia LaPlace, Lucy Quetel, Louise Quetel, Edward Magras,

Celinie Turbe and Mr. and Mrs. Leonard Turbe, who one and all donated their time and energy in one way or another in assisting me during my stay in Carenage.

At Ohio State University, I received invaluable help

from John Perkins of the Department of Linguistics and from

Professor Charles Winthrop and Mrs. Annick Brown of the De­ partment of Romance Languages, who all listened to portions of the tapes and made suggestions on various phonological matters.

I am also greatly in the debt of Eleanor Ross of

St. Croix, United States Virgin Islands, who has spent many

iii long, painstaking hours typing and proofreading difficult

texts and manuscripts.

I should like to extend my heartfelt thanks to

Professor Hans E. Keller of Ohio State University, who has

always been more than willing to draw upon his enormous

resources of scholarly erudition as well as his sincere good heartedness to assist me through the most difficult times.

Finally, I am most grateful to my dear wife Shirley

for her support, understanding and encouragement during the long months of research and writing.

IV TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ...... iii

LIST OF F I G U R E S ...... vi

Chapter

I. INTRODUCTION ...... 1

II. GENERAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY ...... 4 2

III. THE NATURE OF THE STFD C O N T I N U U M ...... 57

IV. PHONOLOGY...... 6 4

V. MORPHO-SYNTAX...... 82

VI. LEXICON ...... 176

VII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 203

APPENDIX

A ...... 208

B ...... 290

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 466

V LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1. Map of the West I n d i e s ...... 35

2. Map of the U.S. Virgin I s l a n d s ...... 36

3. Map of St. Thomas, USVI...... 37

4. Map of St. Barthélémy showing the "quarters" and linguistic areas ...... 38

5. The STFD Transcription System...... 53

6. The STFD Continuum...... 62

7. The Consonant System of S T F D ...... 69

8. STFD Personal P r o n o u n s...... 116

VI CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1. Goals. The aim of this work is to produce a

descriptive study of the phonology, morpho-syntax and lexi­

con of the French Dialect speech of St. Thomas, United

States Virgin Islands.

In addition, the introductory chapter proposes to

give the necessary historic, economic, social and cultural

information against which the linguistic data presented in

later chapters will have some real meaning.

It should be pointed out that very little current

data on Carenage was available at the time of this writing;

as a result I have relied heavily on information supplied

by my informants as well as my own personal observations.

1.2. History. The French-speaking communities of

St. Thomas, United States Virgin Islands, have not

attracted a great deal of attention from the scholarly

world (see Bibliography). As a result, it remains a

little known fact that "French" is the means of communi­

cation of a small part of the island's population.^ More

obscure yet is the fact that there are indeed two distinct

forms of French employed there by two distinct French

1 2 communities— Carenage and Northside (see figure 3).

The language of Carenage, which will be referred to hereafter as St. Thomas French Dialect (STFD), is the focus of this dissertation. It will, however, be necessary to devote some attention in passing to the community at North- side and its language, Northside French Creole (NFC).

1.2.1. The Origins of the French Communities in

St. Thomas. These are to be sought in the earliest French activity in the West Indies. In the 16th century, French corsairs and privateers opposed Spain's claim to monopoly on all the lands and wealth of the Antilles; however, these interlopers made no lasting settlements at that time.

But in the 17th century as Spain's power perceptibly weak­ ened, French settlements began to appear in a number of 2 islands in the Lesser Antilles. By 1650, Frenchmen were

in possession of Martinique, Guadeloupe, St. Kitts, St.

Martin, St. Croix and St. Barthélémy.

The latter, usually called St. Barts, was without a

doubt the least important of the French possessions.

Located in the Leeward group just to the northwest of

strategic St. Kitts, St. Barts is an inconspicuous island

of only 9.5 square miles. The predominance there of an

extremely rocky soil and often year round dryness made it

more or less inhospitable to human habitation. Contemporary

sources describe it was "rocher sec et a r i d e , and again "petite île sèche et pierreuse."^ Its only redeeming qual­ ity was its strategic location in an area of continual

English challenge and its well-protected harbor. The knowledgeable Père du Tertre wrote about a century later that the island "n'estoit pas digne de porter une colonie sans le beau havre qu'elle contient et qui seul la fait estimer.

These then were the conditions under which a colony of some forty to fifty men was established there in 1648.

Unfortunately, life on St. Barts proved difficult for the

tiny band of French settlers from the beginning. In 1656, a surprise attack and massacre by the war-like Caribs

forced the settlers off the island temporarily. But in

1659, the energetic de Poincy sent a second group of

thirty-odd men to resettle the island. By 1664, the number of inhabitants had grown to one-hundred. An official

source in the year 1772 informs us that St. Barts at that

time was inhabited by the descendants of the group sent out

in 1659. It goes on to relate that "les moeurs du pays y

sont très française,

Linguistically speaking, this bit of evidence is

important indeed for the following study. Simply stated,

the French community on St. Barts can be traced back n directly to 1664 with little interference from the outside.

Clearly, the form of French (i.e., French and not Creole) 4 spoken in St. Barts is the lineal descendant of the form of speech which prevailed there in 1664.

1.2.2. Migrations of St. Bartians. By the begin­ ning of the 19th century some St. Bartians, particularly members of the little community at Gustavia, were engaged in trade with other West Indian islands. This gave some of the island's inhabitants an idea at least of conditions in the outside world. As economic conditions worsened in

St. Barts near mid-century, some of the heartier souls entertained for the first time the notion of emigration.

The catalyst proved to be the collapse of France in the war with Prussia in 1871. Thereafter, conditions in St.

Barts worsened dramatically. Consequently, a small group of St. Barts men decided for the first time to go elsewhere in order to provide for their families. As a thriving mari­ time entrepot and a true crossroads of the West Indies,

St. Thomas immediately attracted the poverty-stricken

Bartians. There they might find suitable employment for their considerable talents in fishing and in agriculture, pursuits which were then relatively neglected in com­ mercially-minded St. Thomas.

No one is exactly certain when the first St. Bartians arrived in St. Thomas. Some say that it was as early as

1865; others say that it was after 1870.^ Whatever the case, it is now well-established that a small but steady 5 stream of immigrants was flowing into St. Thomas, Danish

West Indies in the early 1870's.

1.3. The Village and the People. Carenage is the home of the majority of STFD speakers. This small village v;as founded over one-hundred years ago on one of the inlets

(then known as Gallows Bay) on the western side of the 9 spacious St. Thomas harbor. Gradually, the small fisher­ men's huts multiplied until they occupied the slones of

Gallows Hill as well as some of the surrounding flat area.

Geographically, the location was nearly perfect for the small fishing community. It offered good protec­ tion against storms and heavy weather. Sailing ships and smaller craft could be hauled from the water for scraping and repairs. In addition, the site provided easy access to the banks, reefs and small islands not far from St.

Thomas harbor from which the fishermen derived their living.

1.3.1. Toponymy and Nomenclature. The earliest settlers appear to have referred to the village exclusively as "Carenage." Today the older people still employ this term.In more recent times, the village has been re­ ferred to increasingly as "Frenchtown" or '"Chacha town," the latter designation being mildly pejorative. The term

"Carenage" will be used consistently throughout this work in reference to the village. 6

In addition, the inhabitants of Carenage (i.e., speakers of STFD) will be referred to as "Carenageois" for the sake of convenience, even though this term does not exist in current usage. This term enables us to avoid the pejorative "Chacha" and the inaccurate "Frenchman," as well as other clumsy periphrases such as "residents of Carenage," and so forth.

In the beginning, Carenage was quite small and un­ assuming. Old photographs show rov;s of nearly uniform, box-like dwellings each with a tiny court yard, coming down to the edge of the sea, where lines of fishing canoes were beached.Unpaved, narrow streets wended through the clut­ ter of buildings and around the base of Gallows Hill.

There were several small businesses, a bar and a modest

French school.

Slowly the village began to grow. Part of the bay- side was filled in to create a ballpark which is now the hub of Carenage. The birth of new children and the steady influx of immigrants from St. Barts caused the village to expand and the population to grow. Today it covers three principal areas— Altona, Demara and Honduras. To serve the needs of the population there is a handful of small businesses and other enterprises: a boatyard and docking facility, two guest houses, a post office, a community center, a dry goods store, a small department store, four grocery stores, an elementary school, a gas supply outlet. 7 a radio station, a church, eight bars, a night club, a bakery shop and four restaurants. Electricity, city water and modern sewage systems have all found their way into

Carenage. The streets are well-paved and well-lighted, bbere once there was only the passing of numerous bare feet and an occasional donkey cart, there is today an in­ flux of autos, taxis and trucks. On certain days, there are even mini-traffic jams. Carenage has truly become a part of St. Thomas, no longer an isolated backward area.

1.3.2. Dwellings. Once Carenage v/as little more than a shabby collection of extremely small, box-like dwell­ ings. Today many of those still remain. But alongside them have arisen larger, sturdier homes in concrete block, witnesses to the increased economic security of at least a part of the Carenage community. In any event, it is no longer possible to talk strictly of a typical Carenage dwelling. The old is being replaced by the new as the

Carenageois gradually enter the mainstream of St. Thomian life.

All the same, a good number still live in the tra­ ditional dwellings, which have been modified here and there to allow for the comforts of modern life. These small houses, usually constructed of wood, consist of three to

four modest rooms. Newer homes are nearly always con­ structed of concrete block. The roof is most usually of brightly painted galvanized iron sheets. All windows and doors have shutters which can be closed with long hooks at night and barred up in times of bad weather. The Carena­ geois generally lay down a concrete covering on their small yards for the purpose of controlling dust and mud. The net effect is to produce a clean living area. This same characteristic practice can also be noted at St. Barts even in the most rural areas.

Modern kitchen and bathroom facilities are today located in the main dwelling. In former times, both these were located outside. The cooking was done in the back­ yard over an open charcoal fire. This avoided overheat­ ing and possibly even dangerous fires in the small wooden houses. Toilets were likewise situated at some distance

from the main dwelling for hygienic reasons. Bathing could be effected in the bedrooms with a nan of water and a wash­

cloth.

The interior of the typical Carenage home is modest.

Rooms are small but their ceilings arc high, creating the

feeling of greater space. The main room is comfortable if

somewhat austere in furnishings. Pictures of family mem­

bers adorn every inch of flat area. Likewise, representa­

tions of the Savior, the Holy Mother and the Saints cover

the walls of many of these Roman Catholic homes.

. Bedrooms are also quite small and seemingly poorly

ventilated. The Carenageois are known for their hammocks? 9 in nearly every home there is at least one of them which can be used both for sleeping at night and resting during the day. When not in use, these hammocks can be taken down, rolled up and stored away to provide more living area. In many homes, especially the more modern ones, more traditional beds replace the hammock.

1.3.3. Population. Although there are no exact figures available, a conservative estimate would put the total population of Carenage at approximately five hundred persons. This figure represents a decline from orevious 12 years. Several informants have attested that the popu­ lation of the village was greatest in the 1950's, some estimating that "over one thousand persons" lived there at that time.

This decline seems to have been inevitable for two reasons. First, every family appears to have sons and daughters who have departed for the mainland. Once estab­ lished there, they show little inclination to return to their birthplace, other than for occasional visits.

Second, it seems that a handful of the more upwardly mobile Carenageois leaves the village each year to seek more convenient or more prestigious dwellings in other areas of St. Thomas. The net result is a steady decline in the population of the village. Moreover, all signs point to a continuation of this trend in the future. 10

The Carenageois are mainly Caucasien of apparent

French extraction. Some claim to be of Norman descent.

The local black population of St. Thomas refers Lu them variously as "Frenchmen"Frenchies" or '"Chachas," the

last of these being mildly offensive to some, depending on the circumstances. The origin of this term is not altogether certain, though when asked, a number of inform­ ants replied that it derives from the practice of Carenage

fishermen who walked through the streets of town selling

their catch and calling out the names of specific fish as

they went along. One such small fish was the chacha.

Local blacks seized upon this term and applied it to the

fishermen. Eventually, the terra came to be applied to

all Carenageois.

As will be seen further along, there is some linguis­

tic and folkloric evidence to support the belief that they

descended from the Normans. Physically, they are of

medium build and fair complexion; the latter tends to grow

leathery and wrinkled when exposed constantly to the sun

and weather. Children are attractive, with tanned skin

and blond to light brown hair.

The ethnic constitution of Carenage has changed in

the past two decades. Once it was solidly French. Today

other groups have moved in to fill vacancies created by the

Carenageois who have departed.Foremost in this category 11 are the so-called Aliens, immigrants from the various

English-speaking West Indian islands, largely of African descent. In general, they are willing to accept the least desirable dwellings due to their low economic status.

In addition, there is also a small number of St. Thomians and assorted Spanish-speakers which has gradually moved into the confines of Carenage.

1.3.4. Society. At the base of Carenage society is the nuclear family which remains strong to this day.

The role of the father remains important. He is the breadwinner, the family's main contact with the larger, outside world. Women act primarily as wives, mothers, and homemakers, spending most of their time in the home. Their role is largely supportive of the husband. Children of the present generation have greater possibilities for edu­ cation and contact with the outside world than had any previous generation. As a result, their cultural values

(i.e., use of the STFD and observance of Carenage customs)

are beginning to change significantly, influenced as they

are by the local St. Thomian milieu and in a much broader

sense by American values as well. The elderly usually

live with their children or in a small dwelling in the

vicinity. If they become ill or feeble, they are cared for

at home. When able, they help with the supervision and

raising of their grandchildren. They are respected and 12 continue to exercise some authority even into old age.

There are no sharp social distinctions in the vil­ lage, since all the members are descended in one way or another from the tiny closed St. Barts society. Some­ where in everyone's background there is a humble fisherman or man of the sea. Certain distinctions have arisen, how­ ever, within the past forty years based on land ownership and the revenues earned from it. This is true for both

Carenage and Northside. Several men have risen as patri­ archs or self-styled spokesmen for the communities in this manner. They are respected by meiubers of the community for their relative wealth derived mainly from rents and leases and for their contacts with the local power struc­ ture .

On the whole, relations between the Carenageois and local blacks are good. This does not, however, erase the fact that racial animosities and stereotyping do exist on both sides. In certain situations, a local black might deride a "Frenchman" for his low social or occupational status (i.e., fisherman), whereas the latter for his part might retort by evoking his racial affinities (i.e., white) with the traditional ruling group of the islands.

In casual conversation, Carenageois refer to blacks as moun de kouloer, "colored people." Although this term is by no means pejorative, it is important to note that the

distinction is regularly made. 13

Social mixing between the tv;o groups is limited by

and large to several well-known bars in Carenage and to

athletic events at the ball park. Politics, sporting

events and fishing are the main subjects for interchange.

Men like to gather in the late afternoon for drinks and a

round of talks. Although these discussions may grow quite

animated, there is seldom any violence. Women are rarely

present.

Intermarriage between the groups is in general

frowned upon. Nevertheless, it does occur, usually be­

tween French men and black women, though not exclusively.

The children of such unions are seemingly accepted by the

community as French, if they choose to remain in the

village.

Many Carenageois feel that they are a tiny minority,

growing smaller with each passing year and that as a re­

sult they are faced with ultimate extinction as a group.

Their traditional isolationism and reluctance to mix seems

in the main based on these fears and not on any active

racist sentiments.

1.3.5. Economy. The Carenage community has always

been oriented toward the sea. Traditionally, the men have

worked either as independent f i s h e r m e n , selling their

catches locally, or as seamen aboard ocean-going vessels.

Until recently, they have not enjoyed the opportunity for

real upward mobility in the local economy. White collar 14 positions in the governmental bureaucracy, in education and in the prestige commercial sectors were for a long time closed to them. Most Carenageois attest that this began to change in the period after World War II.

One need not search far for the causes of this early de facto discrimination. A combination of class discrimination, linguistic and cultural differences, lack of education and self-imposed isolationism have all con­ spired to prevent the Carenageois from obtaining a secure foothold in the island economy.

These conditions have changed dramatically in the past three decades. Many new ooportunities have opened up for the youth of Carenage. Yet many of the old prob­ lems remain. In the final analysis, the French of

Carenage are by no means fully integrated into the econom­ ic and public life of St. Thomas. As a result, many of them find the ultimate solution in emigration to the main­ land where they, unlike darker-skinned West Indians, meet with no color prejudice and can consequently find jobs and assimilate readily into their social surroundings.

Of those who remained, only a few still gain their living from the sea. The majority now work as wage- earners, perhaps supplementing their income with a bit of fishing on the side. Others continue to fish for pleasure and to fill the family larder at the same time. Older 15 residents receive pensions and in some cases, assistance from the Welfare Department.

Many of the Carenage women engaged in the past in small-scale, cottage industries, based for the most part on the weaving of palm-fronds into hats, bags, purses, place mats and the like. Their work achieved a solid reputation for its high quality. However, only a few practice this on a full-time basis today. A limited number of younger women hold jobs in town, the majority, however, being content to spend most of their lives within the con­ fines of Carenage as housewives.

1.3.6. Education. No formal public education was available to the children of the first generation of St.

Bartians who immigrated to St. Thomas. Boys learned the business of fishing from their fathers by direct partici­ pation; girls remained in the homo and learned from their mothers by assisting.

A French school was established in Carenage at the early part of this century by a moun de kouloer who came from Guadeloupe, according to the testimony of numerous in­ formants.^^ Details concerning this school are vague.

Apparently, parents paid for their children to attend the school where they learned "good French" and other subjects taught in French. Most witnesses agree that this school was not well-attended, as may be deduced from the fact that 16 there was only one met d'ekbl. Nevertheless, the impor­ tance of the school for linguistic reasons should not be overlooked. It shows that the Carenageois, despite long years of being cut off from the direct sources of French culture, still preserved at least some notions about "good

French" and, moreover, placed some value on it.

At about this same time, more and more Carenage child­ ren began to attend local schools. The majority chose to attend the Catholic over the public school, even though the former charged tuition and the latter did not. Many informants expressed the feeling that the Carenageois avoided the public schools whenever possible because their minority status made it difficult for their children to achieve there. However this may be, it remains a fact that the overwhelming majority of Carenage students attend

Catholic schools to this day, even in the face of rising tuition costs.

Throughout the educational system, public and private alike, English is the language of instruction. Spanish is taught as the second language. Nothing is taught of STFD or of French culture in the schools. In fact, French children have been traditionally discouraged in the use of

French in school situations. Some informants tell of being strongly reprimanded for speaking in French in the classroom. In summary, it might be said that the educational 17 system has aimed at "Anglicizing" (in the linguistic sense of the term) the Carenageois children as rapidly as poss­ ible in order for them to avoid the disadvantages experi­ enced by their parents. Therefore, it is hardly surpris­ ing that STFD enjoys such little prestige as it does today.

Although there are n%: statistics available, it seems that relatively few Carenageois go on to higher education, even though there is a four year liberal arts college

(i.e.. The College of the Virgin Islands) located no more than two miles from the village. Those who do seek a college education generally go to the mainland. Perhaps more important is the fact that members of this small group of educated Carenageois does not generally return to St.

Thomas, but rather finds broader opportunities in the

States.

1.3.7. Religion. The Carenageois are Roman Catho­ lics by religious persuasion. When they first arrived in St. Thomas in the 19th century, there were few religious facilities provided specifically for them. They attended the Roman Catholic church in town where the priests were all English-speaking. Recognizing these difficulties, the church instituted a revival of sorts in the village in

the late 1920's under the leadership of Father Guillo, a priest who not only spoke fluent French but who was sym­ pathetic to the aspirations of the Carenage community. 18

Under his direction, St. Anne's Chapel rose to its present dimensions atop Gallows Hill overlooking the bay and the village which rims it. A religious society was instituted and religious processions through the village streets were begun for the first time.

Nevertheless, interest in the church has declined in recent years, most probably the result of the general de- 17 d i n e of the village population. The peak of the re­

ligious season is at Eastertime when the picturesque chapel

is filled to capacity. Otherwise, there are generally no more than fifteen to twenty people in attendance at the

usual evening mass, and most of these are older women.

Services are in English. At the present time, the priest

assigned to Carenage does not live there; nor does he

speak French fluently.

The Carenageois embrace a number of superstitions,

many of them originating in the obeah of the native blacks

of St. Thomas. Weinstein has commented on this phenomenon

as well as on individual cases in some detail.Even

though little is mentioned on this subject in front of

outsiders, rather glaring examples of these )?eliefs do

occur from time to time. During my recent stay in St.

Thomas (20 March - 25 April, 1975), for instance, a mys­

terious midnight fire in the village was blamed by many on 19 the fact that inhabitants of that area "fool around with obeah."

1.3.8. Culture. Forty years ago there would have been no opposition to the assertion that the culture of

Carenage was based squarely upon fishing and the sea. Men ventured out to the banks, islets and reefs in small sailing canoes to fish in one of three ways— by net, by fish trap, or by line. The men possessed the complete knowledge to build and repair their equipment. In addition, they had a vast knowledge of the sea and its creatures.

This was passed on orally from generation to generation.

Until the mid-fifties their market had been limited strictly to meml)ers of the St. Thomas community, both

French and black. In the 1950's, all that changed abrupt­ ly, following the general changes which were occurring in

St. Thomas. Large tourist-oriented hotels indeed wanted fish, but in large quantities and on a regular basis. Had the Carenageois had at that time the inclination and the wherewithal to bring technology to bear on fishing by out­ fitting with larger, motor-driven vessels equipped with refrigeration, they might have captured the St. Thomas mar­ ket and others as well. But this was not the case. Much of the seafood consequently ceime to be imported. Increas­ ingly, independent fishermen found that they could no longer earn a living by fishing alone. Subsequently, many 20 became full-time wage earners and part-time fishermen.

Other Carenageois maintain boats strictly for their own pleasure. In any event, they have turned decidedly away from the rigorous life of the sea, and the culture of the

Carenageois may be said to be in a transition period which may end in their gradual assimilation into the larger

St. Thomas society.

1.3.8.1. Music and Dancing. These pursuits are traditionally reserved for certain festive occasions— weddings, Bastille Day and the like. In the past, the music had a distinctively French flavor. The small bands were composed of an accordian, a violin, a drum, a metal triangle, and a wiro (see Glossary). The words were sung in French, most usually by one singer. The songs them­ selves appear to have been imported directly from France.

There is no evidence that original music has been created by the Carenageois.

Men and women dance together on festive occasions.

The dances are by and large limited to the waltz and the two-step. These two seem to have been the result of a direct French influence.

Today most of this exists only in memory. I have recorded the words to some of the songs, sung or recited by older members of the community. None of the old bands appear to be active today. The younger people have given up the outmoded French music and dancing for West Indian 21

and .American styles. Carenage's one well-known band at

the present time is composed of black West Indians and

several Carenageois. It plays West Indian selections

almost exclusively.

1.3.8.2. Courtship Practices. Like most everything else in Carenage, these have also changed noticeably.

Traditionally, a young man was allowed to see a young girl only at her home. Wednesday and Saturday were the days

set aside for this. The couple sat in the living room of

the girl's home, conversing and perhaps exchanging an occasional embrace, all under the watchful eye of some other member of the family. This courtship practice was known as

far 1'amour (i.e., "to court" and not literally "to make

love"). It might continue for as long as two years or so,

until the young man had the wherewithal to ask for the girl

in marriage. Premarital relations and illegitimacy were minimal. They are still strongly discouraged.'^^

Marriages are times for great celebrating and feast­

ing. After the ceremony in the Catholic church, the let

de maryaj were exchanged at the breakfast reception between

the families and read aloud in front of the guests. In

these letters, each family wished the young couple good

luck and expressed satisfaction with the selection of the

other family involved. 22

Both these practices, fer 1" amour and the let de maryaj have been all but forgotten by the younger genera­ tion which has opted to embrace for the most part, "Ameri­ can customs." That is to say, courtship practices are no longer exclusively home and family oriented.

1.3. 8. 3. Folklore. The almost total absence of any indigenous folklore among the Carenageois has been one of the striking discoveries of my fieldwork. There are no stories or accounts dealing with the origin of the

French community in St. Barts. Very few can relate any­ thing at all specific about the immigration of the com­ munity to St. Thomas. There is almost a total lack of knowledge about the past other than some vague notions about Norman origins.

There is no hint of a tradition of folktales in the present corpus. Persistent inquiries met with the same negative replies. Local folksongs are also lacking.

Even in the area of proverbs and riddles, usually so abundant in Gallo-romance dialects, there is a marked scarcity. Moreover, there is no evidence to suggest that the Carenageois borrowed from West Indian blacks and their rich resources of oral folklore as exemplified by the Anansi tales. Several informants tried to explain this by evoking memories of the difficult days in St. Barts where eking out an existence occupied all the time and energies of the 23 people, leaving no time for even minimal amusements.

1.4. The Linguistic Situation in Carenage. The majority of Carenageois, excluding the very young and the very old, display varying degrees of competence v/ith STFD,

Standard American English, and local English; this latter refers in very general terms to the linguistic continuum employed by natives of St. Thomas. This continuum might be further defined as an English Creole which shows signs of having been "decreolized," perhaps since the advent of

American influence in the Virgin Islands in 1917. In addition, there is a handful of speakers living in the village who speak the NFC. Their presence in Carenage is not yet clearly understood (see 1.5.1.). Finally, a small number of Carenage men have married Puerto Rican women, and Spanish is usually spoken in those households.

For all practical purposes, however, the list of languages employed by the Carenage community can be reduced to STFD and local English. Even though Standard American English is in theory taught in the schools and used in local broad­ casting, not everyone is totally at home with it, preferring consequently either STFD or local English.

1.4.1. Competency Model. During the period of field­ work in preparation for this dissertation, the following models were developed in order to determine the relative

linguistic competence of Carenage residents and further

to aid in the screening and selection of informants. A 24 brief summary of these models would be instructive at this

point in illustrating the various levels of speech per­

formance .

1.4.1.1. Level One. These individuals speak only

STFD. They are few in number, restricted by and large

to persons over sixty-five. Many were born in St. Barts

but immigrated to St. Thomas at an early age. Most of

them are women who scarcely ever venture beyond the limits

of the village. In some cases, they have a passive know­

ledge of local English, but they respond to it in conver­

sation consistently with STFD.

1.4.1.2. Level Tv;o. These speakers are completely

bilingual but favor STFD. Once again these tend to be

older persons, though not aged. Some came to St. Thomas

from St. Barts at an early age; others were born in

St. Thomas.

1.4.1.3. Level Three. This is another group of

total bilinguals. In this case, however, the speakers

favor the use of local English over STFD, due to any one

or combination of complex socio-linguistic factors, such

as, circumstances of employment, circle of friends, loca­

tions of dwelling, age bracket of the children and the

like. At this level, there appears to be a good deal of

language switching in the course of general conversation. 25

Many of these speakers could be termed middle-aged (i.e., forty to sixty).

1.4.1.4. Level Four. The speakers here rely heavily on local English. They have a knowledge of STFD and can speak it if pressed or if they find themselves in the com­ pany of level one speakers. As children, they were often total bilinguals, their parents being of level two or level three compe1:oncy, their grandparents perhaps level one.

With time and changing life-styles, their competency level has fallen to the point that they are for the most part uncomfortable in STFD for prolonged periods. They usually revert to local English at the first opportunity. Members of tliis group may be termed young adults (i.e., twenty to forty).

1.4.1.5. Level Five. This level comprises speakers who use local English almost exclusively although they do possess a general understanding of STFD. If they are addressed in STFD, they will respond consistently in local

English. These speakers may be termed adolescents in the ten to twenty age bracket. They are by and large the offspring of level three parents who have spoken to them almost ex­ clusively in local English. They have very little motiva­ tion to use STFD. Occasionally, they may use a few words of STFD in the presence of outsiders in order to conceal the content of their conversation. 26

1.4.1.6. Level Six. This group is composed largely of young children under ten years of age. As offspring of level four parents, they in general have no competency at all in STFD. This is of course not to say that there are no speakers of STFD under ten. There are indeed cases where these children are raised totally or in part by an aunt or grandmother, thus giving the child some contact with the language. But this would seem to be the exception and not the rule.

1.4.1.7. Summary of the Model. It should first of all be borne in mind that the preceding is no more than a loose model based upon limited observations and impressions of a complex linguistic situation. Its principal use is to aid in the identification of competency levels of in­ formants (see Chapter Two). The foregoing discussion points toward several tentative conclusions about language use in St. Thomas in general and Carenage in particular.

First, Standard American English is the language of greatest prestige. All upward mobility depends to one degree or another on one's ability to use it. Second, local English follows in prestige. Nearly everyone born on the island, black or white, is competent in this dialect which is used extensively in social situations and in personal interrela­ tions. Third, STFD is regarded as a non-prestige form of speech. Black St. Thomians have no desire or need to learn 27 it. For their part, the Carenageois feel that their vieux français is inherently inferior to both Standard American

English and Standard French, at least for practical nurposes.

It is still associated, as it has been historically, with a rather backward fishing community of relatively slight social importance. No better proof can be summoned in support of this point than the general disinclination of present day parents to teach their children the dialect through routine daily use.

1.4.2. The Importance of STFD. The objection might understandably be raised that since the Carenageois came originally from St. Barts, it would then seem reasonable to study the dialect (or dialects) of that island. This line of reasoning is, however, misleading. On the con­ trary, it is quite probable that the community which began coming to St. Thomas over a centurq/ ago as immigrants may very well preserve a more archaic form of the original dialect than does the community which has remained in

St. Barts. The latter, by general agreement, has been subject to continuous French and Creole influences from neighboring Guadeloupe, while the group at St. Thomas has not.

Testimony by various Carenageois appears to lend weight to this view. Several informants volunteered that when visiting St. Barts, they are teased endlessly for their old-fashioned language and bad grammar. Others add that it 28 is quite easy to identify a newly-arrived Bartian in St.

Thomas simply by his manner of speech in French.

It is a safe assumption then from the foregoing that an analysis of STFD would afford a unique look at the most archaic form of West Indian dialectal French still in ex­ istence. The importance of such a study for the general domain of Creole linguistics in the Caribbean cannot be over-emphas i zed.

Furthermore, it should be pointed out that STFD is slowly but most certainly dying out. It is no exaggera­ tion to say that within ten years there will be no more level one speakers. This sad fact adds a note of urgency to linguistic study in the Carenage community.

1.5. The Northside Community. Some feel that the

Northside community was established first (see Figure 3).

This is based on the fact that the earliest references tell of the LaPlace brothers who sailed there from St. Barts at 21 an early date and found jobs working on a Northside estate.

Several years later they managed to buy up a substantial bloc of land and work it as independent farmers. Their

lead was followed by other compatriots until a large portion of the Northside was in their hands.

Northside was scarcely inhabited at that time. The

newly arrived Bartians terraced the rocky slopes and began

to produce a variety of both fruits and vegetable crops

for the St. Thomas market. In addition to growing bananas, 29 sweet potatoes, yams, pigeon peas, and cassava, they also fished on a small scale to fill their personal needs.

St. Thomas was little developed at that time. Small donkeys laden down with market produce crossed the island's mountainous spine each day and descended the tortuous dirt roads to reach the central market. As a result of these geographical conditions, travel and communication were severely limited. The community of the Northside was left alone for many long years to maintain its country ways, its language, and its independent spirit.

1.5.1. Northside French Creole. (NFC) Very little 22 fieldwork has been done on the Northside speech. During my recent fieldwork in St. Thomas, I managed to interview informally several individuals despite their obvious reluc­ tance. From these sparse resources we can posit that the speech of Northside must be grouped with the French Creoles of the Lesser Antilles (i.e., Guadeloupe, Martinique, Dom­

inica, St. Lucia and Trinidad), whereas that of Carenage, as we will see later, is clearly a dialect of Gallo- romance.

This situation raises an interesting question. If both the Northside and Carenage communities originated in

St. Barts as the historical evidence indicates, why then

are their respective languages so different toady? Re­

cent research shows an extremely complex linguistic situ­

ation on the tiny island of St. Barts itself. Since the 30 individual identities of the two St. Thomian French com­ munities have been the source of much confusion in the past, it is important here to clarify the matter once and for all.

1.6. Linguistic Situation in St. Barts. The prob­ lem can be resolved only by taking it back to its sources

(i.e., St. Barts). Recent research shows considerable 2 3 linguistic differentiation on that small island. Greatly simplified for the purposes of this discussion, St. Barts might be divided into three linguistic zones; A, B, and C

(see Figure 4).

" Zone A" includes the quartiers Flamand, Colombier,

Corossol, and Public, located in the dry and rugged west end of the island. Even though the form of speech there is under constant pressure from French Creole, Standard French and to a lesser extent English, it remains clear that it is a non-Creole dialect of Gallo-romance, the direct descend­ ant of the speech brought to the island in 1664 by the early colonists. It is to this zone that the majority of

Carenage residents can trace their origins.

"Zone B," which occupies the west central portion of the island, consists of Anse de Caves, St. Jean, Gustavia and Anse du Gouverneur. Gustavia is the only real contact with the outside; hence regional French, French Creole and regional English are all spoken in this zone. The three quartiers which make up the immediate hinterland of Gustavia 31 are relatively accessible to the outside, and the speech there seems to have been influenced by the regional French model of Gustavia. Very few of the Carenageois with whom

I spoke during my field work trace their origins to "Zone

B." Finally, it is to be noted that "Zones A and B" to­ gether make up the entity known locally as Sous le vent or the leeward side (i.e., western) of the island. Also to be noted is the fact that when the Carenageois state that they are from Sous le vent, they mean in the majority of cases, "Zone A."

Finally "Zone C," known as Au vent, occupies the eastern half of St. Barts and is made up of Lorient,

Grande Saline, Marigot, Cul-de-Sac, Vilet, Tolny and

Grand-Fond. For whatever reason, this area of St. Barts has presumably over a long period of time embraced a

French Creole form of speech closely related to that of neighboring Guadeloupe. Even though the inhabitants of the two zones, "A" and "C," are principally Caucasian of a nearly identical cultural background, one zone, "A," has by and large retained its French Dialect form of speech, while the other, "Zone C," has adopted the speech of neigh­ boring blacks, French Creole.

So it is that an understanding of the situation in

St. Barts clarifies the state of affairs in St. Thomas.

Obviously, the Northsiders emigrated from "Zone C," whereas 32 the Carenageois came from "Zone A," each group bringing along its own linguistic baggage with it.

The regional particularism so evident in St. Barts is kept alive by the two communities at St. Thomas, which to this day have little to do with one another. Some social mingling does occur but largely on an individual basis. Some group contact does take place at funerals and to a lesser extent at weddings and dances. However, in­ termarriage is rare. In general, contacts between the two groups is minimal and the reasons are no doubt the following: distance between the two communities, which was previously accentuated by poor travel conditions, occupational differences, differences in land holding practices and the prestige attached to them, and last of all, linguistic differences.

1.7. Linguistic Interaction Between Northside and

Carenage. Since members of both groups are bilingual, they most usually rely on local English as the basis for communication when they meet. In the course of my field­ work, however, I was present at two meetings of members of the two groups; a great deal of switching occurred. In one of these meetings, local English served as the basis of conversation, but frequently the Carenageois would use

STFD to which the Northsiders responded with NFC. In the other meeting a level three Carenage woman spoke for nearly 33 an hour in STFD with two older persons who knew and spoke only NFC. Afterwards all parties in the two conversations claimed to understand the others perfectly. Tliey admitted, however, that they could not speak "the other" form of speech very well, so they employed only their own. It seems safe to conclude that in St. Thomas, at least, NFC and STFD are mutually intelligible forms of speech. The importance of this point will be clear in Chapter Three where the mutual influences of STFD and French West Indian

Creoles are discussed in greater detail.

1.8. Summary. The preceding chapter makes one point eminently clear concerning the Carenageois of St. Thomas.

Today they find themselves in a transitional phase of development in which they are evolving at a considerable rate from an isolated, backward village whose sole existence was once based on the sea, to one where diversification of individual pursuits and assimilation of the overall group into the larger St. Thomas community are taking place.

These events, in turn, are having a tremendous impact on the manner in which the Carenageois relate to their chang­

ing circumstances linguistically. While many still employ

their beloved"pato.i s"in daily situations, it is without a

doubt becoming a relic of bygone days, giving way to the

relentless process of social and economic forces whose 34 vehicle is English. In a word, life in Carenage is chang­ ing, and with it changes its means of expression. lU- 7u) (S' Cl“ 54* Fig ) Map of the West Indies

:cü

ITi St. Barthélémy

/ y r s i ' OoT.'nIc.l

'uJ- U) Ln Fig. 2. Map of the U.S. Virgin Islands

rJO

Virgin Gorda Tortola

St. i Thomas St. John

Carenage

•H O St. Croix •H

<7^00 Fig. 3. Map of St. Thomas, U.S.V.I.

Little Hans Lollik Outer Brass Island

Hans Lollik Inner Brass Island

Thatch Cay

Charlotte Carenage -^Amalie Savana Island

Great St. Water Island James Saba Island Little St James Buck Island w Fig. 4. Map of St. Barthélémy Showing the Boundaries of the 'Quarters' and Linguistic Areas (Adapted from Lefebvre),

ZONE A

ZONE B ZONE C Flamand

Anse des Payes

Colombier Marigot Corossol Lorient Cul-de-Sa Public Vilet StI Jean ' Tolny

Gustavia .2% 'Grand-Fon

French patois

Regional french e French creole

1 km Anse du Gouverneur w 00 Sous le vent Au vent 39

Footnotes

Chapter One

1. Morris F. Goodman, A Comparative Study of Creole French Dialects. (The Hague: Mouton, 1964), p. 77.

2. For a general account of this colonial activity see W. Adolphe Roberts, The French in the West Indies. (New York: Bobbs-Merrill, 1942), 335 pp., and Nellis M. Crouse, French Pioneers in the West Indies. (New York: Columbia University Press, 1940), 29 4 pp.

3. Archives du Ministère de la France d*Outre-Mer, carton 1, pièce No. 2. Cited in Guy Lasserre, La Guadeloupe: étude géographique, 2 vols. (Bordeaux: Union Française d'impression, 1961), p. 855.

4. Letter of Phelypeaux 2 0 May 1713, published in JÂ Rennard, Documents inédits, publiés à l'occasion du tricentenaire des Antilles. Guadeloupe, 16 35- 19 35. (Basse-Terre, Hôtel du Gouvernment, 19 35), 206 pp., cited in Lasserre, o p . cit., p. 856.

5. Pere du Tertre, Histoire générale des Antilles .... Vol. 2, p. 33. Cited in Lasserre, o p . cit., p . 855.

6. Arch, du Min, de la Fr. d'O.-M., .... carton 1, piècet T cited in Lasserre, op. cit., p. 857.

7. This same community has remained at St. Barts continu­ ously until the present date with the exception of one brief period of exile to St. Vincent during the Seven Years War. Lasserre, op. cit., p. 857.

8. Father Guillo (CSSR), Report on the Chachas (typewritten manuscript in the St. Thomas Public Library. No date), 16 pp. Father Guillo took a strong interest in the Carenage community. Among other things, he inter­ viewed older members of the community in order to establish the date of arrival of the first Bartians.

9. Gordon K. Lewis, The Virgin Islands; A Caribbean Lillipiltj (Illinois: Northwestern University Press, 1972), pp. 199-206. A concise, thumbnail sketch of the development of Carenage. 40

10. From interviews with numerous informants.

11. Geraldo Guirty, Frank Quetel and Olive Anthony, St. Anne's Chapel: Semi-Centennial 1927-71 (St. Thom­ as! The Redemptorist Fathers, 1971), 21 pp. Several interesting old photos of Carenage.

12. Earl B. Shaw, "The Chachas of St. Thomas." Scientific Monthly, 38 (Feb. 1934), p. 136. At that time Shaw estimated the total population at 9 00.

13. Lewis, op. cit., p. 202.

14. Warren T. Morrill, "Ethnoicthyology of the Cha-Cha." Ethnology^ 6 (1967), 405-416. Detailed description of fishing methods employed by the Carenageois.

15. Father Guillo reports that the school was operated by a M. Cherul)in from 1899-1919 .

16. Praise God: "D.vo Hundred Years 1773-1973: History o f the Catholic Church in St. Thomas (St. Thomas : Redemptorist Fathers, 1973), 80 pp. This booklet gives a general historical account of the Catholic church in Carenage, as well as some interesting old photos.

17. Edwin A. Weinstein, Cultural Aspects of Delusion: A Psychiatric Study of the Virgin Islands (New York : The Free Press of Glencoe, 1962), p. 172. Inter­ esting comments on Carenage religiosity and obeah.

18. Ibid.

19. Morrill, op. cit., p. 405.

20. Weinstein, op. cit., p. 160.

21. For a more detailed discussion of the Northside Com­ munity see Lubin Pickwood, Social Survey of the French Settlements at Carenage and the Northside'. (St. Thom­ as : Typed manuscript in the sF. Thomas Pi.iblic Library. No date), 26 pp. Also see Guillo, p. 2-3, and Shaw, 139-145, The first settlements were at Estates fiuTl, Barett and Mafolie.

22. Albert Valdman, "Some Aspects of Decreolization in Cre­ ole French," in Current Trends in Linguistics, (Thomas Sebeok, ed., The Hague ; Mouton, 19 73). The author treats decreolization in NFC as well as in a number of other French Creoles. 41

23. Gilles R.Lefebvre, Français Régional et Créole à St. Barthélémy. (Manuscript, no date), 24 pp.

24. One possibility is that the eastern half of the island v/as flatter and less arid, thus making it feasible to attempt larger scale cultivation there. One attempt was even made to set up a plantation there. (Lasserre, op. cit., p. 858). All this means a greater propor­ tion of imported blacks to whites with the concomitant linguistic effects (i.e., Creolization). CHAPTER TWO

GENERAL APPROACH AND METHODOLOGY

2. The general aims to this dissertation have al­ ready been outlined in the introductory chapter. It now remains to discuss the general approach and methodology.

These are based throughout on two general principles: description and classification.

2.1. Description. STFD is a completely oral form of speech. It has neither been studied in any detail nor written down. It has no known texts. Consequently, it is a primary aim of this work to create a corpus of texts which is as faithful as possible to the spoken form of the dialect.

It should be further noted at this point that the study is intended to be purely descriptive and synchronic.

Comparisons and inferences made on the basis of standard

French will be avoided. STFD most certainly shares a num­ ber of relationships with standard French; however, it seems little likely that it evolved directly from an early

form of standard French. Much more probable is its evolu­ tion from another major western dialect, or dialects. For these reasons, it seems desirable to describe STFD as

42 43 svnchronically and objectively as possible before attempt­ ing to posit anything concerning its origins and rela­ tions to other dialects and to standard French.

2.1.1. Fieldwork. The descriptive phase of this work was founded upon work in the field. I lived and worked in Carenage during two brief periods, the first from 15 to 30 September 19 74, and the second from 20 March to 25 April 19 75.

During the first period of fieldwork, my major goals were to gain the confidence of Carenage residents in gen­ eral and to select competent and willing informants in particular. These proved to be rather difficult tasks.

Initially, I encountered marked resistance to the idea of even discussing STFD. Some denied having any knowledge of the dialect. Others fended off inquiries by asserting that since the language was never written, it consequently could not be studied. And others flatly refused on the grounds that nothing but ill-fortune could come to them as the result of such a study. They cited past experiences of having been duped and misused.

The reluctance was such that I am now convinced that

I could not have gained entry into the community were it

not for the kind intervention of an ex-Carenage resident

and good friend, Larry Gumbs, who presently resides in

New York. This study is profoundly in the debt of Mr.

Gumbs for the special trip he made to St. Thomas in order 44 to introduce me personally to a number of local residents.

As a result of his tireless endeavors, I was not only accepted by many Carenage residents, but I was moreover able to select a number of individuals as candidates for informant work. In addition to this "breakthrough," I recorded approximately six hours of material on tape and gained a limited working ability with STFD during the first period of fieldwork.

The second period of fieldwork proved very produc­ tive. Once initial acceptance was achieved, a number of tapes could be made for later analysis. All in all, some thirty hours of material were recorded on magnetic tape and subsequently transcribed and analyzed. A large number of these appears at the end of this study in the form of written texts.

2.1.2. Informants. An effort was made to select individuals who had been born in St. Thomas, or who came there at a very early age. These individuals might be divided into two groups; primary informants and secondary informants. The former were relied on heavily due to a number of reasons (i.e., willing disposition, availability, and so forth). Members of the second group were often less

sure of themselves and consequently less willing to record.

But they did give much information informally. In addi­

tion, they often checked data supplied by other informants. 45

In the brief paragraphs which follow, each informant is summarized in regard to important socio-linguistic in­ formation. In places, the data are sketchy due largely to many of the informants' reluctance to discuss personal matters such as age, circumstances of the parents, and so forth. When personal sensitivities b e c a m e apparent, in­ quiries were not pushed.

2.1.2.1. Primary Informants. Seven primary inform­ ants were selected for this study. In alphabetical order they are :

D. D . - female, mid-fifties, widow, level three

competency. She was born in St. Tliomas of a Carena-

geois father and American mother. No education in

French., Her job as a social worker brings her into

contact with aged speakers of local English. In

addition, she speaks fluent though not always

grammatical Spanish. She speaks STFD with complete,

ease.

F . D. - male, late sixties, level three competency.

He was born in Corossol, St. Barts, but came to

St. Thomas at an early age. Both of his parents

were from Corossol. A seaman by profession, he had

occasion to learn several languages. In addition

to STFD and local English, he knows Antillian Creole

and some standard French, which he acquired through 46 elementary education. He showed a marked tendency to Frenchify his STFD in the course of interviews which was, fortunately, countered consistently by his wife who was present at all sessions and who knows no French.

M . D . - female, early sixties, level two competency.

Wife of F. D. directly above. Born in Sous Le Vent,

St. Barts, she came to St. Thomas quite early.

Primary education in English; no French. She speaks an even variety of STFD with practically no French influence. She acts as a brake on these same ten­ dencies in her husband's speech.

E. G . - female, mid-eighties, widow, level one com­ petency. She came to St. Thomas in her early twen­ ties. She has spent most of her life within Carén­ age as a housewife.

E . G . - female, early sixties, widow, level two competency. Born at Gustavia in St. Barts of par­ ents from Colombier. Came to St. Thomas as a young girl. No education in French. Her STFD is consist­ ent but with a considerable number of English lexi­

cal items.

A. Q . - female, mid-fifties, widow, level three

competency. Born at Sous Le Vent, St. Barts, but

came to St. Thomas as a child. Educated in Enalish. 47

Practically no French influence; however, her speech is laced with English borrowings as well as numerous caiques on English.

L. Q . - female, mid-eighties, widow, level one competency.

Little learned of her background, although it appears that she came to St. Thomas from Sous Le Vent, St. Barts, with her family at an early age. She understands some English but responds only in STFD.

M . T . - female, early fifties, housewife, level three com­ petency. Born in St. Thomas. Education in English. Very little knowledge of French. Wide knowledge of the culture and people of Carenage.

2.1.2.2. Secondary Informants. These number seven in all. Alphabetically, they are:

F. D . - male, eighties, level two competency. Knowledge­ able about the sea and the music of the Carenageois. Born in St. Barts.

E. G . - female, late thirties, level three com­ petency. Born in St. Thomas.

H. G . - male, early sixties, level four competency. Born in St. Thomas.

^ G. - male, mid-thirties, level four competency. Born in St. Thomas.

A . M . - male, late thirties, level tv;o competency. Born in St. Barts. He came to St. Thomas as a young man to 48 work. Ile plans to return to St. Barts to live.

Hk M. - male, late thirties, level four competency. Born in St. Thomas. Speaks a form of STFD which has a high per­ centage of Creole elements. He claims that this is the real Carenage French which was spoken in the old days.

A •0. - male, early fifties, level four competency. Born in St. Thomas.

2.1.3. Elicitation Sessions. Most of the work was carried out in the homes of informants. Appointments were made several days in advance and a schedule was rigidly adhered to. Informants were extremely punctual and faith­ ful to their promises. In a total of eight weeks of work, only one informant failed to show. Sessions lasted for an hour on the average. During this time information was solicited by a variety of means (see 2.1.4).

The greatest single problem in recording was the presence of extraneous noises. Carenage is located in

the flight path of the St. Thomas airport. Moreover,

Antilles Airboats is situated in the harbor just to the cast of Carenage. These two sources in addition to gen­ eral street noises provided a constant source of interrup­ tion. Some sections of tapes have been rendered unintellig­

ible by these recurring noises.

2.1.4, Means of Elicitation. Data were obtained by

a variety of means and devices. These were employed in an 49 improvisional manner depending on the aljility and disposi­ tion of the informant at a given session.

2.1.4,!. The Basic Questionnaire. Consisting of

400 odd sentences in English covering a wide range of syntactic possibilities, this questionnaire was devised in advance of the fieldwork. Informants wore asked in

English to render certain sentences in STFD. This device was employed to lead informants into more general discus­ sions. To a person, they were initially apprehensive and doubtful of their own ability to supply what they felt was "desired. " However, their success at translating easy sentences from this questionnaire inspired confidence and drew them into a more conversational mood.

2.1.4.2. The Lexical Questionnaire. This is a list of approximately 2500 words (in English) of various class types (i.e., nouns, adjectives, adverbs, and so forth).

These words are arranged in semantic categories much in the same manner as the scheme presented by Hallig and von

Wartburg.^ It was found, however, unprofitable to follow their scheme too closely since many of the terms (e.g., winter weather, temperate zone agriculture, and so forth) and even the semantic categories themselves do not apply

to various aspects of West Indian life. Numerous adapta-

tions of their model v/ere made.

The questionnaire v/as drawn up in English several months in advance of the fieldwork. Subsequent adjustments. 50 additions, and deletions were made in the field. French terminology was purposely avoided (see below 2.1.5.).

In addition to lexical items, this questionnaire contains expressions derived from individual words, idioms, several proverbs, and sayings. As in the case of the Basic Questionnaire, this list proved quite effec­ tive as an opening gambit in elicitation sessions. Its employment often eventually led the informant into more detailed descriptions and explanations in STFD of the sub­ ject matter at hand.

2.1.4.3. Creation of a Corpus of Texts. Data in the form of texts were obtained in a variety of ways. The most important of these were :

2.1.4.3.1. Conversations Between Interviewer and

Informant in STFD. This happened only in exceptional cases, where my relationship with the informant was close enough to allow me to attempt speaking in STFD.

2.1.4.3.2. Conversations Between T\-;o Speakers of

STFD. In most cases, these sessions were arranged through the good offices of an interested third party. On several occasions, impromptu conversation was also recorded. How­ ever, the quality of these tapes is not good due to acous­ tic difficulties at the time of the recording (i.e., street noises, wind on the microphone, and so forth).

Relatively speaking, the attempt to collect data through 51 conversations was not overly successful, since recording sessions were overt and most informants tended to upgrade their speech.

2.1.4.3.3. Folktales and Children's Stories. Very scant data were obtained in this area,

2.1.4.3.4. Descriptions and Explanations. Elabora­ tions on certain cultural practices (i.e., straw work, fish trap construction, cooking, and so forth) provided a rich harvest of texts. Informants were asked questions like, "How is the standard straw hat for women made?"

Once the description was completed, a numloer of supplement­ ary questions could be posed in order to fill out the text.

2.1.4.3.5. Accounts of Past Events. This area also provided many excellent texts, full of ethno-historic as well as linguistic data. Informants were asked to comment on topics like the migration of Bartians to St. Thomas, sea voyages, hurricanes and other natural disasters, and so forth. Many went beyond simple narratives; some even sup­ plied dialogue and long explanations of what a word or phrase exactly meant, all in STFD.

2.1.5. Source and Target Languages. In most in­ stances, English was employed as the source language, since nearly all informants understood it to some degree. STFD was of course the target language. 52

English was selected over French as 'the source lan­ guage in order to avoid possible linguistic interference.

In some instances, I employed STFD as the source language but my working ability with this was always limited=

2.1.6. Transcription System. Materials from the elicitation sessions were transcribed as soon as possible.

The resulting texts appear in a phonemic script which 3 is based more or less on the HcConnell-Laubach system em­ ployed in many transcriptions of the Haitian Creole (see

Figure 5).

There are several reasons behind the particular choice. In the first place, this sytem is usable in the face of all the limitations of a standard typewriter.

Secondly, its employment relates tlae previously unwritten

STFD orthographically to transcriptions of some other

French derived language systems in the West Indies, most notably Haitian Creole. This procedure should be a ser­ vice to French Creolists who are already accustomed to the McConnell-Laubach system and who might eventually use the present dissertation for purposes of comparison.

Finally, the avoidance of more technical symbols (such as those employed by the IPA) renders the finished work more accessible to members of the STFD community, many of whom have expressed an interest in having copies of this grammar once it is completed. 53

Fig. 5. The STFD Transcription System

Oral Vowels

STFD Phonemic Value

i /i/

e /c/

è /c/

a /a/

6 /o/

6 /o/

ou /u/ U / y /

de /,{)/

d o /(%/

c /d /

Nasal Vowels

ê /%/ a /à/

a /Ô/

ou /Û/

oe /»/

Semi-Vowels

y /]/ w /w/

w /y/ 54 Fig. 5. (Cont'd.)

Consonants p /P/ u /t/ ]'C A/ b A/ d /d/ g /g/ f /f/

V /V/ s /S/ z /z/ ch /// j A/ tch /t// dj /d/ m /m/ n /n/ gn /J1/ 1 /I/

r /r/ h /h/ 55

2.2. Classification and Analysis. The aim of the descriptive phase of this study is to create a corpus of diverse texts. In the second phase, these texts are submitted to general linguistic analysis. The first step of this phase involves the "scanning" of all relevant materials in the texts and their classification into broad grammatical categories (i.e., phonology, morpho-syntax and lexicon). These materials appear in the following three chapters.

2.3 Conclusion. It is worth repeating that the results of the above method will be the first complete descriptive study of the oldest form of French speech still in existence in the West Indies. As such, it should prove to be of significant interest to the wider area of

French Creole linguistics. 56

Footnotes

Chapter Tv;o

1. Rudolf Hallig und Walther von Wartburg, Begriffs- system als Grundlage fur die Lexikographie: Versuch eines Ordnungsschemas, (2., nou bearbeitete und er^.’/eiterte Auflage) . (Deutsche Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. Berlin: Akademie Verlag, 1963.) 316 pp.

2. Sincere thanks are extended to Professor Catherine Callaghan of the Department of Linguistics, Ohio State University, for permission to examine her unpublished Hiwok questionnaire.

3. Robert Hall, Jr., Haitian Creole, Grammar, Texts, and Vocabulary (Philadelphia: Memoirs of the American Folklore Society, 43, 1953), p. 27. CHAPTER THREE

THE NATURE OF THE STFD CONTINUUN

3.1. The Problem. It is a naive assumption that a small, relatively homogenous commvinity presupposes lan­ guage uniformity. In the case of STFD, nothing could be further from the truth. In speaking with a number of informants, the linguistic observer is immediately struck by their noticeably different grades of speech. Moreover, informants often volunteer information on the speech habits of friends and neighbors, pointing out, for example, that one individual has a strong French element in his speech while another possesses a strong Creole element. Some­ times explanations are ventured to explain these differ­ ences .

In any event, the linguistic description and analysis of STFD in the following chapters would be hardly compre­ hensible without some further clarification of the complex sociolinguistic relationships which exist between STFD 2 ari i ::f C on the one hand and STFD and Standard French on the other. In this respect, this brief chapter is both a continuation and a refinement of the topic which was sur­ veyed in the final pages of Chapter One.

57 58

3.2 Language Contacts. Speakers of STFD understand both NFC and Standard French as was indicated previously.

However, their active use of these two forms of speech is greatly restricted. My own fieldwork turned up only sev­ eral individuals who would even attempt to offer a few sentences in either MFC or Standard French as the case might be. Yet two points became quite clear. First, all competent speakers of STFD understand to some degree both NFC and Standard French.^ Second, both these forms of speech exercise a direct influence on the manner in which STFD is spoken, given certain sociolinguistic con­ ditions. It is this second point that is of immediate con­ cern here.

3.2.1. Frenchifying Tendency. By way of example, ^ travelled a good deal as a sailor during his youth and was thus exposed for relatively long periods to both

Standard French and French Creole. When speaking with a

French person or with a person v;ho in his estimation speaks

'bon français," FD alters his speech noticeably. Phono- logically, his STFD /r/ becomes a clearer uvular frica­ tive and loses its labial qualities. The /we/ feature so common in STFD is transformed to /wa/ (e.g., STFD, bwer,

"to drink," > /bwar/ "boire"). Similarly, a number of morpho-syntactic and lexical features is subtly shifted toward the Standard French model. The STFD epil "many" 59 might be replaced by French "beaucoup." STFD dekwe "some­ thing" is suppressed in favor of French "quelque chose."

As this "upgrading" proceeds, the listener becomes av/are that he is no longer hearing strictly STFD but a Frenchi­ fied version of it.

In general, both the quality and the quantity of these shifts depend largely on the individual speaker's past degree of contact with the other form of speech (i.e., in this case, French). In the case of the contacts had been rather extensive. Other speakers of STFD may not perform these shifts as well as E)_D, but the fact re­ mains that they are ei.ll able to do so to one degree or another. This particular linguistic habit of the Carena­ geois might be referred to as their "Frenchifying tendency," that is, a conscious or semi-conscious attempt to upgrade their speech in the direction of an assumed Standard

French model.

3.22. Creolizing Tendency. A similar kind of lan­ guage modification, or code-switching, in the use of STFD occurs toward the other end of the continuum as the result of contacts with French Creoles. Unfortunately, this

phenomenon has not been as we1 1 -observed and documented

as the preceding.

By way of example, ^ speaks principally STFD and

English. She produces nonetheless on occasion certain 60

Creole features. In the present corpus, this occurred as she was giving an account of her views on the inhabitants of Northside in St. Thomas. Most notable of these were lexical items which she incorporated into her speech.

For example, NFC kote "where" replaced STFD otik. When asked if this word and others li]:e it (i.e., NFC words) belonged to STFD, she replied that they did not. Rather they were Northside words, she continued, but they could be and were used by Carenageois on occasion. However, to employ such words, she added, would render one's speech something less than "the real patois."

This "Creolizing tendency" was observed in other

Carenageois. EM has level four competency in STFD. He has spent much time in the company of black West Indians, some of them speakers of Antillian French Creole. Con­ sequently, the "Creolizing tendency" in his speech is pronounced. For instance, he often renders STFD j '6

"I have" by mwd na, which approximates French Creole mwe n i . In addition, a number of Creole lexical items appear regularly in his speech.

3.3. The STFD Continuum. The preceding examples, selected from among many, point to the existence of vari­ ous grades of French speech in the Carenage commun;! ty.

Most Carenageois are able to adjust their speech from one grade to another depending on the immediate linguistic 61 environment in which they find themselves. This set of exceedingly complex circumstances can best be represented by a linguistic continuum. At the center of the con­ tinuum is basic STFD. From this point of reference, a speaker might "upgrade," or "Frenchify," his speech in the direction of a Standard French model. Or he might, moving in the opposite direction "downgrade," or "Creolize," his speech aiming at a French Creole model. The point along the continuum where his speech coalesces at a given moment in time depends on the sociolinguistic situation with which the speaker finds himself confronted and the effect which he wishes to produce by his speech. These conditions are best represented by the illustration in Figure 6 .

Obviously enough, this scheme shows a certain range of "speech grades" available to speakers of STFD. All competent speakers of STFD (i.e., level one to four ) have at least some degree of mobility along this continuum.

But more important, especially in the chapters which follow, is the fact that this conception of the flexibility and non-static nature of STFD offers an explanation con­ cerning the variation of its grammatical categories. An attempt will bo made to point at the most important of these variations in the subsequent descriptive phase of this study, even though it will be hardly possible to com­ ment on all of them. Fig. 6. The STFD Continuum,

French Creole Model Standard French Mo de 1

Creolizing tendency Range Frenchifying tendency of Basic STFD

Downgrading Upgrading 63

Footnotes

Chapter Three

This term is not to be confused with "speech levels" discussed in Chapter One. The device of " lei;els" was employed to determine the relative competency of a speaker within STFD, assuming theoretically for a moment that a basic form of STFD does exist. "Speech grades" refer to the degrees to which STFD miglit bo modified in the direction of another form of speech. "Speech levels'* then refer simply to individual linguistic competency, whereas "speech grades" re­ fer to more complex sociolinguistic behavior by speakers who are competent in STFD.

In this wider context of sociolinguistics, NFC can be grouped with other French Creoles of the Lesser An­ tilles, since contacts do exist between speakers of those Creoles and Carenageois. During my own field­ work, I met several Dominicans who work in Carenage and who speak their Creole routinely. Several Domini­ can women live in the village. In addition, there are various French Creole speakers living in the urban areas surrounding Carenage. Opportunities for such contacts do exist.

Possessing some knowledge of both Antillian Creole end Standard French, I was able to test this hypothe­ sis in a numl3er of cases. CHAPTER FOUR

PHONOLOGY

4.1. Introduction. The primary aim of this chapter is to describe the sound system of STFD. This undertaking can be divided into two parts: phonemics and prosody.

This area of the study is especially difficult since, as has been pointed out in the preceding chapter, individ­ ual speakers may produce a sometimes bewildering variety of sounds depending on the particular segment of the con­ tinuum which they choose to make use of at a given time.

Phenomena of this kind are greatly interesting but belong, however, to the domain of socio-linguistics and not strict­ ly speaking to phonology. In order to avoid the confusion inevitably produced by such conditions, the approach here has been to record as many variant forms as possible and then select a base form according to the frequency of its occurrence in the ordinary speech of the greatest number of

Carenageois.

4.2. Phonemics. STFD has an inventory of 34 phonemes which can be subdivided into 20 consonants and 14 vowels.

This section will consider these two groups of sounds in­ dividually.

64 4.2.1. Consonants. Each of the twenty consonant phonemes is listed below along with a brief articulatory description and one minimal pair.

The phoneme /p/ is a voiceless, bilabial stop; Pz:

”not" : ^ " low."

The phoneme /b/ is a voiced, bilabial stop; ^ "bath"; pe ''bread. '

The phoneme /t/ is a voiceless, linguo-dental stop; tâ 'time": ^ "tooth."

The phoneme /d/ is a voiced, linguo-dental stop; dèt

"to be": têt "head."

The phoneme /k/ is a voiceless, velar stop; koute ''to cost'': goute "to taste."

The phoneme /g/ is a voiced, velar stop; log "long":

1 'ok "the uncle."

The phoneme /f/ is a voiceless, labio-dental frica­ tive; fat "slit": vat "belly."

The phoneme /v/ is a voiced, labio-dental fricative; ve ''wine" : ^ "hunger." It is often only very lightly articulated, especially in rapid speech. The articulators are brought to the point approximating a standard /v/, they are held there only momentarily and then quickly relaxed.

The result is a weakly articulated /v/. In initial posi­ tion, it is weakened to the point of disappearing in the normal speech of many Carenageois. 66

j e w e i'wé ... —— ■ - ' Z» ' "I see"

je vyê ^ j 'yê

'* I corne"

vou kôné ^ ou kône

"you know”

In certain words, the /v/ appears to weaken intervo- calically to /w/. It may be in these cases that the in­ tervocalic /v/ is lost altogether and that a glide is generated between the two vowels.

je pouve pa ^ je pouwé pa

I was not able"

The phoneme /s/ is a voiceless, dental fricative; ko use "cushion": kouze "cousin."

The phoneme /z/ is a voiced, dental fricative; kouze "cousin": kouse "cushion."

The phoneme /ch/ is a voiceless, linguo-alveolar fricative; chain "room" : j am " leg."

The phoneme /j/ is a voiced, linguo-alveolar frica­ tive; jou "cheekbone": chou "cabbage."

The phoneme /tch/ is a voiceless, linguo-alveolar affricate ; tchoer " heart" : sder "sister."

The phoneme /dj/ is a voiced, linguo-alveolar affric­ ate; djel (a variant of djdel) "mouth": tchel "which." 67

The phoneme /m/ is a voiced, bilabial nasal; mer

"mother": per "father."

The phoneme /n/ is a voiced, linguo-alveolar nasal; nou "us": dou "sweet."

The phoneme /I/ is a voiced, linguo-alveolar later­ al; ^ "them": "some."

The phoneme /r/ is a very light uvular trill. It is much weaker than the uvular trill of SF. This consonant gives the impression that the articulators are brought into position for a regular uvular /r/ but that they are held in the necessary position only laxly and momentarily; re "back": ^ "interjection uttered when the speaker is surprised or does not understand what has been said."

Before a plosive, STFD /r/ loses its uvular qualities and appears as a bilabial fricative. In the speech of some

Carenageois, an indistinct, open vowel, similar to a short

/a/ is generated after the bilabial fricative in the follow­ ing manner:

gourd ^ gouwad

"gourd"

port ^ powat

" door"

ojôrdi ^ ojowadi

"today" 68

In word final position, /r/ is lightly articulated if at all. If the following word begins with a consonant, then the final /r/ is nearly always dropped.

pour el

"for her"

pou ma fam

"for my wife"

The phoneme /gn/ is a voiced, palatal nasal; sign

"sign": sik (< si ke ) "if."

The phoneme /h/ is a voiceless, glottal fricative, which is ali’/ays strongly aspirated; hor "outside": for

"strong."

4.2.2. Vowels. The vocalic system of STFD consists of nine oral vowels and five nasal vowels. As is similar­ ly the case with morpho-syntax, the vowel system is char­ acterized by some uncertainty and hesitation on the part of many speakers. Two problem areas can be identified im­ mediately. Among the oral vowels, there appears to be a growing tendency toward not making a phonemic distinction between open and closed /e/. For many, they fall together as one phoneme with positional allophones. Another area of confusion (and perhaps transition as well) occurs among back nasal vowels where /&/ and /Ô/ are so similar that they appear to fall together in the speech of many Carena- geois. Both these cases suggest that perhaps the present Fig. 7. The Consonant System of STFD

bi-labial lab-dental dental alveolar palatal velar uvular glottal

voiced plosive b d g voiceless plosive p t k nasal m n gn

lateral 1 trill r voiced fricative v z j voiceless fricative f s ch h voiced affricate dj voiceless affricate tch 70 vocalic system finds itself in a state of transition where­ in coalescence and simplification are occurring.

4.2.2.1. The Oral Vowels. The STFD oral vowel scheme is asymmetrical. There are four degrees of opening in the front series and three in the back.

The phoneme /i/ is the highest and most fronted of all vowels; "him": "the." The semi-vowel /y/ is an allophone of /i/.

The phoneme /é/ is a relatively closed, front vowel, produced with lip-spreading. As alluded to above, for many speakers, there is only one /e/ phoneme with two allo­ phones, /e/ and /è/. However, since a phonemic distinction is made by a core of the community with certain high fre­ quency words, the two are treated in this study as separ­ ate phonemes; "plural form of my": me "but."

The phoneme /è/ is a relatively open, front vowel produced with lip spreading été "was": été "gone."

The phoneme /a/ is a completely open, central vowel; ma "my": me "but."

The phoneme /ou/ is closed, back vowel, somewhat lower than cardinal/u/;dou "sweet": ^"back." Before the uvular

trill /r/, /ou/ appears to be realized consistently as a

lower and laxer allophone which might be represented as

/O/ (cf., English "book," German " Hund" ) . In addition, the 71 semi-vowel /v;/, a bilabial fricative, sometimes occurs as an allophone of /ou/ (cf. , jouwé < jwé "to play").

The phoneme / o f is a central, back vowel which is produced with lip-rounding. It has tv/o allophones /6 / and /6 / which appear in complementary distribution depending by and large on the nature of the syllable. The former nearly always occurs in free syllables (e.g., o d o , dodine, and so forth), whereas the latter most usually occurs in checked syllables (e.g., fôr, porté, and so forth). In a limited number of words generally checked by a final -z, /6 / may occur in a checked syllable, but there are no minimal pairs through which separate phonemes could be established (e.g., choz, 1:6 z, and so forth).

The phoneme /oe/ is a half-open central vowel pro­ duced with lip-rounding. It has two allophones, oe and oe, the former occurring in free syllables, the latter in checked; j_o^ "game": joen "young."

The phoneme /&/ is a half-open central vowel produced v/ith slight lip-rounding. It never occurs in stressed position. As a result of the diminished expiratory energy put into its pronunciation, its overall quality remains indistinct; d_e "of": doe "two."

The phoneme /u/ is a closed, central vowel produced with extreme lip-rounding; vu "seen": vou "you." The

semi-vowel /w/ is an allophone of /u/. 72

4.2.3. Semi-vowels. STFD has three semi-vowels or continuants /y/, /w/ and /w/, none of which are phonemic. They are rather allophones of the closed vowels /i/, /u/ and /ou/, respectively.

4.2.4. Masai Vowels. There are five nasal vowels in STFD.

The phoneme /ê/ is a front, half-open nasal vowel produced with lip-spreading; ve "wine": v^ "wind." In several words, nasal /e/ appears to be in free variation with nasal /oe/. On the surface at least, /oe/ seems to be associated with more correct speech and is thus often substituted for /é'/ to that end (e.g., e: "a, an" ; tëbe: toebê "to fall"; on: oen "one").

The phoneme /a/ is a completely open nasal vowel with no lip-spreading. It is located farther back than oral

/a/. Its real identity is in fact probably closer to /#/ than to any other. The difficulty of locating /a/ pre­ cisely is compounded by a corresponding lowering of nasal

/Ô/. In effect, it appears that nasal /a/ and nasal /ô/ are converging near the back and bottom of the vocalic triangle. For example, speakers show some hesitation in the pronunciation of some words such as fam and fdm, ainar and dinar, chdm and chom, farniy and fomiy, and so forth. 73

Nevertheless, the phonemic identity of the two can be es­ tablished in the basis of regular oppositions; ^ "bench":

^ " g o o d ."

The phoneme /ou/ is a closed back nasal vowel pro­ duced with lip-rounding; mou "my": m£ "hand."

The phoneme /o/ is a half-open back nasal vowel pro­ duced with slight lip-rounding. It appears to be consist­ ently lower than cardinal /o/. Its apparent convergence with /a/ has already been referred to; ô "we" : â "in."

The phoneme /oe/ is a half-open, central nasal vowel produced with slight lip-rounding. It occurs in only a limited number of words and is to all intents and purposes, the result of an attempt to Frenchify one's speech (see

/ê/ above).

4.2.5. The Vocalic Scheme of STFD

front central back

Closed u ou ou

Half-closed oe o

Half-opened oe e ô

Open a

4.3. Prosody. It is not the intention of this study to treat the prosodic elements of STFD to any great extent.

In the first place, such a treatment goes far beyond the 74 scope of the present work. Moreover, the difficult con­ ditions under which the tapes for this study wore made militates against such a treatment by their very nature.

In order to treat the topic conclusively, further work in the field under more controlled conditions will be necessary.

On the other hand, it is possible to posit certain information based on impressionistic considerations. In that regard, this section treats in a limited manner stress, syllable structure and sound linking.

4.3.1. Stress. If a speaker of STFD produces a single word of several syllables, each syllable will re­ ceive approximately the same amount of articulatory in­ tensity, except the last which always receives slightly more. STFD, however, emphasizes the breath group rather than the word. The breath group usually contains four to eight syllables with the last of these being pronounced with slightly greater intensity. It should be here noted that stress is a correlative of intensity and is often opposed to length. This frequent juxtaposition of pro­ sodic elements gives STFD its distinctive sound "flavor."

In any event stress is not phonemic in the dialect.

4.3.1.1. Emphatic Stress. This is employed often to upset the natural, expected rhythm of the sentence.

Rather than coming in its normal position at the end of the 75 word or breath group, it is displaced toward the begin­ ning. This produces the effect of drawing attention to and thus emphasizing a particular element in the utter­ ance which would otherwise appear unemphasized or regular in the normal cadence of the utterance. The frequency of this emphatic stress appears to be far greater in STFD than in SF. It might be correctly supposed that the long association with English and the presence of widespread bilingualism has had the effect of promoting the use of emphatic stress.

4.3.2. Syllabic Structure: In general, syllabifi­ cation tends to follow the same pattern as SF.

4.3.2.1. Checked and Free Syllables. Checked syllables are those which end in a final consonant. Free syllables end in a vowel. The ratio of checked to free syllables is higher in STFD than SF principally because a number of words end in an etymological -t.

nw i t

"night"

osit

" also"

lèt

" milk"

esit

"here" 76

4.3 .2. 2. Syllable Length. There are both long and short syllables in STFD. Their length depends on the length of their corresponding vowels. Although not phonemic, length is a characteristic feature of the sys­ tem. Vowels and their corresponding syllables are lengthened in any one of the following circumstances.

4.3. 2.2.1. Nasal vowels are always longer than their oral counterparts.

bâ ; ba

"bench" "low"

4.3.2.2.2. Vowels which are nasalized by a follow­ ing nasal consonant are long even though they occur in checked syllables.

f a : m

"wife"

cha:rn

"room"

4.3.2.2.3. Vowels in open syllables tend to be somewhat longer than vowels in closed syllables. The ex­ ception to this general rule occurs when a syllable is checked by certain final consonants.

cho ; z

"thing"

rou ; j

"red" 77 (je) ma ; j

"I eat"

4.3.3. Linking. Since stress is not used in STFD to define clearly the word as a unit (but rather the breath or stress group), the boundaries between syllables of semantic words are then not distinctly defined. The relationship between syllables across word boundary lines is referred to as linking. Three types of linking can be identified for STFD.

4.3.3.1. Elision. This is the coalescence of a word final vowel with that of following word which begins with a vowel. This tendency is quite common in our dialect.

tu a > t 'a

"you have"

sa arive >

"that was happening"

4.3.3.2. Liaison. This term refers to the pronunci­ ation of a word final consonant, ordinarily silent, when it occurs before another word which begins with a vowel.

do joen bway but de joènz âfa

"young boys" "young children"

ka k'iy ariv.... but kat iy ariv

"when he comes,..." "when he comes,..."

4. 3.3.2. Enchaînement. This is one of the charac­ teristic features of STFD. In this process, a word final 78 phoneme is transferred to the beginning of the following word. This tendency is so pronounced that a number of new words, usually beginning with a /z/, has been created.

lez 6 > lé z6

"the bones"

dez anoli dé zanoli

"some lizards"

Enchaînement also occurs frequently in the verbal

system with the result that new verbal forms are sometimes

created. This feature is most persistent in the third per­

son singular (i.e. , a^, el^) before verbs which be­

gin with a vowel. The final liquid or yod of the personal

pronoun is transferred to the verb itself.

iy a kômâsé > i ya komase

"he began."

al ale a la lé

"she wont."

il 6re > i lôré

iy ore > i yore

"he will have "

iy é vèni > i ye veni

"he has come " 79

This feature appears to have spread by means of analogy to the third person plural in all similar cases, even though the pronoun (i.e., o£) does not have an ety­ mological final /-y (i.e., Fr. eux) . In all these cases, it must be assumed in any event that t.he Al/spread first to the pronoun (ob > oe1) and became agglutinated to the following verb.

del ale > oe laid

"they went"

obi ave > oe lavd

"they have"

In at least one instance, the agglutinated consonant has spread to all persons of one tense.

je lire

"I will go"

tu lird

"you will go"

i lire

"he will go"

and so forth

This feature is found frequently also in the first

person plural where the final/n/of the pronoun d(n) is

agglutinated to all following verbs which begin wiLh a

vowel. 80

on ore > Ô noré

"we will have"

on a > Ô na

"we have"

In both the texts and the glossary which appear in the appendices, words which are affected by enchainement have been transcribed in their underlying, or full form, that is to say as they appear in the above examples to the left hand side, since in other syntactic environments they ordinarily lose the agglutinated consonant.

iy a fet sa > i ya fet sa

"he did it"

but :

iy a fèt sa > jân a fèt sa

"he did it" "John did it"

In the case of a number of nouns, the process has all

the appearances of being in a state of transition, since

in some cases the agglutinated consonant remains in other

environments and in some cases it does not.

dez èrb > dé zèrb

"some grass"

and

oc zorb >

"a (blade of) grass" 81

dé z6

"some bones"

and

oe zo

With some words there exists constant vacillation perhaps due more than anything else to the influence of

SF.

dez anoli > dé zanoli

"some lizards"

and

oe zânôli ohn anoli

"a lizard" "a lizard" CHAPTER FIVE

MORPHO-SYNTAX

5.1. Introduction. In most languages there is no

absolute, clear-cut division between morphology and syntax.^

That is certainly the case with STFD. In the name of economy

and concision, I have treated the two here under one heading hoping to avoid wherever possible useless duplication and

diffusion of material. Sections two through eight are more

narrowly morphological in their treatment of the subject matter, although data on syntax has been added where it was deemed effective and convenient to do so. Sections ten

through thirteen deal primarily with syntax although, once

again, morphological data is included and frequent references

are made to sections two through eight. In this manner, it

is hoped that the inner functioning of STFD can be understood

as 5 continuum of structures ranging from the simplest to the most complex.

5.2. Nouns. Nouns occur distributively as the kernels

of nominative phrases, as complements of verbs in verb phrases

and as objects of prepositions in adverbial and adjectival

phrases.

5.2.1. Gender. All STFD nouns display gender, either

82 83 masculine or feminine which may be shown in one of three ways.

5.2.1.x. Final Consonant/Vowel Alternation. In a limited number of words the feminine form shows an articu­ lated final consonant which is lacking in the masculine.

grân/grâ ’’grandmother/grandfather"

defet/defê "the deceased"

5.2.1.2. Feminine Suffixes. The suffixes e£, as may be added to some masculine nouns as in the following examples :

met I- mètrèz "teacher"

djyabl- > djyables "devil"

5.2.1.3. Nominal Determiners. Definite and indef­

inite articles and qualitative, demonstrative and possessive

adjectives are generally responsible for indicating the

gender of nouns. e.g., la kaz, mou liv, den fiy, set fam,

de kaz blach, etc.

5.2.2. Number. This is never determined by the noun

itself but rather by certain nominal determiners such as

definite and indefinite articles (la kaz/le kaz; o'e bdt/de

bot), demonstrative (se chapo la/se chapo la), possessive

(ma tat/md tat) and numerative (oen bwet/doe bwet) adjectives.

5.2.3. Derivation of Nouns. Derivation from other

parts of speech is fairly common. In each case, the addition 84 of a nominal determiner suffices to effect the derivation.

5.2.3.1. Adjectives

j on "yellow" la jon "the yellow one"

rouj "red" lé rouj "the red ones"

detestab "detestable" oe detestab "a detest­ able person"

5. 2. 3. 2. Infini.tives

m a j é "to eat" le maje "food"

soupe "to eat supper" le soupe "supper"

parle "to speak" le parlé "speech"

5.2.4. Suffixization. A number of suffixes does occur in STFD words. However, the use of those suffices to form new words is relatively limited. Spealceru; prefer to form new words analytically or to borrow them directly from another source, in the vast majority of cases, American Eng­ lish (see 6.6.).

5.2.4.1. Main Nominal Suffixes

- aj karénaj, frutaj, maryaj.

- o kocho, pweso, bwesd.

- o'er pochcibr, logger .

sapotye, kokoye. - - yô taperasyo, AfId'basyo’.

- ^ montras

- ar_ richer, soular.

- es, ez metres, djyables. 85

- ur koupur, blesur.

- atanm£.

5.2.5. Prefixing. This procedure is rather rare in

STFD for the same reasons cited directly above. The most prev­ alent is ^i which can be prefixed to almost any noun forming a diminutive.

oe moun "person" ti moun "child"

cTen choz "thing" ti choz "tidbit"

Nominal Determiners. These are called "deter­ miners" because they group themselves about nouns (i.e., nominals), creating larger syntactical units (i.e., noun or nominal phrases). At the same time, they add semantic in­ formation relative to the nominal in question.

5.3.1. Articles. STFD has both the definite and

indefinite articles plus all their composite forms.

5.3.1.1. Definite Article. This is important in STFD

in that it indicates the gender and number of the nominal to

which it is prefixed, the latter inherently lacking this

capability.

Singular Plural

Masc. le, ]J, 1 e (s)

Fern. la le(z )

oe d i , le ta va frape koté de minwit. "They say that the heavy weather will hit around

midnight."

oe tchêbôdé lé krochët.

"They held onto the hooks."

la kaz krake, a krake.

"The house was cracking, it was cracking."

lé ravin etc ki koule.

"The gutters were flowing (with water)."

5.3.1.2. Indefinite Article. This article similarly indicates the gender and number of the nominal to which it is prefixed. The basic forms are as follows:

Singular Plural

M-'sr-. oe, oen + vowel dé (z)

Fern. oen d é (z)

GO Icri sa, oe w ire.

"They call that a w i r o .

i porte dé gré payé dé% ocf.

"île used to bring big baskets of eggs."

i sanale avek oen éprôviyé.

"He would leave with a fish net,"

oe kri sa dé fol, me sa se fet kom dé filet.

"They call those fol, but they're made like

filets.

In rapid speech in general and in the speech of some individuals in particular, the contrast e , en is often heard 87 in place of the above. Apparently, this cannot be attributed to a shift along the STFD continuum. It appears to be in free variation with the regular forms.

5.3.2. Adjectives. These words make up the second broad class of nominal determiners in STFD and may be classi­ fied as qualitative, demonstrative, possessive, interrogative, and numerative. Each of these categories will be surveyed directly below.

5.3.2.1. Qualitative Adjective. These are so-called because they "qualify" the nominal with which they are grouped. This relationship may be either attributive (la kaz blach) or distributive (la kaz e blach).

5.3.2.1.1. Number. STFD adjectives do not normally indicate number. However, in a limited number of cases, a plural marking infix may occur between the adjective in question and a following noun which begins with a vowel.

do joenz âfa "some young children"

5.3.2.1.2. Gender. Qualitative adjectives may be arranged in two classes in respect to gender marking:

invariable and marked.

A. Invariable Adjectives. A number of adjectives

consistently show the same form for both masculine and fem­

inine nouns. Some typical adjectives belonging to this class

are : 88

jden "young"

kalm "calm"

kler "clear"

ma lad "sick"

meg "thin"

mem "same"

miserab "miserable

shes "dry"

B. Marked Adjectives. Other adjectives exhibit a relatively consistent rriasculine/feminine opposition in which the feminine form ends in an articulated final consonant which is absent in the masculine. Some examples of important adjec­ tives in this catocorv arc:

Masculine Feminine

bla blach "white"

defc defct "deceased"

dbrnye dornyor "last"

fatiga fatigât "tiring"

vè r vert "green"

C. Syntactic Considerations in Gender Marking. It

should be noted, first of all, that gender marking in adjec­

tives varies greatly, moving along the continuum. Toward

the Creole terminus, it is ignored in the majority of cases.

Toward tlie Standard French end, a semblance of a system is maintained with a number of concomitant hypercorrections.

Gender is most consistently shown when an adjective

IS clearly related to the speaker. 89

sv;i. gros .

"I'm fat."

When the adjective is associated attributively with its nominal, then gender distinctions are normally made.

set ben bon fâm.

"Sine's a good woman."

In the case of distributive association, however, there is a strong tendency to ignore gender distinctions.

al c b o .

"She is ;

la chat G p'ti.

"The cat is small."

5. 3. 2.1.3. Deriv a tip] i o f Ad j e c t. i v e s . Such derivation is limited; it occurs principally by suffinization.

A. The suffix - ab converts verbs to adjectives

(deteste > detestab) and nouns to adjectives (miser > misdrab)

B. The suffix - o_t is added to color adjectives to give a special nuance, t.rans.lated roughly by the English

"-ish." (roug > rouj at - "reddish"; j on > jonat - "yellow­ ish" ) .

C. Some present participles may bo employed as

adjectives (fatige > fatiga(t) - "tiring").

5. 3. 2.1.4. Comparison of Adjectives. Comparison is effected by the addition of the adverb plu (z) before any

adjective : 90

gro > plu gro "bigger"

ouver > pluz ouvër "more open"

Only a few irregular forms persist in STFD but they too most usually take the pin(z) morpheme to form the comparative

redundantly.

b6 > (plu) meyoer

"good" "better"

Traces of other synthetic comparatives such as mdve/

pir do sporadically occur toward the SF end of the continuum.

However, in normal, relaxed speech they are all otherwise

levelled to analytical forms.

move > plu move

"bad" "worse"

A. The Syntax of Comparison. Adjectival comparison

may occur on three semantic levels, each presenting slightly

differing structures.

a. Positive Comparison

m ari é plu sav<£t ke sa soer.

"Mary is more intelligent than her sister."

b . Negative Comparison

p5l ê pa osi h6 ke s6 frèr.

"Paul is not so tall as his brother."

Another possibility for the negative comparison is:

s6~ pa si zdmi kôm no vwazëk

"They are not so friendly as our neighbors."

C . Comparison of Equality 91

swit osi jden ke li.

"I am as young as he."

5.3.2.1.5. The Superlative. This is effected

the definite article to the comparative form.

Comparative Superlative

plu bel la plu bel

"more beautiful" "the most beautiful"

plu move Ic plu move

"worse" "the worst"

plu sava le plu sava

"smarter" "the smartest"

se chapo In s6 le plu grâ de tou.

"That hat is the largest of all."

5.3. 2. 2. Demonstrative Adjectives. These do not occur frequently in the present corpus. A singular or plural distinction is consistently marked, but gender distinctions are often neglected. The locative distinction (i.e., "here,"

"there," "over there"), quite common in many languages (cf.,

Spanish este, esc and aquel), is totally lacking in STFD.

This idea must be derived from context or from the occasional post-posing of an adverb of place, e.g., se kaz la aba -

"that house down there."

Singular

Masc. £e t consonant so ta la

"that time" 92 set or st' + vowel st'ora la

"that man"

Fern. set + consonant set kaz la

"that house"

set or st' + vowel st'6 la

"that water"

P].ural

Masc. + consonant sc ta la

and "those times"

Fern. sez + vowel sez oraj la

"those oranges'

5 . 3 .2 . 3 . Possess ive Adj ectives. .■'hesG can best be illustrated by the following schema.

Singular

M a s c . Fern. P.lura3.

1st md'un ma me ( 2 ) "my"

2 ^ to(n) ta te (z) your

3rd so (n ) sa se (z) "his, hers, its'

Plural

1st not not no (z) "our"

2nd rot vdt v6 ( z ) "your"

3 rd loer loer loer(z) "their"

The possessive adjective is often reinforced by the addition of possessive proposition.

a m w e , a two, etc.

da mou ta a mwc "in my time." 93

5.3.2.3.1. The Syntax of Possession. Possession can be indicated in a number of ways which are all clearly differentiated in STFD.

A. Possessive Adjectives (See above 5.3.2.3.)

sa se sa kaz.

"That's his house."

B. The Preposition de. This is perhaps the most

common means of indicating possession.

le nas de mou mari été tout volé.

"Ail of my husband's fish traps were stolen."

C. The Preposition a. This preposition is employed

to show possession by a particular individual who is

specifically named.

lez afa a alfos e bye élevé.

"Alphonse's children are well-raised."

oel a volé lé nas a félis.

"They have stolen Felix's fish traps."

In this respect, compare the segments, le sen de se

po.choer "the nets of that fisherman' with lé sen a ja

'John's nets."

D. Simple Justaposition. This represents yet an­

other means of expressing possession. The two norninals

in question are placed side by side with the possessor

coming second.

le liv alfos

"Alphonse's books" 94

E. Pronominal Periphrases. These devices serve the purpose of avoiding the use of the regular possessive

adjectives. They all employ the preposition a.

set a mwe "It's mine" can produce sentences of the

type, la kaz, s51 a m w e , "That's my house".

5.3.2.4. Interrogative Adjectives. Neither number nor

gender is shown here, there being one all purpose form, tchel.

tchel liv ke t'a?

"Which book do you have?"

tchel kaz ke se sa?

"Whose house is that?"

tchel kabri k ' â' va twé?

"Vvhich goat shall we kill?"

5.3.2.5. Numerative Adjectives. Two types of STFD

adjects fall into this category: cardinal and ordinal.

5.3.2.5.1. Cardinal Numerative Adjectives. These

never show gender. The final/-z/ in doc (z), etc., appears

to have spread analogically to other numerative adjectives

(i.e., kat(z), set(z), wit(z). The cardinal numerative

adjectives are:

oen one ' six"

doe (z) " two " s e t (z) ' seven'

t w a (z) "three" wit(z) ■eight"

kat (z) "four" noef 'nine"

sek "five" di (z) 'ten" 95

6z "eleven" sèz "sixteen"

douz "twelve" diset "seventeen"

trez "thirteen" dizwit "eighteen"

katôrz "fourteen" diznoef "nineteen"

tchez "fifteen" vé (t) "twenty"

vét c oen "twenty-one"

ve doe "twenty-two"

etc.

By tens :

di (z ) "ten" swasdt "sixty"

vé(t) "twenty" sètât, sèptât "seventy"

tràt "thirty" katrevê "eighty"

kar^t "forty" nwëndt "ninety"

sékât "fifty" sâ, "hundred"

doe s a "two hundred"

twa sa "three hundred

mil "thousand"

etc.

5.3.2.5. 2. Ordinal Numerative Adjectives. Cardinal numbers are converted to ordinals by the addition of the suffix - yèm to the full form •

doe two" doezycm "second"

ve "twenty" vétyèm "twen tieth"

The only exception to this rule is oen, whose ordinal is pro'eniyé, proemyër. To be noted also is the fact that it 96 is only in this one case that numerative adjectives mark gender.

5.4. Pronouns. There are several varieties of pro­ nouns in STFD: personal, impersonal, indefinite, demonstra­ tive, interrogative and relative. These pronouns are used in place of nouns, that is, they generally have nominal antecedents to which they refer. Like the nominal antece­ dents, they usually make distinctions of gender and number,

although it is evident that this feature is weakening in

the speech of some and that there is an overall tendency

toward simplification.

5.4.1. Personal Pronouns. These pronouns are em­

ployed in close conjunction with verbs in order to delin­

eate the function of grammatical person. They can be di­

vided into four categories: subject, object, disjunctive,

and reflexive. The first two of these will be treated

together, the latter two, apart.

5.4.1.1. Subject and Object Pronouns. Sometimes

referred to as conjunctive pronouns, these pronouns are un­

stressed forms which arc intimately related with tho.ir

verbs. Subject pronouns replace or emphasize a nominal

element and at the same time indicate the person of the

following verb. It should be noted here that the over­

whelming majority of STFD verbs have no flexions to 97 indicate person,and as a result that function falls entirely 2 upon subject pronouns.

Object pronouns, on the other hand, also represent nominal elements. Grammatically, they act as complements of verbs of whose actions they are the objects. In normal declarative clauses, the object pronouns occur before the finite verb (except in modal auxiliaries). In addition, object pronouns undergo both proclisis and cnclisis depend­ ing on the syntactic surroundings. The subject and object pronouns of STFD will now be systematically surveyed.

5.4.1.1.1. First Person Singular.

A. The Subject Pronoun. The first person singular subject pronouns show the greatest complexity, having several possible realizations depending on the tense and aspect requirements of the particular situation. Three un­ derlying forms serve to generate the possible variations.

These underlying forms are j_e, mwe and me.

a. j_e This form is employed for emphasis or clarity.

It also ordinarily occurs before a finite verb which begins

with a consonant.

je rricij "I eat."

je fini "I finish."

je > j ' Tliis occurs before verbs which begin with a

vowel.

j ' armcaut " I teach."

j 'ale "I was going." 98

Very frequently assimilates to the corresponding present or past tense form of the verb dot^ producing a form which is neither wholly verbal nor wholly pronominal.

chu ki va. < je swi ki va.

"I am going." "I am going."

chu veni < je swi veni

"I have come." "I have come."

ycr kâ ch'ete a vil.,.

"Yesterday when I was in town..."

In the last example, the chu appears to have spread to the past tense paradigm by means of analogy.

b. mwe. Ordinarily, the sequence mwe jc plus verb is expected as i.n the example:

o mwe jc m.c mete la dofwa.

"I used to sit down there sometimes,"

However, mwe, or one of its variants, may sometimes appear alone as the subject pronoun of a sentence.

mwe 11 dize.

"I was telling him."

mwe se rapel en bldk.

"I remember a lot."

Although this form has been attested in the speech of several i.nformants, it is not frequent and therefore must be viewed as a creolizing variant.

Another variant of mwe as subject pronoun occurs more regularly. At least one verbal structure seems to require 99 the first person pronoun in all instances. This is the so-called near future tense (see below 5.5.1.3.10.).

ma ki va le fer.

"I am going to do it."

Ma supposes an assimilation of the following variety: mwe + va_ > ma.

c. a nasalized form, is another possible first person pronoun form. It appears to be bound more or less to the periphrastic distant future tense (see 5.5.1.3.9.):

ma ve te d i r .

"I will tell you."

In this case, the pronominal marker contrasts with the preceding m in the feature of nasality. This contrast argues for a different origin. Progressive nasali­ zation must be ruled out since it did not affect the two forms uniformly. More likely is that mm finds its origins in a construction like:

* m'a ve tc dir.

"I am leaving to tell you." (literally)

The presence of the finite verb opposition ve/va in the distant future paradigm would argue for this hypothesis.

If this is the case, then ma_ originates in neither ^ nor mwe, but in a third alternative, me + a, the remnants of a reflexive pronominal construction. Although this feature

seems to be non-creolozing in origin, it must have been at

the same time encouraged by the occurrence of the creolizing mwe forms discussed directly above. 100

B. The Object Pronoun. One form me is used for both the direct and indirect object. It may be realized variously as ml_ or ' m.

a. Direct object forms

e kom i m'âgajë ....

"And when he became engaged to me..."

oe'm bate.

"They used to beat me."

b. Indirect object forms

i m'a parlé de se bway la .

"He spoke to me about that boy."

a'm dize k'a voye kom oen espri.

"She told me that she used to see something

like a spirit."

5.4.1.1.2. Second Person Singular

A. The Subject Pronoun. There are few complexities

here. 'hu has been generalized as the standard form of

address among nearly all speakers of STFD today (cf., vou ( z)

5.4.1.1.7).

The full form t^ appears in slow, deliberate speech

and before words which have an initial consonant.

tu va â vil?

"Are you going to town?

Before a vowel, it is elided with the following word

as t ' . 101

t'é ki va su l'as ojoadi?

"Are you going to the beach today?"

B. The Object Pronoun. There is one form for both direct and indirect objects. The full form ^ may be re­ alized as ^ or _|_t depending on syntactic surroundings.

a . Direct object

li i te vwe.

"He sees you."

je t 'e v u .

"I saw you."

rn^ ve * t vwer plu tar.

"I'll see you later."

b . Indirect object

je te d i I

"I'm telling you 1"

mwe je t'é done le liv.

"I gave you the book."

5.4.1.1.3. The Third Person Singular. STFD has dis­ tinctive masculine and feminine forms.

A. Subject Pronoun. There are distinctive masculine

and feminine forms.

a. The Masculine Form. The form i^y is realized as before a consonant and as or il before a vowel. In each

case the consonant (or semi-consonant) elides with the

following vowel. occurs frequently, whereas appears

to be an "upgrading" or "Frenchifying" form. 102

i prâ du pvæsô.

"He catches fish."

iy e molin ami.

"He is ray friend."

iy a koraasc a le for.

"He has started to do it."

il a koraâsé a le fer.

"He has started to do it."

In each of the last three examples the eJ.ision of

the/y/or/V v.'ith the following vowel is such that the inser­ tion of object pronouns is greatly inhibited. In this way,

for example, the use of £a as a substitute for the direct object, pronouns (jn*, jxi, .l_e) following the finite verb is

encouraged.

l^i, which is more generally eiviplcyed as a disjunctive

and indirect object pronoun, sometimes occurs as a subject

pron o un (cf., mwe 5 . 4 .1 .1 .1 . ) .

je feze kom li fèze.

"I did as he did."

As with the similar use of rav;e as a subject pronoun,

this appears to be a creolizing form.

b. The Feminine Form. The base form, al_, produces

a before a consonant and ^ before a vowel, with the /l/

elided to that vowel.

a res dd ma kaz.

"She lives in my house." 10 3

al atrap epilz afa.

"She gets many children."

As was the case with the masculine pronoun, there is here also sporadic tendency to replace the base form a^ with one which seems more correct, more French, according to circumstances.

el kbmas.

"She begins."

No cases occur in this corpus of ^ used as a subject pronoun where a feminine pronoun would ordinarily occur.

B. Object pronouns.

a. Masculine. This set shows distinct forms for direct and indirect object pronouns. The direct object pronoun may have several different realizations (i.e., 1J_

' 1 and .

jc: Ic don a li.

"I give it to him."

tu 1 'a vu .

"You have seen him."

oel achtc du pweso, oc ' lakmode,

o e '1 sale, oe'l met a bwet.

"They bought fish, they cleaned it, they salted

it, they put it in cans."

A tonic form ^ occurs, but only after positive imperatives (see 5.5.1.2.2.).

dcm le 1iv a jâ > don le a j^. 104

"Give the book to John." "Give it to John."

The indirect object pronoun is identical for both genders. There is a stressed form and an unstressed form y. The former is employed in all imperative constructions and in measured, "correct" speech. The latter is an allegro form which is used exclusively before auxiliary verbs, in the present corpus.

je li don I'arja.

"I give him the money."

pa li moiibre sa .

"Don't show it to him/her."

kit li tratchilI

"Leave him/her alone 1"

kat iy a mori la kopagni y a

fèt kado de doe kordn.

"When he died, the company made a gift

to him of two wreaths."

b. Feminine Object Pronoun. The form, l_a, may elide with a following vowel. EncJiïis, however, does not nor­ mally occur.

je la porte a I'opital.

"I took her to the hospital."

]e 1 e vate, vate.

"I kept on fanning her."

In other respects, the feminine object pronoun acts in much the same manner as does its masculine counterpart. ] 05

The indirect object pronoun is identical with the masculine

(i.e., M ) .

5.4.1.1.4. First Person Plural Pronouns

A. The Subject Pronoun. There is one form 6(n) which has one variant, â (n). This pronoun appears to have completely lost its indefinite nature and become fully fused with the grammatical notion of "we."

6 porte le travay .

"We used to carry the work."

on a moute la morn.

"We climbed the hill."

B. The Object Pronoun. There is one form nou(z).

i nou don sa toujou.

"He always gives it to us."

oo nous a vu.

"They saw us."

5.4.1.1.5 . The Second Person Plural

A. The Subject Pronoun. Vouzot is the plural form

of to be distinguished carefully from vou(s).

vouzot e ki va a I'egliz?

"Are you (pi.) going to church?"

B. The Object Pronoun. There is only one form,

vou(z). Obviously enough, the use of this form runs the

risk of confusion with the polite form. This is perhaps

why it is avoided (at least in the present corpus) or 106 replaced occasionally by periphrases such as:

vouzot, i vwe tout.

"He sees you all."

The same form is used for the indirect object pronoun.

i vou done sa.

"He gave that to you."

This type construction, however, is generally avoided in

favor of a preposition plus disjunctive pronoun in order to

render the same dative idea.

i la done a vouzot.

"He gave it to you (pi.)."

5.4.1.1.6 . The Third Person Plural

A. The Subject Pronoun. oe (1) serves for both genders

No distinction is made as is the case in the corresponding

third person singular.

oe va toujou (women)

"They always go."

oel a été a vil y c r . (men)

"They went to town yesterday."

The final/l/onters into liaison with the initial vowel

of a following verb in much the same manner as in the sin­

gular counterpart, producing an obstacle to the employment

of object pronouns in that position. Once again, the net

result is the strengthening of the all-purpose s^ in post­

verbal position. 107

oel a komâsé sa

"They started that." (i.e.,"it")

oe may be omitted in the present and past tense para­ digms of the verb dèt "to be." In both cases, the bound morpheme so (or its variant sa) marks third person plural.

so ki sânalë.

"They are leaving."

Sate bye gra.

"They were quite fat."

B. The Object Pronouns. There are separate forms for direct and indirect objects. However, some speakers show hesitation and confusion in the use of these two.

a . Direct Object Pronoun. The form l_e is employed before consonants and lez before a vowel.

i le soye pour le fer v e n i .

"He cared for them to make them come." (i.e.,

be born)

6 lez a soye.

"We took care of them."

b. Indirect Object Pronoun. STFD uses loer before a consonant and loerz before a vowel.

pa loer di I'istwa.

"Don't tell them the story."

jcE lo'erz e done oen tit beke.

"I gave them a little bit."

There is a tendency on the part of some speakers to 103 generalize le (z) as both direct 'and indirect: object pronoun.

5.4.1.1.7. Polite Address. This form requires the use of the pronoun vou(z) which serves as both subject and object pronoun. It is employed by and large as a mark of respect for older persons and for strangers who speak

French. It is also used in several set expressions like si vou pie "Please". Some further examples of the polite form are ;

koma 'k vou res?

"How are you?"

tchel kote vouz ale?

"Where were you going?"

oe va vou done la me.

"They will shake your hand."

ou is a regular variant of vou(z). Reference has al­ ready been made to the tendency toward weakening and loss of /v/ in both initial and m.edial position. This may be the case here: vou > ou. Perhaps more likely is the possibil­ ity that ou is a very old form which has been partially re­ placed by Frenchifying vou(z). The fact that ou occurs in rapid speech and in certain fixed expressions such as ou kone "you know", would seem to lend support to this latter hypothesis. In any event, ou represents downgrading, vou(Z) upgrading on the STFD continuum.

5.4.1.1. 8. Syntax of Personal Pronouns. The function 109 cind placement of personal pronouns is the subject of this section.

A. Subject Pronouns. These pronouns are nominal sub­ stitutes or nominal roiteratives. In the latter case, they are sometimes employed after the nominal and just before the finite verb as a reiterative, reinforcing particle:

mari e ja, oe I'a fèt.

"Mary and John (they) did it."

Since STFD verbs do not indicate person by i nf]oxJ onal endings, subject pronouns must perform this function. 3:n so doing, their position is rigidly fixed to the slot just be­ fore the finite verb. Inversion does not occur.

B. Object Pronouns. These are primarily nominal substitutes as arc subject pronouns. Syntactically, however, they act as complements in verb phrases (i.e., verb phrase =• predicate plus objects, adverbial elements, etc.). More­ over, the question of their syntactic position is a good deal more complicated than that of subject pronouns. Their posi­

tion is not fixed. It may vary according to syntactic circumstances.

a. In normal declarative sentences and in negative

imperatives, object pronouns are placed before the finite

verb :

je 1'ê v u .

"I saw him."

pa loer di. 110

"Don't tell them."

b. In positive imperatives, the object pronouns follow the verb.

molit mwe la boutoyI

"Show me the bottle I"

dbn le a jaI

Give it to John!"

c . The so-called modal auxiliaries (pouvwcr, devwer, mérité, avwer pour, etc.) require an infinitive complement to complete their meaning. Object pronouns are always placed between the modal auxiliary and the infinitive.

a merit for le travay.

"She should do the work."

a merit le fer.

"She should do it."

d. There exists a general tendency to avoid the em­ ployment of object and direct object pronouns in the same clause, especially in the third person singular. For in­ stance, je ddn I'arjd a jé~ produces je li dbn sa and mout le liv a mari produces mout le a li.

5.4.1.2. Disjunctive Pronouns. These are the tonic

forms of personal pronouns. They are as follows:

mwe "me"

twé "you"

li "him," "her," "it

el "her" Ill

nouzot "us"

vouzot "you" (pi.)

"them"

vou "you" (polite)

It is to be noted that vou, vouzot and el^ share the same form with subject pronoun counterparts. Spor­ adically, such is the case also with mwe and l^i (sec 5.4.

1.1.1. and 5.4.1.1.3.).

5 . 4 .1. 2.1. Syntactic Functions of Disjunctive

Pronouns. These pronouns serve 6 basic functions in STFD.

A. They serve as objects in prepositional phrases.

a li "to him"

ak mwe "with me"

ora d'oe "near them"

B. They serve as indirect object pronouns in posi­ tive imperatives (with the exception of loer), including the imperatives of reflexive forms.

mout mwe sa.

"Show me that."

me twé debout '.

"Stand up'."

kit li tratchill

"Leave him alone I"

C. They serve as direct object pronouns after posi­

tive imperatives in the first person singular (mwe) and in 112 the first and second persons plural (nouzot, vouzot).

D. Disjunctive pronouns are regularly employed as formulaic complements to subject pronouns at the beginning of clauses'; mwe, j e li , i nouzot, 6 etc.

E. It has been observed above that some of these forms serve sporadically as subjects of sentences, partic­ ularly toward the creolizing end of the STFD continuum (5.

4.1.1.1.) .

F. Finally, disjunctive pronouns are used as quasi­ subjects in pour purpose constructions which are quite characteristic of STFD. IVhether these are simply phrases in which the disjunctive pronoun acts as the object of the introductory preposition or whether they are actual clauses with the disjunctive pronoun as the subject of the

following infinitive is a debatable point. In form, they

are phrases. In function, they more resemble clauses.

che'm leve si bonoer e j'argade pour mwe native

tout 1'adwet. "I used to get up very early

and look about that I might clean the entire

place . "

This particular construction is treated further

below (5.11.3.2.2.).

5.4.1.3. Reflexive Pronouns. The forms of the

reflexive pronouns in careful, measured speech are:

Person Singular

1st me, m'

2nd te, t ' 113

3rd se, s'

Plural

1st se, s'

2nd se, s'

3rd se, s '

Speakers of STFD show a marked tendency to gener­ alize se throughout the paradigm, with tlie consequence that in some cases the reflexive pronoun often becomes fused with the verb itself.

felisia, va se kouché oen tit bekc.

"Felicia, go lie down for a moment."

al a sanale. (al t a t ^ + on ale)

"She left."

a sarete oen tit beke, mwa sarete.

"She stopped a moment, I stopped a m.oment." Fig. 8.STFD PERSONAL PRONOUN!

PERSON SUBJECT DIRECT OBJECT Underlying Underlying Singular Forms + Cons. Proclitic Enclitic Forms 4-Cons. Proclitic Enclitic

1st je je j' ' j me me m' ' m mwé' (free variant) ma m.â (bound forms)

2nd tu tu t' te te t' 't

3rd masc . iy i iy i le le 1 ' M il i il i etc.

fern. al a al a la la 1'

el el el — — etc.

Plural

1st on 6 ($n (S nouz nou nouz

2nd vouzdt vouzot vouzot vouz vou vouz

3rd oel oe oel oe lez le lez —

Polite vouz vou vouz — — vouz vou vouz S'

Fig. 8.STFD PERSONAL PRONOUNS (con't)

PERSON INDIRECT OBJECT DISJUNCTIVE Underlying Underlying Singular Forms + Cons. Proclitic Enclitic Forms

1st me me m ' ' m mwe, rrtwe

2nd te te t' ' t twe

3rd masc. li li y ' -- li

etc. etc.

-- fern. li li y' li etc. etc.

Plural

1st nouz nou nouz — — nouzot

2nd vouz vou vouz vouzot

3rd loerz loer loerz _ _ oe

Polite vouz vou vouz — — vou

un Fig. 8. STFD PERSONAL PRONOUNS (con't)

PERSON REFLEXI'/E Underlying Singular Forms + Cons. Proclitic Enclitic

1st me me m' 'm

2nd te te t ' 't

3rd masc. se se s ' ' s

fern. se se s ' ' s etc.

Plural

1st se se s ' ' s

2nd se se s ' 's

3rd se se s ' ' s

Polite se se s ' 's

M G\ 117

5.4.1.4. Impersonal Pronouns - The impersonal pronoun

_i (variants ^ and occurs as the subject of impersonal verbs and expressions. The most important of these in

STFD are:

i na, i nave, i nora, etc.

"there is," "there v/as," "there wi 11 be," etc.

i fale...

"It was necessary..."

i G ncseser ke .... etc.

"It is necessary that ...."

In most cases, the impersonal pronoun can be and often

is omitted.

nave dé bet da ].e ma j e.

"There were bugs in the food."

fo 'k je va a vil.

"I have to go to town."

5.4.1.5. Indefinite Pronouns. These designate in

a vague, general, or indefinite manner certain entities or

ideas which occur in another position in the same set of

utterances. The principal indefinite pronouns are:

chak "each," "every"

1'6t "the other"

le mem "the same"

ne "some," "any"

ni port moiin "anyone," "no matter who" 118

otchoe

person "no one"

sa "that," "it"

tchèkde "someone"

tel "such"

tout If! raoun "everyone," "everybody"

Of special interest among this particular group of pronouns is n^ which appears to be always enclitic.

je n'e pa de sa

"I don't have any of that."

5.4.1.6. Demonstrative Pronouns. There are two

basic types: the simple demonstrative pronoun and the

compound demonstrative pronoun.

5.4.1.6.1. The Simple Demonstrative Pronoun. This

form is employed when pointing out or referring with

emphasis to an entity which the speaker wishes to specify.

This pronoun shows gender by means of a stem vowel opposi­

tion /i/:/e/ Number is indicated by a distinct third form.

Syntactically, all forms may occur as both subjects and

objects.

Singular Plural

Masc. stila "this (one)," "that (one)"

Fern. stela "this (one)," "that (one) " sa_ "these

(ones),

Indef, sa "this (one)," "that (one)" "those

(ones) " 119

me le syé kc j'é maryë, sé stila.

"But the one whom I married was that one."

stila se mou per.

"That one is my father."

stela se ma gr£in.

"That one is my grandmother."

d(Sn mwe stila.

"give me that one."

sa acts as a general, all-purpose simple demonstra­ tive pronoun which is both singular and plural and whose gender is vague or indeterminate,

sa sete 3e bo td.

"Those were tlie good times."

sa kdmase a veni kbm sa.

"That all started to become like that."

The plural of st j.3.a, stela and ^ is s_a.

sa sé me frèr.

"Those (ones) are my brothers."

stela has one variant, set]a, which appears to be an analo­

gical construction based on the demonstrative adjective as

in the case of set kas la > setla. This form occurs only

several times in the present corpus.

5.4.1.6.2. The Compound Demonstrative Pronoun. This

pronoun is so named because it always contains two elements,

namely what appears to be the remnants of the possessive 12 0 pronoun system plus a relative pronoun. In this construc­ tion, the pronouns are completely fused together. Gender is marked in the singular by final consonant /-n/ in the feminine and by nasalization /e/ in the masculine. In the pj.ural, gender is conveyed by the definite article whi ch always precedes this form. Number is marked by the pre­ posed definite articles (i.e., singular ]^, _l.a or plural le) . In addition, a final/-n/and loss of nasal vowe 1. redundantly mark all plural forms.

Singular

Masc. sub. le sye ki "the one who"

ob j . le syê ke "the one whom"

Fern. sub. la syèn ki

ob j . la sven ke 'the one wliom'

Plural

le syen ki "the ones who"

16 syèn "the ones whom"

sa sé le sye ki t 'a mordu.

"That’s the one that stung you."

sa se la syèn ki t'èm

"That's the one who loves you."

sa se le syèn ki naj vit.

"Here are the ones which swim fast."

don mwe le sye ke t'a fini.

"Give me the one which you've finished."

avia la sycn ke je voeI 121

"Hero is the one that I v;antl"

ve te done tout le syèn ke j'atrape.

"I will give you all the ones which I've acquired."

5.4.1,7. Relative Pronouns. These serve the purpose of connecting a preceding noun or pronoun to a clause which follows. This following clause is termed "relative" and its purpose is adjectival modification of its antecedent through the intermediary of the relative pronoun.

Relative pronouns show neither number nor gender.

Their form, however, does indicate their syntactic function in the clause as either subject or object. These forms are :

Sub, ki "who," "which," "that"

Obj, "whom," "which," "that"

j'é trouvé le polis ki le fuziye.

"I met the policeman who shot him,"

j'e vu la kas ke tu voe vein.

"I saw the house which you want to sell."

5.4.1.7.1, Compound Relative Pronouns, This variety

(i.e., le sye ki, le sye ke, etc.) has been discussed in

some detail above (5,4,1,6.2,),

5.4.1.7.2, Elision. STFD relative pronouns elide

readily with any following word which begins with a vowel

(i.e., generally personal pronouns and verbs),

sa se le syèn k'adi sa. 122

"Those are the ones who said that."

je loerz a done le liv k'oel a 11.

"I have given them the books which they read."

5. 4.1.7. 3. Aspect Marie ing in Verbs. Subject relative pronouns arc extremely important in the formation of progres­

sive tenses in the STFD verbal system. Deployed as the com­ plement of the main predicate, they enable the speaker to

express aspect or the idea of an action in progress.

al é ki pari a ma n-cr.

"She is who talks to my mother." (literally)

The intrinsic meaning of the above sentence is, "She

is talking to my mother," in which the durativo feature of

the action (as opposed to the strictly temporal) is stressed.

The notion of aspect will be discussed in greater length in

the section dealing with verbs. Suffice it here to say that

the relative clause has been adopted to perform this syntac­

tic function.

5.4.1.8. Interrogative Pronouns. These introduce a

clause which poses a question concerning an entity or idea

represented by the interrogative pronoun.

5.4.1.8.1. Forms. Both forms of STFD interrogative

pronouns are composite. Neither gender nor number is ex­

plicitly marked. There are two basic forms: the personal

form and the impersonal or indefinite form. 123

A. The Personal Form (tchel ki/ke). This form refers to persons and makes a subject/object syntactic distinction.

a . tchel ki, the subject form, is employed when the pronoun stands as the subject of the clause which follows:

tu kônê tchel ki vye soupe aswer?

"Do you know who is coming to supper this evening?"

b. tchel ke, the subject form, is used when another word acts as the subject of tlie sentence.

tchel k ’iy c?

"VJho is he?" (lit. "vdio or what that he is?"'

B. The Impersonal or Indefinite Form. This is em­ ployed when referring to non-human and generally inanimate entities. It also is composite: sa ke. However, it i.s usually realized as sa'k.

sa'k se sa?

"Wliat is that?"

sa'k tu voe?

"What do you want?"

a. Elision. Like the personal form, sa ke is subject to elision when followed by a personal pronoun or verb which begins with a vowel.

sa k 'oe va me done?

"What will they give me?"

5.5. Verbs. This section is given to the study of the categories of the STFD verbal system. 12 4

5.5.1. Verbal Categories. These are voice, mode, tense, person and number. The first two are features in­ herent in all verbal forms within this .system, whereas the latter three characterize only the finite verbal forms.

5.5.1.1. The Category of Voice. This has two com­ ponents, active and passive which express the relationship of the subject to the action of the verb. In the active voice, the subject is the agent of the action, whereas in the passive, the subject is the recipient or receives the action portrayed by the verb.

5. 5.1.1.1. Active Voice. Verbs are either transi­ tive or intransitive, features which denote the type of relationship into which they enter with their objects.

A. Transitive Verbs. Verbs of this type have a target of their action which is the direct object.

oe kouver loer p6 tout le td.

"They always cover their skin."

le fiy le porte.

"The girls used to carry them."

B. Intransitive Verbs. These verbs have no direct object. They may, however, take an indirect object or any of several phrase types as complements of the action which they express.

jg li parle. 125

"I was speaking to him."

kom a sorte de la fouyur, . . .

"When she came out of the cooking place, . .

5.5.1.1.2. The Passive Voice. This mood charac­ terizes sentences in which the subject is the recipient of verbal action. The agent of the action is generally ex­ pressed in a phrase introduced by the preposition par placed after the verb. The expression of the agent of action is, however, not mandatory. The passive in STFD may be formed in two ways :

A. The First Passive. This is composed of the

auxiliary verb det plus a past participle of a transitive

verb.

I'arja o toujour gaspiye par son om.

"The money is always wasted by her husband."

le ma je é pri par le z âfâ k'a f.ê .

"The food is taken by the children who are hungry."

The employment of this passive form appears to be

limited to the present and general tense. It expresses the

notion of the subject being affected by the action of the

verb at that moment or in a more general, even habitual

sense.

B. The Second Passive. This one is the more fre­

quent of the two. It is formed by the reflexive construc­

tion se fèr plus the past participle of a transitive verb. 126

It occurs with greatest frequency in the past tense, although it may occur in the present, future, and conditional as well.

i se f&t two par oe retche.

"He was killed by a shark."

le hot va se fer dëtwèr par le move ta .

"The boat will be destroyed by the storm."

It should be noted that in general the passive voice is avoided in STFD, speakers preferring a more direct form where the agent stands at the head of a sentence as subject,

5.5.1.2. The Category of Mode. This category is divided into two groups: non-finite and finite.

5.5.1.2.1. The Non-finite Group. This group consists of the infinitive and the participles. Neither of these make gender or number distinctions in STFD.

K. The Infinitive. There are five classes of infin­ itives in STFD and these form the bases of verbal classifi­ cation (i.e., conjugations).

I. Infinitives ending in -e. chate, rnaje

II. Infinitives ending in -^. fini, bouyi

III. Infinitives with an artic­

ulated final consonant.

Type A final -t met, dot

Type B final -n prdii, desan

IV. Infinitives in final -wer. avwer, resovwer 127

V. Infinitives whose end­

ings are irregular. tchd, tchebo

The function of all infinitives is to act as comple­ ments to fini.to verbs, which they foll.ow.

a pouvé pa sdnale.

"She could not leave."

on a pour le f èi:.

"We have to do it."

In addition, infinitives serve alone as the verbs of pour phrases, which have already been mentioned above.

B. The Participle. Remnants of the present participle are found in a few adjectives, e.g., fatiga , awya, etc. Other­ wise they are little-used. The past participle, on the other hand, is quite conm.ion. Participial forms vary with the con­ jugation. Moreover, there are irregular forms in some con­ jugations .

Regular Irroqular

1st conjugation -é ma j (5 ale > e t o

2nd conj ugation -i fini voni > venu

3rd conjugation

Type A -1' -u mi pri, desadu Type B ~ L ' -u 4th conjugation -é âvwoyé avwer > yu

5 th conjugation -u tchêbôdu tche > tchêdé

Pas t participles fun ction as complétives of f inite 128 auxiliary verbs in compound tenses. The most common of these tenses are the present perfect, the pluperfect, and the conditional perfect. They show neither gender nor number agreement with their subject.

o'el a rnaje le. dinê.

"They ate the dinner."

t'a fini Id travay?

"Have you finished the work?"

le zobi a tchebodu ma soer.

"The zombi grabbed my sister."

5.5.1.2. 2. The Finite Group. This group consists of the indicative, the subjunctive, and the imperative, all of which distinguish person, number and tense.

A. The Indicative. This is actually an "unmarked" modal in that it requires no special auxiliary or inflex­ ional marker to convey its modal attitude. In this mood, the action stated by the speaker is believed to be a state­ ment of fact, a description of a situation as it actually is.

Mood intersects with tense at a number of points in STFD, these being called the present, the imperfect, the present perfect, the pluperfect, the near and far future, and the

future perfect. Each of these will be described systemati­ cally in the section under "tense."

B. The Subjunctive. This mood is practically non­

existent in STFD, having been replaced i.n most instances by the indicative. 12 9

i fo'lc je va.

"I have to go."

je voe k 'i vye.

"I want him to come."

Subjunctive forms survive in a small number of fixed expressions, usually related in some way to religion.

ke dyoe vou bonis.

"May God bless you."

sweti mou per 6 ma mer.

"Whether ray father or mother."

ke sa vdlote swa fèt.

"May his will be done."

C. The Imperative. The STFD imperative expresses number and person. There are three basic forms. The second person singular or tu form uses the corresponding verbal

form.

fc la tchulot. pour li .

"Make the pants for him."

The negative, however, is different in two respects.

First, the infinitive form is employed. And second, the

negative particle pa is placed before the verb(Cf., 5.6.1.

below).

fe le pour li. > pa le fer pour li.

"Do it for him" "Don't do it for him."

don li le p d . > pa li ddne le p e .

"Give him the bread." "Don't give him the bread." 130

The first person plural form is constructed with the particle anou plus the infinitive.

anou maje

"Let's eat."

A quasi-imperative is produced for the third person singular and plural by employing the formula ];^ (kite "to let, to allow") plus object pronoun plus infinitive.

kit li veni.

"Let him come."

However, since this form can be employed with other persons (e.g., kit-mwe fer sa "let me do that") it must be viewed simply as a variant of the general second person singular form whose employment has been expanded.

5.5.1.3. The Category of Tense. STFD verbs normally have a tense component which indicates the time during which

the action expressed by the verb occurs. There are twelve basic tenses 3 in STFD which can be arranged structurally

in the following manner:

Simple, tenses Simple or general present

Imperfect

Simple future

Simple conditional

Compound tenses Perfect

Pluperfect

Conditional perfect 131

Periphrastic tenses Present progressive

Imperfect progressive

Near future

Near future progressive

Near past

In general, the simple and the periphrastic tenses are the most frequently and consistently used. STFD speakers show a disinclination toward using composite struc­ tures, replacing them most usually with periphrastic devices.

In addition, the periphrastic structures, for the most part, underline the durative as well as the temporal features of verbal action.

Since this section is devoted to the tense aspect of the verbal system, it would then seem fitting to analyze the various tenses within a temporal framework. In this respect, the verbal system has three features: present

(simple or general present, present progressive), past

(imperfect, imperfect progressive, present perfect, plu­ perfect and near past), and irrealis (simple future, peri­ phrastic future, periphrastic progressive future, simple conditional and contitional perfect).

5.5.1.3.1. The Simple Present or General Tense. The sentence je rnaj do pwa may have two different meanings in

STFD depending upon the context and the speaker's intent.

As the simple present tense, it means je maj de pwa astoer

"I am eating the peas now." It can, however, have a 13: meaning which designates the action expressed by the verb in

general or universal terms; je mâj de pwa tou lé jour. "I eat

peas all the time." It is this general aspect which enables

speakers to use this tense even in past tense narratives, re­

placing the imperfect and present perfect on occasion.

Since STFD verbs are almost always regular within a

given tense (i.e., no variation from person to person and

between singular and plural) , the full paradigm can I'je re­

duced in the name of economy to one example with a] .1 other

forms understood, as in the following example:

]e ma] "I eat"

tu maj "you oat"

. 1 ma] "he eats"

cl maj "she oats'

o maj "we eat"

vouzot maj "you eat"

oe ma] "they eat'

vou maj "you eat"

1 ma 3 "he eats"

i fini "he finishes"

i me "he puts"

1 pra "he takes"

i vwe "he sees"

i tchebo "he holds"

Only two verbs, dot and avwer, exhibit any .irregular­

ities in the present tense. 133

(je) swi(t), var. sut "I am"

t ' ê "you are"

iy ê "he is"

al e "she is"

(5n e "we are"

vouzôt é "you are"

(oe) s 6 "they are"

vouz é "you are"

In both the irregular forms, the personal pronoun be and usually is omitted altogether.

sut oe pechoer.

"I'm a fisherman."

so bye rouj.

"They are quite red."

Only the first person singular is irregular in th< paradigm of the verb avwer.

Î1É "I have" t'a "you have"

iy a "he has"

al a "she has"

on a "we have"

vouzot a "you have"

oe ]. a "they have"

vouz a "you have"

A characteristic feature of all STFD verbs which

begin with a vowel is that they elide with the first and 134 second person singular (i.e., j 'é and t'a) and enter into liaison with the third person singular and plural (i.e., i ya, a la, oe la), the first person plural (i.e., 6 na) and the polite form (i.e., vou za). This feature has already been remarked upon in Chapter IV and is repeated here as a re­ minder that throughout this study, these "pronominal pre­ fixes" will be rendered morpho-phonemically and not phoneti­ cally .

5 . 5.1. 3.2. The Present Progressive. This form shows both the temporal and durative aspects of a verbal action.

It indicates that the action occurs when the utterance is made by the speaker and that it is on-going without speci­ fication regarding its start or finish.

Structurally, this tense consists of a personal pro­ noun, a form of the verb det and a relative clause (i.e., relative pronoun plus finite present tense verb). Schemati­ cally, it appears as the following:

Pars. Pronoun + dot + ^ + finite verb .

t 'ê ki vcy

"You are watching."

A more literal translation of the above example would be, "You are the one who watches." However, all awareness of a relative clause structure appears to have been lost.

What remains is a structure in which tense is redundantly marked twice (e and vcy) and the aspectual or durative fea­

ture (ki) is marked once. .135

The only irregularities which occur in this tense are those which are inherent in the verb dot.

su ki fini.

"I am finishing."

so ki m e .

"They are putting."

5.5.1.3.3. The Imperfect. This tense is used to render a narrative of action in the past. In addition, it appears to replace the present perfect frequently as the past tense par excellence.

The imperfect is formed by adding /-ê/ to the third person singular of the present tense. When that form ends in a vowel, a consonantal infix is inserted in most cases.

je chat > je chate

"I sing" "I was singing"

il apli > il âplizé

"He fills" "He was filling"

i pra' ^ i prdde

"He takes" "Ho was taking"

i me ^ i mete

"He puts" "He was putting"

i fë ^ i fèzê

"He does" "He was doing"

Most verbs of the fourth conjugation either have a special imperfect stem or they are completely irregular. 136

i vwë but i voye

"Ile sees" "He was seeing"

iy a but iy ave

"He has" "He had"

The only verb which shows any irregularity within the imperfect paradigm is det whose third person pluraJ form is sote as opposed to all other persons which have cte (t) . This form is almost always employed without an accompanying per­ sonal pronoun (i.e., oe).

sôte bye gra.

"They were quite fat."

5.5.1.3.4. The Imperfect Progressive. This fonso is the past tense equivalent of the present progressive. It has both temporal and aspectual components. It depicts a durative action in the past tense whose beginning and end­

ing are not specifically delineated.

It is formed by the imperfect of the verb dè^ pi us a

relative clause in the following way:

Personal pronoun + imperfect of det+ relative clause

a 1 ete Ici diz_o

It is to be noted that the verb of the relative clause,

dize in this case, is also a finite verb, with imperfect

tense marking. This means that the past tense or imperfect

nature of the verbal action is, like the present progressive,

marked twice (i.e., ete and dize). Other examples: 137

al été k 'ckrivê oen let.

"She was writing a letter."

j 'ete ki vene.

"I was coming." (i.e., en route)

5.5,1.3.5. The Present Perfect. This tense is com­ pletive in nature, having both punctual and durative- completive features. The former expresses an action which occurred at one specific point in time (i.e., punctual) in the past. The latter, on the other hand, expresses an ac­ tion which began at a point in the past, continued over a certain span and then was completed (i.e., durative- com­ pletive) .

The formation of the present perfect is effected by

the use of a finite auxiliary avwer or det plus a past par­

ticiple. The auxiliary avwer is employed with all transi­

tive verbs as well as with a good number of intransitive

ones. The use of del: as an auxiliary in the speech of

most Carenageois is restricted to several frequently used

intransitive verbs (veni, grive, desan) and to highly

Frenchified speech.

a nouz a tout kriye par not no . (punctual)

"She called us all by our names."

ma dêfêt mèr a reste avèk mwe. (durative-completive)

"My deceased mother has lived with me."

iy e desadu^ desadu. 138 "It (the wind) died down gradually."

su veni jo"en.

"I came here young."

5. 5.1.3.6. The Pluperfect. This tense is sometimes used to express an action anterior to another action in a past tense narration. This rule is not vigorously followed, however. In fact, in many texts, the so-called pluperfect appears to be in free variation with the present perfect.

It is formed with the imperfect of the auxiliary verb avwer plus the past participle. There are no examples in this corpus of dot used as an auxiliary in the pluperfect.

e kom k'dh a fèt atasyo c la td ...

sa ave pase oen tit bek ê , lez bm a komase

a roulé Ider tchulot.

"When we surveyed the situation and the storm,

it had passed a little bit, the men began to

roll up the trousers."

me iy ave pa dure lota. iy a dure pdetet ...

susk'o kote de siz o'er 6 set oer du swer.

"But it had not lasted long. It lasted per­

haps, ... up to about six or seven o'clock

that evening."

5.5.1.3.7. The Periphrastic Near Past. This tense expresses an action which is completed just anterior to the utterance by the speaker. It is formed by the addition of the periphrase vye de to an infinitive. Sometimes, a 139 longer form (i.e., vyê de fini de) may be substituted.

je vye de parle avèk o e .

"I just spoke with them,"

je vye de fini de lave me had.

"I just washed my clothes."

There is a tendency among some speakers to weaken and loose the initial/v-/in the auxiliary so that je vye de becomes j 'yê d e ♦

j'yê de marete you oe .

"I just stopped by their house."

5.5.1.3.8. The Simple Future and the Simple Condi- tional. Although they have different meanings and are used in different environments, these two tenses share the same form.

A. Form. These two tenses are formed synthetically by the addition of the suffix Ao/to the present tense plus infixed Ar-/of most verbs.

chat +£.+ £. > je châtré "I will/would sing"

fini + r + e > i finire "He will/would finish"

vwe + r + e > a vwere "She will/would see"

Verbs of the third conjugation and some irregular verbs deviate from this pattern in that they add the/-e / ending to the imperfect (and not the present) stem.

mot (ê) 4- r + e >i mètre "He will/would put"

pra^d (ë) + r + e> i prâclré "He will/would take" 140

tchêb6~d (e) + r + é i tchêbodré "He will/would hold"

B. Use of the Future. The simple future tense is very little used in STFD. It occurs most regularly with fre­ quently used verbs such as avwer and det and these in the first person singular. Otherwise, the periphrastic future is employed (see 5.5.1.3.9.). A variant form ending in /-a/

(e.g., i mètra - "He will put") occurs sporadically but this appears to be a Frenchifying tendency which is not realJ.y a part of the STFD verbal system.

j 'ore enpil d'arja.

"I will have a lot of money."

je sre rich oe jour.

"I will be rich someday."

je vyêndré deme......

"I will come tomorrow."

B. Use of the Conditional. This tense is employed almost exclusively in both the hypothetical and consecutive clauses of conditional sentences.

si j 'ore de la twol, je fere oen rob noev.

"If I had some material, I would make a new dress."

si'j sre rich, jc lire a Now York.

"If I were rich, I would go to New York."

si k'il ore oe bot, o lire pèche.

"If he had a boat, we would go fishing."

5.5.1.3.9. The Periphrastic Future. This tense has 141 the same meaning as the simple future tense. As mentioned above, it appears to bo supplanting the latter in everyday speech.

It is formed by the present tense of the verb a ].e plus an infinitive. The only irregularity occurs in the first person singular where two forms (i.e., j e va and ma ve appear to be in free variation, with usage favoring the latter somewhat.

je va fer or ma ve fer "I will do"

tu va fer "You will do"

i va fer "He will do"

vouzot va fer "You will do"

oe va fer "They will do"

The possible origin of the ma vê form has already been discussed above (see 5.4.1.1.1.).

5.5.1.3.10. The Periphrastic Progressive Future or

Near Future. This tense expresses an action which the speaker intends to do or which he believes will be done inrnedi.atoly after the utterance has been made. In theory, this projected action is closer to the time of the utterance (i.e., the present tense) than are the other future tenses. It is char­ acterized by immediacy and further by a certain durative quality, namely that the action which is about to occur, will unfold over an indeterminant period of time after the point of utterance. 14 2

The periphrastic progressive future is formed by the present tense of the verb det plus a relative clause which has v£ as its finite verb followed by an infinitive.

Pers. Pron. + det + relative clause (i.e. , 4- ve^ -t-

infinitive).

su ki va le fer "I am going to do it"

t'e ki va le fer " you are going to do it"

iy e ki va le for "he is going to do it"

on e ki va le fer "we are going to do it"

vouzot o ki va le fer, "you are going to do it"

so ki va le fer. "they are going to do it"

The only irregularity in this paradigm occurs in the

first person singular where the above form may be replaced

by ma ki va le fer or in some cases a more abbreviated form,

ma ki le fer. This latter form, however, appears to vac­

illate in meaning between the present progressive and the

future periphrastic progressive (i.e., "I am doing" or I am

going to do.").

5.5.1.3.11. The Perfect Conditional. This tense is

employed almost exclusively in conditional sentences which occu:

anterior to another action in the past tense. It is formed by

the single conditional of the auxiliary avwer plus a past

participle. Similar to the simple conditional, it occurs in

both the hypothetical and consecutive clauses of the condi­

tional sentence. 143

si'k êl y 'ore done la bag, j’ore kdnu.

"If she had given him the ring, I would have known."

si'j ore du waya, j'ore fèt de nas.

"If I had had some wire, I would have made some fish-

traps."

5.5.1.4. Person and Number . These two categories appear only in the finite modes. STFD has three persons and two numbers, singular and plural. In practice, however, these distinctions are only rarely made by verbal forms but rather by pre-posed subject pronouns (see 5.4.1.1.). Several key verbs still retain a semblance of these distinctions.

This occurs foremost in the first person singular and third person plural of the verb dot in both the present and imperfect indicative.

je swi(t) j'ète

"I am" "I was"

oe so d’e sote

"They are" "They were"

With the verb avwer the first person singular of the present indicative is opposed to all the other persons: 4 /-e/:/-a/. j 'ë t'a, iy a , etc.

"I have" "you have", "he has", etc.

In all other tenses, avwer is perfectly regular.

The verb ale shows the same /-e/:/-a/ opposition in the present tense^ 144

ma vé tu va, a va, etc.

"I am going" "you go," "she goes" etc.

It should also be noted here that STFD has a je va form which alternates with m£_v£.

In summary, it appears that STFD is gradually losing its already diminished synthetic system of indicating person and number distinctions in favor of purely analytic devices

(i.e., pronominal prefixes).

5.6. Adverbs. There are six types of adverbs in STFD; negative, qualitative, quantitative, locative, temporal and interrogative.

5.6.1. Negative Adverbs. The principal negative adverbs are:

j âme "never"

ke "only"

"not"

pakor "not yet"

PU "no more," "no longer"

1.1. Position. Negative adverbs occur after

finite verb which they modify.

j'e pa fet sa.

"I didn't do that."

It is only in a negative imperative sentence (i.e., a non-finite form) that the negative particle precedes the verb as in the following example: pa fer sal

"Don't do that I"

5. 6.1.2. Mu 11 i pic N o g a t :L o n . This phenomonura is cuite common in STFD. ga and j_anie and ga_ and pu_ occur together regularly. It is not uncommon to find pa , jame and person all negating the same verb. When multiple negation occurs, pa is always the. adverb closest to the verb.

iy a pa jame arvoni.

"He never came back."

5.6.2. Qualitative Adverb s . This group of adverbs is the most numerous of all. These adverbs modify the action of the target verb in regard to the quality or !:i nd of action committed. Some typical representatives of this group are:

diferâ "differently"

for "strongly"

preske "almost"

5 .6. 2.1. Position . Those adverbs are placed nearJ.y always after the verb which they modify.

al a ]:riye for.

"She yelled loudly."

6 I'a fe diferâ.

"We did it differently."

5. 6.2.2. Derivation of Qualitative Adverbs. Many of

these adverbs are derived from adjectives by the addition of a -md' suffix. 146

vit "quick" > vitip.â "quickly"

dou(s) "soft" > dousmâ "softly"

5.6.3. Quantitative Adverbs. These adverbs are similar in position and function to the preceding class with the excep­ tion that they modify the verb in question in a quantitative or perceptibly measurable manner. Some of the principal forms in this class are:

enpi1 "much," "a lot"

mwcs "less"

trop "too much"

al etc ki soufor, soufer enpil

"She was suffering a lot."

5.6.4. Locative Adverbs. This class of adverbs shows directional or positional component of the verb which they modify. In many cases, those adverbs are found as comple­ ments of intransitive verbs. They almost always follow the

verb. Frequently employed locative adverbs are:

dehor "outside"

isit "here"

la "there"

Iwe "far"

pre "near"

on ale oe ti mouma dehor

"We went outside for a moment."

5.6.4.1. Compounding. This tendency is quite common 147 in STFD. In this process several adverbs are agglutinated to form a longer, reinforced form.

isi ^ba "down here"

lâba la "over there"

oe vend toujour isit dba.

"They always used to come down here."

5.6.5. Temporal Adverbs. This class of adverbs specifies

the relation of a particular action in regard to a time ele­ ment. Syntactically, these adverbs have great flexibility, being found at the beginning and end of sentences as well

as in the normal position directly after the verb.

astoer ma ki va le fer.

"Nov; I'm going to do it."

ma ki va le fer astoer.

"I'm going to do it now."

Some of the more frequent and important members of this

class are:

asmate "this morning"

astoer 'now," "then"

aswer "this evening"

bcSnoer "early"

bref "shortly"

deme "tomorrow"

lanwit "at night"during the night"

lota "a long time"

ojoadi "today" 14!

sôvâ "often"

tale "in a moment"

tar "late"

tou le jour "every day"

toujour "always"

yèr "yesterday"

5.6.6. Interrogative Adverbs. This class of adverbs whose number is greatly restricted, determines the exact nature of the interrogative sentences which follow them.

They always stand at the beginning of the utterance. In

STFD these are always compound in nature, although unitary forms are encountered near the SF end of the continuum.

The most important interrogative adverbs are:

ka(t) kc "when"

kômâ ke "how," "how many"

oti ke "v/here"

pourki ke "why"

tchel tâ ke "v;hen"

The following examples illustrate, the employment of these adverbs. Note the lack of inversion.

kbma k'al a atrape I'arja?

"How did she get the money?"

pourki'k so parti?

"Why did they leave?

tchel ta k'oe va arive? 14 9 "When will they arrive?"

oti k'iy été yèr?

"Where was he yesterday?"

5.7. Prepositions. STFD prepositions may be divided

into two classes: simple and compound.

5.7.1. Simple Prepositions. These consist of a single word. The most important are:

a " to "

âdâ "inside"

ak "with"

ava "before"

avek "with"

da "in," "on"

de "of," "from"

dehor "outside"

dèryèr "behind"

deva "before," "in front

kot "against"

otour "around"

par "by, II "through"

pase "around"

pour " for"

pre "near"

proch "near"

sa "without"

su (r) "on" 150

sou "under"

you "at"

5.7.1.1. Proclisis and Enclisis. Among the simple pre­ positions, only ^ is regularly affected. Being atonic, ^ undergoes proclisis when preceded by a stressed open syllable (e.g., oe morso'd vy^n "a piece of meat") and on- clisis when followed by any noun which begins with a vowel

(e.g., d'esi a la "from here to there").

5.7.2. Compound Prepositions. Several prepositions occur in association with the preposition The most frequently encountered forms in this class are:

d'ora dg "from the side of"

ora de "next to," "alongside"

otraver de "across," "through"

In addition, the idea of "without" is frequently ren­ dered by avek pa rather than with the simple form sà.

Ô hale no soulye e mote jusk'a la kaz

avek pa de soulye da no pye.

"We used to take off our shoes and go up to

the house without shoes on our feet."

5.8. Conjunctions. Conjunctions are members of a

class of words whose function it is in STFD to conjoin

clauses in a manner that add information to the overall

sentence. There are two types of conjunctions: coor­

dinating and subordinating. 151

5.8.1. Coordinating Conjunctions. This type of con­ junction conjoins clauses of equal rank within a sentence.

The two clauses may be said to be in parataxis. The prin­ cipal coordinating conjunctions are:

e "and"

mo "but"

"or"

5.8.2. Subordinating Conjunctions. These are so- called because they join clauses of unequal rani:, that is to say, the one clause is subordinated to another. The rela­ tion of the two clauses is characterized as hypotaxis.

Subordinating conjunctions can be further subdivided ac­ cording to their semantic function, i.e.,temporal, causal, purpose and conditional.

5.8.2.1. Temporal. These conjunctions indicate a time relationship between two clauses. They are the most nu­ merous of all the sub-groups.

ami kc "when"

apre (ke) "after"

ava ke "before"

dépi ke "since"

juska lo’er ke "until (the time)"

juska ta ke "until"

kâ (ke) "when," "as," "while"

osito ke "as soon as"

tâ ke "so long as" 152 All temporal conjunctions are morphologically composite in nature, adding the suffix ke. In rapid speech these forms are generally realized as one word (e.g., ami ke > ami'k; kâ ke > kâ'k, etc.). The exception to this rule is apre (ke) which seems to occur more frequently as apre.

The same is true to a lesser degree for kâ k e . Examples of the employment of these and other conjunctions are given below (see 5.13.1.3.1.).

5.8.2.2. Causal. These conjunctions join clauses in which the idea action expressed in one causes the idea or

action expressed in the other. There are three conjunc­

tions in this category.

kom "since" or "as"

paske or pas "because"

piske or pis "since"

5.8.2. 3. Purpose. STFD is somewhat deficient in con­

junctions which express this particular relationship. pour

ke is employed only in the most Frenchified speech. Most

usually this concept is expressed by infinitive clauses

which are introduced by pour (see 5.11.3.2.2,).

The same idea may be expressed by a composite conjunc­

tion so ke which is part borrowing, part caique on the

English "so that." It should be added that this particular

form does not appear to occur regularly in the speech of

all Carenageois.

5.8.2.4. Conditional. This category of conjunctions 153 joins two clauses in which the action of one is dependent on the conditions stated in the other. The most frequent of these conjunctions are:

magré or malgré "although"

mem ke "even though," "even if"

otrema ke "unless"

parvu ke "provided that"

si ke or s^ "if"

si employed without the usual following (i.e., si'k) and malgré appear to be Frenchifying forms, magrc is not frequent and parvu ke occurs only twice in the present corpus.

5.9. Interjections. Interjections may take the form of a single word or a phrase. Syntactically, they either stand completely alone or come at the head of an utter­ ance. In both cases they are syntactically independent.

They can be arranged according to two designations :

semantically empty and semantically charged.

5.9.1. Semantically Empty Interjections. These might

also be termed "fillers" or "hesitation forms" in that

speakers employ them frequently, indeed almost incessantly,

to fill the slots between utterances.

é be "well"

éla "well"

The former is used much more frequently whereas the

latter has a more emphatic tone. 154

5.9.2. Semantically Charged Interjections. Although utilized less often, these interjections have each a very distinct moaning.

bbrdhl - exclamation of surprise or amazement.

literally a prostitution house.

bbrqin - exclamation of surprise or disbelief

at what another has said.

la sdt vi exclamation roughly translated as

"You're telling me 1"

5.10. Kernels. The preceding nine sections of this chapter have been devoted to the study of various words and word classes of STFD. This and the next three sections deal largely with the processes through which syntactic constructions of varying complexity arc produced. Indi­ vidual words themselves are basic to these constructions.

Certain class types of words (i.e.,adjectives, adverbs, nominal determiners, etcj cluster naturally around both

nouns and verbs to form nominal and verbal kernels re­

spectively. Combinations of kernels, in turn, serve as the

intermediate syntactic constituents of larger structures,

called groups, which can be again either nominal or verbal.

In much the same manner, these same groups are the imme-

constituents of clauses. Finally, clauses may bo arranged

into the largest units of all: sentences. In this fash­

ion, the grammar of STFD has the capability of generating 155 a vast number of diverse syntactic structures. The hier­ archy of syntactic contituents is as follows;

word(s)

kernels

groups

clauses

sentences

A kernel is defined as a noun or verb plus its immedi­ ate modifiers or determiners. The former is called a nomi­ nal kernel, the latter, a verbal kernel.

5.10.1. Nominal Kernels. There is generally only one noun per nominal kernel. This noun stands at the heart of the structure. It may be preceded by an article, adjec­ tival determiner, and adjective (non-qualitative or quali­ tative) . It in turn may be followed by an adjectival qualifier and qualitative adjective. The formula for nomi­ nal kernels may then be reduced to:

Art + ^ + NQA or QA + 1

ê tou p'ti bougi

"A very small candle"

Art + N + AD + QA

oe koulibet byé frdse

"A real French jingle"

It is likewise possible to have an adjectival modifier both before and after the noun core. 156

oe gra das ro

"A big, round dance"

5.10.1.1. Substitution for the Article. In some kernels the article is replaced by another nominal determiner. These determiners which can replace the article are: possessive adjective, quantitative adjective, demonstrative adjective and certain quantitative adjectives. The formulaic ex­ pression along with an example for each of these is:

PA 4- N

ma fâmiy

"my family"

DA 4- N

St '6 la

"that water"

QA 4- N

twa kaz

"three houses"

NQA 4- N

chak moun

"each person"

5.10.1.2. Omission of the Article. Generally the arti­ cle is retained. There are, however, instances in which it is omitted.

5.10.1.2.1. Prepositions. Nouns drop their articles in some cases after certain prepositions. The most frequent of these are sâ and â. 157

sâ koutla

"without (a) cutlass"

â dousoer

"softly," "easily"

5.10.1.2.2. Verbal Fusion. Several nouns generally lose their articles in specific environments and fuse with the preceding verb. The result is the creation of an idi­ omatic expression.

avwer bezwe "to need"

avwer tor "to be wrong"

fer atâsyo "to pay attention"

fer foskouch "to miscarry"

5.10.1.3. Adjectives. For purposes of syntactic analy­ sis, there are two types of adjectives: qualitative and non-qualitative.

5.10.1.3.1. Qualitative Adjectives. A small but often employed group of these adjectives always precede the noun.

These are: grâ, gro, ti, bel, joli, bo, etc.

oe gro pye de bwa

"a big tree"

dé ti kouto

"some small knives"

Most other qualitative adjectives follow the noun.

lez arnar kreol

"creol palms" 158

le fig vert

"the green bananas"

Also quite common are kernels which have one adjective before the noun, another after:

dé ti chaso frasc

"some little French songs"

5.10.1.3.2. Non-Qualitative Adjectives. These adjectives always precede the noun which they modify. Moreover, they always replace the article in question.

notz afer

"our business"

chak âne

"each year"

se ta la

"those times, days"

5.10 .1. 3 . 3 . Adjectival Determiners. These adverbial particles are placed just before the adjective, and their

function is to intensify or emphasize the quality described

by the adjective. The most frequent of these particles

are: s_i, bye, plu, mv/es, osi, etc.

pen si bon person

"such a good person"

oen rob bye rouj

"a very red dress"

The one exception to the placement of the particle 159 before the adjective is ase "enough, " "much" which is placed after the adjective.

joen ase

"young enough, " or "quite young"

Plu, mwes and osi are employed in the formation of comparatives and superlatives, a feature which has already been treated in some detail (see 5.3.2.1.4.).

5.10.2. Verbal Kernels. These are more complex than corresponding nominal kernels for the simple reason that the verb itself can assume a number of forms, i.e., finite, non-finite and modal auxiliary. Three basic models in fact can be based on these variations.

A. Object pronoun + finite verb + adverbial

modifier + adverb.

(il) le fe bye vit.

" (He) does it quickly."

B. Object pronoun + auxiliary verb + adverb +

past participle + adverbial modifier + adverb

(il) l'a pa fe tro bye

"(He) has not done it too well."

C . Model Auxiliary + object pronoun 4- infinitive +

adverbial modifier + adverb

(il) poe le fer plu vit ke sa.

"(He) can do it more quickly than that."

It should be noted in passing that in the det + ki + 160 finite verb formula, the object pronouns are placed before the finite verb and not before the auxiliary, as is shown in the following examples;

al e ki le prepar.

"She is preparing them."

on ete ki la feze

"We were making it."

5.11. Groups. Groups are syntactic structures com­ posed of kernels. There are both nominal and verbal groups.

They consist of nominal and verbal kernels respectively.

Groups, in their turn, serve as the immediate constituents of clauses (see 5.12.) .

5.11.1. Nominal Groups. These are fundamentally nominal kernels which have undergone expansion by one or a combination of means. In STFD nominal expansion occurs principally by two devices: co-ordination and preposi­ tional phrases.

5.11.1.1. Nominal Group Expansion by Co-ordination.

Two or more nominal kernels may be conjoined by the con­ junctions e and o to form nominal groups. Within the framework of the overall clauses these nominal groups may then act syntactically as either a compound subject or a compound object.

doe jour 6 twa jour 161

"two or three days"

lez om e le farn

"the men and the women"

5.11.1.2. Nominal Group Expansion by Prepositional

Phrases. The prepositions employed in these expansions are, a, ^ and pour. These words join either a nominal or verbal kernel to a noun by expanding the kernel into a larger unit called a group.

5.11.1.2.1. Nominal Types. Here the formula is noun + preposition + noun.

boutey a limounad

"soda pop Ijottlo"

mes de mare

"sailor's mass"

I'as a sab

"sandy beach"

la fèt de den

"Turkey feast (i.e., Thanksgiving)"

dëkwe pour le moun

"something for the people"

5.11.1.2.2. Verbal Types. In this case, expansion occurs according to the following formula: noun + prepo­ sition + infinitive. Some examples of this process are:

lap a cheminé

"lamr' to walk with" 162

fig a mâjê

"eating banana"

had de bêyé

"bathing-suit"

rnajê pour bouyi

"food to cook with"

5.11.2. Verbal Groups. The expansion of verbal kernels into groups is more complex than the corresponding opera­ tion with nominal kernels. This operation may take place according to one of three basic models;

verbal kernel + nominal complement

verbal kernel + prepositional phrase

verbal kernel H- verbal complement

5.11.2.1. Expansion by Nominal Complement. In this process the action expressed by the verb is completed or received by the direct and indirect objects.

5.11.2.1.1. Direct Object. In this case, the verbal kernel is joined directly to the nominal direct object with no connecting element required.

t'a vu le kanot?

"Have you seen the boats?"

oe hale lo’er had.

"They would take off their cloths."

5.11.2.1.2. Indirect Object. The preposition a links the verb to the indirect o! ject, which in turn follows the 163 the direct object unless the latter is omitted (i.e., as in a repetitive situation).

louis dônê du pwësd a la vyëy fâm.

"Louis used to give fish to the old lady."

dbn 1 ' ar jd~ a jâ .

"Give the money to John."

5.11.2.2. Expansion by Preposition Phrases. These phrases generally contain preposition, article, nominal determiner and noun (e.g., avek le gro kouto "with the big knife"). They follow the verbal kernel in the majority of cases and furthermore perform the function of modifying the action portrayed by the verb. Modification may be classi­ fied along three general lines - temporal, locative or descriptive.

5.11.2.2.1. Temporal. Temporal prepositional phrases perform essentially the same function as temporal adverbs.

They modify the action expressed by the verb along a time axis (cf.,5.6.5).

i resté isit dâ se td' la.

"He was living here at that time."

a fé sa pour e 16 ta.

"She has done that for a long time."

5.11.2.2.2. Locative. These prepositional phrases show a positional or directional component relative in some way to the verbal action. 164

s a e k s t da le vyoë moun.

"That exists with (or in) the old people."

oel ave de ti trou su lé kotë.

"They had small holes on the edges."

5.11.2.2.3. Descriptive . Prepositional phrases in this category in general describe or depict the manner or the means by which the verbal action is carried out. The majority of adverbial phrases are descriptive.

é al a biyê avek so tablye.

"She dressed in her long apron."

iy ètë toujour a v i .

"He was still living."

j'alo avek el â dousber.

"I was accompanying her slowly."

5.11.3. Verbal Expansions. The verbal kernel may be

expanded into a verbal group by the addition of an infini­

tive complement after the finite verb. Some of these in­

finitives may be added directly to the verbal kernel with­

out a connective particle; other such structures require a

connective device. Hence, verbal expansions may be divided

into two types - no connective required and connective

required.

5.11.3.1. No Connective Required. The simplest and

commonest form of expansion by a verbal complement is by

means of the direct addition of an infinitive to the finite 165 verb without a connective preposition.

al èm fer sa.

"She likes to do that."

je voudré aie 6sit

"I would like to go also."

i va veni avek nouzot

"He will come with us."

5.11.3.2. Connective Required. Two of the most fre­ quently employed connectives are the prepositions a and pour.

5.11.3.2.1. The Connective " a ". Several frequently occur' ing verbs use the preposition a regularly in order to add an infinitive complement.

lez 6m a komase a sorti.

"The men began to go outside."

6 se mete a lir.

"Me began to read."

5.11.3.2.2. The Connective "pour".This preposition is used in several very basic idiomatic expressions.

A. "Avwèr pour" + infinitive. STFD most usually express the idea of obligation or necessity with this formula.

j'e pour li èdê.

"I have to help him." 166

on ave pour charsë sa fiy.

"We had to look for her daughter."

B. "agardé pour" + infinitive. This expression carries the literal meaning of "seeking to do something" or "intend­

ing to do something."

iy agardé pour li parle.

"He was intending to speak to her."

al ète ki agardë pour sasiz a ter.

"She was looking to sit down on the ground."

C. Finite verb + "pour" + infinitive. Variations of

this model provide STFD with a syntactic device with which

to express the idea of reason or purpose. In' the simplest

of these sentences, the subject of the finite verb also

governs the pour phrase and its infinitive.

oel a sorti dehor pour vwer sa k'èt arivé.

"They went outside to see what had happened."

Often a personal pronoun is added to the phrase just

after pour for the sake of emphasis or clarity.

oel a sorti dehor pour (oe) vwer sa k'èt arivé.

"They went outside so that they might see what

had happened."

In other instances, a pronoun other than the one which

governs the finite verb is inserted after-the preposition

pour. In this case, it acts as the subject of the infini­

tive .

tche la oen tit beke pour el pa tebé.

"Hold her a little so that she won't fall." 167

To be noted also is the position of the negative adverb pa before the verb which it negates and not after.

5.12. Clauses. These consist of a subject and a pre­

dicate which may be respectively a single noun and a single

verb, a nominal kernel and a verbal kernel or a nominal

group and a verbal group respectively. They may be employed

individually in which case they coincide with simple sen­

tences or they may be joined in various ways by conjunctions

in order to form compound or complex sentences. They are

the immediate constituents of various sentence types (see

5.13.).

There are four clause types: declarative, interroga­

tive, imperative and exclamative.

5.12.1. Declarative clauses. The majority of clauses

in STFD fall into this category. A simple declarative

clause makes a statement or declaration. The nominal ele­

ment names the agent and stands at the head of the clause.

The verbal element posits the action and follows the nominal

element. It may be transitive, intransitive or linking.

le m.o'un ale charsë du travay.

"People used to go look for work."

la seriz é rouj.

"Cherries are red."

mou per ale avek 1a joen fiy .

"My father was walking with the girl." 168

5.12.2. Interrogative Clauses. These clauses maintain the same word order as in declarative sentences. There is no inversion or addition of an interrogative particle. In an interrogative clause there is a rising intonation pattern at the end of the clause which indicates that a question is be­

ing asked.

i fé sa souvâ. (falling intonation)

"He does that often."

i fê sa souvâ? (rising intonation)

"Does he do that often?"

5.12.3. Exclamatory Clauses. These have the same struc­

ture as the declarative ones even though in some cases an

interjection may be inserted at the head of the cause as

an exclamation marker. Normally, however, exclamatory clauses

are marked by greater than usual expiratory force.

6 dybet che bye ma l a d '.

"My God'. How sick I ami"

mou dyoel al é ki moril

"My God I She's dyingI"

kom al ë bel 1

"How pretty she is I"

5.12.4. Imperative Clauses. The underlying structure

of imperative clauses appears similar to that of declarative

clauses, although the nominal element is only implicit. 169

va kri du majél

"Go look for some food I"

tchd la fd~m

"Hold the lady."

d6ne li I'arja.

"Give him the money."

5.12.4.1. "Anou" particle. A special marker exists for the imperative of the first person plural. The particle anou is prefixed to the imperative form of the verb:

anou ale fer sa.

"Let's go do that."

5.12.4.2. Syntax of Negative Imperative Clauses. In a normal declarative clause, the negative adverb pa follows the finite verb. In negative imperative clauses, however, the negation adverb precedes the finite verb. Compare the following examples:

fe sa pour mwe. but pa fer sa.

"Do it for me." "Don't do it."

don mwe sa but pa me done sa.

"Give me that." "Don't give me that."

Two other observations are pertinent at this point.

First, in negative imperative clauses the finite verb is replaced by an infinitive form. This transformation pre­

supposes an underlying form which utilizes an infinitive

complement of the pour pa fer variety: 170

(je te demâd pour) pa fer s a '.

"I ask you not to do thatI"

(je you kômâd pour) pa li ddne sal

"I order you not to give him that."

Second, the personal object pronouns are placed before the verb in negative clauses in contrast to positive clauses in which they occur after the verb:

don le a ja. but pa le done a ja.

"Give it to John." "Don't give it to John."

5.13. Sentences. Clauses are the constituents from which sentence's of various types are constructed. There are

three basic types of sentences: simp].e, compound and

complex.

5.13.1. Simple Sentences. These consist of a simple

subject and predicate. As such, they are equivalent to the

various clauses which have been discussed in the immediately

preceding section and therefore need not be discussed further

here (see 5.12).

In general, however, it should be noted that simple

sentences are by far the most numerous type encountered in

this particular corpus.

5.13.2. Compound Sentences. The combination of two or

more clauses of the same grade by means of a co-ordinating

conjunction is termed compounding (for co-ordinating con­

junctions see 5.8.1.). 171

o la tiré su not me kom sa e 6 lé prâdë den par den.

"We would throw them on our hand like this, and we

would take them up one by one."

In rapid colloquial speech, it is common to drop the conjunction o and simply juxtapose the two declarative clauses in the following manner;

6 le kouze, 6 feze den rob.

"We would sew them (and) we would make a dress."

Other examples of types of compound sentences are:

de li dize de le fer me i voe pa.

"They told him to do it, but he did not want to."

iy ale parti 6 oel ale parti.

"He was going to leave or they were going to leave."

5.13.3. Complex Sentences. An arrangement of two or several clauses joined by subordinate conjunctions or rela­ tive pronouns produces a complex sentence. One clause may be said to be principal in the overall sentence while.the other (s) are subordinate.

5.13.3.1. Subordination by Conjunction. The various subordinating conjunctions have been outlined in detail above (see 5.8.2.). It remains here to review briefly the kinds of sentences which are produced by this means.

5.13.3.1.1. Temporal Subordination. The temporal clause may either precede or follow the principle clause although in most cases it precedes. 172

apré k'oel a done la das pour lé joenz âfâ:, oé

kriyé, "va dà' le m ô r n . . . ''

"After they gave a dance for the youngsters, they

would call out, 'go up on the hill...'"

ava'k chu vene isit, je reste a se kwa.

"Before I came here, I lived at St. Croix."

dépi k'iy a komase a bwer, iy a chaje.

"Since he started to drink, he has changed."

ka k'iy etc isit, on ave oe bo ta.

"VJhile he was here, we had a good time."

a voe resté isit juska son dm arvye.

"She wants to stay here until her husband returns."

ma ve espéré juska ta k'el vye.

"I will wait until she comes."

al a travaye juska I'oer k'al a kouché de l'éfé.

"She worked until (the time) she gave birth to the

child."

6sitd ke mari ariv, al é veni a nôt kaz.

"As soon as Marie arrived, she came to our house."

tâ'k jak va resté a bwèr, i va dèt malad.

"As long as Jack continues to drink, he will be sick."

ami k'i va a New York, i va kriyé mén 6 k .

"When he goes to New York, he will call my uncle."

5.13.3.1.2. Causal Subordination. Clauses introduced by piske and kom ke almost always precede the principal clause. 17 3

Clauses introduced by paske, on the other hand, always fol­ low the main clause.

pis mou mari etc malad, nave pa dnpil d'arja.

"Since my husband was sick, there wasn't much

money."

kom k'6 nou ddne sa 6n été de milyônèr.

"Since they gave us that, we were millionaires."

s6 rich pas loer per travay dur.

"They are well-off because their father works hard."

5.13.3.1.3. Conditional Subordination. Clauses of this type introduced by the conjunction si are by far the most frequent in STFD. They nearly always precede the main clauses. This is generally true for the other types of conditional subordinate clauses as can be readily seen from the following examples.

si k'i pr^ du pwesd, 6n a jdmé fci.

"If he catches fish, we are never hungry."

si k'i voulë v^n la bil, je l'dré achté.

"If he had wanted to sell the car, I would

have bought it."

i va veni, parvn'k tu vyé osit.

"He will come, provided that you come also."

mèm k'a bouyi oe bd dine, iy é pa satisfe.

"Even if she cooks a good dinner, he is not

satisfied."

mem ke je l'avèr.ii ênpil de fwa, i voe pa sarètë. 174

"Even though I warn him many times, he continues

to do it."

md ve pa le fer dtremd ke tu travay osit.

"I will not do it unless you work also."

5.13.3.2. Subordination by Relative Pronoun. In this arrangement an entire clause is subordinated not to another clause but to a single word, usually a noun. The connection between that word and the modifying clause is effected by the relative pronouns or ke ( "who, " "whom," "w'hich" and

"that"). Syntactically, the subordinated relative clause stands after the nominal element which it modifies.

se jâ k*y a d6he le sen.

"It's John who gave him the nets."

a kopran le parol ke tu li di.

"She understands the words which you tell her."

tu poe poye le bway k'e ki kour?

"Can you grab the boy who is running there?"

j'ye de parle a le bway k'a fé sa.

"I just spoke with the boy who did it." 175

Footnotes

Chapter Five

1. In the matter of format and approach, I have frequently consulted Marilyn J. Conwell and Alphonse Juilland, Louisiana French Grammar (The Hague: Mouton, 1963), 20 7 pp. and John Lyons, Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. (Cambridge: University Press, Ï9"71) , 519 pp.

2. The exceptions are dèt, avwer and ale (see 5.5.1.3.1.).

3. Some of these, such as the so-called progressive tenses, are more aspectual than temporal. This lias been pointed out under the appropriate headings. With this in mind, they have been grouped under the general head­ ing of "tenses" for the sake of economy.

4. The construction j'a "I have" is heard sporadically. It may gain eventual acceptance on the basis of the more widely used je va "I go." CHAPTER SIX

LEXICON

6.1. Introduction. All of the words and expressions which occur in the present corpus, that is to say in the various texts as well as in individual responses to the questionnaire, have been compiled in the form of a glos­ sary at the end of this study. Although extensive, the glossary does not pretend to be exhaustive. Some lexical items have no doubt gone unsolicited. Others may have been misinterpreted due to the circumstance surrounding a particular interview. Even in spite of careful cross­ checking, it must be recognized that the total lexicon of this speech community could not have been gathered in the relatively short period of time allotted for field­ work. It is with the admission of these limitations in mind, that an examination of the STFD lexicon might proceed.

A careful and systematic study of the words contained in the glossary reveals they can be arranged into several readily discernible groups. Each group of words found its way into STFD as the result of certain socio-linguistic and historico-linguistic circumstances. It is the job of this chapter to identify the various groups as well as the

] 76 177 most important lexical items in each of them.

The following groups of words, or elements, have been identified and isolated:

Norman element

Archaic element

Maritime element

Standard French element

English element

Creole element

Indian element

African element

6.2. Norman Element. It is certainly possible that a number of Gallo-romance dialects might well have contribu­ ted at least in part to the formation of the STFD lexicon.

It is not, however, the purpose of this section to analyze those contributions in detail. Such an inquiry would go far beyond the limits of this study. Rather, this section proposes more simply to survey the contribution of the

Norman French dialect, which appears to have exercised a preponderant influence. In addition to the presence of numerous lexical terms of rather obvious Norman origin, it should be borne in mind that the Carenageois themselves still maintain a folk tradition which traces their own beginnings to distant Normandy.^ These two pieces of evidence would seem to justify the limitation of the pre­

sent study to that quarter, keeping in mind all the while 178 that, one, unexplainable lexical items might well have orig­ inated in other dialectal regions and, two, lexical items explained by a Norman origin might also be found in other western dialects. In any event, a thorough treatment of these questions must be reserved for a more detailed study.

The selected words have been divided into categories based upon grammatical function for facility of analysis.

References to all Norman forms are listed alphabetically in Moisy and Eeaucoudray.

6.2.1. Pronouns

STFD Norman English

al al "she"

dekwe de quoi* "something"

le sye (etc.) le sien "he who"

ne n ' en* "some"

ou ou, ous "you"

stila, (etc.) stila, (etc.) "the one"

,2. Adverbs

asmate assematin "this morning"

astder asteure "now"

aswer asseir "this evening"

ave e rien* "nothing" isit isit "now

piece "no, none"

pis pis "then" 179

E 2 pus' no more, no longer"

toupatou tout partout "everywhere"

you, oyou oyou, lou "where"

6.2.3. Conjunctions

ami ke a mi "where"

kâ ke quand que "when"

pis, piske pis, piske* "since"

you ke iou que "where"

It is similarly possible that the conjunction oti ke may have its origins in Norman sources. The interrogative particle ^ has been attested rather early in Norman in sentences of the' following kind:

vouz en avez-ti vu biaucoup comme li?

"Have you seen many of them like him?"

The STFD conjunction then might have had its origins in a structure of a similar type:

ou est-il que ton pere est aile?*

"Where is it that your father has gone?"

This sentence would produce sentences of the follow­ ing variety which are quite common in STFD.

oti'k to per et ale?

"Where has your father gone?"

6.2.4. Adjectives

fènê fener "wilted" 18 0

muk mucre "wet/' " moist"

St' ste "this," "that"

ki is used in a limited number of expressions as an interrogative adjective:

ki nouvel de vôt koté?

"What's new with you?"

In Norman qui is often used in just this sense trans- lated in SF by the adjectives quel and quelle, etc.

6.2.5. Nouns STFD shares an impressive num.ber of noun: in common with Norman. The following list represents an attempt to ascertain those items which are more or less particular to the two dialects:

a-ou a-out* "August"

dgdhin egoheine* "sm.all hand sav/"

estomak estomac "chest"

gra grand "grandfather"

gran grande "grandmother"

ilet ilet* "small island"

kâm cambre "ceiling," "roof"

makou marcou "tomcat"

mita mi tan "center," "middle"

pur pur "pus"

segre segret "secret"

suret surets "wild," "uncultivated in

reference to certain

fruits" 181

vakabô vacabond "vagabond"

6.2.6. Verbs

agardé arregarder "te loek at"

^aré amarrer "te tie"

artourné artourner "te return"

arvèni erveni* "te cerne back"

grafiné gratiner "te scratch"

halë haler "te pull"

japé japper "te bark"

kri qu'ri* "te loek fer," "te

fetch"

lichë licher "te lick"

meuve meuver* "te move"

ostine estiner "te quarrel"

resté rester* "te reside"

In addition there are similarities in the use of certain expressions.

ale dêhbr aller dehors* "te ge te the toilette"

ale su aller sur* "te be going on (age)"

espéré esperer "te wait for"

i na i na* "there is," etc.

pilé su piler sus "to tread upon"

pran a prendre a* "to begin"

sanaleA T X s 'naler* "to leave"

This last example éspéré often occurs with the preposition 182 su and is no doubt a caique in the English expression "to wait on."

The past participle of avwer, yu, has an exact equiva­ lent in the Norman dialect. The characteristic glide /y/ occurs elsewhere in you (e^ > ^ and ou > you).

STFD forms the first person plural imperative by the addition of the particle anou to an infinitive, e.g., anou

j ë "let's eat." This particle appears to be related to the Norman annous-cn which is rendered in Standard French by allons-nous-en. Moisy cites the following example:

s'fait tard, annous-en.^

"It's getting late, let's go."

6.3. Maritime Element. As has been already pointed out and discussed in some detail in Chapter One, the Carenage community has always been closely bound to the sea. As fishermen, sailors and inter island merchants, they and their forbearors have traditionally earned their living there.

Consequently, it is not at all surprising to note that the lexicon of STFD consistently reflects this centries old preoccupation.

This maritime vocabulary might be divided into two basic categories: basic vocabulary of the sea, sailing and fish­ ing as it applies today and secondly, certain maritime lexical items which have been generalized in STFD due to frequency of usage. Items in the first category can be 183 easily gleaned from a quick perusal of the glossary. Items of the second category require some further comment in that they illustrate how the sea has helped shape the manner in which the Carenageois talk and think.

The verb hale occurs quite frequently in STFD with the general meaning of "to pull something toward oneself." In

SF the verb is rather narrowly limited to the mechanics of manoeuvreing a boat or ship by means of cords and lines.

These meanings, of course, survive in STFD in such express­ ions as hale de kord 6 lign "pull in the sheets','halé oe bato a ho to'beach a boat, " hale. I'ak "to weigh anchor", etc. However, its meaning has been generalized and its use greatly extended from this modest beginning, as can be seen

in the following expressions e.g., halé dé had "to take off

clothing," halé le boucho "to open a bottle," halé den chez

"pull up a chair."

The original meaning of armateur was "celui qui fait

construire et armer a ses frais un ou plusieurs navires

pour des expeditions commerciales .... Les armateurs louent

quelque fois leurs navires a des particuliers ou a des

souverains."4 Although this word survives in STFD with the

original meaning of an individual who rents or leases his

boat, it has been generalized as well. An amatoer means

"owner" and "landlord", especially of small dwellings and

land. The original meaning remained firm as long as the

community continued its orientation toward the sea, as

as is indicated in the following passage: 184

oe y'a ofer le "trophy" a li, le met.

L*amatoer du bot y 'a ofèr le "trophy".

"They offered the trophy to him, the captain.

The owner of the boat offered him the trophy,"

The term hourjwa has a similar history and meaning. Jal gives one meaning as "les propriétaires des navires sont appeliez bourgois de la nef."^ Ile continues to say that they generally outfit the ship with crew and provisions.

In STFD a bourjwa is simply the owner of a boat or by extension any other piece of real property.

Paviyd refers specifically to a flag or standard on a ship. This meaning has been expanded first to weather warning flags in the harbor (e.g., paviyo rouj - "heavy weather flag"). Finally, the French or American flag is re­ ferred to as a paviyo.

A number of verbs appears to have been generalized in meaning from an originally, narrow maritime employment to a wider, less specific one:

âmare^ "to tie," "to fasten"

lagë^ "to loosen"

vire^ "to tack," "to turn"

pare^ "to prepare," "to be ready"

The expression pare a vire "ready about," the standard command used in preparation to performing the tacking ma­ noeuvre in sailing,has produced two basic STFD lexical 185 items, paré "ready" and viré "to turn."

The term bouline is no longer an active part of the SF vocabulary. In previous times, however, it was a part of sailing terminology defined as, "cordage attache par moyen des branches a la ralingue latérale d'une voile. Tire dans la direction de l'avant du navire, il tend a présenter mieux au vent la voile qui est orientée obliquement a la

quille."^0 7^ corresponding verb carried the meaning,

"aller a la bouline ou au plus près du vent."^^ In STFD a boulin is a race over a course of several points, in which a number of small sailing vessels participate. The action of racing in this manner is called fer la boulin, although the form bouliné is sometimes heard. Since in races of this type, of course, the participants ofLempL to "aller au plus près du vent," a slight semantic shift of this sort is then quite understandable.

The noun ralign occurs only in the expression hod a ralign, meaning "tattered or badly worn clothing." Even though the phonology offers some difficulty, the origin of this word may lie in the French ralingue which means

"cordage cousu le long des bords d'une voile pour les r e n f o r c e r . "12 badly torn sail might have been char­ acterized as "en ralingue" and a transfer to other torn materials including clothing can easily be imagined.

6.4. Archaic Element. The ancestors of the present 186 day speakers of STFD left France for the West Indies in the mid-seventeenth century. Most of them originated in the western provinces of France. It may be then inferred that the majority spoke not only a dialect of Gallo-romance but no doubt some Standard French as well. Support of this view is lent by a considerable number of words which arc clearly archaic in nature and must date back to the period when the first colonists arrived. Consequently, a stock of words were retained in the colony which later became archaic in the mother country, as is often the case with emigrant groups. The following is a brief survey of a number of such words which are current in STFD today but more or less out­ dated or at least well-worn in Standard French.

The standard word in STFD for clothing is hard or had

(< Fr. harde). An armwer or ermwer holds not clothing but kitchen utensils and dinning ware.

Dczord {< Fr. desordre)retains its original meaning as

"quarrelling" or "disputing" rather than the more recent and abstract sense of "disorder."

Podinë (< Fr. dodiner) is still very much alive in STFD with the meaning of to rock or to cradle someone else, especially a child. In SF dodiner is a relatively archaic form, replaced by and large by dodeliner.

Fachri (< Fr. facher) is quite a popular word, carrying the meaning "hard feelings" or "strained relations between two persons." 187

In the French of the sixteenth century, flatter meant to caress or to rub an animal with the hand. The same mean­ ing of "to caress" has been retained by the STFD verb flate except here it generally means "to caress a member of the opposite sex in an amorous fashion." Moreover, it has not taken on by extension the modern SF meaning of "to flatter, to praise excessively."

The verb kriyé appears to have lost its older meaning and taken on a new identity. One of its several meanings in SF is "annoncer a haute voix sur la voie publique, pour vendre." In STFD this older meaning appears to have re­ mained but with a slight shift in meaning. Today it means

"to name, to be named, to be called" (cf., SF s'appeler).

As has been mentioned in the introduction, the Carenageois were traditionally fishermen. They walked through the streets of St. Thomas calling out in a loud voice the names of all the fish which they had to sell. It may well be in this manner that kriye has remained an important verb in

STFD, taking on a slightly different meaning.

To express the general, non-specific idea of "some­ thing," "anything" the Carenageois employ dekwe (< Fr. de quoi) instead of the less common tchekchoz.

Some other terms which give STFD its decidedly archaic turn are :

STFD SF

as anse "bay," "inlet," "beach" 18!

béké becquQe "small quantity"

dézchore deshonorer "to curse someone"

fouloer fouleur "person or spirit which

"presses down on someone

or something (cf., incubus)"

koulibet quolibet "jingle," "nonsense rhyme"

lak lacs "bait"

mâtri menterie "a lie"

mita mi tan "center," "middle"

mcmtras < montrer "sample"

par mechaste méchanceté "on purpose," "expressly"

tchulot culotte "men's trousers"

lake lacs "to bait"

6.5. Standard French. The manner in which Standard

French has exerted continuing pressure on STFD has already been discussed in Chapter Tliree. As a direct result of that pressure, STFD has accepted from the standard language a number of lexical items which either replace older basolect

forms or coexist side by side with them as doublets. An

exhaustive list of these items would be quite long. For

that reason only several examples are given below, the reader

being referred to the glossary for further information.

STFD (from) SF

dekwe tchekchoz "something"

mama me re "mother"

tchebd tone "to hold" 189

term mo "word"

trê bruit "noise"

6.6. English Element. The English element on STFD has come principally from three quarters. First, St. Barthelmy was always a French outpost in the tiny British sphere of influence in the Leeward Islands. Thus British English exerted an influence on the patois of St. Barthelmy from, earliest times. Second, shortly after the arrival of the first immigrants to the Danish West Indies in the 1870's, bilingualism in STFD and local English became the rule for nearly all Carenageois. In this manner STFD was opened not only to numerous English influences but to African ones as V7ell. And last of all, after the Danes sold the islands to the United States in 1917, the Carenage community was subject to increasing pressure from standard American

English.

English borrowings can be divided into four district levels; unassimilated forms, assimilated forms, crossings and caiques.

6.6.1. Unassimilated forms (Fremdworter) . Since the

Carenageois are nearly all bilingual, it is quite common to hear numerous English lexical items in STFD conversations.

The Carenageois regard these as English words and make no

real effort to integrate them phonetically into the STFD

system. In the texts which follow in the appendix, these

words appear in their usual English spelling in order to 1.90 indicate their status. Some examples of this kind picked at random are "trophy," "dredge," "ballpark," "porkchop,"

"roast beef" as well as most place names in the Virgin

Islands.

6.6.2. Assimilated forms (Lehnworter). These words are all clearly English in origin, but they have br^en m.odified in one way or another in order that they might fit un- obstrusively into the STFD lexicon. For purposes of anal­ ysis these can be arranged by grammatical categories.

6.6.2.1. Verbs. This class of words is fairly stable.

New items are admitted only reluctantly. All new admis­ sions enter as first conjugation verbs. Of the six examples which occur in the present corpus, three deal with food handling: f rize "to freeze," si zone "to season ," " si f té

"to sift." Another, protekte "to protect" has a doublet, proteje, and some vacillation exists between the two.

Finally, zipe "to zip" was borrowed from English since the mechanism itself came from that quater, and STFD had no equivalent for it.

6.5.2. 2. Grammatical words. This category of words is sometimes referred to as function or structural words, which are "empty" in the semantic sense. It includes prepositions, articles, conjunctions and the like. Only rarely does one language borrow items of this type from another and then 191 only in small numbers. Many Carenageois are fond of begin­ ning sentences with So "so" with the meaning of "as a result of what I said in the preceding utterance."

J'e vu felisia ki se pouse, ki se

pouse kdt la raasdn, kbm k'al été ki

agardé pour sasiz a ter so j 'é pa fèt

de mandev paske se vyde mo un la sé kom

k 'oe fd.

"I saw Felicia sliding down, sliding down

against the wall as if she were trying to

sit down on the ground. So I didn't move

to help her, because that's the way those

old people act."

A conjunction so ke "so that" exists but is not widely employed at the moment, most speakers preferring to use pour purpose phrases.

The temporal adverb astder is ambiguous in that it means

at this time, "now" and "at tliat time," "then." In an

attempt to neutralize this ambiguity somewhat, STFD speakers

sometimes prefix n^ "now" to astder (i.e., na'stder). In

most cases, this renders the meaning of "at that time,"

instead of, as one would think, "at this time."

E mwa, j'ètê ki parle na'astder a la vydey fam.

"I was talking then to the old lady."

6.6.2.3. Nouns. Words of this class can be transferred 192

from one language to another with relative ease and rapidity when compared to the other classes. VJhen the Carenageois are confronted with new cultural item or a foreign concept which originates in the larger American culture, they are most likely to adopt the English term for it. True, they still retain a certain sense of Standard French. That, however, is rather artificial and sometimes hypercorrect.

But most important of all, it is not spontaneous. Con­ sequently, numerous American nouns pass into the dialect with little or no resistance. For the sake of convenience, these can be semantically grouped,

6.6.2.3.1. Household and Food. The house is entered by way of le step "steps." Cleaning is done with water and a boukit "bucket." Various foods in the kitchen carry

English names: bits "beets," kabif "cornbeef," makaro

"macaroni," and jêlé "jelly" to mention only some of the more frequent. Many of the foods are stored in a friza

"freezor" and frozen (cf., frize "to freeze.") Various foods

are stored in dé jër "jars." lé dich "dish", le glas

"glass," and le pla "plates" are washed in le sink "sink."

Coffee and tea are drunk from a kop "cup" and meat is

seasoned sizdne, and prepared on a stov "stove" or a kolpot "coal pot." This latter, employed in former times,

is a three-legged ceramic pot which is fueled with charcoal.

A metal grille is placed over the mouth at the top and cook­

ing is done there. 193

6.5.2. 3. 2. Naval Terminology. Although the naval ter­ minology of STFD is well-stocked from Gallo-romance sources, a few English items have crept in. A very large, luxury vessel is vailed a djat "yacht" which is equipped with a grâ vwel and a djib "jib." It lies in the harbor on its m.orign

"mooring." A large military vessel is called a batima or a manwa "man-of-war" and the naval forces of any nation is called its nevi "navy."

6.6.2.3. 3. Personal Items. The English word "boy" occurs in the expression oe ti bway meaning "boy" or "son."

A. lady 's korl "curl" is held in place by a kl.ip "clip. "

One may suffer from an ailment of the kidni "kidney" or from de korn "corn" on the feet. Every lady's wardrobe now contains de pâti "panty."

6. 6.2.3. 4. Cultural Items. With the passing of time the Carenage community has come into contact with numerous cultural elements, usually American, which have no equiva­

lent in their own speech. As a result, the English name has generally been borrowed. For instance, one goes to the erport "airport" to buy a tiki "ticket" in order to make a

trip on a djèt "jet." The same line of reasoning holds

true for the following list of borrowed words;

kapa "copper," "a penny"

mitign "meeting" 194

notes "notice"

of is "office"

papye "newspaper"

pati "party," "celebration"

tchas "chance" "opportunity"

tchub "tube"

6.6.3. Crossing. Transmutations or crossings occur when

English and STFD words are sufficiently alike in form and meaning as to permit some confusion. There are several examples of this tendency, which is quite common in areas of intense bilingualism.

French English STFD

appendicite appendicitis apendisit

concombre cucumber kukdm

laitue lettuce letus

plafond platform platfo

6.6.4. Caiques. All things considered, STFD seems to show a preference for caiques on English expressions rather than for outright lexical borrowing. The following list is divided into nominal and verbal caiques.

6,6.4.1. Nominal Caiques. Some of the more frequently

encountered are:

STFD English

atak de tchoer "heart attack"

bôt a vwël "sailboat" 195

brulder de solèy "sunburn"

f âm a dêhor "outside woman," "mistress"

fet de dèn "turkey dinner (i.e.,Thanks

giving)"

floor de sôlèy "sunflower"

plcn lun "full moon"

ver de ter "earthworm"

4.2 . Verbal Calques.

STFD English

chars é pour "to look for"

dône mèrsi "to give thanks"

done notes "to give notice"

kasé oen prômès "to break a promise"

prân dé tes "to take tests"

prân swé de " to take care of"

véyé apré "to look after"

vwèr pour "to look to see"

gaye oen priz "to v/in a prize"

6.6.5. Interaction of Local English and STFD. The local English of the Virgin Islands contains a handful of words of probable African origin, some of which have passed into STFD. These are treated under a separate heading (see

6,9.), In addition, it should be remarked in passing that local English has received several obvious French terms, perhaps directly from STFD. 19 G

Local English STFD

bato "boat" bato

djep "wasp" djep krappo "frog" krapo

kribishay "crayfish" ekribich

mellay "gossip" se mêlé

mettay "nosey" se met

6.7. Creole Element. A considerable number of lexical items and expressions normally associated with the French

Creoles of the West Indies is found in STFD. It is, however, difficult to demonstrate that these forms have been borrowed from the Creole dialects by STFD. In the first place, all of the items with the exception of gobo and zobi already mentioned above are of ultimate Gallo-romance origin. This means that these words must have at some point passed into the Creole from a French based donor. Furthermore, it seems that STFD is one of the last living descendants of that original donor or donors. If this is the case, then all of these items may be simply survivals in STFD in one form or another and not borrowings. Secondly, it has been pointed out in the chapter on phonology that the prosodic feature of enchainment has produced in STFD numerous forms in which the final consonant of the article is agglutinated to words which begin with a vowel (e.g., Iwil, z6, zerb). At the same time, this is one of the characteristic features of French 197

Creole words (e.g., zozo, "bird", zowey, "ear"). These two examples then demonstrate the difficulty in discerning the exact relationship between the lexicon of STFD and neighbor­ ing Creoles.

One striking example centers on the word enpil or epil meaning "much," "many" or "a lot." It is doubtlessly de­ rived from an agglutination^of the indefinite article with the following noun (i.e., ^ + pil < une pile) . This is the basilect form for STFD. Bokou ( beaucoup) is employed only in the most blatantly Frenchified speech. At the same time, all of the French Creole dialects employ api1 or epil with the same meaning. The question which arises is a natural one. Did all of the Creole dialects borrow or in­ herit apil from its French parent (ive., the lineal ancestor of STFD) or was apil "created" in the Creole dialects and then loaned back to the parent language at a later period in time? Similar questions of this kind impede the analysis of nearly all lexical items which STFD shares in common with

French Creole dialects.

An analogous situation exists for STFD moun which means

"person" or "people" and which is used in a number of im­ portant periphrases (e.g., moun kreol, moun de kouloer, tout Is moun). The same term is also employed in the French

Creole dialects with a nearly identical meaning. Did it originate in a form like Standard French monde (< L. MÜNDUS)?

There is some phonological evidence to support this point 198 of view. In STFD, Gallo-romance /o/ when preceded by the consonant /m/ and followed by /n/ is generally raised to a nasal/ou/(e.g., monter/moute, mon/mou, remontrer/armoutre, etc.). Moreover, final plosives, especially followed by an -re or-le cluster, are generally lost (cf., plante/pla, prendre/ prân, decendre/desan). Under these circumstances the passage of monde to moun is easily understandable within

the limits of STFD and its ancestor language without ref­ erence to Creoles.

On the other hand, however, it might bo argued that moun

is the result of the crossing of monde with an African form

like muntu,^^ thus producing moim. This argument accounts

only for the raising of/o/to/ou/and not the treatment of the

final plosive. Once again as in the case of epil , which is

the donor and which the recipient? The preceding discussion

was entered into in order to illustrate the complexity of

the problem rather than to provide any immediate answers.

In fact, there may be no ultimate answer to questions of

this sort since written documents in these dialects are

lacking. For the time being this study v/ill content itself

with the presentation of various lexical items which appear

with some frequency in both STFD and Antillian Creole, and

between which there no doubt exists some genetic relation­

ship. The list which follows can be broken down into two

categories: nouns and adverbs.

5.7.1. Nouns. STFD and Antillian share a number of

identical lexical items in common. 199

STFD and Antillian Creole

bwa Iwil "bush of which the leaves

are used as disinfectant."

fia "bananas"

gobo "okra"

makak "monkey"

makou "tomcat"

makoumer "homosexual"

maso "wall"

morn "hill"

moun "person"

pye de bwa or pye bwa "tree"

toutouch "female genitals"

toutoun "female genitals"

zanoli "lizard"

zerb "grass"

zèrpydt "s tinkweed"

z6 "bone"

zdbi "ghost," "spirit"

zôrtola "dove"

zwit "oyster"

"eye"

z6zoy6 "bird"

6.7.2. Adverbs. Five words of interest occur in the present corpus. 200

STFD and Antillian Creole

ênpil or epil "much," "a lot"

k6te "where"

6ti ke "where"

pukôr "not yet"

taloer "in just a moment"

6.8. Indian Element. The great majority of Carih and

Arawak Indian words found in French were passed along by the immediary of Spanish. It is possible that these words were widespread enough in French and the Gallo-romance dialects by the beginning of the seventeenth century that

they were taken to the West Indies as part of the linguistic baggage of the first French speaking emigres. It is just

as possible that these terms were learned first hand in the

West Indies since both Arawaks and Caribs were still in

existence at that time. We have in fact pointed out earlier

that, the early colonists were driven out of St. Barts for

a short period by marauding Caribs. Consequently, there

were direct contacts between the two groups.

Dear to every Carenageois is the hambk. At least

one is to be found in all the homes of the older people.

It seems highly possible that the early French in the West

Indies borrowed this convenient device directly from the

Indians along with the term for it.

The Carib Indians called the small lizards of the

West Indies anoli. Here arain the STFD dholi or zanoli 201 may indeed be a direct borrowing.

The small sailing vessels called kanot^^ were at one time absolutely essential to the fishing economy of the early

French settlers. This word, plus the pirog,w a s borrowed no doubt directly from the local Indians who used these craft in their voyages from island to island.

The papaya tree does not grow in France. When the French learned of its many uses in the West Indies, they employed the Indian word in referring to it (i.e., papaye). This word comes from the name of the fruit papay or papaya, the latter pronunciation appearing to be an influence of local

English.

Other words of possible Indian origin are: korosol ■

"soursap fruit" and kwi "an eating vessel made from a hollowed-out calabash."

6.9. African Element. A small group of words of apparent

African origin has passed into the lexicon of STFD through the intermediary of either French Creole or local Englisii.

6.9.1. The Intermediary of French Creole. The French

Creole referred to here is that of the lesser Antilles, principally Guadeloupe, Martinique, Dominica and St. Lucia.

Only two words can be isolated in this category. Although the exact African origins are rather obscure, both gobd^^

"okra" and zobi "ghost," "spirit" seemingly come from that quarter. The latter has a doublet in djounbi which comes 202 from local English jumbi, moaning an active spirit. Possibly the Creole zobi and local English jumbi trace their origins to the same source in Africa.

6.9.2. The Intermediary of Local English. Here again the harvest is not overly rich. In addition to djoumbi al­ ready mentioned above, the Carenageois make use of the word kalalou in referring to a spinach-like bush and the soup made from it and mabi which refers to a drink made from bark and spices. 203

Footnotes

Chapter Six

1. Pickwood, op. cit., p. 17.

2. The majority of the lexical items listed in the follow­ ing section are found alphabetically arranged in H. Moisy, Dictionnaire de Patois Norman. (Geneve: Slatkine Reprints, 1969), CXLVI, 716 pp. Those references found in R. G. de Beaucoudrey Le Langage Normand au Debut du XX^ Siècle. (Paris: Librairie Alphonse Picard et Fils, 1911), XI, 478 pp. are marked in the text with an as­ terisk (i.e., *). In addition some of these words are found in both sources.

3. Moisy, op. cit., p. 21.

4 . A. Jal. Glossaire nautique. termes de marine anciens et Firmin Didot Frères, 1848),

5. Ibid., P- 324.

6. Ibid., P- 115.

7. Ibid., P- 913.

8. Ibid., P- 1133.

9. Ibid,, P- 1133.

10. Ibid., P- 323.

11. Ibid., P- 323.

12. Ibid., P- 1256.

13, Douglas Rae Taylor, "Remarks on the Lexicon of Dominican French Creole with a Running Commentary by Hans Erich Keller." Romance Philology, 16 (1962-63), p. 408.

14 Walther von Wartburg, Franzosisches Etymologisches Worterbuch. (Bonn-Leipzig; Berlin-Basel, 192’8-)~, vol. 20, p . 67. 204

15. Jal, op. cit., p. 400.

16. FEW, op. cit., vol. 20, p. 76.

17. Autenor Nascentes. Dicionârio Etimologico da Lingua Portuguesa. (Rio de Janeiro, 1932), 829 pp. The Portuguese term "quingombo," meaning "okra," is be­ lieved to have originated in Angola. CHAPTER VII

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

The STFD community originated in an immigration of fishermen from St. Barts to St. Thomas over one hundred years ago. There has been an uninterrupted flow of immi­ grants from that time to the present. The newcomers brought with them their language which appears to be the remnants of an archaic dialect of northwestern Gallo-romance. The dialect, called STFD in this study, seems to have retained more archaic features in St. Thomas than elsewhere. All the same, STFD is spoken less and less with each passing year, due to the increasing integration of the Carenageois into the overall St. Thomas community.

There is no one form of STFD but rather a number of grades of speech, which blend together to form a lineal con­ tinuum, the terminals of which are West Indian French Creole and Standard French. The speech performance of most Carena­ geois falls somewhere between the two extremes. All the same, nearly all speakers have some conscious mobility along the continuum and do make use of it as the result of any number of complex socio-linguistic stimuli which may come into play at a given time. This phenomenon renders difficult

205 206 the work of precisely describing the STFD basolect.

STFD phonology is distinctive in several areas. The consonantal system features a voiced and a voiceless affri­ cate /dj/ and /tch/, a heavily aspirated glottal fricative

/h/ and an uvular trill /r/ which is generally lost in final position. The phoneme /v/ is likewise often weakened and lost. The vocalic system is tending toward three degrees of openness for both the front and back series for many speakers, even though the /e/:/e/ opposition is maintained in several pairs. Among the five nasal vowels, there is some confusion between /a/ and /o/ which are quite close.

The dialect has a nasal /du/ as well as /de/, the latter gen­ erally occurring in free variation with /ê/. Stress is not phonemic. Among the various other prosodic features, en­ chaînement is perhaps the most important in that it produces numerous forms in which a word final consonant is aggluti­ nated to a following word beginning with a vowel. This pro­ cess affects both nouns and verbs.

In the morpho-syntax, gender is faithfully marked by the articles but less so by other nominal determiners (e.g., demonstrative adjectives). It is marked only rarely by nouns and irregularly by adjectives. Interrogative particles (e.g., tchel ke) and various conjunctions (e.g., apré ke) are nearly always compound constructions. The process of simple verb- subject inversion never occurs. The verbal system is char­ acterized by overall simplification and reduction, as seen 207 in the heavy reliance on the present and imperfect tenses and in the merger of the simple future with the simple con­ ditional. The present participle has all but disappeared.

The system is further characterized by the replacement of synthetic structures by periphrases, by the development of aspect marking through embedded relative clauses postposed to a finite verb (e.g., iy été ki dize sa) and by distinct forms and distinctive syntactic handling in the positive and negative imperative (e.g., fê sa : pa fer sa). The subjunctive has been totally replaced by the general present and the future-conditional in all cases except formulaic expressions.

The lexicon is composed largely of Standard French and Gallo-romance dialectal items, many of which preserve an archaic flavor or an ancient maritime orientation. Among the dialects, Norman appears to have made the largest single contribution to the STFD vocabulary. In addition, a number of other influences of varying degree are to be noted, the most important of which are: Standard English, local West

Indian English, French West Indian Creole, Amerindian, and

African. THE FRENCH DIALECT OF ST. THOMAS, UNITED STATES

VIRGIN ISLANDS: A DESCRIPTIVE GRAIIMAR

WITH TEXTS AND GLOSSARY

Volume II

DISSERTATION

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy in the Graduate

School of The Ohio State University

By

Arnold R. Highfield, B.A., M.A,

*****

The Ohio State University

1976

Reading Committee: Approved by

Prof. Hans E. Keller

Prof. David A. Griffin

Prof. Aristobulo Pardo r' / Adviser Department of Romance Languages and Literature APPENDIX A

TRANSCRIPTION OF STFD TEXTS

The following texts are transcriptions of tapes made in conjunction with STFD informants in St. Thomas, U.S.V.I.

The system of orthogaphy has been thoroughly explained in

Chapter Two (2.1.6.).

At the beginning of each text there is a code number which gives the initials of the informant (cf. 2.1.2.1.), the particular tape reel on which the interview was re­ corded, the side of the reel and the location of that par­ ticular session on the reel (e.g., AQ 12A 584-745).

These tapes, which contain thirty odd hours of inter­ view sessions, have been donated to the St. Croix Center for

Oral history. College of the Virgin Islands, St. Croix

Campus.

The following is an index to the texts in this appendix :

TEXT TITLE PAGE

1 pour fer oc bobo 210

2 ale dormi 210

3 istwa pour lez âfa 211

4 kôvèrsasyô 212

5 lez êspri 216 6 fer l'amour 217

2 8 209

7 la vi a sê bart 218

8 voyaj a sê toma 225

9 la vi a sê toma 227

10 le travay de mdu mari 230

11 oen maladi 232

12 la môr d'cien vyèy fâm 238

13 le kou'd va de 19 28 242

14 l'ékbl a sê toma 246

15 ma vi a sê bart 248

16 jouwé avèk dé gale 252

17 lé topi 252

18 lé papôt 252

19 bouyi pour lé papôt 253

20 lé dâs pour léz âfa 253

21 lé dâs é lé bal 25 4

22 la muzik 254

23 oe pèchoér 255

24 pèrdu 6 larj 258

25 kotreban^ /S 261

26 lé matlô améritchê 264

27 l'égliz a karénaj 265

28 achté du pwésô 269

29 mari a lèt 270

30 oe maryaj 6 karénaj 270

31 lé pè ch o'er d'avâ 271

32 pôrté de 1'6 275 210

33 aie najé 277

34 le katôrz de juyèt 279

35 la muzik de karénaj 282

36 kômâ'k le moun d'avâ biyé 2 84

Text 1 pour fer de bôbô (A.Q. Slla 127-153) ma vé fer de "pound cake." mâ vé uzé twa kar de liv 1

é demi de bo"er, ah, twa kap é demi de farin, twa kouyèr a té é demi de "baking powder" é p'tit béké

de sèl, witz oef, ê kap é doe tyèr de suk, "what

else?" ê kouyèr a té d'ésâs vâniy, ê kouyèr a té 5

k'ésâs d'âmâ. é du lèt. si'k léz oef é grô, mâ vé

uzé sètz oef. le bôbô poè prân pluz de lèt. je mé

le suk, le boèr é léz oef. èd lapré, je mé la

vâniy, l'âmâ, l'ésâs d'âmâ é ... aprê la farin, je

sif la farin avèk le sèl é le "baking powder." é 10

je mé ti chôz par ti choz. é je mé le lét ti choz

par ti choz. apré k'é tout mélé, je grès la pân ...

l'apré je mé la farin âdâ la pân, é je mé tout deda.

é je mé dâ le four pour d'en der é demi a twa sâ

sêkât dègré ... twa sa ... pour den oer é demi. 15

Text 2 aie dormi (D.D. 9a 769-790)

aie dormi mou tiz âfâ 1

aie dormi, le bo dyde é ki té vèy

mè si'k tu sé move 211

é tu va pa dormi on aie atrapé lé p'ti jibyé 5

é le met âdâ le hâmok avèk twé si'k tu va pa dôrmi mâmâ va prân la ti cha

é met âdâ le hâmok

Text 3 istwa pour léz âfâ (D.D. 9a 794-824) oe dize avâ .... ma mer me dizê, che ki di dekwê 1 astoer. vouzôt é p'ti. vouzôt a poer de le nwer. si'k vouzôt jôwê âdbr de la kaz. pas navê oe jour, nave oen fâm k'avè doe tiz âfâ. ê lé doe tiz âfâ a tchêbôdè la me è oèl a étémarché, 5 marché, é oé voulé pa ékouté a la mâmâ.kbm sa arive "now" astoer, oél a marché, marché dâ le nwer. i na de zôbi k'a tchêbôdu de déz âfâ. é iy a sânalé avèk li, le met dâ lé bwa. é sô ti frèr et arvèni é ploeré é i dizé, "mâmâ, mâmâ, 10 na de zôbi k'a pri ma soer." e tout a pri le kours e oél a été charse. e kom k'del ete déhôr ... oél été charsé é oé demâdé a lé vwazin,

"vyê ê m'édé a charsé le tiz âfâ." é oél a charsé é charsé susk'a ta k'oél a âtâdé dé kri dâ 15 lé bwa. é kôm k'oél a fèt atâsyô, le ti mdun etét asi dâ le mita de tout sé bwa la. tout léz erb été si hot, sâté si hot, ke la ... la, oél 212 ave pour koupé ê ti béké déz èrb é le halé. s6, a di, "tu wé, si'k oen de vouzôt fé du mal é 20 vouzôt va déhôr plu Iwe ke la kaz k'ô di pa pour alé, le zôbi va alé avèk twé." sa sêtèt oen p'tit istwa k'oel avé.

Text 4 kôvèrsasyô (E.G. la 1-348)

LG - " sé pôsib ke vou pet se raplé de sa?" 1

EG - "élas, mé pôvz âfâ. si tu kônèsré sa'k j'é

pasé avèk méz âfâ. élas, mwê sèl ki

travayé .... apré ke loer papa été môr. ôsi

. . . maryé pôv. ôsi maryé byê pôv. sé sa le 5

no de mou mari ... sèté marsyal é kôm ô sé

maryé, iy avé pa ê ses. iy a kômâsé ...

fèzé la bouchri. i twé déz animé .... ke ...

é iy a kômâsé. ma mâmâ ètét isit. sé kôm

mâmâ ... ôn a pati de se bart. on a vâdé 10

not kaz. é tu koné, sèté pa epil larjâ, mè

al ave doe 6 twa ses. é be, sé you mâmâ k'iy

a yu doe o twa ses ... de kômâsé achté oen 6

dôez animé."

LG - "isit a se toma?" 15

EG - "wi. ôn a desâdu. j'é désâdu. j'avé vê kat.

é sé kôm j 'arivé isit, j'é maryé. navé ... lé

garsô été fou pour mwê, je te di. na twa bway

kl1 • se prezate. ^ 1 Il 213

LG - "tout vèni pour demâdé pour vôt me?"

EG - "na twa mâmâ k'a demâdé pour mwê. mè le syê

ke j'é maryé, sé stila. gad kômâ'k sa sé

fèt. "

LG - "é bê, kômâ'k vouz a chwézi de lé twa?"

EG - "mè regard, oè m'a di ... lé mâmâ dé mc5Un 25

ke sèté .... é lé syèn k'ètét isit kônèsé sèté

de bô moun. j'é kômâsé a lé kôné. mè ... le

défê marsyal. sé li. agad kômâ'k sa sé fèt.

avâ ... avâ ke j'é di wi, avâ je l'é vu."

LG - "vou l'a jâmé vu?" 30

EG - "l'avé jâmé vu."

LG - "mwa, je pâsé ke sèté parsk'i été bel 6 i

dâsé byê 6 dekwé kôm sa."

EG - "no, mè tu kôné, sètét en bon fâmîy. é sô

frèr:,i i môt sê bart. é sètét la fâmîy a ... 35

kôm sa sèté le frèr a marsyal. kôm sa i m'a

parlé de se bway la. sètét en bôn person é

ôe di k'ami'k j ' arivé isit ke sé sèrtê k'iy alé

vèni pour mwê ."

LG - "i rèsté a sê toma avâ vouz a désân?" 40

EG - "wi, wi, i rèsté isit. i fèzé la bouchri,

avèk sô bé-frèr. kôm sa, avâ ke j'é vu le bway,

j'é di w i . j'avé pâké vu le bway. sa mâmâ é

vèni. oe m'avé dôné ... je kôné le mômâ ke sa

sé fé. sèté la dèstiné de bô dyoe." 45 214

LG - "wi."

EG - "kom iy a vèni ... j'é di wi . kom je I'e vu,

je l'é èmé. je fé ___ "

LG - "iy avé den bon fidjur?"

EG - "wi. il ètê de bel ... de bd krétyê. 50

il ètét avèk sa sder. i rèst avèk sa sder.

i fèzé là bouchri avèk sd bo-frèr. i

vèni ... i m'a demâdé ... iy a demâdé a mâmâ

pour maryé ... i voulé se maryé ... osito ke

j'arivé, sôté ki fé ... oèl a kômâsé la kaz." 55

LG - "iy a fé de la kaz avâ?"

EG - "wi."

LG - "mè navé en égliz èsit avâ? dâ se ta la?"

EG - "l'égliz, wi. é no. dâ se ta la, â vil ..."

LG - "oél avé lé vwatur 6 vouz avé pour marché â 60

vil?"

EG - "éla, mô dyoé, tu kôné ke sèté dé karôs."

LG - "dé karôs avèk dé cheval?"

EG - "wi, dâ sé tâ la."

LG - "kôm sa, vouzôt a pri dé karôs pour môté â 65

vil?"

EG - "o sé maryé dâ l'apremidi. a twaz oer. mè

sètét dé maryaj k'èté pôv pas ôn avé pa ..."

LG - "navé pa de vwèl ô rôb a vwèl?"

EG - "wi, lé vwèl. sèté ... éla, le mcTun sèté de 70

si byê, si byê." 215

LG - "é vouzôt a dâse apré de la maryaj?"

EG - "no, pas sèté la swé. sètét cTe maryaj k'èté

pôv."

LG - "navé pa lumyèr élèktrisité? soelmâ de lap 75

é dé bouji?"

EG - "élas, ma j in', ôn avé pa de klèrté

grâ chôz. ônavé prèske pa de klèrté. ô sé

... dâ sé tâ la ... fèzé la très, é lé chapô.

é èsit lé payé, ô vâdé ô touris. l'épok ... 80

(unintelligible) ... la défet mâma k'a dôné

doe ô twa ses pour li kômâsé a ... la bouchri.

ôn avé pa de kwizin k'apre k'ôn été maryé,

k'iy a kômâsé a ramasé doe ô twa ses. ôn a

fèt ... sé de fèr blâ k'ôn avé arâjé la. sa 85

sé pa ... sèté si môvé. sèté ôe .... ki été

a l'âtour. sèté den tit kwizin. iy a kômâsé

a travayé. iy a kômâsé a ramasé de l'arjâ é

iy a kômâsé a sé levé. iy a fèt den tit kaz.

iy a fèt den kwizin. é a mezur i travayé, ôn 90

atrapé ...."

LG - "navé pa d'ôt fâmiy a lâtour?"

EG - "navé pa grâ chôz de kaz. sèté si pôv. w i ,

si ... la âba la you l'âs. sèté si môvé.

sèté si malprôp. é le pir é ... sé lé kânôt 95

... sur lâba sur l'âs."

LG - "astoer sé le cheme." 216

EG - "le chemê, w i . lé kânôt ki vèné de la pèch,

oé resté isit é lâba kôm ... mè sèté si

malprôp. pa kôm astoer. sèté si mové. é 100

kôm sa ... ôn a kômâsé ... j'é kômâsé a atrapé

déz âfâ. j'é baté tâ de pèn. j'avé pa de

sèrvâ. mwê soel. kôm i twé déz animé, ô

sâyé dé rèspèta, dé kôchô. é apré sa dé . (unintelligible) 105

LG - "vouz avé dé kôchô èsit dâ le kour?"

EG - "na déz âné. sé kôm iy a twé ... kôm i twe déz

animé pour lé vân ... é bê i sâyé pour lé fèr

vèni. kôm oèl atrapé petit, i lé sâyé. i

falé me levé le maté pour mwé nétiyé lé vâtré, 110

pour mwé lé bouyi, pour dôné du mâjé."

Text 5 lêz èspri (E.G. 11b 209-233)

é bê, sé dekwé ki foui ... sé kôm de pwa ki tciem sur 1

vou. é vou poê pa parlé, la lag é lour. la lâg é

kôm âmaré. é la pèrsôn foui, é kât vou poê fèr d'en

kwa avèk vôt lâg âdâ, fèr la kwa avèk vôt lâg, d'en

kwa, vou prâ vôt lâg âdedâ de la bouch é vou fé kôm 5

d'en kwa avèk vôt lâg âdâ. sa'l fé l'èspri .... sèt

den èspri. oê di sa, sèt den èspri k'èt âgajé, den

de vé fâmiy k'èt âgajé. âgajé, oê kri sa, iy é pa

you'l bô dyoe. i voê dé priyèr. 'understand?' sé

kâ ou fèzé den kwa avèk vôt lâg âdâ de vôt bouch, 10 217 l'èspri ... vôt kôr vyê .... kôm dabitud, vôt kôr vyê lèj é la person dispar. é vou sâ pu reyê du tou. oe kri sa a frasé, le fouloé. yèr swa j'èté kouché, na en èspri k'é vèni you mwê. i m'a parlé. me j'é pa kômpri sa'k l'èspri m'a di. me j'é âtâdu 15 kôm sa a vwa parlé, mê j'é pa kômpri sa'k l'èspri m'a di. sé swèti môh pèr 6 ma mèr 6 ôen de me soer k'é môr k'é veni se fèr kônèt a mwê. défwa oè voè ... a'm dize k'a vwôyé kôm ôen èspri, kôm dekwé k'èté debou devâ èl, kôm ôen pèrsôn. mè aprèd la, 20 a dizé sa'k s'avé disparu, k'al avé pu revu âkôr.

Text 6 fèr l'amour (E.G. 11b 393-432) il été néa sé bartèlmi. tout sé parat ètét isit a 1

sé tôma. é li, iy é vèni ôe ti joèn bway. é b ê , o's veyè é ... l'amityé ki yé vèni ... jusk'a ta k'i m'a âgajè. é kôm i m'agajé, ô fèzé l'amour ê ô

se maryé. i m'a demâdé ... ô kri sa "âgajé", sa a 5

bo frase, mè o di sa, i m'a demâdé 6 maryaj ... a ma

mèr. ê ma mèr l'aksèpté. sèt ôe bô garso. ma mèr

l'asksèpté. é ô se maryé. 6 fèzé l'amour é pu pré

d'oen â é demi. i vèné a la kaz de ma mèr ... le

swèr é ... sèté soelmâ doè swèr dâ la semèn kèt lé 10

garso alé a lé kaz dé fiy. sèté lé sâmdi é lé

mékrêdi oswèr ... ke lé garso alé a la kaz de la marna fèr l'amour, sôelmâ lé mékrédi é lé samdi 218

oswèr. toujour sèté kôm sa pour tout le mcTun, a sê bartèlmi é isit. mè pa astoer, sa sé tout difèrâ. 15

astoer, sa sé la ... sa sèt dè "new world" ke ....

oen ... tout difèrâs ke dâ lé proemyé ta. tout choz

é chazé ke da lé proemyé ta. la joenès d'astoer, sé

pa kôm la joenès d ’avâ. si k'den fiy voulé sôrti ak

e garso, falé ke la mâma âvwoyé tchèkde avèk la fiy 20

é le garso. oe pouvé pa sortir doe soel. le garso

reporté .... de la fiy. mè astoer le garso pra la

fiy, i sâva, i vyê l'âmné de mate kât la dâs fini o

dekwé. pa papa, pa'd mâma, pa'd soer avèk la fiy.

sa châj. tout é chazé astoer. mê sé pa da môu ta 25

a mw e . tout ta'd ma mèr. a mwê sèté tout difèrâ.

a la kaz o parlé, o kozé. le garso pas le bra su la

kou'd la fiy. é i s ’âbrasé. i pasé le bra su'l

kou'd la fiy kôm sa. oe sâtèt asiz su den chèz tou

lé doe, doe chèz. é le garso abrasé la fiy mduma par 30

mdumâ la mèr été ki véyé. la mèr véyé vwar si'k navé

pa tit choz ki's pasé rat lé doe. i fo navé toujour

den ... si sèté pa la mâma k'èté ki véyé, sèté le papa

6 lé soer ô lé frèr. oel avé pour dèt la pour véyé le

garso é la fiy. oêl avé pour véyé. mè sa sé pa 35

astoer. sa sé tout chazé astoer. sa sèté ... kôm sa

ke lé frasé de se bartèlmi fèzé.

Text 7 la vi a sê bart (E.G. 11b 432-641)

a se bartèlmi vou rarivé astoer. é nipôrt kèl ... 1 219 tchèl étrâjé v'arivé, oe va vou done la m ê , oê va vouz abrasé. oe kri sa .... é nipôrt tchèl ... oè va a sê bartèlmi, oè va vèni vou pasé le bra l'ôtour de vôt kou, oè va vouz âbrasé. ô kri sa's 5

"abrasé." oè va vouz âbrasé, vou demâdé le nouvel

é tou, ke sé fâmîy ô'k sé pa fâmîy, sé kôm sa. é sa voè dir a sê bartèlmi le m ô è n é si bô. pas kât le môun ... nipôrt tchèl moun k'a vèni, oè sô tout zâmi avèk sé mdun la. oè fé zâmi avèk tout. oè 10 vouz êvit a vôt kaz é vou don du karfé, du mâjé é tou. sé kôm sa k'a sê bartèlmi. na le kdrdsôl, na l'as a flamâ, na da'l fô, sa sé kdlôbyé k'oè kri. oè kri "kdlôbyé," oe'l kri, "dâ'l fô" mwê, je rèsté den plas 6 kdlôbyé, mè pa dirèktemâ kdlôbyé 15 dir. ô kriyé sa, "d p'ti môrn." i navé doè ti kartyé kdlé pré sé mèm. navé le ti môrn é navé la grâ rôch. mwê, je rês 6 p'ti môrn. é lez dt ... ma fâmîy rèsté dâ en dt de koté, kôm méz ôk 6 me tât. j'é rèsté a sê bartèlmi jusk'a trèz â. depi trèz 20 a sut isi a sê toma mil ndef sâ ... vê kat. je fèzé ê ti bou de très avèk ma mâmâ ... ma mèr. é ma mèr a kozé ... kôm a fèzé de ti bou de très, ma mèr kozé de ti chapd é al alé l'apôrté a den boutik. al atrap den liv de farin, ô kri sa le kânmil. ô 25 kri sa'd la farin mîgn. sé le ... le ... "white flour," oê dizé den liv de farin blâch. den liv 220

de "white sugar," oè dizé den liv de suk bla, du suk bla. 6 "brown sugar," ô dize du suk brde. ma marna fézé la kuzin. j'èté trèp peti, m w é , 30

j'èté tro p'ti. da'l jardê, o fuyé dé patat. o kri sa dé patat. dé jouramâ .... dé jourama ...

dé moèlo. "yam" ... 6 kri sa déz "ignyara." dé

"sweet go," ô kri sa dé "gouj," dé "gouwaj." oe fé dé wiro avèk sa. sé kôm sa k'oe kri sa a frasé. 35

la vi, sèté tré move, vou pouwé pa wèr ... vou pouwé pa .... la gyèr été si mové. la dyèr été

si mové da lé ... sèt ta, la, ke mwé, j'èté né la

djèr ... été si mové. sèté la gra djèr k'o kriyé

sa. é poetèt ke lé boutikyé atrapé doe twa sak de 40

farin. é oè le séparu, oè done poetèt lé grân fâmîy, poètèt twa liv o sêk liv, oen grân fâmîy. den tit

famîy kom ma mèr, oè done poètèt doè liv. poètèt

pour doe semèn. sé sa k'o fèzé dâ le jarde. ô

fouyé dé patat 6 dekwé ke le mdun bouyé é k'oè mâjé 45

prêsipalmâ. sôté pa lé jardê, le mdun ore péri, é

lé pwéso, é bê, ma mèr avé dé frèr k'alé ... k'avé

dé nas. oè kri sa "fishpot." oèl avé dé nas dâ

l'o. oè prâdé lé pwéso. oè brouyé'l pwéso, mâjé

avèk lé patat. sètèt, i fô dir, a tout ta la mèm 50

nouritur. toujour den tit choz kom sa, mè i fo dir,

la mèm mâjé a tou ta. sé pa kom isit astoer k'on 221 atrap le "chicken," le "porkchop" é défwa le mcTun sônyé dé pti, oé kri sa, "a little pig." oe kri sa oe ti kôchô. "a pig." ô sônye dé ti kécho. 55

"goat," ô kri sa, ti kabri. sôyé de ti kabri kôm sa. oé le fer, lavé la têr a oê mèm. mchi ... le pèr de ma mèr avé ôen kâtité'd ter. de bô ti brê

de ter. é i sôyé séz animé la sur la tèr. é

tâzâta, é bê, t'a ôe peti. é oé navé ôe ti môrsô 60

de vyân pour mâjé. é b é , je sré kôtâ alé vwar le pèy avâ je môri. m è , je fé m y o é ma vi dâ sê tôma.

sé m y o é ... je vi méyôer dâ sê tôma k'a sê bart.

ô je sré kotâ d'alé vwar le pèy. j'é pôer déz

avyô. j'é pôer déz avyô. j'été tré de vwôyaj a 65 porto rik. é j'avé si pôer mê sèté dâ lé gré

djèt ke j'alé. je alé pa dâ lé tiz avyô. j'avé pôer. sèté dâ lé groz avyô ke j'alé. j'é pôer.

mwé, su nèrvôez ênpil. j'é pôer. m è , j'arivré a

sê bartèlmi ojôadi. pour vou dir a la vérité 70

j'é parti petit asé de sê bartèlmi. je pouré

alé mô'utré tout lé plas. tout lez as ôti'j

rèsté, ôti'k ma fâmiy rèsté. l'égliz de la vil.

l'égliz du kôlôbyé. sa k'o kri a sê jâ. t'avé

été a sê jâ? a sê jâ? a lôryâ? tout sé plas 75

la, je pouré tout alé vwèr. je pouré alé tout

marché. ou wé, kât ma mèr été ... kôm j'èté

petit, ma mèr été de môun k'èté pôv. é al alé 222 dâ tout séz il la you déz âmi k'avé li dôné

1'étrâjé. ma mèr avé ôz, frèr é soer. al avé kat a le trinidad. kôné'l pey k'oê kri la trinidad? oel a fèt dé soer vèni trinidad. oêl a môri a trinidad. é léz ôt, al a twa soer k'é môrt èsit. 90 al a de frèr k'é môr isit. gustavia, sêtét dén tit vil, petit, petit vil d'déyê.

ô désâdé le mate pour alé a la mes ..... ôn alé

avèk pa'd soulyè'. sé kât ôn arivé dâ dén môrn, ô kriyé sa 6 nèg pâdu. w i , sèté Iwê de la vil. ô 95

mèté no soulyé pour pasé dâ la vil. mè apré k'ôn

arivè dâ se plas la âkôr, ô halé no soulyé é môté

jusk'a la kaz avèk pa'd soulyé dâ nô pyé. é ôn alé

a la mes â vil. dâ se tâ la, navé pa d'égliz sou'l

vâ. é bê, d'oti'k nouzot k'ô rèsté pour alé â vil, 100

de pu pré du mate pour alé a la raès â vil, ô part

a siz ôer. é revèni de la mès akôr, on arivé a la

kaz de pu pré ddez der de l'apré-midi. sèté ...

i navé pa'd bil, de vwatur k'oê kriyé. âyè. alé. 223 vou marché, mote désân. aryê du tou. soelmâ â 105

dèrnyé la, ke le mdun a kômâsé a lèse sê bartèlmi,

é k'oèl a kômâsé a lésé ... k'avé’d l ’arjâ, kômâsé

a atrapé dé vwatur é'k lé ... sa kômâsé a vèni kôm

sa. i navé otchôen vwatur. navé pa'd lumyêr dâ'l

pèy. otchôen lumyèr. le swèr le pèy été nwèr. 110

chak avé oen tit lâp. ôen tit lap a chèminé k'oè

kriyé. ôen chèminé. ô kriyé sa ôen chèminé.

avèk ... o kri sa du Iwil a lâp. é ô tôrné la tit

lâp pour la fèr la tit lumyèr vèni pas ou alé dôrmi.

é kât sèté pour ma mèr fèr sô travay la nwit, 115

travayé sa très, al avé la lumyèr. é kât ôn alé's

kouché, a bèsé la lumyèr. otchôe lumyèr dâ'l pèy,

navé pa. navé ni lumyèr, âriyê du tou dâ sê

bartèlmi. êpi k'oèl a mi ... tou sak oèl a mi a

sê bartèlmi, je jâme été. oè di , sa'k sé tout 120

difèrâ astôer. oèl a lé vwatur. oèl a simâté lé

ru. oèl a l'èstrèsité. oèl a tout chôz astôer.

sé pour sa, mwê, je sré kôtâ d'alé. oè di ke

1'ênpil de plas dâ's tâ la ... dâ môü tâ a mwê, iy

avé ôen sôel ... doè ... ôen boutik k'ô kri "a shop" 125

dâ la vil. é il yavé ôe magazé k'ô kri "a store,"

dâ mou ta a mwê. sa sèté lé vyoê moun d'avâ. mè pa

astoer. astoèr, sa sé du môun ... la joenès k'a pri

sa. é bê défwa lé batô vèné pôrté'd la farin, le

suk, kôm sa, lé provizyô, poètèt tou lé mwa. é oè 130 224 sânalé âkôr. oê vèné dœ sê kit. é défwa la gwadloup. défwa, oe vèné de la gwadloup, sèté pour porté dé fig, dé mâgé. i navé dé mastchulê a sê bartèlmi. oê navigé, oêl achté ... oê navigé. le mc5\in achté dé chapo. kôm ma mèr fèzé dé chapô, lé 135 boutikyé ... oê kri sa lé boutik. sa sé lé boutikyé. sa sé lé syèn k'é dâ lé boutik, k'a lé boutik, ki vâ. oêl achté le chapô, oê lé pôrt a la gwadloup. oêl achté du pwéso, oê lakmôdé, oê '1 salé. oê lakmôdé, o ê '1 mèt â bwèt ... salé é oê 140 le pôrt a gwadloup. é la, oêl achté dé prôvizyo, oêl achté'd la farin, oêl achté dé mâgô, oêl achté dé fig. oê porté sa, mèté sa dâ lôer boutik. astoer le moun achté sa. oê porté lé chapô a la boutik é le môbn achté la kômisyo. 145 oêl achté lé chapo, oê porté lé chapô a gwadloup. il avé lé syèn ki pouvé m y o ê fèr. il avé dé golèt. o kri sa, dé golèt é dé bato. lé golèt se ... "those what have two masts'." é lé bato, sé lé syèn k'avé ôe sôel ma. é bê, lé syèn ki 150 pouvé plus fèr, m y o ê fèr k'avé l'arja, del avé

ôe bato, oel avé ôen golèt. alé, si'k le m ô u n voulé al'a gwadloup, porté le m ô u n k 'achté lé pwéso, lé chapo, é bê, oêl alé vwayajé. oê porté lé pasajé, môuté é désân. é astoer le môun ki 155 pouwé achté lé chapô é lé pwéso. oê voêyajé dâ 225 sé batimâ la é astoer le mdun ... le met du batimâ a fé l'arja.

Text 8 voyaj a sê toma (E.G. 11b 642-720) j'é désâdu de sê bartèlmi lâdemé dé wa. vou 1 kônèsé sa voulé dir? "the day after three kings day." Ô kri sa "lâdemê dé wa." le sèt de jâvyé. w i , ôn alé ... ô kri sa le tché, le ké

â bô frasé. mè nouzot, ô kri, le tché. le 5 batimâ m'a ... nouz a pri tout mè ... la fâmiy. mwê é ônisya. ôn avé tout désâdu âsâm. é kât

ôn a désâdu, sètét oe kou'd vâ, le tâ été si mové. ô kri sa de kou'd vâ. i navé d e pu pré dâ léz âvirô tchêz pèrson ... lé matlo, le 10 kapitèn é lé pasajé .... le frèr de ma mèr. iy avé fèt demâdé pour nouzot désân isit a sê toma, pis iy avé yu dé kaz pour nouzot é tout,

é kom sa ôn a tout désâdu dâ'l bot. la mèr d.'ônisya, den de sé frèr, èl, mwê é la mèr de 15 sa mèr a èl k'èté sô grâ, sô grâ é èl é sa grân. ôn a tout désâdu la fâmîy âsâm. é kât

ôn a parti de sê bartèlmi le tâ été si mové.

ôn a ... été pour parti doe jour avâ. é le vâ

été si for, ô pouvé pa parti. j'èté petit. 20 kât oê m'a mi dâ le fô du bato ... ô kri sa le chom du bato. j'é oublyé. oê porté dé kabri 226 isit âba. oe kri sa kabri. oe pôrté sa, oé vâdé sa isi ..... oé porte dé poul, dé dèn,

"turkey." oé pôrté tout sa isit âba. é bê, 25 oé vâdé tout sa. é ôn été dâ'l batimâ. ôn a sânalé é oe pu pré ... dâ léz âvirô de kat ... ôz oér du swèr, oé se mi ôe grê la. oê kri sa "a squall." le grê été si nwèr. il été si nwèr. le kapitèn a môuté su'l pô, i nouz a di pour nouzot 30 se kôfi a dyoé parske ô se perde, sèté pat ôe gré batimâ. é le batimâ ... la mèr a kômâsé a m ô u t é parsou le batimâ. lé vwèl se fèt déchiré, pa'd môtoêr dâ se tâ la, nô ... oé kri sa, oê moto. ô kri sa â frâsé, ôe môtoér. mè i navé pa dâ se tâ 35 la. sèt ak le vwèl ke le batimâ kouré. é kât le grê a pasé, la mèr é vèni kalm. le tâ a tôem ...

ô kri sa ... le vâ a tôebé ..... ôn a fé jusk'a tâ k'ôn a âtré le pôr. ôn a âtré le pôr. ô di kôm ôn a râtré èsit. kôm ôn arivé ô pèy, ô kri sa, ôn a 40 râtré le pôr. me rapèlé tout chôz. ôn a môuté, apré k'ôn été 6 bôr du batimâ ôe pu pré de wit ber, lé dwanyé é vèni. sa ô kri, lé dwanyé. oéy é vèni é oé nouz a tout vaksiné. avâ k'ô désân a tèr, i falé k'oé nou vaksiné tout, pas oé kalkyul le 45 môun pôrt lé maladi dâ le pèy. oé nouz a vaksiné tout. sut 6 karénaj jusk'astôer. je pâs pa k'il avé dâ'l karénaj ôe pu pré, je pâs pa k'il avé ôe 227 pu pré ... vê kaz. ôti k'é le karfé la âba k'ô kri ... 6 drét ... oti k'é le "ballpark," oti k'oê 50

jeu 6 bal, sé la k'èté la mèr. lé kânôt, oê halé

tout lé kânôt la. mè sé kôm den "drudge" (sic) k'é vèni. ô kri sa de "drudge," k'é vèni é k'a

fouyé é la tout âpli astoer. é la mèr rèsté 6ti k'al é astôer. é oêl a tout âpli sa. sa a 55 kômâsé, â fèr dé bar é tout choz, dé plas pour

jwe 6 bal. é sé vèni kôm sa.

Text 9 la vi a sê tôma (E.G. 11b 720-827)

é bê, dâ sé tâ la, la vi été pa si mdvé pas la 1

kômisyo été bô marché. vouz atrap den liv de

farin pour twa ses. vouz atrap dên liv du suk

pour sêk ses. vouz atrapé doe ses de boêr,

sètét ênpil de bôer, doe ses. vouz atrapé ôe 5

kân ... k'ô kri kânbif, den pan pour di sês.

on atrapé du kafé dâ s'ta la ... ô vâdé pa'l

kafé â boutèy. oê le vâdé â grèn .... ô kri

sa, de moulé, pour le moulé. apré iy été

brûlé. é sèté jusk'a sêk sès la liv. vou pouwé 10

pas'a sê ja avèk swésât sês. mê léz ôm

travayé, mè oê fèzé pa ênpil d'arjâ, piske lé

kômisyo été bô marché, kôm lé kômisyô été bô

marché, le môun travay, oel atrapé pa enpil

d'arjâ, le mdun vivé byê. plu m é y o ê r k'astôer. 15 228 la twèl été di sês la yad, sêk sès la yad dâ mcfü tâ a mwê, j'èté 6 pèy ... ch'été joèn. plu méyoèr k'astoer. soelmâ sa k'é plu difèrsâs astoer, sé'k vouz atrap pluz déz afèr. vouz atrapé pa'd "chicken," ni "pork chop," ni 20

"ribs." "nothing." vou sônyé oen tit poulé.

ô kri sa oen tit poul. mèt den tit poul su déz oèf. al é ... a kouvé léz oèf é vou sônyé dé ti kok. é kôm lé kôk vèni grâ, vou voè lé twé. vou fèzé dé soup avèk. étremâ vou voè 25 lé brouyi. sa sèté la vi. mè sé pa kôm astoer. sé pour sa, mwê, j'di, sé pour sa'k le mdun môri si vit astoer. tout le mâjé frizé la'k le mdun mâj. poètèt i na du mâjé dâ le

"supermarket." vouz ajèt dé poul é "put it" dâ 30 le friza. poètèt dé mwa'k sé la. poètèt i na dé mwa'k sé la dâ le friza kôm lé poulé, lé

"pork chop," tout sa, ou kôné la kâtité de tâ'k sé poètèt la. oê âvwé sa dâ le pèy, mè ou kôné ti tâ'k sé dâ le friza. mè nouzôt, ô mâjé sa 35 k'ô sôyé. ou kôné, ô mâjé sa k'ô sôyé. pour

sa'k le mdun môri si vit astoer ... mè da mdh tâ a mwê, le mdun vivé jusk'a dé nwénât â, kat ... ma mèr é môrt a katre vê doèz â. le mdun môrisé vyoê. mè pa astoer, ke na dé mdun ki 40 môri si joèn astoer. dâ mciu tâ a mwê, vouz 229 atâdé parlé ni'd kâsèr, n i 'd "high blood pressure," ni de "heart attack." sa'k vouz atâdé, sé kâ vouz atâdé parlé k'ê mdun ... 6 kri sa ân âglé "catch a draft." ô kri sa â frâsé, 45 il a atrapé de kou d'èr. 1 ' dm voené bloé, i parlé pu é l'dm mdrisé de bou de vê katr'oer. ô kriyé sa, de kou d'èr. oê kri sa ân âglé "a draft." oe mdrisé kdm sa. ni sa hô, ni maladi de koer,

âyê âyê vouz atâdé parlé de sa dâ se tâ la. sâ hô, 50 sa voe dir, le sâ é ho. é le kâser, se si souva astoer, sé kôstamâ la mèm chôz. sur tout le pèy, sé sa ki règn. le kasèr ... partou. sé toujour sa. la maladi tchoêr. sé le "heart attack," oe kri sa den atak de tchoer. a tou tâ 55 vouz âtâ parlé'k le mdun é môr de sâ. dâ mdü ta a mwé, sèté pa kôm sa. sa régné pa. no, sé depi'k le mdun a kômâsé a mâjé sé kalité'd mâjé la. défwa i na du mdun ou vwôyé 6 dôktoer. i di, ou pa mâjé'd grès, pa uzé otchoe grès. 60 tout sé mâjé grâ la'k le mdun uz ... astoer. mè da mdn tâ a mwe j'èté pa kôm sa. je mâjé de la soup. o plâté dé pyé'd pwa. o kuyé dèn kâtité'd pwa. o fèzé dé soup, o kuyé dé pwa.

ô léz ékalé. ô fèzé de grâ chôyèr'd soup, o 65 fouyé lé patat. o mèté lé patat a bouyi ak la soup. lé juramâ ... tout sa. o vivé byê. sèté 230 sa ke nouzot ... k'ô fèzé dâ la tèr. lé patat dous

... ô kriyé tout sa. kôm sa dâ nôz vi a nouzôt, chœ trouv ke sé méyoer k'astoer. wi .... plu oeroè 70 k'astoer. sé léz artik é si cher. vouz alé dâ de magazê, vou pouw atrapé, je pouwé atrapé la twèl sêk sês la yad. j'achté twa yad de twèl pour tchêz sês. o kri sa, "fifteen cents." ch'atrapé

twa yad de twèl pour fèzé den rôb. astoer, je va 75 dâ'l magazê ... la twèl de touléjour, k'ô kri

"everyday cloth" doè gourd la yad, doè gourd la yad. la twèl ke vou va a la mès, oè kri sa "church cloth" "four dollars, four fifty a yard." dâ mdii tâ a mwê, che'té méyoèr. 80

Text 10 le travay de mdè mari (E.G. lib 825-900) mdh mari travay pour swésât sês par jour, dâ le 1 proèmyé, i fèzé l'éta'd pèch. mè apré'd la, kôm

il été tôrné, la mèr le twé trô. la mèr le twé trôp. sa'l ... sa'l râdé trôp fatigé. kôm sa iy travayé sur la tèr. iy a travayé a la kôpâgni 5 kôm oèl a kômâsé a fouyé lé ru pour kouré lé pip. oè kri sa .... sa sètét den kôpâgni. sa sètét oen kôpâgni k'avé vèni a sê toma. s'avé été ... oèl avé kômâsé a fouyé dé pip de l'opital jusk'a

"born field," i travayé sa kât oèl a ouvèr 10 l'ôtèl lâhô la, "the v.i.," iy été le "watchman" 231 la ... tou lé swèr. kat iy a fini la, iy a pri kât oèl a kômâsé a koupé lé kân, ôti k'é l'èrôpôrt astoer. i navé pa'd èrpôrt dâ se tâ la. sèté dé s o è l .... léz kân dâ léz âbwa. iy 15 a kômâsé a kwé den kôpâgni k'é vèni k'a ouvèr sa. iy a kômâsé a koupé lé bwa è lé kân. iy a kômâsé a travayé dâ la plas ... jusk'a tâ k'oèl a fèt le èrpôrt. travayé toujour la. travayé dé nwit, defwa de sis jusk'a ... a douz ô défwa de douz 20 jusk'a ... al mate. i travayé pour fouyé lé pip

é mèt de bot jusk'a èsit âhô pour kouré lé pip. lé bôt pour kouré lé pip kât le pip rèsté .... lé rôch pour lé ... de ... ô kri sa "débobiné" lé rôch k'èté dâ lé pip. "débôbin" ô kri sa, kât lé rôch é pri 25 dâ lé pip. l'o poè pa vèni, kôm sa. oèl a âpli sa la âba la. le "drudge" âplizé, âvwôyé l'ô dâ lé ... dâ la ... you k'oèl a la baz. é bê, kôm le "drudge"

âvwayé tout la sab ... défwa la sab vèné dé's gros rôjé dâ le fô de la mèr. sa rèsté bouché. falé 30 oèl alé astoer é débouché sa avèk gré ... ô kri sa, dé pês. ô kri sa ... "a shovel." oé prâdé sa

é oê kri sa ôen pèl é oê halé sa pour débouché la pip pour la sab pa vèni âkôr. j'alé ... je marché d'èsi. j'alé a "born field" li pôrté sô mâjé. 35 pôrté sô mâjé. é il a kômâsé a travayé jusk'a tâ k'oèl a fèt le arpôrt. apré la, li a pri ôe 232 péturoer. sô soel travay, sèté pêturé. pêturé,

tout lé plas. sa, tout sa k'èté lâba la. le

èrpôrt, tout lé plas, sé li ki pêturé. é bê, iy 40

avé pa'l ta pour travayé ô karénaj ... i travayé, pêturé soelmâ sa mèzô. mè ... a tout ... i

travayé jusk'a vâdredi oswèr. le sâmdi 6 maté,

iy avé dé tit naz dâ l'6. il alé lé loêve le

sâmdi 6 maté pour avwèr du pwéso pour la semèn, 45

il été dâ'l friza é kôm sa, dôn pa la pèn d'achté

du pwéso. mè peturé sa sèté sô soel travay jusk'a

tâ k'il a tôebé malad. sèté sô soel travay k'i fèzé,

pêturé. kât il a môri, la kôpâgni y'a fèt kado de

doe korân. ô kri sa "a wreath." ô kri sa, â frâsé, 50

dé "korân." oê y'a dôné doe korân de la kôpâgni

k'avé le nô de la kôpâgni dsu. dâ s'ta la, la fiy

été maryé. la fiy été maryé. apré k'a sé maryé,

a rèsté ... mwa é li, soel. é lé petiz âfâ, oé lé

pôrté isit astoer. si k'oêl avé pour alé .... pour 55

alé a la mès, oê rèst avèk nouzôt, mwê é li èsit.

Text 11 ôen maladi (E.G. 11b 209-390)

é kôm j'é désâdu de sê bart, su vèni d'ê ti batô. 1

j'é rèsté isi dépi j'avé twaz â. sut ô pèy. j'é

sôrti du pèy soelmâ twa fwa. j'èt 6 pôrtô rik ...

mô mari k'èté malad a l'ôpital ô pôrtô rik. mê

j'é pa été a nul par difèrâ. j'é pa sôrti du pèy 5

difèremâ. 233 o kri sa â âglé "cancer." ô kri sa a frasé, cTe kâsèr. iy été malad twaz a é demi. iy été travayé jusk'6 vâdredi. vâdredi le travay été férmé. ce kri sa le "weekend." é le vâdredi 10 arivé, il achté de paké ... d'ê kartd de sigarét

ô karfé. de kri sa 6 karfé, le bar. é arivé isit, i'm di k'i sâtét den douloer. é iy a kômâsé a's plén avék la douloer, mové. é jusk'a

... de ti brê de tâ, iy a kômâsé a pasé le sâ ... 15 par âbâ. j'é fér demâdé le médsê. ô kri sa â bo frâsé, le médsê, mé ô di le dôktoer. é il

é véni é i m'a fét pôrté a l'ôpital subitmâ. oel a kômâsé a pri dé tés. oêl a di'k falé k'i résté la pour sét jour, pour li prân dé tés. 20 iy a résté la ôbôr de sét jour. iy a fèt dé

remèd. oêl a pri vê twa èkstré. ô kri sa â

frasé déz ékstré. é il a résté de ti brê de

ta kôm sa. il pasé reyê. iy a archuté âkôr ....

nouzôt ... o dir sa, retdebé âkôr. nouzôt, ô di 25

a nôt frâsé, rechuté. iy a môté a l'ôpital. oê

l'ôpéré. oel a trouvé k'il avé doe-twa peti.

oe l'a koupé. il a résté sét-wi mwa. il été

véni grô, grô, grô. il mâjé byê é i résté dâ la

kaz kôm sa. é iy a rarchuté âkôr. iy a pasé 30

katz ôpérasyô. il avé doe ... doe ... oê kri sa

"tchub." il avé den dâ le vât é den dâ lé vèn 234

dêryèr. oe kri sa .... kôm de mèté den tchub dâ

le vât d'oen pèrsôn. il avé den dâ le koté é

den dâ lé rèn isit ... pour halé sa k'oe kri la 35 bil ... kôm j'èté ki vou dizé le jour, oe kri

sa la bil, la sak de la bil avé arèté de

travayé. é le fwa ... tout ètét arèté. kôm sa,

oel a ... oe m'a fèt dir, si je voulé vèni pour

1'âvwoyé a porto rik. é li, iy a môri é jâmé 40

koné sa k'iy avé. iy a jâmé konu la maladi k'iy

avé. j'é di 6 dôktoer de pa li dir deye, pas

s'aie le fèr môri plu vit. sô iy a sânalé 6

pôrtô rik é iy a pasé twa mwa ô pôrtô rik. twa

jour iy été 6 porto rik, oe m'a fèt demâdé de 45

désân. j'é désâdu. é kôm j'arivé, mwe é sa

soer. mwé é la mâmâ déz âfâ. é arivé la, oe

nouz a di k'i navé katôrz dokto'er a sé kôté

douz o'er .... dépi le swèr a sèt o'er jusk'a

doez oer du mate. sé se môumâ la, iy avé den 50

tyub déjà dâ le vât isit. mè kât la bil

sarèté de travayé, tout avé arèté de travayé.

oèl a fèt dé troü isit da sô koté dèryêr pou mèt

d'en dâ le dèryèr é d'en ôt .... mè kât iy a

kômâsé a vèni plu môvé, oèl a rèsté twa semèn 55

pour li dôné dé trètmâ chô. oè kri sa, pour twé

lé rasin âdâ. il avé ... ô kri sa â frâsé, la

blad. "a 'bladder." il avé desu. é kôm sa, il 235 a ... i navé trèz dôktoer a sé koté. oel avé

fèt le trou da le devâ. é kôm sa, la bil avé 60 trouve la fat âdâ dâ île dèryèr. mè kât oel a kômâsé ... oe l'a kité doe semèn sâ fèr otchôe trètmâ ... iy été trop mové. mè apré de la, kôm iy é vèni ôen tit choz plu méyoer, oel a kômâsé a li fèr dé trètmâ. oè li ... oè m'a 65

fèt dir, iy alé môté doè semèn. i rèsté doe semèn avèk mwê é désan doè semèn. mè il été si mové apré doè semèn de trètmâ. é oè m'a fèt demâdé de désân é j'é désâdu de rèsté ôen semèn avèk li. é apré la, le dôktoer m'a di 70 k'oèl alé vwar si k'oè pouvé le fèr vèni ôen tit choz méyoer pour le fèr traspôrté isit a se toma. kôm sa, le lôedi j'èté kréyé âvwoyé a

téléfôn. oè m'a fèr dir de vèni 6 plu vit, pas

iy été dâ le dèrnyé. mè, je pouwé pa désân, 75

j'èté si mové. kât je môté de pôrtô rik, iy a

falu'k le pèr déz âfâ é vèni me trouvé, pas, pour mwé moté, sâtét ôblijé de me dôné dé pilui pour mé nôrv. â bo frâsé oè kri sa lé nèr. ë

je pouwé pa traversé dâ le "plane." oè m'a pôrté dé 80 pilui é kôm sa, j'é pri, j'é fé le mot avèk mwê

le lâdemê. é li, il a môté le jour d'apré. il a môté le jour d'apré. mè sé den de "welfare"

"in fact," sa sé le nôrs, le mcfun du "welfare." 236 oe pra le nors e l'âvwèr charse le malad a porto 85 rik. kom sa, il a moute ... kât il a mdute astoer, oel a telefone I'abulas dedâ le "plane" pour vèni. I'abulas 1'a ramase 6 "airport."

I'abulas 1'a ramase è mwa j 'été le vwèr le swèr. il a parle jusk'a ta k'il a mori. i parlé kôm 90 nouzot. jisk'a ta k'il a môri. la dèrnyèr paroi k'i m'a kriyé era de sa kouch é i m'a di, i di ...... i di, va 6 "social security" é vwer pour moun arja. pas tu kôné ke t'a pa pèrsôn pour dôné r&ye. na pa pèrsôn pour te 95 soulaj. é j'é désâdu èsit, mwê é sa mèr dâ léz aviro de sèt ôer ... oe pu pré de siz ôer é demi du swer pour nouzot aremôute âkôr. pas oe m'avé done la pèrmisyô rès touléjour avèk li. é pas

... dâ se tâ la oè dôné pa la pèrmisyô ô moun 100 de ratre ... soelmâ le mardi, le mardi ô swèr, le vâdredi ô swèr. mè oè m'avé dôné la pèrmisyô, je pouwé rèsté touléjour avèk li. kom sa, kât ôn arivé isit, oè m'a téléfôné de l'ôpital dâ ôen ... ôen kaz k'oèl a â hô de mot 105

ô plu vit, ke voulé me vwèr. j'arivé, iy été mor déjà, iy été mor déjà, i m'a parlé jusk'a tâ'k je sânalé joédi. i di ... je di, "ma ki désân la kaz é je di, ma vé arvèni dâ doé twa minut." i m'a véyé é iy a soekwé sa tèt kôm sa. é kôm 110 237 j'arivé, iy été déjà môr. mè il é môr, il é chès kôm ôe môrsô de bwa. il avé vê si jour ... chès kôm ôe môrsô de bwa. il majé pa. i navé vê si jour. sèté soelma a pôrtô rik, ôe y avé fèt dé fat da sé vèn pour fèr atré le s a . oê pouvé pu'd 115 trouvé de vèn pour 11 fèr âtré ... âvwôyé le sâ par sé vèn. é i navé vê sèt jour k'i mâjé pa. é le dôktoer m'a di ke son èstomak été fèrmé. mâjé pasé pu ... 1'èstomak été fèrmé. il é môr avèk doe boutèy d'ô, ôen dâ sé doe jâm. oê l'a sônyé 120 isit jusk'ô dèrnyé momâ. ê pu pré en ôer apré k'iy é môr, oê y avé mi ôen boutèy d'ô, d'ô vi, dâ chak jâm. é iy été la ki véyé l'ô koulé kôm sa dâ

sé jâm avèk la bon konésâs de tou. sé mèm ... ou kônésé le syê ki lavé le magazê la âhô? il été 125

débout devâ sa kouch kôm iy avé môri. pas sa sèté

tous séz ami. il a môri a sêkât sèt â. iy a jâmé

atré dâ ôtchôe ka'd Iwa. ô kri sa lé ka'd Iwa. iy

é jâmé âtré dâ lé ka'd Iwa. reyê. ô troub avèk

pèrsôn. il vèné isit le vâdredi ô swar, il vèné 130

isit. il alé prân ôe kartô de sigarèt. i's mèté

èsit. i sôrté pa parlé d'ôtchôe bar. ni a nul par

... o kri sa se mêlé. i's mèl ak pèrsôn pour ni

troub ... ayê du tou. ô se maryé, é ôn a châmé dju

ôe démâti. o kri sa, ôe mâsôj â frâsé. â nôt frâsé, 135

o kri sa ôe démati ... âsâm mwê è li. ô kri sa ôe 238 démati. pour dir, é bê, j'é di, méto mwê, j'é dekwê'd

fèr avèk den pèrsôn. je di , t'a mâti. o kri sa, t'a mâti. méto mwê, poetèt mwê, je ... ma vé't dir ...

a's person la, é bê, t'a mâti. sa k'iy é ki di, sèt 140

den mâsoj. mè nouzot â nôt frâsé, ô di, é bê, t'a mâti. sô, sé kôm sa ke sa maladi a été. iy a wit

â k'iy é môr. iy a môri le vêt é de ... iy a fèt

sa nésâs le vêt é de de mars, é iy a môri le kat

de mars. kat jour apré sa nésâs. sa vé vou dir si 145

k'i sâté sa môr ... i me demâdé jus le swèr ... je

rès a l'ôpital jusk'a wit oer. i'm demâdé ki tâ'k

la lun alé kouch ... levé, pas i kônésé ... ou kôné,

sètét de pèchoer é défwa i kônésé le ... le klèr'd

lun é dekwé kôm sa. il avé ... i'm demâdé ki tâ'k 150

la lun alé loêvé. i'm demâdé tout sa, ki tâ'k le

solèy alé kouché. i'm demâdé tout sé kèstyô la.

oé'm fèzé rès a l'ôpital avèk li pour mwê parlé

avèk li. ôti k'iy été ... iy été parmi dé malad,

mè pou mwê dèt ... kôm je me levé d'ôra de la 155

kouch é je me tôrné, i'm kréyé - pa mwê sânalé,

mwa vèni you li ... ôra'd la kouch.

Text 12 la môr d'den vyèy fâm (D.D. 9b 377-450)

é bê, j'alé avèk ên fâm. sô nô sèté félisya. 1

j'alé tout le tâ ô dôktoer avèk èl a l'ôpital

é a son ôfis privé, pask'a kônèsé pa parlé 239 an agle, soelma frase. é mwa, je kônèsé den tit béké de frasé. so'j ... a vèné a la kaz é 5 je la porté a l'opital 6 doktoer you k'al avé. de jour la al été malad pour lôta. lôtâ al été malad. al été ki soufêr, soufêr ênpil. sô se jour la al é vèni le maté a la kaz é mwa, j ' été ki travayé, ki propté, ki brouyé é tout. a di ... 10 a di, "le doktoer m'a di pour mwé véni a ddez oer

1'aprémidi." a di, "tu kroè'k tu poè vèni avèk mwê?" mwê di, "wi, ma vé agardé pour le fèr." mwê d i , "kômâ'k t'é?" a di ,"ô dyoè1 che byê malad. tu kôné pa kômâ malad." mwê di, "mé 15

félisya. tu mérit pa de marché dâ'l sôléy dsi chd. pas sé pa bô pour twé. é avèk la tchoer, sé plu môvé." a di, a di, sé pa'd ma fôt, mè i fô'k je march, fô'k je march pask'oè 'm fé de la pèn tou partou." mwê di, "tchèl ki te fé'd la pen? 20 person te fé'd la pèn. oè t'ém. oè't fé pa'd la pèn. félisya, va's kouché den tit béké." é mwê

d i , "a kôté d'ên oer é d'mi, vyê la kaz ... é prépar tou é vyê la kaz é ma vé al'avèk twé."

sô ma sé préparé é tout ... al a sânalé. avâk'a 25

sânalé, a di , "don mwé de ti gou d'ô." mwê la

dôné de l'ô, ê vér d'ô. él l'a pri, al a sânalé.

de pu pré ê kar apré, al ariv a la kaz. al a

sasiz, a di, "chut arivé âkor, mé 6 dyoè1 je pâs 240 pa ke ma vé'1 fèr. ma vé fèr la rout." ma di, 30

"pa dir sa, félisya, pa dir sa." sd ân alâ 6 l'dfis doktoer, kom k'on été den tit béké de honorer, ôn a kômâsé a marché paske sèté pa trop Iwe de ma kaz. sô on a marché, mè je march â dousoer avèk èl, pas je v\,v6yé k'èl été ... al é byê malad. on été ki 35 marché ... mè tadi k'on été ki alé, a sarèté den tit béké, mwa sarèté. mwa di, "félisya, sa k'èt arivé?" a d i , "élas, mwê sa byê mdvé. é j'é le gou'd sa da ma bouch." mwé d i , "félisya, pa parlé, plus ke tu pari, 6 plu môvé pour twé." 40 mwa di, "pa parlé, félisya." a sarèté den tit béké, mè a kômâsé a parlé âkôr. mwa d i , "ôn é ki v'arivé." sô, a di, "sé byê, sé byê." mwa di,

"anou marché." al a kômâsé a parlé âkôr. mwé di,

"félisya che te di pa parlé, sé môvé pour tv;é." a 45 di, "che te di'k j'é de môvé gou de sâ dâ ma bouch." mè on a marché suska tâ k'ôn é vèni âdâ de la plas de dôktoer dâ la galri. pas l'dfis

été pôkd ôvèr, la noês été pôkô vèni, dôktoer été pôkô vèni. mè navé dén fâm la ki's trouvé, den 50 fâm kouloer k'èté la debout. sd ô se mi la é la tit plas é si petit ke navé de soel ti kôté k'avé pa de ... ke navé la lâm, navé pa'd sôlèy. ma di ,

"félisya, debout la dâ la kwê de ti moumâ ... hôr du sôlèy." é mwa, j'èté ki parlé na ... astoer a 55 241 la vyèy fam, la vyèy fâm kouloer. s6 kôm sa arivé "now" ... asoter, j'é vu félisya ki's pousé, ki's pousé kot la masôn. kôm k'al été ki agardé pour sasiz a tèr. s6 j'é pa fèt de mânoev paske sé vyoe moun la, sé kôm sa k'oe fé. oe sasiz 60 dâ dé kwé kôm sa. apré k'oe sâ byê fatigé, de sasi dâ dé kwê. mè kôm j'é vu ke sô chapo a tôrne d'en tit béké, je l'é fèt atâsyô. mwê di,

"élas, mô dyoeI se fâm la é ki môri." é kôm j'arivé a levé ... a halé sô chapo, al été bloé. 65 a poewé pa parlé. é alôr a sasiz. mô dyoé, al é ki môri, sô je demad a la fam la, "tche la den tit béké pour èl pa tebé. ma ki va téléfone le dôktoer vitma é l'âbulâs." s6 j'a été kôm chut arvèni. j'a pri sô chapô. je l'é vâté, vâté. 70 la nôes a ratré. la noes di, "pôrt la âdâ. pask'a ... sé soelmâ k'a sâ môvé." ma di, "la fâm é môrt déjà." a di, "kômâ'k tu pde dir sa? la fâm ê pa môrt. pôrt la âdâ." mwê di, "je te di'k la fâm é môrt." a di, "pôrt la'." é bê, ô l'a pôrté 75

âdâ. le dôktoer é râtré, ki a râtré, i d i , "al é môrt." sô, j'a été a kriyé sé fiy. é je léz a di de vèni pask'oé voulé pa dèt a chèz de sak k'al avé pask'al avé de sak avèk de l'arja. al avé dé tiki k'al été ki van. é al avé tout difèrmâz afèr. é 80 al avé dé bag é tout chôz su èl. é je voulé pa 242 détayé pas oe voulé k'al aie. s6 j'é été chasé sa fiy. sa fiy é vèni. tout a kômâsé a ploeré, tu koné kômâ'k sa poé dèt. aprè'k ta mâmâ môri, tu kôné sa sé tout choz. é fini pour tou. s6 a 85 vèni é 1'apré on é été a l'épital é l'a porté. sa sèté la listwa de félisya.

Text 13 le kou'd va de 1928 (D.D. 9b 460-570) da le karénaj, navé pa grâ choz de kaz, raè lé 1 syèn k'èté la, i na k'èté de bon kaz. sôté byê sôlid. sô lé syèn k'avé dé kaz k'èté pa si solid, oe kouré you lé syèn k'avé de kaz k'èté sôlid. sô sé kaz la ... sô nô sèté jôzèf. sô 5 no sèté jôzèf é sa fâm, sô nô sèté mari, ô vivé bye. sé kôm dé soer é dé frèr ... tout nouzôt. sé pa kôm astoer sôf ... i se maj astoer. mè sa sèté bo ta. mè se jour la ma défet mèr nouz a tout kriyé, a nouz a kriyé par 10 not no. a di, "vèné, bêyé vouzôt. é vèné mâjé la tit béké ke vouzôt .... pask'ôn é ki sanalé é on é ki va pran tout sa k'ôn a avèk nouzôt é 8n

é ki va a la kaz a jôzèf, pas le ta é sur nouzôt. oe di ke le ta va frapé kôté de minwit la swèr." 15 o sa tout kômasé. o sa beyé. ôn a majé. é on a di nô priyèr. é de l'apré ma défet mèr m'a porté. a m'a porté, mwe, mé doe soer. ma défet 243 grân a été osit. é mé tât é été avèk nouzot. é tout nouzot ... i navé en blôk de mcfun dâ se kaz la 20 jdzèf. kit mwê dir, j'é jâmé vu de kou'd va dâ ma vi. é chu'té jo'en, mè kit mwa dir, je poe se raplé chusk ' asto'er. sé pour sa, kâ je vwé cTen tit béké ta ki se lèv, j'é poer. s6 kit mwê dir, chu'té âdôr la, chu'té byê petit, mè je raplé. voyé, tout lé 25 vyoê moun sâtèt a jenou ki priyé bo dyoê é a la vyèrj pour porté sa set me padsu nouzot, k'ô se

fèzé pa twé par le ta. é kit mwê dir kôm sa arivé koté de doez o'er, le kou'd va ke je léz é atâdu dir. é le kou de va, jozèf di, "le kou de va é 30

sur nouzot astoer'." é kôm j ' atadu ke di le kou's

va tatadé de mors6 de goutyèr, dé môrso de pan,

de bwa, tout choz ki alé padsu de la kaz, ki volé

da l'èr. é dé "drum" tout kalité de vyôe machan.

sa s'alé. mwa, je pouvwé vwèr le vyôe jozèf é le 35

sye k'èté maryé avèk ma défet grân. sô nô sèté,

Iwi. i tchebodé lé krôchêt tou lé doe pour tchê

la pôrt. oe tchebodé lé krôchèt. sôté fermé mè

oe lé tchédé, pas le va été ki agardé pour alé

avèk lé pôrt, lé fenèt. lé fâm tchêbôdé su lé 40

fenit. é nouzot été ki plôeré. ô plôêré de la

poer. é oe nou dizé, "pa fêr, pa fêr, pa plôeré.

le bô dyoe et avèk nouzot. é le bô dyôe va mèt

sa set me sur nouzôt." mè sa sèté ê kou'd va. 244 je te di l'o tebé. 1'6 ... la naj dâ la kaz, pas 45 la kaz fèzé de l'o. a kômâsé a fêr de l'o. a kômâsé a kraké, la kaz kraké, a kraké. é kôm sa arivé, o véyé tou la ro pour vwèr si'k la kaz é pa ke se kasé. é lé tôrbiyo pradé. ka chak tôrbiyo ki vèné, o pasé ke la kaz été ki sanalé. 50

é kôm lé tôrbiyo prâdé, sa sèté .... je te di , tout nouzot ètét a jenou. é léz om prâdé lé fenèt, lé pôrt é lé fâm é nouzot été ki priyé 6 bô dyoe pour li nouzot èdé. é be, s'a été, s'a été suska tâ ô navé ôe ti tour. lé fam é lèz ôm, oel avé 55

ôe ti tour pour alé mâjé ôen tit béké dekwé. léz ôt tchêbôdé. oel avé loer "turn" pour alé prân de ti repô, pour oe mâjé. é de l'apré, oê vèné tchêbô ... léz 6t ... pour léz 6t alé mâjé, pour bwèr é mâjé é de l'apré tchêbôdé suska tâ ke 60 le bô dyoe a èdé. le tâ a kômâsé ... le vâ a kômâsé a vèni den tit béké plu moeyoer. ay é désâdu, désâdu suska tâ ke navé pa grâ choz de vâ.

é de l'apré oel a di ke ... oêl a kômâsé a ouvèr den tit béké su la pôrt é oel a vu soelmâ lé ravin. 65

lé ravin été ki koulé é a dizé, "mô dyoê, gad lé

ravin. si'k de âfâ tdem dâ sa, sa sé fini. lé

ravin va le prân 6 bôr de la mèr é i va dèt môr."

s6 oê di, "vouzôt rèsté âdâ. vouzôt p 'alé déhôr

du tou. rèsté ôra de la pôrt isit." è kôm k'ôn a 70 245 fèt atasyô é lœ tâ, s 'avé pasé den tit béké. léz

ôm a kômâsé a roulé loer tchülôt. oel a kômâsé a roulé loer tchulôt é la kômâsé a sôrti déhôr pour vwèr sa k'èt arivé. sa sèté le mate astoer. ôn

été debout tout la swèré, pas ô pouwé pa dôrmir. 75

ôn avé poer ... sô oel a kômâsé. oel a roulé lé tchulôt. oel a kômâsé a marché, é kôm sa arivé, oèl été den tit béké âba é lé fâm a kômâsé a fêr den tit béké ... oêl a fèt e fouyur avèk ê de sé

... kômâ k'ô kri sa? de de sé fouyur la a fèr. 80

ô léz avé âdâ. ô prâdé du ... le marché du charbô.

ôn avé du charbô. ôn avé du suk, de l'o; du p e , poêtèt en 6 doe sitrô. ô fèzé du sitrônèl. ô le buvé pour dèt ... sèté byê bô. s6 s'ô buvé. mè kôm sa arivé, oêl a pri loer kours âkôr. oêl a 85 di, "anou rât adâ, le ta é sur nouzôt âkôr." é iy été arvèni, oblijé nou fermé âkôr, mè iy avé pa duré lôtâ. iy a duré poêtèt ... k'ôn été ki alé 6 swèr astoer, sa sé lot de swèr. sèté ki a duré susk'o koté de siz oêr 6 sèt oêr du swèr. 90

é bê, la kalm été vèni é kômâsé a vèni. é de l'apré la kalm é vèni é tout é vèni ... tu poubé vwar tout lé pyé'd bwa été ba. tout lé vyèy kaz

été ba. en blôk de tout kalité été tout ... é lé poul è léz animé été môr, paske le lô léz avé pri 95

é léz avé néyé. sô mwa, "now" astoer, tout choz 246

été tout fini. on a kômâsé a sôrti ôen tit béké déhôr. é kôm mwê, ôen tit fiy, j'a sôrti déhôr é pour mwê vwèr tout kalité'd zafèr, pas mwê, j'a jâmé vu ê kou'd vâ. mè sa sèté dekwé. é mvja, je 100 demâd 6 bô dyoê, jâmé akôr pour mv/ê vwèr ôe kou'd va.

é mwa na jâmé vu âkôr susk'astoer. sô ôn é ki pri

tout le tâ pour le bô dyoê mèt sa set me sur nouzôt.

Text 14 l'ékôl a sê tôma (D.D. 9b 571-629) kôm che'té jôen, j 'ètét ôen tit joen fiy, j 'ètét ôe 1 pu pré diz â kôm sa, noêf 6 diz â kôm sa, j 'alé a l'ékôl. é navé doê 6 twa de nouzôt, doê twa fiy é doe twa garsô. ôn été tout joen âsâm. ô se pôrté kôm si'k ôn été dé frèr é dé soer. pask'ô vivé si 5 byê ke sèté pa kôm astoer. sôté ki disput é tout.

ôn alé ... ô kité de la kaz. not mèr é nôt pèr nou done poêtèt ê sêk ses. é kôm ke nou dôné ê sêk ses,

sêk kapa, ô pâsé k'ôn été dé milyônér. poêtèt k'oê

nou dôné sêk kapa, é kôm k'oê nou dôné sa, ôn été dé 10 milyônér pas avèk sêk ses, dâ se tâ la, tu pôvé avwèr

ê blôk déz afèr pour sa. ô pôvé avwèr dé bôbô, dé ti

bôbô, ô pôwé avwèr ... kômâ k'ô kri sa ... dé

djaboun. ô pouwé avwèr sa ... djaboun. sa k'oê kri

sa. sôté bô, wi. é ôn avé sé marcha la fèt â kôkô 15

k'oê kriyé dé "sugarcake." sôté fèt â kôkô. sôté

byé bô. i navé dé nwèr, i navé dé blâ. ôn achèt 247 tout kalité. défwa oel avé du mabi. dâ s e tâ la, se mabi sèté byê bo. a sèté byê bô astoer. ôn atrapé

ôen tit béké, poêtèt ôe ti vèr de mabi. ê ôn alé a 20 l'ékôl. o fèzé ôe ti pati rât nouzot, w i . w i , on avé ôe bô ta. é'd l'apré, o lé pôrté, o lé kaché. o lé kaché déhôr. pèrsôn poe lé vwèr. on alé adâ kôm lé klôch soné pour l'ékôl, o râtré âdâ. o prâdé nôt leso é tout choz. o se mèté a lir. o se mèté a 25

ékrir. é tout. é kôm k ' o ê dizé, é b ê , vouzôt poe alé déhôr ôe ti môumâ, j 'alé ôe ti môumâ déhôr. é kôm j'alé

ôe ti môumâ ... on alé ôe ti môumâ déhôr. kôm on alé, o poêtèt âjouwé ê ti jour, on alé charsé nôz afèr pour nôt mâjé, mè on avé dé ti jour. on avé dé ti joê k'o 30 tchêbôdé nôt mê ên é lot, dé bway é dé fiy é o kômâs a châté. o châté dé tit châté, o dâsé é tout, é o se tchedé en é lot. en halé en é lot é mèté da la ro. on alé, o jouwé é o kouré tou'1 ro pour ro. é on avé nôt tit châso k'o dizé é o châté. o dizé â frâsé, an 35

âglé. défwa sa k'ô voulé dir, ô dizé. défwa o dizé an agle. o dize a frase, o dize an agle. susk'a ta

... apré ke tout été fini, kât ôn a fé nôtz afèr, la klôch sôn âkôr. ôn alé âdâ, susk'a tâ l'ékôl finisé.

ô désâdé a la kaz é'd l'apré ôn alé fèr nôt travay 40

âkôr. é sa sé de lé tâ d'avâ. mè sa sé de lé bô tâ d 'avâ. 248

Text 15 la vi a sê bart (A.Q. 12a 584-745)

AQ "mwa, j 'été 6 wès, 6 bou'd pèy. é sèt de grô 1

rôch ki .... la ter, ki va jusk'a la mèr. é sé

tout dé veut ... dé veut. den kâtité'd veut. le

mdun alé charsé la, âfê, du travay."

ARH- "ki kalité de travay?" 5

AQ- "ce tayé dé klis pour fèr dé nas, lé mastchulê.

é lé foeminê, fèzé de la très, â plus, pour

avwèr de l'èr fré de la mèr. é pasu la grâ roch

sèté lé base ki ramasé de l'o. 6 pyé de la grâ

rôch, i navé dé pyé'd frutaj. navé dé pyé'd mâgô. 10

il avé den ôt kalité k'ô kriyé dé m'riz ... meriz.

sé kôm de "guavaberry." sé pat de "guavaberry"

... meriz. i na dé s'riz 6si. il é difèrâ. la

seriz é rouj, mè la meriz èt aprochâ le koulôer

du "guavaberry" é aprocha le grosder mè sé pa la mèm 15

choz."

ARH- "ki kalite de mâjé vou poe fer avek sa?"

AQ- "dâ se tâ la, kônésé pa sa k'oè poe fèr avèk sa.

poêtèt astoer, je kônésré sa k'oe poè fêr avèk sa.

i na pa sa isit a sê tôma. é plu Iwê âba de la grâ 20

rôch il avé den as k'oe kriyé, "l'as a grô j â." plu

hd, sèté le ti mbrn, ôti'k mou grâ avé sa kaz. é

rât le ti môrn é la grâ rôch, sa sé la k'èté nôt kaz.

• v / \ pluzyoer kaz diferama." 249

ARH- "kôma kœ kaz i navé?

AQ- "dâ se tâ la sèté la grâ rôch 6 bôr de la mèr. é be, plu ho, sèté nôt kaz. i navé la nôtz, la syèn de mou grâ. i fèzé doe. é en 6t kaz k'apartèné a o e mdun, sa fèzé twa. en ôt k'apartèné a en ôt fâmîy. i navé kat kaz. é su le ti môrn, poêtèt doe ô twa. 30 poêtèt doe, je di, mwê."

ARH- "kômâ k'ou kriyé se vilaj la?"

AQ- "la grâ rôch. i falé alé a pyé â vil, pa'd mânyèr

d'alé difèremâ k'a pyé."

ARH- "navé pa'd karôs pour alé â vil?" 35

AQ- "no, no. "nothing." âyê. é par le hô de nôt kaz

môu pèr ... de jarde. i plâté dé poustach, dé patat,

dé pwa. i navé de grô, grôpyé'd sapôti dwèt pâ'ahô.

j'alé avèk lé joen fiy k'èté plu vyoey ke mwê. dâ dé

.... du pyé, na'yê ke dé sapôti. lé pyé été si grô, 40

lé brâch lé plu ba na'yê ke dé sapôti. i navé dé

pyé'd sitrô, dé pyé'd pwa, pyê d'âmar. lé kinik.

lé mâgô."

ARH- "di mwê dekwé. vouz été kôtâ dâ se tâ la? kôtât

a viv a sê bart?" 45

AQ- "no. ou pouwé pa avwèr sa k'ou voulé avwèr. la

vi été trô dur. j'èté petii;., mè ... me rapèl êpil. 250 mc5u pèr é désâdu devâ. iy été isit pour cTe bô bou'd tâ. i fèzé la pèch. i navé pa'd travay isi le pèy no plu. set tomas navé pa'd travay. é plu tar, iy 50 a fèt la fâmîy désân. ôn a désâdu dâ de ti bato a w;èl. pa'd moto. é ôn a mâké de pèrd la vi. mové tâ é le bato été tro charjé. navé den kâtité'd mdun âdâ du bato. é tous ke pâsé ... lé syèn k'èté ki désân, rèsté a set toma. le bato été trô charjé 55

é i navé du mové, mové tâ."

ARH- "sa, sèté kôbyê tâ pour vèni a set tôma?"

AQ- "pour mwè, dâ se tâ la, oè parté poêtèt kôm a swèr é oe râtré lâdemê ... si k'oel avé du bô tâ é du bô vâ." 60

ARH- "é kâ vouz é arivé isit, vou navé ke sêk â ô tchèkchôz kôm sa?"

AQ- "j'avé ... ôn arivé dâ jâvyé, le sèt de jâvyè. j'é fèt siz â le vêt wit d'avril, je me rapèl d'den kâtité. j'é toujour yu den bôn mèmwar." 65

ARH- "vou poè me rakôté kômâ k'èté le karénaj dâ se tâ la?"

AQ- "é bê, i navé pa ... sêt tôma navé pa, i fô dir, le travay. den ô doê magazê. navé ... ôtchôe "gift shop."

ôtchde "distillery" kôm k'oêl a pour le rom astoer. 70 251 reyè, i navé pa. i navé oen brâch du "navy" isit é kâ ke le batima ratré pôrté .... pour le "navy." ce pradé déz om pour doe twa jour, pour débarké lé kartchez. diz wit sas par oer. mê lé but été bo marché." 75

ARH- "kômâ?"

AQ- "la nouritur été bo marché, bo marché. ou poe avwér doe liv de farin pour sek ses. mou pér fèzé la péch é oe viv méyoer k'a se bar. é sé depi'k léz améritche a pri le pèy a charj, i navé âpil 80 améritche vèni rèsté a se toma é dot moun d'urôp fèr

âpil ... doné âpil du travay, ouvèr lé "gift shop" ... a se toma isit. é si'k sèté pa léz âmérike é le mdun d'urôp .... é mèt rouvert tout lé difêra de kômèrs k'oel a rouvèr sêt toma sèt a ter mê pa a l'èr. i 85 serèt a tèr mè pa a l'èr."

ARH- "i navé den ékôl isit a karénaj?"

AQ- "wi, ékôl frâsé. mê mwê, j'èté a l'ékôl âglé, a l'ékôl katolik â vil a l'égliz katolik."

ARH- "ôti ke l'ékôl frâsé été?" 90

AQ- "kété k'é la boutik astoer, la "victory bar." nô le "burgundy."

ARH- "navé âpil d'étudyâ?" 252

AQ- "no. i nave den kaz ... no, i pa grâ choz k'a a

l'ékôl. é'd l'apré, oel a ... ka'k s'arivé plu ... 9 5 pour den sèrté katité d'ané, i na dé mdun k'a ouvèr dé tit boutik isit aba."

Text 16 jouwé avèk dé gale (E.G. 13b 30-57) o prâdé sèt galé. ô kri sa dé galé su'1 bôr de mèr 1

.. o kri sa an âglé dé "gravel." o râmasé lé petit,

ô ramasé sèt. é ô tiré. ô dizé k'ôn été ki jouwé

avèk lé tit rôch. é ô lé tiré su nôt mê kôm sa é ô

lé prâdé den par den. ô mèté su'1 plâché é ô lé tiré 5

den par den. é ô lé râmasé é ô prâdé den 6t é râmasé

l'ôt su'1 plaché. é o lé tiré â l'èr é lé râmasé.

Text 17 lé topi (E.G. 13b 50-55)

oe pra la topi é oe pra lign. oe la roui depi you 1

lé klou. é oe la roui jusk'a par le mitâ la topi.

apré'd la, oe la tir. é a kômâs a roulé, oé léz

achté. oe lé vadé é oe léz achté.

Text 18 lé papôt (E.G. 13b 56-68)

vou koné, da se tâ la navé pa'd "dolly." o prâd 1

dfe môrso'd twèl avèk en égwiy é du fil, é ô fèzé

den papôt. ô kri sa den papôt. é ô fèzé den

papôt. o lé mèté ... ô fèzé ... ô prâdé de môrso'd

twèl. o lé kouzé. ô mèté sé doe bra. é 6 prâ de 5 253

ti môrso’d twèl. o lœ kouzé, o fèzé cfen rôb. o la

foré su èl. é sa sèté nôt papôt. o pra dé ti môrso

dœ twèl é o fèzé dé ti hâmôk. é o prâd de ti

môrso'd twèl é doe ti môrso'd lign. oe kri sa, "the

twine." é amaré lé doe bout. o lé pâdé é o mèté lé 10

tit papôt. é o la bèrsé pour èl dôrmi.

Text 19 bouyi pour lé papôt (E.G. 13b 69-75)

o pradé de ti bre de tèr. vou koné sa k'oe kri e 1

"coconut," e kôko? o lé kas, prâdé l'ékal. é o

fèzé ... mèté twa tit rôch. o mèté sa padsu é o

pradé de l'o. o mèt ak la tèr. o dizé k'on été

ki bouyi du majé pour no papôt. o fèzé sa avèk 5

l'ékal du koko 6 dé tit pan. sèté la mèm choz. o

lé kriyé dé choyér, dé marmit, dé pan a kafé.

Text 20 lé das pour léz âfa (E.G. 13b 76-95)

o fèzé ... o kriyé sa dé dâs ron. o prâdé doe twa 1

nouzot, dé joenz afa. o se mèté tout d'è rô. o se

tchebodé la m e . é o kômas a châté dé châso k'o kri

dé das ron. é o fèzé le ro. é o se mèt a jenou

debout da le mitâ. é kôm ô châté la châso, den 5

sôrté é l'ot râtré ... jusk'a tâ ke la proemyèr

râtré é le dèrnyèr sôrté ... kôm ô râtré é sôrté é

tou le tâ ô châté la tit châso. .■ sèté lé fiy ki

fèzé sa. sôrtou kât i navé dé maryaj. kôm navé dé

M » ! 'J .T l'a i? !.-!" 254 maryaj, lé fiy é lé garsô fèzé. oel avé oen chaso, 10

"pijané." de kri sa "pijâné, l'amour, pijâné voul" sa sèté ... lé garsô é la fiy se mèté dâ le rô. é kom o châté la châsô, kâ vou di, "sé l'amour, pijâné vou," lé garsô prâdé la fiy é kômâsé a

l'âbrasé. i se balâsé. il a pijâné la fiy. ô kriyé 15

sa la dâs ron, sé l'amour, pijâné vou, l'amour, é

kôm oe châté ... kôm le garsô é la fiy s'âbrasé ...

se pijâné, mèté la tèt su le kôté é se pijâné jusk'a

tâ ke la châsô finisé. pijâné, é b è , sé le garsô tèné

la fiy é ôe soukwé kôm sa. iy avé sa tèt kôlè su sa 20

fiyur. é apré li prâdé l'ôt de kôté é mèté su l'ôt

de kôté de la fiyur. ôe kri sa "pijâné l'amour,

pijâné vou."

Text 21 lé dâs é lé bal (E.G. 13b 97-105)

é bê, sé sôelmâ sa k'ôn avé ôen bal, oê kriye sa, 1

ô"en dâs. oê kri sa ôen bal. é bê, oê prâdé tout

lé joênz âfâ kôm nouzôt, kôm ôn été peti, ê de nou

dôné ôen s o ê l dâs. é apré k'oêl a dôné la dâs

pour lé jôenz âfâ, oê kriyé "va dâ lé morn é mâjé 5

de kabri astoer." sa sé pour débarasé léz âfâ. sé

soelmâ ôe tour k'oê dôné oz âfâ, pour dôné l'èr a

lé grâ mdun de dâsé.

Text 22 la muzik (E.G. 13b 106-130)

oe kriyé sa déz akôrdéô. é (ê prâdé den pô'd kabri 1 255

é lœ mcTun fèzé astoer, o kri sa, dé tabour. kônèsé sa k'oe kri "tabour" k'oe pik desu. astoer la,

1'akordéo é le tabour. oè baté su'1 tabour é jouwé l'akôrdéo. sé sa'k le moun dasé. pa'd "guitar." 5 sa k'oe kri de vyoeola, sé kôm de "guitar." é dé tryan ... doe fèr. oe baté, oe d i , sètét den tryan.

é sa'k j'èté ki vou dizé, den gouaj. oe pradé de gouaj é oe le mèt a choesé. oe fèzé tout dé tit fat desu é apré oe pradé, kôm sa vèni shès, oe 10 pradé den èspès ... kôm de grô môrso'd fèr, den tit way a. e oe grate desu. oe kri sa de wiro. sa doné den bèl ékô, la muzik. sé soelmâ la muzik k 'oel avé.

Text 23 de pèchoer (E.G. 13b 131-189) vou kônê, mou mari, sètét de pèchôer su'1 proemyder 1 kômâsma paske apré de la, la mèr lavé sitâ le mod twé. i voulé pu fèr la pèch âkôr. falé tât la tèr

... travayé su la tèr. é sètét ... iy avé de kânôt. oe kri sa oe bot, mè sé pa fèt kôm lé bot astoer. 5 oe kriye sa, de kânôt é den pirôg. sèté su doe manyer. den pirôg setet de grâ kânôt e de kânôt setét de ti kânôt ... é la plu grâ, sètét den pirôg. é mou mari navé den a li mèm. iy avé doez

ôm ki se pèch avèk li. falé k'oe péché ... a twa 10 dâ de kânôt. é i sânalé le mate, i vèné le 256

lâdemê mate, oel avé pour sânalé pour alé ... oe kri sa du "fry." oe kri sa dé pistchèt, tou peti pwésô pour fèr lak pour prân du pwéso astoer. oe kri sa "to make fry." i sânalé avèk oen éprovyé. 15 oen éprovyé sé sa k'oe kri ê "little net." i fèzé

léz éprovyé. i fèzé la sèn, sa k'oe kri "seine" pour prân dé koulirou. oe prâ lé bonik, prâ tout

sa. i kônèsé fèr tou sa. é i lasé. iy avé oen

égwiy é de fil. é i lasé lé sèn li mèm é léz 20

éprovyé. é i sânalé le mate. é i vèné lâdemê maté. oel avé pour pasé la jôrné pour alé charsé

lé pistchèt pour ... kât sa arvèni su'1 proemyé, dâ

léz âviro twaz o'er, katr oer pour alé dâ la grâ mèr, dâ lé ti kânôt pour péché. kât la lun été fé ... la 25

lun sôrté, oêl alé de bonoer péché dâ léz âviro minwit, minwit kôm sa. mè kât la lun vèné grâ;., d e kri sa la plèn lun 6 "fui moon." oê kri sa la plèn

lun. é bê, oê vèné plu tar dâ la nwit kôm sa. avâ'k

sôté vèni isit k 'iy été lâdemê maté, sèté la jôrné 30 prâdé du pwésô. é dâ se tâ la, oê vâdé ôen krèy'd pwésô, di sês ... d'en krèy, "a strap." d'en krèy'd pwésô. si sé dé pwésô k'é plu grô, oê léz âkri, dén

soêl, den soêl, d'en krèy, kômprâ? pour d'en soêl. é

i vâdé ... oêl alé avèk lé pwésô. oêl alé lé vân â 35

vil. ê défwa, oê vèné, oêl échèt la mwatyé'd pwésô.

d e pouwé pa lé vân. oê vâdé défwa di sês 6 sêk sês 257 la krèy. léz afèr été bo marché, mê lé pwésô été malvadu. i navé pa'd mdun 6 péy pour achté lé pwésô. navé poe'd choz dœ mdun 6 péy. pa kôm astoer. é i 40 alé, kôm oe dizé, oe di ... den fwa iy avé été a la pèch é sèté si Iwe 6 larj k'oe kri. 6 larj, sa voe

... "means" ... "far in the ocean." oe kri sa 6 larj.

é be, iy été k'abarké de pwéso da la kanôt. é i né de rétche. de rétche, "a shark." oe vèné pour pran 45 le pwéso k'èté desou la lign. é kôm oey é vèni pour pran le pwéso k'èté desou la lign, iy é vèni, la rétche

é vèni pour soté da le kanôt. é oel a pri l'avirô. ou kone sa k'oe naj. oe kri sa oen aviro. nave pa'd métoer da se ta la. é oel a pri. oel a piké su la 50 rétche. é lé da du rétche a été kasé dâ le bôr du kanôt. sèté si Iwê 6 larj, lé rétche avé fê. oê vwdyé ... sâté l'édoer du pwésô. iy alé a sê jâ dâ sé ti kânôt la avèk lé sèn. i prâdé dé kânôt plê de koulirou ... "jacks" ... koulirou. i vèné isit. 55 i falé k'oe prâdé lé pwésô é k'oê loer échté pour pouvé pa lé vân. sèt grô koulirdU pour sêk sês!

é pouwé pa lé vân. iy alé sur la "frenchman's cap." o kri sa la rôch frâsèz. iy alé 6z def. sèté la sézô déz def de jibyé dâ la mwa'd m è . i vèné, i 60 pradé, i pôrté dé grô payé déz def. i mèté devâ la pôrt la. é i lé vâdé kat pour ê sês. 258

Text 24 (E.G. 13b 189-283) den fwa ... ou kôné sa k'oe kri "turtle?" i na dé 1 tortu, oe kri sa "greenback." é i na lé karèt mèm. sé fèt prèskœ mèm. mè lé tortu oel a lé do vèr é lé karèt é difèra. lé karèt ... léz ékay du karèt, mcTu mari lé pradé. é i lé vadé 6 mdun ki fé déz 5

épegn. de fé tout kalité de métd avèk sa. sa sèté vadu chèr. sé sa k'èté vadu plu chèr. iy a sanalé

è joèdi ... ê mékrèdi a midi. li é lé doez om avèk sé filèt a fol. oe kri sa dé fol mè sé fèt kôm dé filèt. oe kri sa dé fol a karèt. sé fèt kôm ... 10 de pu pré ... "a net." oe kri sa den fôl k'oe prâ dé karèt. i las den plas k'oe kri dâ le wès, oe kri sa "west key." sé Iwe dâ le wès, de rôchê. den gros rôch. é iy a sânalé, li é sé dcdez ôm ... ôz, âviro oz oer. é iy é pa revèni dâ la kaz ke le sâradi. 15

osito k 'il été parti, i sap mi du mové t â . sé dâ

l'ivèrnaj. é oel a mi ... ou kônèsé kôm oe vèné

isit pour ... i navé du mové tâ. de mèté de paviyô

rouj pour doné ndtès 6 mdân. i navé du tâ k'èté ki

"travel." du tâ k'èté ki chèminé. é il a sânalé, 20

i kônèsé pa. kôm sa arivé, le swèr tout le mdXin été

ki baré. soté tout ki baré lé kaz. é oe sôté parti.

ô kônèsé pa sa k'èté devèni d'oe. le joedi le

"coastguard" a sânalé vwar pour o e . pas oe vèni you

mwê demadé la plas k'iy été parti. je léz é d i . é 25 259 lœ "coastguard" pouwé pa traversé. la mer été tro fort. mê i navé pa yu de kou'd vâ. "a hurricane." sa k'oe kri de kou'd vâ. mê i navé yu ... sèté prèsk de "storm." prèsk kom de kou'd vâ. le vâdredi pa Otchde nouvel. "coastguard" a sânalé é ya 30 retôrné. i na . . . o di sa ... ke le prêt di l ’ivâjil su l'ôtèl. ou koné oe kri oe "gospel." mè i na du mdun k'a l'êtèlijâs ... oèl a dé liv kœ ... fèt kom den ivâjil. é si'k vouz a de mdun k'èt â dâjé 6

dekwé, vou rouv 1'ivâjil é oè vou di lé paroi, kôm le 35 paroi de dydè. mèz duzâ la syèn k 'ètét èsit, le jôr,

SO mari ... sètét den ôm k'avé âpil de 1'édukasyo. i

travayé tout pour le "navy." é i âvwoyé sa dam, sa

fâm me diré isit. le vâdredi. pa ploeré. j'èté

kôstamâ ki ploeré. kôm mou mari été sur la tèr. soté 40

bye ki soufré, mdü mari, été sur l a .tèr, mè.otchde

da léz avird ... mè iy été byé ki soufré. le sâmdi

le "coastguard" sânalé âkôr. ou wé, la mèr avé

devèni plat, mè le vâdredi kât ke le "coastguard" avé

été, le "coastguard" lé vwdyé pa. lœ mdhn mè oè, 45

oe vwdyé le "coastguard." ou w é , lé lâm été tro fôrt.

é oe savé amaré le kânôt su'1 pyé’d bwa. lé lâm été

trô fôrt. sa k'oe kri le hupé. dé hupé, dé lâm. kôm

le lam e hot, de gros lâm, o kri sa le lâm. lé lâm

été si hé, le "coastguard" pouwé pa lé vwèr, mè oè vwoyé 50

le "coastguard." oè pouve pa fèr âyê. é le kânôt ètét 260 amaré su'1 pyé'd bwa. oel avé pri twa gro karèt. é lé karèt ètét amaré osit. é oe sôté ... oel avé porté du

... du majé. le mâjé été fini, oe kri sa du "black tea," du té nwèr. é oel avé bouyi le té nwèr sis fwa pour 55 avwèr l'o cho pour pasé dâ 1'èstomak. i navé de ti

"plane" k'avé pasé, mè i navé pa de "helicopter," aye ki pasé da se tâ la. oe ... sôté halé su l'as

... dâ la trâché. ô kri sa la trâché. sa sé l'âho dâ l'âs dâ lé bw a . sôté sur den tit ilé k'oè kri 60

"fiat cay," d'en ilé k'é dékôlé su set toma. sé kom vou désân kôté de porté rik vou vwôy l'ilé. é kom sa, oèl a vu le "coastguard" mè oè pouwé pa ... le

"coastguard" léz a pa vu kôm sa, le sâmdi arèté, mê la mèr é vèni plat é oèl a vu le "coastguard." oêl 65 a pri den twèl, den de lé môrso'd had. oè l'a mi sur den avirô pour fèr sign pour oè lé vwèr. kôm sa, oê sa vèni, mè la mèr dâ l'âs ... ô kri sa dâ "the beach," la mèr da l'âs sèté toujour brutalize, al été toujour brutal. la mer été fôrt. kôm sa, oêl a pri dé kôrd. 70 oè 1'âvwoyé. oêl amaré le kânôt é lé karèt dâ le kânôt. e oèl a fèt vèni le kânot ôra du "coastguard." oèl âbarke lé karèt é tout. apré oêl ârvené astoer pour lez om s'âmbarké dâ le kânot pour oê le trèné you le "coastguard" pour léz âbarke dâ le "coastguard." i 75 navé ... sôté parti âpil mèkredi. é pèrsôn kônèsé pa si sôté ... ôn été k'èspéré la nouvel ke le "coastguard" 261 pouwé porté, ke soté perdu. soelma sa'k l'om m'avé fèt dem'àdé. i m'avé fèt deraâdé ... i m'avé di ke sôté su la tèr mê sôté byê ki soufré, oti k 'Oe soufré, i navé 80 pa'd mâjé. é lé had été tout mouyi. kât oêl arivé su l'as la âba, navé pa plus de doê sa pèrsôn. oêl a pri lé pôrtré, le moun ki fé le "daily news." oêl a pri lé porté, dé karèt, lé pôrtré du bôt, lé pôrtré'd mdun. é léz ami sô dâ'l papyé. de sôté 85 ki vadé lé papyé. del avé parti le mèkredi oz âviro d'ôz oer é sô revèni le sâmdi dâ léz âviro'd douz oer kât i arivé isit a la kaz. é pèrsôn kônèsé pa si soté pèrdu 6 si sôté viva. le mdun pâsé ke sôté pèrdu pis kôm le tâ avé fèt si mové é sôté parti su la mèr. 90 j'avé poer. je kôté ke sèté fini. i navé pu ... âyê

âkôr a fèr. sèté fini tou bônmâ. le "coastguard" é vèni, léz a débarké la âba, su l'âs avèk le kânôt é tout. lé kanôt ètét amaré su le dèryèr du "coastguard"

é la trèné. oe, soté dâ le "coastguard." é b ê , iy a 95 pa fèt la pèch Iota apré sa. iy a remi sa. sa le fatigé trôp.

Text 25 kôtrebân (E.G. 13b 195-355) dâ le proemye tâ sete â segré. del a pri mou mari 1 avèk la kôtrebân. dâ lé prdemyé tâ sèté défâdu de van O t c h ô e bwésô isi a sêt tôma, mê pa astoer. astoer lé bwésô rât, publik. mè sèté défâdu. a tou 262 tâ lé batima vèné de se bartèlmi isit la nwit, 5 débarké la kotreban. o kri sa la kôtrebân. é mou mari astoer alé da so kanôt, pôrté la kôtrebân é la kaché da dé, dé ... afe oel avé dé plas k'oe mèté la bwéso a kachèt. mè den bôn fwa, lé polis léz a survéyé. i na dé mdun k'èté trèt. del a été é oel a di ô polis. 10 oe kônèsé le jour, la nwit ke le bôt vèné. tou lé wi jour, de vèné isi, pôrté la bwésô. kôm sa del a kômâsé a survéyé jusk'a tâ ... kôm del avé débarké a ... de kri sa l'âtrepo. pour mèt la bwésô. é kat k'oel avé fini d'aplir ... sa sé trouvé l'âba la ôti k'iy é ... 15 de kri sa "round villa olga." kôté du "radio station," la plas ôti k'èté lé djèt astoer. sa sé la k 'de mèté la bwésô. sèté râfèrmé. sètét tout fèrmé. oe mèté la bwésô dâ se plas la. sètét de vyoez ôm ki foezé gard kôm sa de la plas. é de payé le vydez ôm pou 20 survéyé la plas k'oe mèté la bwésô. kôprâdé? apré k'oel avé pôrté tout la bwésô la, mô'u mari ètét isit a la kaz. del a kriyé pour li. mê sèté tèrib dâ le karénaj. oel avé sita ki foezé l'éta de likder kôm sa de kôtrebân. kôm sa, del a tout lé syèn, iy avé 25 poetèt de kat ô pdetèt de sek kânôt k'alé débarké la kôtrebân. twaz ôm da chak kânôt. é kât sa vèné, k'oel a kriyé, oel alé a tout lé nô k'oe kônèsé k'avé débarké la kôtrebân, kriyé le mdun. é oe léz apôrté 6 for. é oe loerz âfèrmé dâpi se mduma la 30 263 jusk'a lâdemê pour pasé d e kôsëy astoer. o kri sa

"a case." â nôt frâsé ô kri sa de kôsêy. é kôm sa, oe léz a tout kité âfèrmé. é oé lèz a pa volu lé lagé otremâ k'oe payé oen sèrtên kâtité de dolar. 6 oé kri sa den gôrd. mè su nôt tèrm, ô vou di toujour 35 de dolar. sé plu méyoer a di . kôm sa, mô mari ètét oblijé de dôné pès sa k'iy avé d'arjâ. falé k'i péyé pour li é k'i péyé pour sô kânôt, k'avé resu la kôtrebân pour pôrté oti k'èté la kôtrebân. é vou kôné, lé polis é vèni é oél a râmâsé oti k'i navé den 40 bwèt de litchoér, de kôtrebân é oél a tout sânalé avèk. oé di ke sèté la hotder de la mwatchyé dâ le for l'âhô la. "jail" ... sèté la oti k'èté tout lé bwésô aligné, tout lé bwèt. oél a tout pri la bwésô é oél a fèt péyé tout lé syèn k'avé pôrté la kôtrebân, tout péyé 4 5

1'arjâ é fèr lé kânôt ... péyé otâ 1'arjâ k'ô ... sèté tèrib dâ le karénaj. si'k i navé ... défwa i navé dé kaz èsit âba. oé vâdé ... défv/a dé mastchulê vâdé ... oé kri sa dé "sailors." lé matld vèné isit. é b ê , oél avé oe "chance," oé vâdé la bwésô a lé matlo â kachèt. 50 oél alé trouvé dâ dé plas, â kachèt. é oé pôrté défwa de gro sak de béwsô. lé matlo achté lé bwésô you o é .

é bê, kât oél atâdé parlé, lé polis été ki désâdé vizité le plas, lé kaz oti'k sé sèrtén person lavé l'abitud de vân lé bwésô â kachèt. kôtrebân. oé 55 prâdé tout sa k'oél avé dâ lé kaz é kômâsé ékrazé. 264 oe ékrazé tout avâ'k lé pélis vèné pour .. lé bwésô. sèté "now" astoer ... sé toujour vèni, toujour vèni apré'd la. la bwésô rât dâ le pèy. lé se bartèlmi vèné porté lé batimâ de bwésô isit. 60 apré'd la, sé vèni ke tout la bwésô kômâs a rât dâ le pèy.

Text 26 le matlo ameritche (E.G. 13b 360-392) kât lé batimâ de matlo vèné tout léz âné, kômâsmâ 1 de l'âné ... è kâtité de batimâ, mè i na pu ki vyê pour la fèr ... kômâ k'oe fé le moun isit. de lé tu, oe lé ba. kom sa, oel arèté pour lé batimâ améritche vèni isit. oe kri sa, le mânwa. 5

sé lé mânwa, lé bôt, lé batimâ âméritchê. kôm sa

ôe vèné tout dâ le karénaj kôm oe pasé dâ lé ....

sôté dérâjé, sèté dé bèt. oti k'oe vwoyé ôen

foeminê, ôe .... dèryèr. falé chakôe se kaché a

la brun. falé ke chak, oè fèrmé loer pôrt. oè 10

vené kôyé su la pôrt du moun. si k'oe pasé, k'oè

vwoyé dé foeminê, oè .... sur lé pôrt du moun pour

vwar lé foeminê. astoer ... la âba ô karfé, sètét

ôen sôel troup de matlo. le môun pouwé pa sôrti

pour alé achté la kômisyô, otchê boutik la âba la. 15

mè apré sa, kât oe se baté, léz ôm kriyé le polis.

lé polis vèné, de se baté ak dé boutèy. de se

baté avèk tout choz, dé chèz. del a mi oen aré la

desu é oel a pu volu n 'arkité vèni dâ le karénaj. 265 oe se baté matlo su matlo. oe se baté léz oe kôt 20 léz 6t. prâdé lé chèz é lékrazé. oe prâdé de boutèy é ékrazé. koupé tout le moun a de mèm. kât oel a vu sa, la Iwa été pozé pour pa jâmé arkité dé matlo vèni dâ le karénaj. jusk ' astoer kom lé batimâ vèné kom sa, é bê, le proemyé di a 25 koté d'oe oer kom oe débarké lé matlo, 6e débarké lé polis d'abor. é lé polis marché d'ê koté de l'ot.

é kom oel atâdé ke navé dekwé d'arivé, lé polis astoer téléféné lé polis du for, é de vèné astoer

âmasé avèk lé polis du batimâ, âmasé le moun ki se 30 baté, ki fèzé dé troub.

Text 27 l'égliz a karénaj (E.G. 13b 555-702)

é bê, ôn avé ... le prêt avé râmasé 6e ti brê'd 1 moun pour oen sosyete. o kriye sa "la sosyeté'd sêt an." é tou lé mwa ... o péyé di sas par mwa. di sês. é tou lé dimâch apré ... le proemyé dimâch du mwa o têne de "meeting" a l'égliz la 5

aho pour tout lé fâm. é lé fâm été'1 dimâch,

lez ôm été'1 doezyèm dimâch du mwa. oel avé la

sosyété le swèr, le "meeting" k'oe kri, oel avé'l

swèr. é léz ôm komunyé tou lé mwa é lé fâm komunyé tou lé mwa. mè lé fâm, sèté le proemye 10

dimach du mwa é léz ôm, sèté le doezyèm dimâch

du mwa. é ôn alé kôfèsé le sâmdi, é ôn alé 266 komunyé. kât sa vèné lœ prdemyé dimâch du mwa, ôn alé rakomunyé âkôr. é kât ê môun môrisé, iy atrapé l'âtèrmâ pour âyê ... le prêt. é iy atrapé asto'er 15

... ôel a ôen plas de kri "john thomas." mê dâ sé tâ la, sa régné pa. la plas ôti k'oe pôrt lé môr. mè dâ sé tâ la sa régné pa. dâ sé tâ la sèté kôm oen èspès dœ "bas," oe kri sa "ôen bas," k'avé

ôe cbewal desu, kôm ôen ti cbôz de bwèt. é sèté ôe 20 cheval ki trèné la bwèt avèk kat rou. kat rou. ôe mèté le sêrkôey la'd dâ. é sa'l pôrt 6 simityèr.

ô pèy la dépâs de l'âtèrmâ. é ôe dôné ôen mès pour la pèrsôn ki môrisé. é le prêt vèné a la kaz si'k la pèrsôn été malad. le prêt vèné a la kaz la 25 kômunyé, ki pouwé pa vèni a l'égliz. la simityèr,

é bê, sé pour tout môun. se pour tout môun. i na doe simityèr. i na ... ô kri sa la ti simityèr du wes, pa isit. vouz avé pâkôr vu dù ... oen plas k'e oe gra maso k'é tou pêturé â blâ? k'é pêturé 30 tout bla? i na ôe la é ôe plu "over." sa sê lé doe simityèr. sa sé ... ô kri sa lé doe simityèr. ou wé, la p'ti simityèr k'ô kri, oèl a ... le gouvèrnmâ fèt pêturé tou lé doe. pask sa sablé nwèr é sal. é sa sé pour lé môun k'é pôv, lé môun 35 plu pôv. mè kôm le grâ simityèr k'ô kri, ôe kri sa

"the big cernetary," sé la k'é mou mari, é bê, vou péyé pa. si vou v'achté ôe môrso'd tèr pour mèt 267 vôt mari, é ami'k vou môri, de vou me dâ le ti mêm, le ti mèm môrso'd ter. é vou le fer bariskadé ak 40 oe ti môrso de waya. la, kât vou môri, é bê, de vou me dâ la mèm èspas, dâ le mèm môrso'd ter. kât mou mari a môri, j'é achté ... j'é ... j'é pa achtè le môrso'd tèr. mè oe m'a di'k je pouvé bariskadé la p'tit plas. é si j'amé, je pouvé 1'achté ... je 45 pouvé achté oe môrso'd ter. kôm sa, le mdumâ che poe avwèr la "money" de 1'achté, che poé 1'achté. mè j'é fèt oe grâ tôm pour mdu mari pas 6 bou'd diz wi mwa, wou pde fer de tômb. si vouz èspèr pou'l fer tro bônoer, la tômb rât, âfâs. ou kôné, ô kri 50 sa, l'âfâs, âfâs. é bê , si'k la person èt âtèré si mwa, vou pouwé pa fer araje la tôm. la pli tdem. la fôs âfâs. la fôs ... la tôm âfâs. la tèr, tout tdem âdâ. kôm sa j'èspéré diz wi mwa.

6 bou de diz wi mwa, j'é yu de masônder é i m'a 55

fèt la tôm. de masônder, sa sèt de mdun ki fé de la masô, ki fé dé muray. de masônder. i m'a ... iy é vèni, i m'a èstimé. i m'a di pour fèr la tôm alé'm kouté twa sâ swasât dôlar.

é vê dolar pour avwèr la pèrmisyô de la fèr. é 60

douz gouad pour met la fds la, pour âtèré la pèrsbn. é i m'a fèt la tôm è j'é âvwdyé you

"john thomas." é "john thomas" m'a ada de môrso'd pyèr de porto rik ... de marb. ô kri den marb é 268 oe kri sa oen pyèr. é avèk so no ... i m'a di 65 pour âvwoyé le nô su oe papyé, la dat é tout son

aj. é oe m'âvwoyé ... dâ tchêz jour j'é yu le môrso'd marb de porto rik. é le mèm ki m'a fèt la

tôm, i m'a ... iy été ... m'a mèt le môrso'd pyèr

su la ... kôm sa oe m'di, mèm j'achèt pa le môrso'd 70

tèr la tôm poe rèsté la pou katre vê âné. oe poè

pa fèr ayê pour fer ... mèt âyê pour fouyé la tôm.

la tôm é fèt â "concrete" avèk dé fèr k'é dâ la

masur. j'é mi oen èstatu. sé sa fidjêl k'i y'a

dôné. sé sa fidjèl. sa fidjèl sèt oen non. al 75

été isit 6 kOLivâ. la syèn ki a la kaz a féliks,

sé sa soer. é mou mari é sa mèr .... é kouzin.

kôm sa, al a oen soel fiy. kât al é né, oel a pri

mou mari pour sa pare. al é vèni oen soer astoer.

al é oen nôn. ô kri sa â frâsé, oen soer. al èt 80

oen soer. a rès 6 kouvâ. al été a l'âmérik fèr

sé choz pour vèni oen so*er. sé voe. é astoer al èt

isit. a "teach" a l'ékôl. é kât mou mari ôté malad

.... é tout apré'k sa vyé dâ le mwa'd novâm pour la

fèt dé môr k'oe kri, je la fé pêturé. é j'ajèt dé 85

floer noev é je mé su. é kôm sèt oen "sizewalk"

k'oe kri sa, 6ti k'é sa fôs dâ'l simityèr la ... dé

difèrât plas ke le môun pas é sé tout fèt â masô.

é le moun pas pour la pli. é tout ki pas, oe

rasurvéyé la tôm é di'k la tôm ... al a twa. al é 90 269 fèt sur twa râ, ou kôné a la twa râ. le râ é plu ho, le mitâ'd la fôs. le râ plu peti jusk'a sa vyê ô dèrnyèr padsu, kôm oen ti plat. é astoer, kôm oel a mi le môrso pour mèt la pyès âsâm kôm ho kôm sa é le môrso vyê byê joli. sèté bô pour mwê kôm sa. je fèr 95

... je va tou lé dimâch su sa tôm na'k chwi ... su malad, je poe pa aie. kât i fèt sa nésâs, j'ii don oen m è s . kât sa vyê pour nôèl, j ’y don oen mes. kât sa vyê pour la dat k ’iy é môr, j'y don oen mès. fo dir tou lé sâmdi 6 swèr, je li mé doe lumyèr a 100 l'égliz. dé tit lumyèr pour di ses chak. del a lé lumyèr k'oe va oen gouad. dé ti bouji. di ses chak pour oen tit lumyèr. é oel a dé gro bouji ki don .... dde lumyèr. a brui pour la .... sâmdi. a fini le sâmdi d'apré. sa lumyèr dur wi jour. si je 105 pde pa atoen pour oen gros, je wé dôe petit.

Text 28 achté du pwésô (M.T. Sla 309-319) yèr kôm che'té a vil, je m'èt arèté su l'as. d"el 1 ave oen kâtité'd pwésô. je demâdé a Iwi pour ma van den ô doê. i m'a chwézi sék bél rouj . sôté byè gra. je swi sur k'oe va fer den bôn sôs. ka je l'oré réparé ... ami k'i é paré, tu vde vèni 5 diné avèk mwê? aswèr? sé byê. mâ vé't vwèr plu tar. 270

Text 29 mari a let (M.T. 14b 605-638) ma va vou rakâté pou'z vyay fâm la. sêtét oen 1 vyay fâm newer, me a resté dâ'l karénaj. sèté kom oe moun de karénaj mèm. é al avé oen vyay vach, oe la kriyé "la vach a madlay." é tou lé mate k'a tiré sa vach, a vèné dâ'l karénaj ak oe 5 ti boukit. é tout dé demi boutèy de lèt. é oe vâdé sé tit boutèy de lèt la, sêk ses. é navé'k soelmâ lez âfâ k'êté byê malad dâ sé ta la ké pové avwèr ê ti choz. pas navé pa'd lèt du tou a trouvé, mè .... ôti k'èl ... k'al avé yu, se 10 vyay vach la k'a sôyé la ho su'l morn, kom sa, le moun la kréye, sèté la vyay vach a madlay pour fèr oen rizèt. lé fâmiy été si pov. na'k léz âfâ k'èté byê malad, ki powé avwèr oe ti gou'd lèt. é sèté sêk sês par dèmi boutèy. é a vâdé oen 15 dèmi boutèy de lèt a chak fâmiy. sé kom lé poul. navé pa otâ'd poulé pour layé kom ojoadi. sé pour reyê. sé pour ayê mèm astoer la vyân de poul, léz oef. mè sèté si rar dâ sé tâ la. navé k'ê moun k'èté byê malad, 6 dèrnyé mèm, ki pouvé atrapé, 20 pouvé ... pour achté oen tit poul pour fèr oe ti

"bouillon soup," pour lé soutèni.

Text 30 o e maryaj 6 karénaj (M.T. 14b 388-406) dâ l'aprémidi apré le déjoêné tout le moun avé 1 271 mâjé. léz âfâ sasâblé, tout la joenès. oe foezé

lé dâs rôn. ê garsô é en fiy, ê garsô é en fiy

jusk'a tâ k'ôn avé oe grâ dâs rôn. é oe châté, é bê tout lé tit koulibèt frâsé k'oe châté. de pasé 5

oen bôn aprémidi. tout léz âfâ âmuzé si byê. i

navé pa'd batay. oe s'âmuzé byê. oe loer dôné de

la limônad é du bôbô. oe châté, oe dâsé, tout

l'aprémidi. é lé grâ moun ... âdâ'd la kaz, oe

rakôté déz istwa. lé fâmiy se râkôtré. oe parlé. 10

sa se pasé si byê dâ sé jour la. navé ôtchoe kôt

ât le moun. i navé .... si k'i navé oe maryaj

dâ'l karénaj, tout la fâmiy vèné 6 maryaj. tout

lé mo’un été rêprézâté mèm si oe 6 doe. mè tout le moun vèné 6 maryaj. sètét ên choz ,.. sètét ên

sèlibrasyô pour la kômunoté âtchèr.

Text 31 lë pèchoer d'avâ (D.D. 15a 1-87)

sa sèté dé mové parlé su lé pèchoer d'avâ, lé syê 1 ki fèzé la pèch. avâ mâ poè se raplé kom chu'tèt

oen tit tit fiy. mâ se raplé ... ke lé nas k'oe

foézé sèté pa kom astoer. astoer oe lé fé dâ lé waya. sé plu ézé. é se plu fasil é lé nas dur 5

plu Iota ... astoer. mè avâ tout sa k'ô foézé,

sètét avèk du bwa dé lyân k'oe foezé lé nas. é mwa, je me mèté la défwa avèk mou défê grâ. é je m'asizé la kom den tit fiy é je lé véyé fèr lé nas.

i tiyé lé lyân. mwa j'alé avèk li é ma défêt grân 10 272 dâ lé bwa. ôn aie dâ le bwa proemyé. mwa, je le vwoyé kômâ k'i prâdé sô koutla é i koupé sé gro pyé'd bwa la é i koupé lé lyân. i koupé tout choz.

é mwa, j'voulé vwèr kômâ k ’i fèzé sa? é'd lapré i mduté dâ lé pyé'd bwa ke prâdé déz âmar, déz âmar 15 kréôl. sa sé sa k'oe fèzé lé ... lé ... âmaré lé nas. é oe fèzé la kôrd pour laké lé nas dâ la mèr. mè astoer sé du "nylon rope" é tout choz dé kord â nilô k'oél a astoer. sa dur plu lôtâ. mè dâ's tâ la, mâ sasizé kôm oen tit fiy. li iy été avèk sa 20 bouch plê'd tabak. é i maké. é j'ie vwoyé maké, maké tout le tâ. é tâdi k'i maki, li travayé, travayé su sé nas é mwa j'halé pa méz yoe d'su li pour mwé véyé sa k'èté k'i fèzé. susk'a tâ k'iy a fèt, iy a fèt susk'a tâ ma na vu kômâ sé asâblé la 25 nas. é asâblé la nas, iy a kômasé a 1'âmaré avèk léz âmar kréol. i le mèté a trâpé dâ'd l'o. so k'oe kasé pa. é'd lapré iy a prâdé, i arâjé lé nas.

é i prâdé lé lyân pas mwa, je l'édé. je prâdé ...

je prâdé dé ti kouté é je sasizé é je fèzé kom li 30

fezé. je lé tiyé pour li é je lé ... lé fèzé byê pour ... chuska j'halé tout la po de lé lyân pour

li 1'avwèr, pour li arâjé dé nas. é j'halé ... no ... je vwoyé kom k'i fèzé la kord. i mèté lé morso dâ séz ortèy é'd lapré iy a komâsé a travayé, 35

travayé, travayé la kord. é kom k'i navé oen ti 273 blôk de kôrd, apré k'iy avé oen blôk de fadôm ... kômâ k'ô di sa â frâsé. dé ... mè "anyhow" mâ vé kôprân. s6 kôm k'ôn alé, iy aie, i travayé,

travayé su la kôrd. kôm k'iy avé asé pour oen nas, 40 mwa'j le vwoyé, prâdé la kôrd. i la doublé, i

1'âmaré, i'I mèté la. i prâdé la nas é iy alé la mèt a trâpé su l'âs ... dâ l'o'd mèr. é kôm iy été

paré pour sânalé, i sânalé avèk lé kôrd. oèl âmaré

la nas é oè lak la nas é oè la kité la pour êl prân 45

du pwésô. mè sé kalité'd lyân la é sé kalité'd kôrd

la oè duré pa lôtâ. oe duré kôm défwa poètet ê twa

mwa kôm sa, ê kât mwa, pas k'oe pourisé dâ la mèr.

l'o'd mèr lé pourisé ... la, la ... lé lyân é i

pourisé léz âmar kréôl. mè sôté for pour la kalité 50

déz afèr, dé bwa, sôté byê for. é oè prâdé du pwésô

é dâ se tâ la, tu poè avwèr du pwésô si bô marché.

mè astoer sé si chèr astoer. ên g'wad la liv astoer,

ên g'wad é vê sêk sês la liv. é dâ se tâ la ô powé

avwèr di sês, sêk sês du pwésô, di sês, tchêz sês 55

du pwésô, é sètét oen blôk plus k'ô pouvé mâjé.

ô lé salé. ôn avé trop. ô lé salé. é défwa oe nou

dôné oe dot ti pwésô pardsu âkôr. so léz afèr

été byê bô dâ se tâ. sèté pdv, mè sôté byê b ô . ôn

atrapé déz afèr byê marché é tout vivé byê é tout. 60

oe vâdé tout lé pwésô, oèl avé tâ pour sapozé. oe

travayé âkôr lé ... dé jour su lé tit nas pour mèt 274 dehor. 6 défwa oel alé pèche. oel alé péché avèk dé lign. oel alé dâ lé grâ bâ. sa sé pour dé gros karâg, dé bânik. navé dé "hardnose" k'oel avé k '6e 65 kriyé. é navé dé karâg, navé dé bânik, navé du kola. tout sa k'oe prâdé. sa sèté du pwésô. é ô bouyé ... ma défêt ... ma défêt mèr bouyé, bouyé. é mwa, ch'èmé du pwésô. tout nouzot èmé du pwésô avèk

dé fig vèrt, avèk dé patat dous é dé tâyâ. ô fèzé 70

du ri blâ. ma défêt mèr, kôm k'oe dizé, zâfâ vèné

.... pour vot soupé 6 vôt diné. é si'k sèté du pwésô,

tu vwoyé dé fig vèrt su oe kôté, lé patat su l'ot, é

oen gros choyèr, oen gros marmit de ri blâ. é kôm k'ô

se mèté dâ sa, apré k'ôn avé fini, tout not vât été 75

plê. ô pouvé pu mâjé âkôr. ôn avé pour alé jouwé oe

ti béké pour kité's mâjé la désân. é'd lapré sa ...

sa sèté le kôt de lé moun avâ. mè astoer sé difèrâ,

pask'astoer lé nas ki sô ki fé astoer, sèt avèk du

waya. é oe dur lôtâ. é oe mé du "steel" padsu, 80

é'd lapré oe mé lé lyân kôm avâ mè difèremâ. su sé ...

déz afèr k'e plu péyoer k'avâ. é oe dur plu lôtâ.

oe fé pluz d'arjâ avèk lé nas. é la kord k'oe uz

astoer, sé la kord k'é fèt â nilô. é sa vyê'd

sê bart. sô sa dur byê lôtâ, byê lôtâ dâ l'o 85

avâ k'oe lé répar âkor. si'k le tâ va pa ak lé nas,

ôtchoe lé prâ pa, ôe pde fèr ên blok d'arjâ ak lé

nas. é ôe lé lak ... oe va lé laké avèk ... avâ 275 oe le lake avèk du "fry/'du pistchèt. oe le laké avâ avèk du pistchèt. sa sé sa'k ... de ma kônès 90

... mâ, mâ, je kôné, l'avâ sèt avèk du pistchèt k'oe lé laké avâ. mè oe lé lak astoer avèk du pistchèt, mè oè lé lak avèk du pwésô rôti. oè lé lak avèk du p ê . é oe lé lak avèk du p ê . oe lé lak avèk du bôbô. tout sa k'oè pouvé avwèr, oè 95 lé lak. é oè prâ ên blôk de pwésô. oe lé van léz

ôtèl. lé gro, gro pwésô, oè lé van léz otèl. sô astoer, oel a "still" ... oè "still" lé prân é lé vân ên blôk. mè avâ, mwa, che l'èmé avâ plu méyoer k'astoer. 100

Text 32 pdrté de 1*6 (D.D. 15a 87-148)

é b ê , dâ's tâ la pour pôrté'd l'o ... l'o été rar. 1 l'o été byê rar. dèfwa la pli toebê pa si souvâ ê on ave dur pour avwèr de l'arjâ, pour avwèr de l'ô. mè ô fèzé not kôt. i navé dé pi, dé gro pi. ôn alé halé'd l'o. mè défwa ôn espéré l'aprémidi tar. 5

ô'I mate. pas le pi ... se levé ... 1'6 se levé

âdâ. on atrapé st'o la. sa, ô nétiyé, ô nétiyé le plâché pas le plâché sèté tout â bwa. é ô nétiyé

difèrmâz afèr. mè ô prâdé la tit béké d'ô ki toebé

du syèl. la tit béké d'ô k'èté bô pour bwèr, sé sa 10

k'ô sôvé. défwa ôn atrapé'd la goutyèr de la pli.

ô sôvé sa dâ ê bariy. avâ sèté dé bariy fèt â bwa. 276 sôté fèt â bwa. sé dâ sa ... aprè k'ôn a nétiyé byê's bariy la é ô'I kouvèr byê, l'ô été kôm de l'ô de la sitèrn k'èté fèt â simâ. sèté byê bô. mè kôm 15 k'ôn avé pa ... ôn avé du môun k'èté, ki se kôté, ki sôté dé moun a byê viv. oel avé dé sitèrn mè oè rèsté si Iwê. ôn avé pour prân dé pan a Iwil. lé pan a

Iwil ... oe pôrté du Iwil dedâ .... le Iwil a lâp sa k'oè brouyé pour pôrté dedâ. sô oe prâdé lé pan, 20 koupé le padsu é byê lé kôyé é lavé la pan é ô prâdé sé pân la, ôn alé susk'ô "gut a bûchai." é sa sèté Iwê wi nôt kaz. bûchai, sé le syê ki ... k'avé la tèr. le syê k'avé la tèr, ki nou louwé la tèr. é sèté byê

Iwê é pour oen tit fiy kôm mwê, j ' fèzé byê ma tit 25 parti, ma mâmâ é ma défêt grân pôrté dé pân a Iwil é mâ, je pôrté dé tit pân. mè'd lapré ke che vèné oen tit béké plu grân, je pôrté dé pân a Iwil ôsit. me a motye. e on aie Iwe, Iwe, Iwe e on atrape l'o.

ô pôrté é ô'I kouvèr. é ô fèzé si byê atâsyô a 30 s'ti béké de l'o la pas sé sôel ... s'ti beke soelma pour nouzot bouyi é bwèr. mè ôn alé halé l'ô dâ'l pi pour nouzot se bêyé, pour nouzot lavé'l plâché é nétiyé difèrmâz afèr. sèté byê dur pou'd l'o d'avâ. me tout alé byê pask'ô prâdé byê swê de notz afèr 35 k 'ôn avé. tout sa k'ôn avé, ô prâdé'd le môun d 'avâ.

ô prâdé byê swê. astoer, le môun d'astoer sâ fou pa mal, pask'astoer lé syèn k'a'd l'arjâ, tout sa k'oel 277 a astoer, oe va ... oel a dé plas pour lavé dé pla. tu vwa sa k'oel a astoer, dé machin pour lavé dé 40 pla. you k'ôn avé dé machin, avâ on avé pa'd machin. sa k'ôn avé, dôe pan pour lavé é rêsé. défwa ô mâjé

é ô bwé dâ dé ti kou. s6 sa sèté pa dé bô pla k'ô mâjé. mè ôn été byê ôerôe dâ se tâ la. é byê, ô porté'd l'o sur la tèt. sèté byê difisil. la tèt 45 fèzé mal mè ô fèzé ên tôrtchèt, ên tôrtchèt de twèl

é ô mèté dâ not chapô so'k sa ... la pân a Iwil nou fèzé pa mal a la tèt. s6 ô fèzé den tôrtchèt.

ô'I mèté dâ la tèt. sô sèté byê difisil mè ô lèmé sa. mwa, je lèmé byé alé avèk ma défêt grân 50 pas vôyé dé plas ke j'avé jâmé vu. é je vôyé kômâ'k léz afèr alé. sô mâ di, oen sé jour la poetèt mwa je poura dir a méz âfâ kômâ'k, mwa, je l'avé si dur. é sé sa k'èt arivé astoer. mwa, je ki di a méz âfâ. défwa ôe 'm kwayé pa. mè i na 55 dôt vyoe mdun ke défwa ma se trouv a pasé you ôe,

é mv/ê pari de sé vyôe tâ la. é ôe di "ô mâmâI " mè sé la vérité, w i , tout sa'k tu nouz a di. sé byê, byê la vérité, mâ di, "mâmâ, vouz a jâmé mâti é sé pa k'astoer ke mâ vé mâti . " 60

Text 33 alé najé (D.D. 15a 149-197)

é bê, kôm j'èté petit, sa sèt den ôt tit istwa 1 ke kôm k'ôn alé bêyé. astoer oel a dé gros plas 278 ke tu va bêyé. mè avâ navé pa grâ choz de plas. sèté tout dé rôch, tout de gravyé é tout choz k'èté la. é navé tout kalité de ... le marché 5 k'èté pa bô pour nouzot alé dedâ. s6 tu konésé k'oe fèzé? oel a ... da's tâ la sèté dé kânou k'oel avé. astoer sé dé bot k'é rô. mè

avâ sèté dé kâno. é kom tu sasizé dâ sé kâno

la, i falé'k tu sasizé drèt, étremâ tu t'alé 10

su'l kôté. é tu pouvé alé dâ la mèr. ê i navé pa grâ choz ki konèsé najé. i navé dé vyoe ki konèsé najé oen tit béké. mè lé plu jôen kom mwê, che'té joen, je konèsé pa najé si byê.

sô oe prâdé byê prékôsyô ke lé petit k'ètét 15

alé dâ se kânô la. ôn aie kôté'd "v/ater island" k'oe kri susk'astoer, sé'l nô. le mèm nô. ôn

alé é ôn alé su dé tiz ... tit ilèt pour nouzôt bêyê. é ôn alé dâ'z bot la. ô porté dekwé pour

bouyi. ô porté dé sèrvyèt. ô porté déz hâmok 20

pour nouzôt âmaré dâ lé pyé'd bwa. é ô sasizé

é ô prâdé l'èr. é'd lapré kom ô èt fatigé ...

kom ôn été fatigé, ô sasiz'é ô prâdé'd l'èr.

mè'd lapré k'ôn alé, ô mèté dâ ... sé pa kom

avâ ... astoer. astoer ôel a loer had de 25

bêyé. tu konèsé tout kalité'd mod astoer, mè

avâ ô bêyé dâ dé rob. é léz ôm bêyé dâ lé tchulot.

sé pa kom astoer, tu wé tout loer kor é déhôr. mè

avâ sèté pa kom sa. ô bêyi dâ not rôb, ô bêyé ... 279

é apré ... kom k'ô rât, ô moâité pour nouzot alé 30 châzé nôt had, i falé k'ôn alé Iwê dâ lé bwa pour nouzot châzé nôt had. lé bway alé d'oe koté, lé fiy alé dâ l'ot. léz ôm alé dâ de kôté, lé fâm alé dâ l'ot. é oe halé loer had, oe lé châzé é'd lapré kôm k'ôn été paré pour nouzôt sânalé, ô 35 sânalé a la kaz âkôr. mè sèté byê bô dâ se tâ la. kôm k'oe dizé, ô va alé su l'ilêt. ô v'alé su l'ilèt astoer. é kôm j 'atâdé ma défêt grân é ma défê .... fé tô travay de bônoer é ôn é ki va su l'ilèt. che'm levé si bônoer é j'agardé pour 40 mwê nétiyé tout l'âdrèt pour mwê mèt tout léz afèr dâ dé plas k'oe mérité dét. é'd lapré ô's préparé tout nouzôt. é ôn alé poetèt défwa twa, kat pirôg k'alé. je wé pa sé kalité'd bôt la âkôr kôm dé kânô. ôn alé défwa avèk la vwèl, défwa ôn alé ke 45

... oel avé déz avirô. sa prâdé pa si lôtâ. sa prâdé de pu pré doe ... kôté de karénaj alé su l'ilèt, sa prâdé poetèt oen dèmi oer kôm sa. é bê, navé l'âs kôkôyé, l'âs tâmarê, navé l'âs ô zâmar, l'âs a galé, l'âs a sab. tout kalité'd zâs k'oel avé. léz ilé 50

... sé Iwê. oe va péché la, prâ du pwésô.

Text 34 le katôrz de juyét (D.D. 15a 198-254)

é bê avâ dâ lé tâ k'é pasé, déz âné, déz âné, oel 1 avé ... navé pa grân choz de moun, kôm che di, dâ 280 mou tâ â vèni oen tit fiy. navé pa grân chôz de kaz, navé pa grân chéz de moun. mè la tit béké k ’i navé, oel alé kôm k ’oel atâdé ke sèté le 5 katôrz de juyèt. tout se mèté ... ô fèzé ... ô's mèté tout âsâm. bel avé dekwé pou bwèr, bel avé dekwé pou mâjé. bel avé dé dâs dâ'l mitâ de la ru. é défwa oe tiré sé kalité d'artifis la â l'èr. de tout koulber. oe lé tiré â l'èr. sèté byê bel. 10 kôm oe tiré sé marchâ la â l'èr, mwa dizé a ma défêt grân, mâ li demâdé, mâ di, "gâgân, kbmâ ké ... tchèl kalité'd zafèr k'ê sa k'é si bèl k'oe chèt dâ l'er?" a d i , "sa sé déz artifis." sa sé sa k'oe chèt dâ léz afèr le jour de nôwel, le swèr 6 le 15 jour'd l’a, ô ’I katôrz de juyèt ô défwa a la mèz de mare kôm k ’oe léz avé dâ ... sa vyê’d sêm bart. la mès de mare. sa sê sa k'é .... de sera bart déz

âné, déz âné ava'k tout chéz été komâsé isit. sètét ben mès. oen mès k'oel avé ... dé marê. é 20 lé mare, sé lé solda é tout choz k'é vèné isit ...

ê tout. sa sé sa k 'be kriyé la mès de mare, mè sa sé le katôrz juyèt. lé tit fiy sabiyê avèk lé bel tit rôb lôg. sôtét abiyé â rouj, blâ é blbe.

lé rob été si bel. sôtet arâjé bèl ê o e vèné 25

grâd â ba a loer jènou ... a loer pyé. sôté si bel ... kôm k ’oè dâsé, lé rôb se tôrné, la twèl

se tôrné, oel a sablé bèl. dâ loer choevoè oèl avé 281

dé très k'oe fèzé avèk loe choevoe e loe ... mete

tou'l ro é rô'd lo'er tèt. ê sa sablé si bèl. oe 30 mèté dé floer dâ la tèt. é oel a ... dâ se tâ sèté

si bel- ma'j kwé'k se tâ la va jâmé arvèni âkor. oe ... astoer oe di, é be, se le katôrz juyèt, sé pa si byê kom avâ. avâ sèté plu méyoer. na'astoer

ke l'âmérityê a pri set toma, tu va navwèr doe ô 35

twa ki va dèt la, ke va bwèr. oe va châté. de va

dâsé é tout, mè avâ sèté plu ... sèté tout le moun

frâsé ki's mèté dâ'l karénaj. é dâ le nor, le nor

you'k lé frâsé été. le nor, w i . défwa de kité du

nor é vèné ist'âba é nouzot kité de st'âba, ôn alé 40

dâ'l nor. é oe jouwé avèk tout le ... del avé

tout kalité'd dâs. é de avé dé dâs âba dâ'l

karénaj. tout dâ lé ru. tout partou de dâsé. sèté,

i fo dir, kom oen karneval k'oel avé. kom tu vôyé

le katôrz juyèt, sé kôm oen karneval k'oel a astoer. 45

mè sé soelmâ k'oe navé pa grân choz de mcdun. i

navé doe ô twa person de la vil ki vèné, mè de vèné

pa kôm oenpil, pas i navé pa den blôk de mdun.

sèté ... dâ mou tâ a mwê ... sèté ... dé ... k'èté

plu vyoe. de vèné é del èmé se tâ la. del èmé ke 50

le katôrz vèni. mè sèté byê bèl. sé kôm ke ...

la mèm choz kôm le kat de juyèt- sa sèt âmérikyê.

é bê, le mèm choz kôm sa. 282

Text 35 la muzik du karénaj (D.D. 15a 255-330)

ê be lez afer k'oe jouwé astoer pour awjèr dé bal, 1 le muzik ... la muzik, sé pa kom astoer k'oél a tout kalité'd zafér pou la muzik k'oe kri astoer oen "orchestra." mé avâ sa k'oél avé poétét doe morso'd bwa k'oé koyê âsâm. i navé oe wiro k'été 5 fet dâ cen gouwaj , avék cT^n gouwaj chés. de la mete choesë. é apré k'al été chés, chés, de koupé avek oe morso'd égohin. oen êgôhin. de koupé lé da. é'd lapré oel avé sa, sa foesê den bdn muzik. sa sété le ... oe kri la "squash" astoer. w i , sétét 10 oe wirô. ê lapré oel avé de tâbour. dé pradé de ti bariy, oe p'ti bariy. de prâdé dé ddé morso é de lé halé. sô oe foezé le rô. del aplati kom dé boutèy a limônad, le kouvèr. dél aplatisé sa avék oe martô. del aplatisé sa byê. de fwouyé de trou'd 15 dâ. oe mété dâ se bwa la é'd lapré del alé 6 pak you k'oe twé lé kabri, léz ânimô. é del alé ô pak. mwa, je poé se raplé si byê. oel alé, del atrapé dé po déz ânimô. défwa dé pô'd bdef ô dé pô'd kabri, sa k 'de pouwé aviver, mé lé pô'd kabri, je kwé byê, sété 20 plu méyoer k'oél avé ... mé de mété sa chdesé. é oé'l lavé byê, de '1 propté . de prâdé du "sandpaper,"

é dé byé nétiyé. é de foézé, oé'l mét a trâpé é'd lapré ke s'été trâpé poetèt doé ô twa jour, oé véné, oé'l mèté dâ's kouvèr la, "the drum." den dé bariy. 25 283

Oe '1 mèté é'd lapré oe prâdé se ti morso de ... oel avé dé ti trou su'l kôté, su lé kôté avèk lé kouvèr'd limônad. é oèl arâjé. é kom k'oe komâsé a bat su sa, sa sèté bèl. sa sèté byê bèl. oe'l kriyé'1 tâbour.

é "now" astoer oel avé l'akordéo. l'akordéo été si 30 bèl. sa sèté plu bèl ke tout. sa sé sa ki don la muzik. é tu koné avèk la tâbour, l'akordéo, le wirô,

le doe morso'd bwa k'oe koyé. sa sèté plu méyoer muzik ke sa k'oel a astoer. sa èksist dâ le vyoe moun kom ... méto, l'âdwèt ke mwé va le sâmdi mate. 35

é bê, oel a sa susk'a ... pa l'akordéo. oèl a dâ la plas de l'akordéo, astoer sé dé gitad ... k'oel a. me avâ navé dé gitad ôsit. mè lé kalité'd gitad,

sé ... oel a ... so pa kom lé syèn d'avâ. tu wé lé

syèn d'avâ été difèrmâ ke lé syèn d'astoer. poetèt 40 k'oe navé ên ô doe dâ'l karénaj, k'avé oen gitad, oen tit gitad. é sa doné oen muzik prèsk ôsi méyoer ke lé syèn d'astoer. lé châsô, sa sèt oen chôz ke

che prâdé pa a dir pour châté. châté poetèt doe ô

twa mô, tu koné'k je dizé. mè navé dé boz ô ... 45

marchâ. oe châté kom i navé ... ki dizé "su le po

de pari." i navé oen ke dizé "su le po de pari"

k'oe châté. é oe'l châté toujour k'i navé oen bal.

oe komâsé "su le po de pari." sa sètét oen bèl. é

no, je'l kôné pa tou. mè sètét oen bèl châsô "su 50

le pô de pari." navé oen blok difêrâmâ ke ... pa 284

si lota, oe pu pre twaz â pasé avâ'k le vyoez ôm é môr ... sa sé le mari, le dôezyèm mari de ma grân.

avâ k'iy é môr, pas sé mwa ki'l sôyé, mwê li dizé,

"louwi" ... me i konèsé pa an agis mè pa ênpil. i 55

vyê de sêm bart. mwê dizé, "louwi, mè tu se rapêl

de sé vyoe châsô la k 'de châté a sêm bart." i di,

"si'k je rapèl? mwa se rapèl ên blôk, mè tu kôné,

che ki vyê byê vyoe astoer. môun idé é pa su sa

astoer. mè i navé tâ de bèl châsô k'oe châté." 60

mwe dizé, "è b ê , tu kôné dé kâtik?" i dizé, "wi,

je kôné j'iré la vwar ê jour." sa sé "j'iré

vwar mari, mwé jwa zê mon amour, ô syèl, ô syèl,

ô syèl. j'iré la vwar ê jour." apré k'i kômâse

a parlé, mwê li dizé tout chôz, mè s'ôbliyé'd 65

titz afèr k'i dizé, komâ li demâdé. mâ ki dizé.

navé en blok mè je poe pa se raplé astoer. mè i

dizé en blok.

Text 36 kômâ'k le moun d'avâ biyé (D.D. 15a 331-488)

ë bê, lôtâ pasé, mâ se rapèl kôm léz ôm é lé fâm, 1

oe sabiyê avâ. lé vyay fâm oel a sablé si byê.

sé pa astoer. oe ... défwa ôe march nu tèt é

défwa ôe march avèk ê chapô'd très, mè avâ sèté

dé kalêch k'ôe biyé. ôe biyé dé kalêch é you'k 5

tu nâ voyé oen, tu voyé tout pas tout sabiyê la

mèm chôz. sèté ... sèté ... tu pové dir, é b ê , 285 sèté dâ'l karénaj, dâ'l karénaj you k'èté lé frâsé. pas kom tu nâ voyé oen, é bê, tu pové dir,

é bê, sa sé le karénaj pas you'k t'alé tu voyé ke 10 sôté tout abiyé la mèm chéz. sôté tout abiyé. lé fâm défwa dâ's tâ la, oe marché nu pyé. oè mèté pa'd soulyé. oel avé dé soulyé. oè prâdé lé soulyé, oe lé agardé pour ... lé soulyé soelmâ kom k'oel alé a l'égliz. é défwa oel alé a l'égliz 15 sâ soulyé. mè i na ki mèté lé soulyé pour alé mè oel avé dé ... lé fâm sabiyê dâ lé kalêch ... dé kalêch blâch. sèté si bèl, sèté ... apré k'oe mèté sa su loè tèt, le solèy léz ataké pa. le solèy pouwé pa révé la figyur pour oèl atrapé dé bréloèr du solèy. 20 oèl atrapé pa sa. oèl avé lé kalêch. lé kalêch

été si bèl. ma lé véyé, kôm j'èté joen, ma lé véyé dâ sé kalêch la. sôté bèl. oè biyé dé rôb twa kar. sa arivé pa susk'âba a loer pyé. é'd lapré oèl avé ... oè mèté ... sôté tout ... toujour 25 abiyé avèk ... tabliyé. oèl avé oe tabliyé. oèl

âmaré le tabliyé devâ. oè mèté le tabliyé ... mè le tabliyé, sé pa kôm astoer. le tabliyé été 16, dé lô tabliyé. sôté présk la lôdjoer'd la rôb. mè sèté la môtyé'd la rôb pour soelmâ, pour kouvèr le 30 devâ k'oe salisé pa la rôb. sôté ... défwa oèl avé dé rôb nwèr é blâ. é défwa dé kouloer'd vê . oè biyé pa kôm dé rôb rouj , rouj . oèl avé dé b l o è 6 286 poetèt oen bide vèrt é blâchat. mè del ave pa kôm dé rouj, dé roz é tout pas kôm k'i na den përsôn 35 ki môrisé la a lâba la, oe tchêdé du ddey pour défwa kat, sêk â, oel avé'z doey la. sô del avé ... mè sôté . .. oèl a sablé si bèl kôm sôté toujour avèk le tabliyé é loer rôb lôg é sôté nu pyé. oèl avé pa'd soulyé. oè mèté pa'd soulyé. 40

é oe kréyé pa dâ séz afèr la avèk dé soulyé. paske mwê, j'avé ma défêt bèl mèr ke ... sa sé la mèr de mdun ôm ... mdu mari a inwê. mwa, je poè se raplé kôm èl é môrt. al avé ... tout sé had ... la mèm choz. é sa sé, kit mwê vwèr kômâ d'âné. 45 sa sé twân twaz â . sa sé twân twaz â pasé. é a biyé ... al é mort é al abiyé sé mèm had la. sa kalêch é sé rôb lôg, den rôb nwèr é blâch. de ti ddey. é avèk sô tabliyé. a biyé sa. mè kit mwê dir, kôm a sôrté dâ'l foyur sa figyur été 50 nwèr, sé doe mê été nwèr pask'a bouyé toujou desu du bwa. del alé kuyi dé bwa, dé bwa chés.

a bouyé su sa é la choyèr é la marmit été toujour nwèr. âdâ été prôp, tu kôné, mè, tu kôné, de bouyi avèk sa, sa fèzé lé ... sô al alé toujour 55

avèk sé mê nwèr mè al a gardé, al avé toujour oe

ti môrso'd twèl. a la gardé pa pour al mèt sé mê

su sé had. sô lé hard été byê bèl é sôté tout

... sôté ... é mwa, je lèmé byê dâ sé tâ la. é 287

léz ôm astoer. de biyé dé tyulôt lô. é dé 60

tyulôt lôg, de lé biyé avèk dé bretèl. del avé dé bretèl dâ's tâ la. sa sèté bèl kôm tu voyé du

mdun. é sa'k tu kré ke lé chemiz? lé chemiz, de

lé foezé dâ dé sak a farin blâch. oe foezé l é

chemiz é dé bèl chemizI kôm oe lé mèté a loer 65

lavé. de lé mèté a blâchi. oe voeni blâ, blâ kôm

den gout de lèt. é sôté bèl. oe lé biyé sa. de biyé dé kôsâ, loer had dâsou. sèté fèt de farin blâch paske dâ'l tâ ke mdu pèr, mdu bd pèr é môr

dsit. mâ je lavé dâ ... dâ ... li yé môr de pu 70

pré douz â pasé, douz â pasé k'iy é môr. é sé pa

si lôtâ, fd dir. é i biyé sé tyulôt la ... sé had d'âsou la. é lé tit tyulôt, i lé biyé. sèt

den fâm de karénaj, den frâsèz dsit. sô nô sé

pdlin. é a fé sé kalité'd had la susk'astoer. é 75

sèt èl ki fèzé lé had. ô halé, ôn atrapé lé sak

de farin blâch. kôm k'ô vèné achté ndz afèr, de

lé gardé pour lé sak. avâ de lé dôné kôm sa, mè

ê doe twaz â apré, de kômâsé a lé vân, di sês,

tchêz sês ê sak. é ô léz achté. é ô lé lavé, lé 80

blâchi pour halé lé mark k'èté marké d'su. é'd

lapré oe lé pasé. é'd lapré oel alé l'âvdyè you's

mèm pdlin la. oe la kriyé pdlin a pès. al ê pa

môrt. al é â vi susk'astder. a fe ... a poe dir

... sa dsit. sèt èl ki fèzé. é èl fé se kalité'd 85 288 rèb la, sa k'oe pôrté avâ. lé rôb avé lé mâch lôg. sa sèté lé fâm. mè léz ôm biyé dé mâch lôg dsit. wi, léz ôm biyé dé mâch lôg. dâ se tâ la oel avé dé chemiz byê bô marché, oe prâdé sa ... oe voulé alé achté. kôm i navé sé byê bô marché, oel achté 90 dé chemiz. sa sé défwa pour poetèt alé plus a l'égliz é â vil. mè dâ la kour de uzé sé flânèl la de ... k'èté fèt avèk lé sak de farin blâch. ôe biyé pa de "socks" avâ. oe biyé pa'd sa avâ. ôe mèté soelmâ loer souliyé dâ loer pyé. ôel avé pa'd 9 5 sa. le ba, oe mèté pa'd ba. si k'ôe mèté oen pèr'd ba, tout le môun riyê sur ôe, pask'oen parti avé ôe ba ... a pa. oe mèté pa'd ba. navé plus k'avé pa'd ba. SO kôm k'oe vôyé le môun riyê, de mèté pa sé ba la. oe mèté pa'd ba. oe fouré loer pyé tèl kôm 100 sa, lô'er soulyé dâ loer pyé. oe mèté pa'd ba. é kôm tu lé vôyé sé vyoe môun la marché avèk loer chapô'd très su'l kôté, sa sê dekwé, wi, sa 1 é lé vyay fâm avèk lôe kalêch. sa sèté dé jour. ah, sa sèté dé bô jour ... pour se raplé. mâzé lusi, èl 105 r a s u s k 'astoer. ôe kriyé mâzé. é bê mâzé é mesyôe. mâzé lusi ôe la kri pask'al èt â vi susk'astoer, mè a poe pa w; è r . a poè pa vwèr de séz y ô è . a poè pa vwèr. al èt avôèg. avoêg déz âné astoer. oen bôn vyay fâm, 6 al èt oen bôn vyay fâm: la kalêch, 110 tu l'a vu? sa sé bèl kôm ... tu vôyé k'apré 289 k'oe mèté sé kalêch la, oe pouwé pa vwèr du solèy dâ la fizur ... sô la fidjur été toujour uni. tout loe pô, fo dir, la pô du mcfun kréol avâ, loe pô été toujour uni, léz ôm é lé fâm. 115 loe pô été toujour byê ... oe tchêdé lôe pô byê. sèté byê. sé soelmâ kôm k'oe prâdé ên aj. tu pouwé dir ke sôté vyoe par kômâ ke lôe pô kômâsé a pliyé. tu kôné, ôel avé dé pli, dé pli dâ le ... padsu'd loe tèt, dâ le fidyur, ôra'd 120 lôerz yoe é ôra'd loe bouch. tu pôvé vwèr lé ti pli é âdsu'd la gargônèt é âdsu'd la gôrj. de kômâsé a avwèr dé ti pli. sô tu pôvé vxvèr ke sôté, sèté vyoe. mè del avé dé bôn pô uni. lôe pô été uni mè soelmâ ke l'aj ... sé l'aj ki pôrté 125 sa. oe kouvèr loè pô tout le tâ. loè pô été tout

... kouvèr. sé pour sa k'oè biyé sé rôb lôg la. lé fiy é lé . . . mè lé fiy lé pôrté oen tit béké, pa grân chôz, oen tit béké plu kouwat ke lé vyo è môun. mè sôté pa kôm lé syèn d'astoer. astoer tout chôz 130

èt déhôr. tout chôz é déhôr astô'er. sa sé la vérité, tout chôz é déhôr. APPENDIX B

GLOSSARY

Various words and expressions taken from the dialect texts (see Appendix A) and the various questionnaires

(2.1.4.1. and 2.1.4.2.) have been here arranged in a glos­ sary. As has already been mentioned above (i.e.. Chapter

Six), this compilation does not pretend to be complete.

The principal conventions are as follows:

Abbreviation Meaning

ad] adjective

adv adverb

def art definite article

fn feminine noun

indef art indefinite article

interj interjection

mn masculine noun

pn place name

pron pronoun

va auxiliary verb

var variant

vi intransitive verb

vr reflexive verb

vt transitive verb

290 291

A a (prep), 1. to. 2. marker of possession in

expressions like mon per a mwê - my

father. a see al a (mn), year. abâdôné (vt), to abandon. abarase (vt), to embarrass.

âbarké (vt), 1. to bring on board. 2. to land a

fish. abirna (mn), a man's suit of clothes (i.e., coat

and trousers together). abitud (fn), habit, custom. A. d 'abitud (adv),

generally, usually. B. kom d'abitud

- as usual. abiyé/ var. biyé (vt), 1. to dress, to dress oneself,

A. abiyé byê - to dress well.

(vr), to get dressed, to dress one­

self.

âbrasé (vt), 1. to embrace. 2. to kiss. 292

(vr), to embrace, to kiss. abrune (adj), foggy. A. le ta et âbrunê. - it's

foggy. absé (fn) , abcess.

âbulâs (fn) , ambulance, achapé (vr) , to escape, to get away acharmé (avèk), (vr), 1. to fall in love with.

2. to become infatuated with. e.g.,

i s'et acharmé avek bl„ - he has

fallen in love with her.

âdâ, var. àdcdâ, (adv ), inside, in, e.g., pbrt le

âdâ - carry her inside. (prep), in,

into e.g., je mê la farin âdâ la pân-

I put the flour in the pan. (N.B.

Sometimes occurs in a composite form

âdâ de.) (mn.), the inside of some­

thing . admet (vt) , admit. ador (prep), outside. e.g., vouzot jowe âdbr de la

kaz - you were playing outside the

house. (adv.), outside e.g., chu'té

âdôr la - I was outside there. 293 âdôrmi (vr), to fall asleep.

âd * su, var âdesu, (prep)-, underneath, below. (adv),

below. (mn), the underside of an ob­

ject. A. a d 'su du bra - armpit. adwet (mn), place, spot. af a (mn) , child, baby. A. tiz âfâ - grand­

children. B. âfâ a dehor - illegiti­

mate child (cf. "outside child" in

local English). C. fout den âfâ -

to get someone pregnant. D. atrape

oen âfâ - to have a baby.

âfê (adv), finally. afêr (fn), matter, affairs, business. (N.B.

Occurs almost always in the plural

with an agglutinated /z/ e.g., zafer.)

âfêrmé (vt), to close up. afle (vi), to swell up. (adj), swollen,

âfôsé (vi), to cave in, to fall through. agaje (vt) , to engage, to become engaged to some­

one . agardé, var. argardé, (vt), 1. to look for a means to do 294

something. e.g., mâ vé agardé pour le

fèr - I will look after doing it. 2.

to look at, to watch. agi (vi), to act. agle (mn), the English language, (adj), English.

âgrênê (adj), strained with a hernia,

(mn), age. e.g., tchèl aj ke t'a? - how

old are you?

(mn) , angel. A. âj de mhr - angel fish,

see avèk

âk (fn), 1. ink. 2. anchor.

akalme (vr), to calm oneself down.

akor (adv), again. (N.B. Often used after verbs

with a re- or ar- prefix, acting as an

intensifying element. e.g., iy a

archuté akor. - he relapsed again.)

akordeo (mn), accordion.

akouche (vi), to deliver a baby, to have a baby.

akouraje (vt), to encourage. 295 aksa (mn), accent. aksèpté (vt)r to accept. aksidâ (mn), accident. A. avwèr oen aksidâ - to

have an accident. aksyo (fn), action. alâtour (prep), around, roundabout. (mn), roundabouts

A. alâtour du kbr - the waist. ale (vi), to go. A. ale deryèr tchèkoe - to

chase or pursue someone. B. ale a

kote - to go to the toilette. C. ale

a pech - to go fishing. D. ale la é

isit - to go here and there. E. ale

péché avèk la sèn - to go fishing with

a seine. F. ale vat aryèr - to run be­

fore the wind. alé (fn), walkway between houses, a narrow pas­

sage. alimâ (mn), spices. alimâté (vt), to season with spices, alma (mn), almond nut. almânyé (mn), almond tree, 296 alumé (vt), to light. alumèt (fn), match. am (fn), soul. amar, var. omar. (adj), a particular kind of palm tree

whose fronds are used in making straw

work and fish traps. A. tèt déz âmar

- a sheath of palm fronds. B. âmar

kreol - the particular variety which

is most used in straw work. araare (vt) , 1. to tie up, to moor a boat. 2. to

attach, to fasten. e.g., al a âmaré

oen bel ruba a sa tèt. - she tied a

pretty ribbon in her hair. amase (vt), to gather up. amatoer (mn), 1. owner, proprietor. 2. owner of a

boat. amene (vt), to lead, attract, draw.

âmerik (pn), the United States.

âmêritchê (adj), American. (mn), American, ami ke (adv), when. 297

imityé (fn), 1. friendship. 2. love. e.g., navé

l'âmityë rât së person la - there is

friendship/love between those people.

amour (mn) , 1. love. A. dèt an amour avèk de

moun - to be in love with a person.

B. fer 1'amour - to court.

amuze (vr), to have a good time.

a (n) (prep), in. A. a vil - in town,

âne (fn), year.

a m (mn), anise. A. te d'âni - a tizane made

from anise which is given to babies

for colds.

animal, var animo (mn), animal

ânô ■ (mn), earring,

anoli see zanoli

ânôsé (vt), to announce. A. ânôsé lé bâ de

maryaj - to announce the marriage bans.

ânwiyé (vt), to make lonesome, bored. (vr), to

become lonesome. a-ou (mn), August. (pronounced in two distinct 298

syllables).

apartèni (vi), to belong to.

âpêche (vt), 1. to oppose. 2. to stop or prevent

someone from doing something. apendisit (mn), appendicitis. apeti (mn), appetite, taste. apiye (vr), to support oneself (against something)

e.g., apiy twe bye!- holdyourself up! aplati (vt), to flatten.

âplir (vt), to fill. e.g., 6n apli la ver jusk'a

la djo'el. - we fill the glass up to the

rim. apoze, var. arpoze, (vr), 1. to repose, to put oneself

at rest. 2. to land or perch on some­

thing . apran (vt) , to learn. 2. to teach, apre (prep), 1. after. 2. (adv), after, after­

wards. A. e de I'apre - afterwards,

finally, then. (conj), apre kè - after. apremidi (mn), afternoon. 299 aprôcha (adv), almost, nearly. arache (vt), to pull out, to pull up, arafle (vi), to snore. ara]e (vt), 1. to arrange. 2. to put in order,

A. arâjé la tab. - to set the table.

3. to fasten. A. arâje bèn bouk -

to fasten a buckle. 4. to plan

something. (vr), to agree, to get

along with. e.g., je m'arâj avèk

twé - I get along with you. arajma (mn), 1. arrangement. 2. agreement. A.

dèt an arâjmâ - to be in agreement. archute, var. rarchute, rechuté (vi), to relapse, to fall

back. are (mn), a stop, a ban, aremOute, var. armoute, (vi), to return, to go back

again. e.g., j'e desadu esit ... pour

nouzot aremdute akor. - I came down

here so that we could go back again. arèté (vt), 1. to stop. A. arèt ta bouch! -

shut up I (vr), to stop oneself. 300 areve see reve arfèr (vt) , to re-do, to do over. argardd see agardé arîgné, var. arëgnë, (fn), spider. arive, var. rarive, (vi), 1. to arrive, to come. 2. to

happen, to come about. 3. to turn out

to be.

. /\ arja (mn), money. arkâsyèl (mn), rainbow. (N.B. A rainbow in the north

means misfortune or death; in the east,

good for sailors; in the west, danger

for sailors.) arkitë (vt) , to allow again. e.g., oel a pu voulu

n'arkitë vèni da le karënaj - they no

longer wanted to allow them again to

come to Carenage. armet (vt), to put back, to return something to

its place. armoutre (vt), 1. to show. 2. to teach. armwer, var. armwar, (fn), cupboard, cabinet for dishes,

utensi]s, etc. 301 aroze (vt), to water. A. aroze la gorj. - to

quench one's thirst. artik (mn), article, object. artourne (vi), to return. arveni (vt) , to return, to come back. arvine (vt), to ruin. aryê see âyê

âs (fn), 1. area beside a bay, seaside. 2. by

extension, a beach. e.g., sôté halé su

1'âs - they were hauled up on the

beach. asâblé (vt), to assemble. (vr), to assemble toge­

ther . asë (adv), 1. very. 2. rather e.g., j 'e parti

petit asé'd set bartelmi. - I left St.

Barts very young. (N.B. In all cases

it is employed after the adjective

which it modifies.) asam (adj), together. asi, fern. asiz, (adj), seated. 302 asiz (vr), to sit down, to seat oneself. (N.B.

In the speech of many, the reflexive

nature of the verb is totally lost, the

reflexive prefix being agglutinated to

the stem of the verb. See sasiz) asmatê (adv), 1. this morning. (of. astder.) aSOSye (vr), 1. to associate together. astoer (adv), 1. now. e.g., ma mèr me dize, che ki

di dekwe astder - my mother used to

tell me what I'm telling about now.

2. then, at that time. e.g., me sèté

si malprop astder - but it was so dirty

then. aswer (adv), this evening, tonight. asyet (fn), dish. atak (mn), attack. A. atak de tchder - heart

attack. atan (vt), to hear. A. mal fezê pour atân - hard

of hearing. B. atân parle - to hear

tell of. atanma (mn), hearing. 303 atâsyô (fn), attention. A. fer atâsyo - to pay

attention, to be careful.

âtche, fern, âtchèr, (adj), entire, whole. ated (vt), 1. to reach for. 2. to fetch some­

thing for someone. e.g., ate sa pour

mwe. - reach that for me. (i.e., get

that and hand it to me.) atere (vt), to bury. aterma (mn), 1. burial. 2. funeral. atour (mn), vicinity. e.g., a latour - in the

vicinity. atrape (vt), 1. to get, to acquire. A. atrape

1'arjâ - to make money. 2. to catch.

A. atrape le fyey. - to catch a cold.

3. to have. A. atrape dé tiz âfâ -

to have children. B. atrape se règ -

to have one's menstrual period. atre (vi), to enter e.g., on a âtré le por - we

entered the harbor. atrene (vt), to influence, atrepo (mn), 1. hiding place for contraband liquor. 304 avâ (prep), before. (adv), previously, e.g. iy

a fe de la kaz avâ? - did he build any

houses previously? (conj), avâ or avâ

ke - before. e.g., j'e di wi avâ ke

j'é vu le bway - I said yes before I

saw the fellow.

âvalé (vt), to swallow. avar (mn), 1. a selfish person. 2. a glutton, avâsé (vi), to advance, move forward. avèk, var. ale (prep), with. A. avèk pa - without, aver (mn), 1. the reverse. 2. the wrong side. averti (vt), to warn. avi (ran), opinion, aviro (ran) , oars.

âvirô (mn) , vicinity, approximate area. e.g., da

lez âvirô twaz oer - in the vicinity of

three o'clock. (prep), âvirô de -

approximately e.g., âvirô d'ôz oer - at

about eleven o'clock. avia (adv), here are, there are. e.g., avia la

kadna - here is the lock. 305 avoeg (adj), blind. avôka (mn), avocado pear. avorté (vi), to miscarry (esp. of animals). avriy (mn), April. avwèr (vt and va), to have, to possess, to get, to

acquire. A. avwèr pourt infinitive -

obligation, necessity. e.g., j 'ave

pour ale - I had to go. B. avwèr de

tiz afa - to have a baby (N.B. This

expression is most usually employed in

the present perfect tense where it has

the meaning of "to get, to deliver.")

e.g., al a yu cfe tiz âfâ - she had a

baby. C. avwèr dè akisidâ - to have

accident. D. avwèr dekwé kôsèrnâ cTe

moun - to have it in for a person. E.

avwèr fê - to be hungry. F. avwèr la

fyev - to have a fever. G. avwèr la

kofyas sur tchèkoe - to have confidence

in someone. H. avwèr oen operasyd. -

to have an operation. I. avwer pitye

- to take pity. J. avwèr pie■- to be

full (i.e., food, drink) K. avwèr

swèf - to be thirsty. L. avwèr de 306

mdvé tchder kôt de mdun - to bear a

grudge against someone. M. avwèr la

tou - to have a cough, cold. N. avwèr

den lag tèt - to be intelligent.

0. avwèr dé fresô - to have the shi­

vers, to shiver. avwer (vt) , to send, avyo (fn), airplane. ay (mn), garlic

âyê, var. reye, areyê, (adv), nothing. e.g., i's mèl ak

pèrsôn pour ni troub ... ayê du tou. ■

he didn't get involved in any trouble

with anyone - nothing at all. 307

B ba (mn), hose, sock. ba (mn), 1. bench. 2. fishing bank in the

sea. 3. bans. A. bâ de maryaj -

(N.B. These bans are read in church

three Sundays in a row before the

wedding.) babiyé (vi), to talk excitedly, hurriedly. bâdaj (mn), bandage. A. mèt Ob bâdaj. - to

bandage. bag (fn), ring. bagzoulë (vi), to babble, to mutter. bal (mn), ball, dance. balahou (fn), ballyhoo. A. mâmâ balahou. -

sailfish, swordfish. B. tchatcha

balahou - small edible fish. balâsé (vi), to sway. balen (fn), whale. A. twoer de balèn - killer

whale. 308 bar (fn), 1. a bar, a flat heavy piece of

metal or wood. e.g., bar pour la

port, pour la fenèt - heavy metal

bars which cover a door or window

diagonally and which are secured at

one end with a lock from without.

A. bar du govèrnay - tiller of a

sailing vessel. B. bar du jour -

dawn, daybreak. 2. a place where

alcoholic beverages are served, a

bar. barb (fn), beard.

barbare (mn), goat-fish.

bare (vt) , to close up with a bar, to secure, to

lock. e.g., sote tout ki bare le

kaz - everyone was barring up the

houses.

bariskad (fn), fence.

bariskade (vt), to erect a wall or fence around some­

thing .

baryer (fn), gate of a fence,

bat (vt), 1. to hit. 2. to beat (a child) 309

3. to struggle. (N.B. This mean­

ing occurs only in the expression bat

ta de pen meaning "to struggle, to

have great difficulties.") batay (fn), 1. battle. 2. argument, squabble. batimâ (mn), generic term for any relatively large

maritime vessel. A. batimâ touris -

cruise ship. batisma (mn), baptism. batister (mn), baptismal papers which show parents'

and god-parents' names. batize (vt), to baptize. bato (mn), 1. a sailing boat, usually single­

masted. 2. general term for any

small boat, including those powered

by a motor or oars. batO (mn), stick. bay (mn), occurs in the two expressions bay d '6

and bay a lavé, both meaning a "wash-

tub" . bayé (vi), to yawn. 310 baz (fn), base. (N.B. This term is used in

referring to the former submarine

base on St. Thomas located to the

west of Carenage.) be (adv), occurs only in the expression é bé,

meaning "well". bébêl (mn) , testicles. bégéyé (vi), to stutter. bèk (mn), beak of a bird. beke (fn), a small amount of something. A. oen

tit béké de - some of, a little bit

of something. bel (adj), 1. beautiful, pretty, handsome. 2.

prefix denoting kinship by marriage.

A. bel-fiy - daughter-in-law. B.

bel-mer - mother-in-law. C. bèl-

soer - sister-in-law. béni (vt), to bless. (N.B. One of the few

verbs in STFD which occurs in the

subjunctive. e.g., ke dyoe vou

bénis. - may God bless you.) berse (vt and vi), 1. to swing something. 2. to 311

swing. e.g., jA ki bers dâ mou

hâmôk. I am swinging in my hammock, bèsé (vi), to diminish. bèt (fn), 1. general designation for an insect,

A. bet a mil pye - centipede, one

which is especially large and vene-

mous in the Virgin Islands. bétchên (fn), barracuda. bêyé (mn), a deep-fried pastry made of flour,

i sugar, shortening and bananas. bich (fn), deer. bijoutri (mn), jewelry. bil (fn), 1. bile. 2. automobile, car. biswi (mn), small square cracker. bits (mn), beets. biye see abiyé bla, fem. blach, (adj), white. A. le bla de I'oey - the

white of the eye. blad (fn), bladder. 312 blayé (vi), to boast, to brag. blem (adj), pale. A. vèni blem - to turn pale blese (vt), to injure. (adj), injured. blesur (fn), wound, cut. bloe (adj), blue. blok (fn), a large quantity. A. oen blok de -

an expression of quantity; many,

much. e.g. , i nave en blok de mciun

da se kaz la josef - there were many

people in that house of Joseph. bo (adj), occurs in this corpus only as a pre-

rix to certain kinship terms. A.

bo-per - father-in-law. B. bo-frer

brother-in-law. C. bo-fis - son-in-

law.

bo, fem. bon, (adj), good. A. bo dyoe - the Lord. B,

bo marché - cheap, inexpensive.

bobo (mn), any kind of cake, pastry or cookie,

usually served for dessert.

boef (mn), 1. a bull. 2. cattle in general,

A. joen boef, ti boef - a calf. 313

boer (mn), butter. A. boer a pistach - peanut

butter.

boeyo (mn), intestines, viscera, especially of

fish.

bol (fn) , bowl.

bonik (mn), bonito (fish)

bonma (adv), well, in good order. bonoer (adv), early.

bor (mn), 1. the side. e.g., le bor du kanot

- the side of the boat. A. hôr-bôr

-outboard motor; overboard. 2. the

edge.

bordel (inter]), exclamation of surprise, amazement,

A. oen kaz a bordel - a house of

prostitution.

borgin (inter]), exclamation of surprise or disbe­

lief at what another has said.

borgo (mn), welk, a rock dwelling mollusk which

is considered a delicacy in the West

Indies in general.

bos (fn) , a lum]) or knot caused by internal 314

swelling, bôsu (mn), a hunchback. bot (mn) , 1. boat. A. bot a mdtoer or a

moto - motor boat. B. bot a vwêl -

sailboat. 2. boots, bote (fn) , 1. beauty. 2. a person who is

beautiful. bou, var. bout. (mn), 1. the end or remaining part of

something. e.g., bou de sigarèt -

cigarette butt. 2. the extremity of

an object. A. bou de dwe - finger

tips. B. bou de 1'ôrèy - earlobe.

3. A piece of something. e.g., bou

de bwa - a stick. bouch (fn), mouth. bouché (adj), 1. congested. 2. stopped up. bouchô (mn), bottle stopper, cap, cork. A. halé

le bouchô - to open a bottle. bouchdbr (mn) , butcher. bouchri (mn), 1. butcher shop. 2. butcher's

trade or profession. 315 boude (mn), I. intestines. 2. blood pudding, bouj i (mn), candie. bouk (fn), 1. a buckle. 2. (mn), maie goat

or sheep, a ram. A. fer le bouk -

to make love. boukanèg, var. boukalèg, (mn), red snapper, bouké (vi), to pout, to sulk. boukit (mn), bucket. bouklé (adj), curly or wavy in regard to hair. boulin (fn), boat races. A. boulin de kânôt -

boat races.

bouliné (vi), to race in a sailing boat.

bourjô (mn), twig, a new branch of a bush or tree.

bourjwa (mn), a person who owns a particular item

of property, especially a boat. (N.B.

The property is often in turn rented.)

bours (mn), purse, bag.

boutêy (fn), 1. bottle. 2. jar.

boutik (fn), 1. a small general store. 2. a

grocery store. 316 boutikyé (mn), shopkeeper, small business man. boutô (mn), 1. button. 2. bud of a plant. boutôné (vt), to button. boutônyèr (fn), button-hole. bouwas (fn), old wife fish. bouyi, var. brouyi, (vt), 1. to cook. 2. to boil, bouyo (mn), sauce. bdze (vt), to kiss. bra (mn), arm. A. le grd du bra - the upper

arm, biceps. B. I'adesu du bra -

armpit. brach (fn), 1. stem. 2, branch. brachis (fn), bronchitis. brasle (mn), bracelet. brav (adj), brave. brazir (fn), brassiere. bre (mn), occurs only in the expression oe ti

bre de - little bit, some, etc. A.

oe bo ti brê de - a good, little bit. 317

a modest, but considerable amount, bref (adv), soon. e.g., i va vèni bref - he will

come soon.

bretèl (fn), suspenders.

brike (mn), cigarette lighter.

brize (vt), to break, to shatter. A. brize la

kaz - to burglarize, to break in.

broch (fn), broche, pin. brdey (fn), fish intestines,

brolder var. brulder, (fn), burn. A. brolder du solèy

sunburn.

bros (fn), brush.

brose (vt), to brush.

brouyi see bouyi

brule (vt), to burn. (mn), a burn.

brun (fn), dusk. A. la brun ê ki se fé - it's

dusk.

brutal (adj), extremely rough.

brutalize (vt), to act in a rough, dangerous manner. 318 bufèt (mn), cupboard for food and provisions. buvo'fer (mn), drinker, usually of alcoholic beve­

rages. A. buvder de rôn - rummy. bwa (mn), 1. wood. 2. a bush. A. bwa

mortel - the love bush. (N.B. This

plant produces a succulent leaf over

which water may be poured to extract

a cold tisane. Supposedly improves

kidney ailments. A local folk be­

lief is associated with this plant.

Young girls in love write their

lover's name on a leaf of the bwa

mortel and then leave it in a moist

place. If the leaf sprouts small

roots, then the love will be success­

ful.) B. pye de b w a seepyé. C.

bwa Iwil - a sweet smelling bush the

leaves from which are employed as a

soap in scrubbing and disinfecting. bway (mn), 1. boy. 2. son. (N.B. Occurs most

usually in the expression ti bway.) bwé (fn), floats tied to fishpot lines to show

their location in the sea. 319 bwer (vt), to drink. bweso (fn), beverage, drink. A. kou de bwésô

a drink. bwet (fn), box, cask. bye (adv), well. byèr (fn), beer. 320

CH cha cha see tcha tcha. chagrine (vi), to fuss or quarrel. châjé (vi), to change. e.g., le tâ châj vit -

the weather changes rapidly. (vt),

to change something. A. châjé s6n

idé - to change one's mind. chcim (fn), 1. room. A. cham a dormi - bed­

room. B. châm a maje - dining

room. 2. the hold of a ship. chapô (mn), hat. A. chapo de très - straw hat. charbo (mn), charcoal. charje (adj), occurs only once in the present cor­

pus in the expression a charje - in

charge. charm (adj), charm.

charpâtyé (mn), 1. carpenter. 2. contractor, house

builder, builder in general. 3. a

local bush from which the leaves are

employed to prepare a tea, said to be 321

useful in the healing of colds. charsé (vt), to look for, to search for. A.

charse pour - to look for. chasfâm (fn), 1. midwife. 2. nurse. châso (fn), song. chat (fn), cat. (cf., makou) chate (vt), to sing. chatrou (fn), octopus. (cf., local English

"seacat") chatrouye (vt), to tickle. chef (mn), boss, chief. che see j_e cheme (mn), road, street. cheminé (vi), to travel, to move. e.g., dôné notes

du tâ k'ètê ki chèminê - to give

warning about the bad weather which

was moving into the area. (fn), a

small lamp used while moving about

at night. see lâp a cheminé.

chemiz (fn), shirt. 322 chèr (mn) , dear, darling. (adj), 1. dear.

2. expensive. (adv), expensively,

e.g., sa sete vadu cher - those were

sold dearly. chéri (fn), feminine form of cher. ches (fn), squid. (adj), dry. chese (vi and vt), to dry. cheval (mn), horse. chevluwa (fn), wig, chevde (mn), hair. chëvrèt (fn), shrimp, chez (fn), chair.

chinwer (adj), Chinese, chiye (vi), to defecate.

cho (adj), hot. A. i fe cho - it's hot,

chodo (mn), a hot toddy prepared from beaten egg,

sugar, tea and a small amount of rum

or brandy.

chodyer, var. choyer (fn), heavy iron pot used for stew- 323

ing, which is distinguished from a

marmit in that it has no handles.

A. tit chodyer - small pot of the

same variety. chofé (vt), to heat, to heat up. chôkolat (fn), 1. chocolate. 2. chocolate beve­

rage. chosô (mn), socks. chou (mn), cabbage. chôz (fn) , thing. A. cfen tit choz - some, a

little bit. B. tout choz - every­

thing. (adv), tit choz par tit

choz - little by little, a little

at a time. chusk'a see jusk'a chwezi (vt), to choose, chyé, fem. chyên, (mn), dog. 324

D dâ (mn), tooth. A. mal 6 dâ - toothache,

(prep), in. dabor (adv), first of all. dâjé (mn), danger. dakôr (adj), right, in agreement. A. dèt dakor

avek - to agree with. dânwa (mn), Dane. (adj), Danish. dâs (fn), dance. A. das ron - a dance in

which small children clasp hands and

move in a circle to an accompanying

song. dâsé (vi), to dance. dat (fn), date. dâtèl (fn), lace. datis (mn), dentist. de (prep), 1. of. 2. from. dé , var. âéz_^ (art) , agglutination of the preposition ^ 325

with a following definite article,

The meaning is generally "some." débarasé (vt), to get rid of. debarké (vt) , to unload, debobine (vt), to disengage, remove, detach. débouché (vt), to unstop, to clear the opening of an

object. • debout (adj), upright, standing. e.g., il été

débout devâ sa kouch kom iy ave môri ■

he was standing in front of his bed

when he died. (vi), to stand. e.g.,

débout la da la kwe oe ti mouma -

stand there in the corner for a mo­

ment. dechire (vt), to rip, to tear, dedâ (prep), inside. (mn), the inside. défâdu (adj), prohibited. défê, fem. défêt, (adj), deceased, e.g. mou defè per -

my deceased father. (mn and fn),

deceased person. defwa (adv), sometimes. 326 degoute (vi), to drain. degré (mn), degree. déhor (adv), outside. (mn), the outside. de ja (adv), already. dekouver (vt), to discover. dekwê (pron), something, anything. dêlikat (adj), shy, timid. demàde (vt), 1. to ask for. 2. to ask for a

girl's hand in marriage. démâti (vt), 1. to lie. 2. to deny. (mn), a

lie. A. fêr de démâti - to tell a

lie. deme (adv), tomorrow. A. apre demê - day after

tomorrow. demi (mn), half.

dhn, var. dén, (fn), turkey. A. la fet de dèn - Thanks­

giving.

dépâs (fn), expense,

dépi (prep), since, (conj), dépi ke - since. 327

e.g., sê dêpi'k le moun a komâsé a

mâjê sê kalité'd mâjé la - it's since

the people have started eating that

kind of food. deplase (vt), to move something from one place to

another. dépliyé (vt), to unfold. dérâjé (adj), deranged, crazy. dèrnyê, fem. dèrnyèr, (adj), last. (mn), the last (one).

A. à dfernyé - towards the end, in

the last stages of something. dèryèr, var déyêr, (prep), behind, in back of. (adv),

behind. e.g., ale dèryèr - to fol­

low. (fn), the back or behind part

of an object. e.g., la déyèr du

kânôt - the stern of a boat. desam (mn), December. desan (vi), to go down, to descend. desat (fn), slope or side of a hill. desou (prep), beneath, under. destine (fn), destiny, fate. 328

desu (prep), on.

dèt (linking and auxilary verb), to be. (N.B.

Used as an auxilary verb with cer­

tain verbs of motion, vèni, etc. Also

used in the formation of progressive

tenses.) A. dèt plus nominal: dèt

grâz ami - to be good friends. dèt

den bon fiy - to be a virgin. B.

det plus adjective: dèt fatigé - to

be tired; dèt fatigâ - to be tiring;

dèt plèn - to be pregnant; dèt viva -

to be living; dèt mor - to be dead;

dèt oblijè - to be obliged; dèt

sasi(2) - to be seated; dèt ne - to

be born. C. dèt plus prepositional

phrase - dèt a bo sâtè - to be in

good health; dèt debout - to be

standing; dèt dâ Id pên - to be in

trouble; dèt pa o bou de so tâ - to

be born prematurely; dèt su tchèko'è

or tchèkchoz - to be nearby, to be

at hand, especially of bad luck or

weather; dèt ba - to be laid low,

knocked down. détêdu (adj), faded. 129 détiré (vr), to stretch oneself out. detwer (vt), to destroy. deva (prep), before, in front of. (mn), the front

or forward part of anything. e.g.,

Ic deva du kanot - the bow of the

boat. le devâ de la kaz - the en­

trance or porch of a house. (adv),

devâ dèryèr - backwards. deval (fn), slope or side of a hill. devré see devwêr devwêr (vt and va), 1. to owe something to someone.

2. should, ought to. (N.B. This

meaning has by and large been usurped

by mérite.) dézâflé (vi), to go down (of swelling.) dézagréab (adj), disagreeable. dézobéyi (vt), to disobey. dézônoré (vt), 1. to curse someone. 2. to call

someone bad names. dézôrd (mn), quarrelling, arguing, fighting. 330 dich (fn), serving plate. difèrâf fem. difèrât, (adj), 1. different. 2. else.

e.g., nul par difèrâ - nowhere else. diferas (fn), difference. difèremâ (adv), otherwise. e.g., j'é pa sorti du péy

difëremâ - Otherwise I have never

been out of the country. diksyônèr (mn), dictionary. dimach (mn), Sunday. dine (vi), to dine. (mn), dinner. dir (vt), to say, to tell. A. dir bo jour -

to greet, to say hello. B. dir den

istwa - to tell a story. C. dir obn

betiz - to tell a joke. D. dir cfen

rnatri - to tell a lie. direktemd (adv), directly, exactly, disêt (adj), seventeen. disparêt (vi), to disappear. dispôzisyô (fn), disposition, personality.

dispute (vt), to arque. 331 distas (fn), distance, diverse (vt), to divorce, di(z) (adj), ten. diznoef (adj), nineteen. dizwit (adj), eighteen. djaboun (mn), hard candy. djakas (mn), donkey. djat (fn), yacht, large pleasure or sport boat. djèl, var. djo'el, (fn) , 1. mouth. 2. mouth or opening

of a container. A. grân djèl -

rock hind (fish). djep (mn), wasp. djèr, var. gyèr, (fn), war. A. la grâ djèr - World War

One. djet (mn), jet. djl (mn), boom of a sailing vessel (?) djib (mn), jib sail. d ju see yu

do (mn), upper back. 332 dodiné (vt), to rock or move gently to cause to

fall asleep. e.g., dodiné pour li

dormi - to rock him to sleep. dd~ey (mn), mourning. A. le grâ doey - dressed

all in black. B. le ti doey - dress­

ed in black and white. doe(z) (adj), two. A. doe 6 twa - several. (N.B.

This expression is usually shortened

to doe twa.) doktoer (mn), doctor. dolar (mn), dollar. done, var. done, (vt), to give. A. done so let - to

to suckle, to nurse. B. done e'en

ord - to give an order. C. done

la me - to shake hands. D. done la

permisyo - to give permission. E.

done la vi - to devote oneself. F.

done mersi a - to give thanks to.

G. done la pen - to bother, to take

the trouble. H. done I'er a - to

give room or space to. I. done pen

mes - to have a mass said. dorad (fn), dolphin, 333 dormi (vi), to sleep. dou, fem. dous^ (adj), sweet. doublé (vt), to double, to fold in two. doulder (mn), pain. dousmâ (adv), easily, softly. dousder (mn), lightness, easiness. A. â dousder -

easily, softly. e.g., me je march â

dousder avek el - but I walk slowly

with her. douz (adj), twelve. drapo (mn), flag. drese (vt), to straighten. A. drese le chevoe

to straighten the hair. dret (adj), straight. driv (mn) , occurs only in the expression dèt â

driv - to drift, to be adrift. e.g.,

le bot èt â driv - the boat is drift­

ing. drog (mn), drug. dure (vt), to last, endure. 334 dwanye (mn), customs or immigration agent. dwe (mn) , finger. A. le p'ti dwé - the little

finger. B. le bout du dwé - finger

tip. dyab (mn), devil. A. dyab de mêr - manta ray. dyables (fn), she-devil. dyoe (mn), God. A. le bo dyoe - the Good Lord.

B. dyoe se1 expression of exclama­

tion. e.g., dyoe se oti k'iy él

God knows where he is I 335

(conj), and. A. é bê - well,

ê fem. en see ce ebésil (adj), stupid, (mn or fn), an imbecile, echode (vt), to scald. (mn), a burn. echte (vt), to throw away, to dispose of. A,

echte par ter - to throw down. ede (vt), to help, to assist. edividu (mn), an individual, a person, edukasyo (fn), education. efase (vt), to erase, to mark out, eflabasyo (fn), swelling, infection. egliz (fn), church. egohin (ran), hand saw. egrimur (mn), crumb. egwry (fn), needle.

egzaminasyo (fn), examination. 336 egzamine (vt), to examine.

êkal (fn), shell, especially egg shell.

êkalé (vt), 1. to scale (of fish). 2. to shell.

3. to skin.

ékay (fn) , 1. scales of a fish. A. grât ékay-

sea bass. 2. shell of a turtle.

ékayé (vt), to scale (of fish) and by extension,

to clean a fish (cf. , êkalé).

êklèr (mn), lightening. A. i fé dêz êklër or

na dêz éklër - there is lightening.

éklèrsê (vi), to clear, to clear up.

ékô (mn), sound, especially in reference to

music. e.g., sa dôné db b&l ékô -

that gave a nice sound.

ékôl (fn), school.

êkouté (vt), to listen to.

ékrazé (vt), to crush, smash.

ékribich (fn), small fresh water crustacean native

to the guts and streams of the Virgin

Islands. 337 ekrir (vt), to write. el , var. a, (pron), 1. her. 2. she. (fn), 1. wing of

a bird. 2. fin of a fish. elefa (mn), elephant. eleve (vt), to raise. A. élevé den âfâ - to

raise a child. erne (vt), to love, to like. A. erne myoe - to

prefer. on see e

ènmi (mn), enemy. enpil var. epil, apil, (adj), much, many. epeg (mn), pin. A. epeg a chevoe - hairpin.

B. epeg a atache - safety pin. epinar (mn), spinach.

épie (vt), to spell. epoj (fn), sponge. epok (fn), time, period. epol, var. epol, (fn), shoulder. epome (adj), said of a baby or young child who 338

holds its breath, usually in anger. dprovye (mn), small net used in fishing. er (mn), air. A. kou d'èr - a draft, a cur­

rent of air. erb see zèrb ermwer, var. armwer, (mn), 1. cabinet. 2. chest. erport, var. eroport, (mn), airport. esas (fn), essence. e.g., esas d'âmâ - almond

essence. esek (mn), insect, bug. esiste (vt), to insist. esit see isit esklav (fn), slave. eskorpyo var. eskworpyo, (fn), scorpion. eskoup (fn), saucer. espas (fn), space. espere (vt), to wait. A. espere su - to wait on.

e.g., iy e ki esper su la mor - he is

awaiting death. 339

èspès (fn) , kind, type.

èspiré (vi) , to breathe out, exhale.

èspliké (vt) , to explain. (vr), to explain oneself, espri (mn) , spirit, ghost. A. par an espri -

expressly, on purpose. est (mn) , east. estatu (fn) , statue. estimé (vt) , to estimate.

èstomak (mn) , chest. eta (mn) , occurs in the expression, det an eta -

to be able. e.g., iy et an eta de le

fêr - he can do it.

ëtagêr, var. etajêl, (fn), shelf,

ê t â s y o (fn), intention.

ëtêlijë (adj), intelligent.

êtèlijâs (fn), intelligence.

êtérèsâ (adj), interesting. A. dèt êtérèsé sur

to be interested in. eternwe (vi), to sneeze. 340 eterpret (mn), interpreter. etoufe (vt), to choke. (vr), to become choked,

étragle (vt), to strangle, etraje (mn), stranger. A. su l'étrâjé - over­

seas, in a foreign country. etwel (fn) , star. A. gros etwel - a planet.

B. étwèl a tchoe - shooting star,

meteor.

évânwi (vi), to faint. evite (vt), to invite. eze var. eze, (adj), easy. 341

fâché (vt), to make angry, to anger. (adj), angry. fachri (fn), hard feelings, strained relations, faktder (mn), postman. falèz (fn), cliff. falibus (fn) , a small amount, a pinch of something. falwér (va) occurs only in the third person sin­

gular, usually in the past tense in

the form falé. e.g., i falê k'o'e

nou vaksine tout - they had to vac­

cinate all of us. (cf., falé o"el aid

a stoker - they had to go at that time. fâm var. fom, (fn) , 1. woman. 2. wife. A. fam menoez

(often abbreviated to la menbez)

(N.B. la fâm mendez along with the

om mender carries the infant from the

parents' house to the church on the

day of the baptism). B. fam a déhor

- outside woman (i.e., mistress, lover)

C. tche o^n fam a déhor - to keep a

mistress. fâmiy var. fâmîy, fomiy, (fn), family. 342 farin (fn), fleur. A. farin mxgn - corn meal. fât (fn), 1. split, a tear, as in clothing.

2. any kind of opening produced ac­

cidentally or intentionally. fatigâ (adj), tiring. fatige (vt), to tire out, to exhaust. (adj),

tired, exhausted. favori (mn), sideburns. fe (mn), hunger. A. avwer fê - to be hungry f cne (adj), wilted. fœnèt (fn), window. fer (vt), to do, to make, to create. A. fer

1'amour - to court. B. fer atasyo -

to notice, to look after. e.g., pour

^ /V /\ fer atasyo a I'afa - to look after

the child. C. fer betiz - to joke.

D. fer le bouk - to make love. E.

fer demade - to send for. F. fèr

par déyêr - to back up, to move back­

wards. G. fer oen desizyo - to make

a decision. H. fer oen eroer - to

make a mistake. I. fèr foskouch - 343

to miscarry. J. fer son idé - to

make up one's mind. K. fèr dé kôrl -

to curl one's hair. L. fèr la kuzin

- to cook. M. fer de papicho - to

kid, to tease, to make jokes at some­

one else's expense. N. fèr den

prech - to make a speech. 0. fèr

pder - to frighten. P. fèr oen

promès - to make a promise. Q. fèr

dé rizèt su tchèkoe - to make mockery

of someone. R. fèr sakrifis - to

sacrifice. S. fèr sign - to ges­

ture, to make a gesture. T. fèr sin

bèy sin - to pretend, to act as if.

U. fèr oe swet - to make a wish.

V. fèr tété - to nurse, to suckle.

W. fèr du trê - to make a noise.

X. fèr vit - to hurry. Y. fèr zami

avèk - to make friends with. (mn),

1. iron. A. fèr a frize - curling

iron. 2. two pieces of iron which

are struck together to accompany a

song. ferme (vt), to close. A. ferme la sen - to

close the net or seine. 344

f (fn), buttocks.

ÊÊl (fn), 1. party. 2. holiday. A. fet de

mèr - mother's day. B. fèt de dèn -

Thanksgiving. C. fèt dé môr - Ail

Saints' Day.

fùvryé (mn), February.

fidel, var. a. idjel, (mn or fn) , godson or goddaughter. fig (mn), general term for banana. A. fig a

- eating banana. B. fig a fwir -

cooking banana. C. fig a kdcho - a

large eating and cooking banana. D.

fig dous - sweet, eating banana. figyur, var. fiyur, (fn), face. fil (mn), 1. string or cord. A. fil de la

lumyer - lightcord. 2. thread or

ravlin.

(fn), turtle net. A. filet a fol - turtle

net. B. filet a karèt - turtle net.

(cf. fol a karèt) fini (vt), to finish, to end, to complete.

(fn), 1. girl. 2. daughter. A. fiy 345

âsé - engaged girl. B. bon fiy -

virgin. f iye (mn), banana tree. flame (vi), to flame up. flânêl (fn), man's undershirt. f late (vt), to caress. f loer (fn), flower. A. la floer de soley -

sunflower. floeri (vi), to flower, blossom. f Ô (mn), the bottom, the base. A. le fô de

la mê - the palm of the hand. foe (mn), fire. A. alume le foe - to light

the fire. B. twe le foe - to put

out the fire. C. foe d'artisfis -

fireworks. foemel (adj), female. e.g., oen foemel cheval -

mare. foey (fn), leaf, fofile (vt), to hem, to stitch. fol a karèt (mn), turtl: net. 346 fonograf (fn) , record player. for (mn) , fort. (N.B. The prison in St.

Thomas is located in the old Danish

Fort.) A. porte o for - to take to

jail. (adj), strong. forchet (fn) , fork. fore (mn) , forest, jungle. fore (vt) , to put on, to pull over. e.g., Ô

feze oen rob, o la fore su el - we

would make a dress and then put it

on her. forme (vt) , to form. forse (vt), to force. fos (fn), grave. fose (adj), deep, dark, particularly when applied

to colors. e.g., kako fose - dark

brown. foskouch (fn), miscarriage. A. fèr den foskouch -

to have a miscarriage. fot (fn) fault. 347 fou fern, fol, (adj), crazy, insane. (mn), 1. a fool,

idiot. 2. shearwater (bird). foulé (vi), to press down on. fouloer (mn), a restless spirit which presses down

on an individual in his or her sleep. four (mn), oven. fout (vt), to hit, to knock. A. fout a ter -

to knock down. B. fout oe kalot -

to hit (someone) a lick. C. fout

oen âfâ - to get someone pregnant. fouye (vt), to dig, to dig up. fouyoer (mn) , 1. fireplace. 2. cooking fire, fra (adj), real, genuine, e.g., sa sé lé. frâ

fiber - those are real flowers (as

opposed to artificial onebt frabaze (fn), a local plant called "sweet bazim",

the leaves of which are mixed with

hibiscus flowers and prepared in a

tea for colds and coughs.

frape (vt), to strike.

frasé (adj), French. (mn), 1. French language. 348

2. de frasé de frâs - Frenchman. fre (adj), cool, fresh. frédur (fn), a cold or cough. frégad (fn), frigate bird. frér, var. frar, (mn), brother. fret (adj), cool, cold. frij idcr (fn) , refrigerator. frikase (vt), to stew. (vr), to get into a squabble

or trouble. (fn), a stew. e.g., j 'em

a bouyi la frikase - I like to cook

stew. friza (mn), freezer. frize (adj), 1, frizzy, curly. A. tét frize -

frizzy hair. 2. frozen. e.g.,

maje frize - frozen food or super­

market foods. fro, var. fra, (mn), forehead. fromaj (mn), cheese. fromi (mn), ant. A. fromi a morda - large

stinging ant. B. fromi rouj - red 349

ant. froté (vt), to rub. frutaj (mn), fruit in general. A. frutaj ches

dried fruit. frwi, var. fwi, (mn), fruit. (vt), to fry. e.g.. ma ve

frwi du pweso pour midi - I'll fry

fish for lunch. fume (vt), 1. to smoke. 2. to smoke a pipe,

cigarette, etc. fwa (adj), cold. (fn), time. A. la proémyêr

fwa - the first time. B. la dêrnyêr

fwa - the last time. C. I'dt fwa -

the next time. D. o'dn b 6 n fwa - one

particular time. fwasur (fn), liver. fyase (mn), fiancé. fyev (fn), fever. A. fyev siforid - typhoid

fever. 350

gabarê (vi), to sway from side to side. gâgâ (mn), grandfather, usually employed as a

term of direct address. gâgân (fn), grandmother, usually employed as a

term of direct address. galé (mn), gravel. galèr (fn), jellyfish. A. la galèr bloe -

Portuguese man-of-war. galri (fn), gallery, porch. gardé (vt), 1. to keep, preserve. 2. var.

gadé, to look at, to consider. gargônèt (fn), windpipe, throat. garsô (mn), 1. boy. 2. son. gâté (vt), to spoil. A. gâté cfen âfâ - to

spoil a child. gâyé (vt), 1. to win. 2. to gain. géri (vt), to heal. 351 glas (fn), 1. ice. 2. mirror.

glasé (vt), to freeze.

glisé (vi), to slip, to slide.

gôbi (mn), an all-purpose kitchen vessel made

from the calabash fruit. (see kalbas

and kwi.)

gôblê (mn), drinking glass or cup.

gôbô, var. gâbô, gdhbô, (mn), okra.

gôgelô (mn), gungalo, local name for a common

millipede.

gôlèt (fn), sailing vessel with two masts which

was generally employed for trading

between the various islands.

gbrj (fn), throat. A. ladâ de la gbrj - the throat (inside).

gou (mn) , taste. A. cfe ti gou - a little bit

of something, generally in reference

to food.

goumâ (mn), leaves which can be applied as a com­

press in order to relieve swelling.

gourd (fn), alternate term for "dollar." 352 goûté (vt), to taste. goutyèr (mn), rain gutter around the roof of a

house. gouvèrnay (mn), rudder of a sailing vessel. gouvferné (vt), 1. to govern. 2. to sail or navi­

gate a boat. gouvèrnmâ (mn), government. gouwaj (fn), squash. A. gouwaj rôn - round

variety of squash. B. gouwaj 16g -

long squash. (N.B. It is this latter

type from which the wir6 is made.) gouyav (fn), guava. gouyavyé (mn), guava tree. gézyé (mn) , occurs only in the expression grâ

gézyé - pelican. gra (adj), fatty, fat. A. mâjé gra - fatty

foods. grâ fem. grân, (adj), large. (mn), grâ - grandfather.

(fn), grân - grandmother, grâ rèch

(pn), small settlement near Colombier

in St. Barts. 353 grâdoer (fn) , size. grafiné (vt) , to scratch, grafiyô (mn) , a scratch, scar. grap (fn) , 1. a bunch, cluster. A. oen grap

de floer - a bunch of flowers. 2.

testicles. grape (mn) , homemade anchor fashioned from scrap

iron or stones, weighing perhaps

twenty pounds. gratë (vt) , 1. to scrape. 2. to scratch, gravyé (mn) , gravel. grê (mn) , squall, sudden storm which generally

lasts for only a short period. grêché (vt) , 1. to squint. 2. to pout, to sulk,

to scowl. (adj), bent or curled up. gren (fn) , 1. seed, pit. A. a grên - ground

up, in grains. B. grên de I'oey -

pupil of the eye. 2. testicles.

C. gros grên - hernia. grènad (fn) , pomgrenate. grenouy (fn), frog. 354 grêpé (vi), to climb. grès (fn), grease. grèsë (vt), to grease. griyé (vt), to grill. grc fem. gros, (adj), large, big. gustavia (pn), Gustavia, principal village of St.

Barts. gwbem (n?) children's disease, probably mumps. gyèr see djèr 355

H hâch (fn), hips. had, var. hard, (fn), clothing in general. A. bel had -

good clothes, Sunday dress. B. hale

dé had - to take off one's clothing.

C. met dé had - to put on clothing.

D. porté dé bon had - to wear good

clothing, to dress well. E. chaje dé

had - to change clothing. F. had â

ralign - tattered or old clothing.

G. had kôdoné - completely worn out

clothing. (N.B. These were washed

and used as stuffing in the kabân.)

H. had d'âsou - underwear. I. had

dé bêyé - bathing suit. halé (vt), 1. to pull, to pull toward oneself.

2. to pull up or out. A. halé a

ho - to beach a boat. B. halé dé

zèrb - to pull up weeds. C. halé

mdute du pwésô - to pull up fish.

D. hale I'ak - to pull up the an­

chor. E. hale le boucho - to open

a bottle. F. halé l'èspirasyô - to 356

inhale. 3. to pull off. A. halé dé

had - to take off clothes. hâmôk (mn), hammock.

hayi (vt), to hate.

ho fem. hot, (adj), high, tall.

h5d occurs only in the expression hod

bwe meaning an "amber jack". (i.e.

a variety of fish).

hor (prep), outside. A. hor bor (advj, over­

board .

hos (mn), hearse.

hotoer (mn), height.

hbumar, var. hbumag, (mn), lobster.

houraga (mn), hurricane.

hupé (fn), the crest of a large wave or swell in

the open sea. e.g. lé lam été tro

for, sa k'oe kri lé hupé - the swells

were too la^rge. They call those

"hupe". 357

i see il idé (fn), 1. idea, thought. 2. mind. A.

chaje s6n idé - to change one's mind.

3. will. 4. intelligence.

ignôrâ (mn), a stupid person. (adj), stupid.

ignyâm, var. îgnyâm, (fn), yam.

il, var. i, (pron), 1. he. 2. it, as an impersonal

pronoun in such expressions as i fale

and i navé. (N.B. The forms and

iy generally occur before vowels. The

form i generally occurs before a con­

sonant.) (fn), island.

ilèt, var. ilé, (mn), small island, cay.

imigrasyô (fn), immigration service.

isit, var. ésit, isi, (adv), 1. here. A. isit âba - down

here. (N.B. Term frequently employed

referring to Carenage vis-a-vis other

locations, especially Northside.) 2.

this adverb is sometimes used to re- 358

inforce demonstrative expressions,

e.g., st'6 isit - this water. istwa (fn), story. ivâjil (fn), the Gospel, the New Testament. iver (mn), There is some confusion concerning the

exact meaning of this word. (cf.,

ivèrnaj). The general consensus

seems to be that it's the period from

October to March when the mean tempe­

rature drops somewhat and when there

is a good deal of wind. iverna] (mn), There is much confusion concerning the

exact meaning of this term. Some in­

formants held that it was the period

from July to October, known locally

as hurricane season. (cf., ivèr) ly see il 359

jâbô (mn) , ham.

jalon, fem. jalouz, (adj), jealous.

jalousri (fn), wooden shutters,

jâm (fn), lower leg.

jâmé (adv), never. japé (vi), to bark, to howl. japô (mn), a Japanese person, jardê (mn), garden. jardinyé (mn), gardener, farmer.

jâsiv (fn), the gums, jâvyé (mn), January. je, var. che, (pron), I, first person singular subject pro­

noun. jêjôm (fn), ginger. jèlé (fn), jelly. jenou (mn), knee. 360 jèr (mn), a small jar. jèté (vt) , to throw, to throw away. A. jeté cfen

âfâ - to abort intentionally. jewé see jouwé jibyé (mn), 1. bird. A. ti jibyé de bô dyoe -

sparrow. 2. slang term for the male

member. j itchët (mn), hiccup. A. avwèr le jitchèt - to

have the hiccups. jûedi (mn), Thursday. jobn (adj), young. j o'ené (vi), to fast. jôli (adj), pretty. jôn (adj), yellow. jou (mn), cheekbone. jour (mn), day. A. bô jour - hello. B. le

jour de l'â - New Year's day. C. wi

jour - a week. jouramâ (mn), edible tuber. 361 journal (mn), newspaper. journé (fn), day. j ouwé (vt), to play. iH (mn), 1. juice. A. ju dè frutaj - fruit juice. B. ju de pôm de frâs - cider.

C. ju dè sitrô - lime juice, lemonade,

2. sap of a tree or plant. 3. slang

term for male seminal fluid.

(vt), to judge. jumâ (fn), mare. jumô (mn), twins. jupd (mn) slip, woman's undergarment. juré (vt), to swear. jus (prep), until. e.g., i rfes èsit jus le swèr

he is staying here until evening,

(conj), until (see juske). juske, var. jus, chuske, (conj), until. A. jusk'a tâ ke -

until. jwayo^, fem. jwayo'ez, (adj), happy, joyous. jwê (mn), June. 362 jwutur (fn), joint. e.g., le jwêtur dé dwé -

joints of the fingers. jwiyet (mn), July. 363

K ka (mn) , case. A. ka de Iwa - court case. B.

âtré dâ de ka dè Iwa - to enter into a

court case. kabân (fn), a child's pallet for sleeping on the

floor. kabaré (mn), cafe, bar, kabri, fem. kabrit, (mn), goat. kaché (vt), to hide. kachèt (mn), occurs in the expression â kachèt

in hiding. kadab (mn), corpse. kadna (fn), 1. lock. 2. pad lock.

kafé, var. karfé , (mn), 1. cafe, bar. 2. coffee. 3.

breakfast (i.e., le kafé du maté) kaka (mn), feces. kako (mn), brown. kalalou (mn) , a local spinach-like, leafy p]ant which

is used in the preparation of a soup. 364 kalbas (fn), calabash, an inedible fruit from the

crescentia cujete tree. (N.B. Once

the fruit has been hollowed out, the

extremely hard shell can be put to a

variety of uses - water container,

bowl, cooking pot, etc. see kwi.) kalèch (fn), a large white bonnet which protects

the face from the sun. (N.B. These

are no longer worn in Frenchtown but

there are several elderly ladies who

have them.) kalité (fn), kind, type, species. A. tchel

kalité de - what kind of kalm (adj), calm. kalôt (mn), 1. a blow, a slap. A. dôné db

kalôt or fout dé kalôt - to slap,

to strike. 2. kalôt or karlôt -

the remnants of a booby egg when the

beginnings of the embryo have been

removed. (N.B. Carenage fishermen

take booby eggs from nearby cays and

islets. The eggs are then boiled and

eaten. Although they have a fishy

taste, the eggs are considered a 365

delicacy.) 3. by extension, the rem­

nants of any fruit which has a spoiled

spot, usually caused by birds. e.g.,

kalot de mago - spoiled spot or ble­

mish in a mango. kaltchulé, var. kalkulê, (vi), to concentrate, to think. kâm (mn), roof. kân, var. kôn, (fn), sugar cane, A. la kân vat a I'd -

the cane goes to the water (i.e.,

the rumor is getting around). kânar (mn), duck. kânbif (mn), cornbeef. kânël, var. kbrnèl, (fn), 1. cinnamon. A. kânèl â

batô - cinnamon stick. 2. sugar

apple, a variety of local fruit. kânèlyé, var. kôrnèlyé (mn), sugar apple tree. kânbt (mn), small sailing vessel powered by two

masts and used in fishing. (N.B.

These ships have been entirely re­

placed by motor powered craft.) kapa (mn), a penny. A. sêk kapa - a nickel. 366 kapitèn (mn), 1. captain of a vessel. 2. yellow

fin grouper. kar (mn), a quarter, one fourth. karaf (fn), carafe. karâg (fn) , occurs only in the expression karâg

a grô zyoe - a variety of fish known

locally as "horse eye." karât (adj), forty, karèm (fn), Lent. karênaj (pn), Carenage, a small village of some 800

speakers of STFD in St. Thomas, United

States Virgin Islands. It is usually

referred to as "Frenchtown." karèt (mn), axe-bill turtle whose shell is coveted

for making various decorative items. karf é see kafé karmâyèl (mn) , a man's jacket, karneval (mn), carnival. karôs (fn), 1. carriage. 2. baby carriage. karôt (fn), carrot. 367 karpulèr (fn), a tea made from a mixture of leaves

including sitrônèl. kart (fn) , card. A. jouwé dé kart - to play

cards. kartô (mn) , 1. carton. A. dd kartô de sigarfet

a carton of cigarettes. 2. box. kartouch (fn), bullet, cartridge. kartuch (fn) , bathroom, toilette. A. ale da la

kartuch - to go to the bathroom. kartyé (mn) quarter, section. kasé (vt), 1. to break, to ruin. A. kasé den

prdmès - to break a promise. 2. to

break a bone in the body. e.g., iy a

kasé SÔ bra - he broke his arm.

kâsèr (mn), cancer.

kat var. katre, katz, (adj, four. A. katrè vê - eighty.

kâ(t) (adv), when. (conj), kâ ke - when, whenever,

kâtik (mn), hymn.

kâtité (fn), quantity, amount. e.g., iy a atrapé

dten kâtité de pwésô - he caught a lot

of fish. 368 katôlik (adj) Catholic. katorz (adj) fourteen. A. le katorz de jü^yèt -

the fourteenth of July, Bastille Day

which is annually celebrated in

Carenage. kay (fn), 1. coral. A. kay brûlât - sting­

ing coral. B. kay acho - antler

coral. 2. shoals (N.B. It always

occurs in the plural). kayou (ran), sprat (fish). kaz (fn), house. A. bare la kaz - to lock up

the house. B. brize la kaz - to

break into the house. kazybnê (vt), to cause, to bring about. e.g., sa va

kazybnê dê fachri ràt cSe - that will

cause hard feelings between them. ke (conj), 1. that. 2. whether ... or and

whether ... not. e.g., ke se fâraiy

6'k se pa faraiy - whether it's family

or not. (pron), who, which, that,

e.g., Ô fouye de patat 6 dekwe ke le

moun bouye ê k'oe raâjê prêsipalraâ -

we used to dig potatoes and things like 369

that which people would cook and eat

mostly. kenbk (fn) , 1. knuckles. 2. joint. A. kcnok

de pyé - ankle kèstyô (fn) , question. A. demâdéo"en kèstyô - to

ask a question. B. repon den kèstyô

to answer a question. ki (pron), who, which, that. kidni (mn), kidney. kinik, var. kênik, (mn), kinnep (fruit) kinikyë (mn), kinnep tree, kité (vt), 1. to leave something. 2. to let,

to permit, to allow. A. kite to'ëbë

to drop. B. se kite ale - to let

oneself go, to slide, to lose one's

control. klé (fn), key. klêkë (vt), to blink the eyes. klêr (adj ) , clea] klèrté (fn), light, e.g., 6n avé pa de klèrté

grâ chüz - we didn't use to have a 370

lot of light. klima (mn), climate. klip (mn), clip. klis (fn), thin strips of wood. (N.B. In for­

mer times the Carenageois constructed

fishtraps (nas) with these strips

which were secured with vines called

lyan). kloch (fn), bell. kloche (vi), to limp. klok (fn), eyelids. klou (mn), nail. A. klou da jirof - cloves. kobel (adj), occurs only in the expression kobel

bot meaning a small sailing sloop of

the type which once voyaged between

St. Barts and St. Thomas. koch (fn), sow. (N.B. This term usually occurs

in the expression den foemèl koch.) kocho (mn), pig. koer see tchder 371 kôf (mn), 1. chest, trunk. 2. shellfish. kôfèsé (vt), to confess. kofi (vt), 1. to preserve, to put up preserves.

A. kofi su - to trust, to depend on. kofitur (fn), jelly, jam, preserves. kôfuzyo (fn), confusion. kofyâs (fn), confidence. kog (fn), congo-eel. kok (mn), rooster. koke (vi), to make love. kokiy (fn), seashell. koko (mn), coconut. kokoye (mn), coconut tree. kola (fn), yellow tail snapper. kole (fn), collar of a shirt. (adj), stuck to,

pressed against. koler (fn), anger. A. oe kou de koler - a fit of

anger. kolobye (mn), quartier in the Sous Le Vent section 372 kolpot (mn), small, three-legged, ceramic vessel in

which charcoal may be burned for cook­

ing. kolyé (mn), necklace. kom (conj), 1. since, when, as. 2. like, as. koma ke (adv), 1. how, e.g., koma k'o va le fer? -

how are we going to do it? 2. how

many, e.g., kômâ ke tu na? - how many

of them do you have? 3. how much,

e.g., komâ k'a vob? - how much does

she want? komacie (vt), to order. kdmase (vt), to start, to begin. kômâsmâ (mn), beginning. A. su lé proemyoe

kômâsmâ - in the beginning, at the

start. kômèrs (mn), 1. business, commerce. 2. mess. A.

fer oe kômèrs - to make a mess. kômèrsêr (mn), a manager of a store, a merchant. kômisyô (fn) , 1. shopping, market. A. fêr la

kômisyô - to go shopping, to go to

market. 2. errand. 373 kômunôtê (fn), community. kômunyê (vi), to take communion. kônèsâs (fn), 1. consciousness. 2. knowledge.

kônèt (vt), to know, to be acquainted with both

facts and persons.

konsa (mn), men's underwear.

kop (mn), cup.

kopagni (fn), company, business.

kôparé (vt), to compare.

kôportê (vr), to act, to behave.

kôprân (vt), to understand.

kor (mn), body.

kord (fn), 1. rope, lines (on a boat, etc.).

A. la kord de la nas - trap line.

kordô (mn), shoelaces.

kordônyê (mn), shoemaker.

korijë (vt), to correct.

korl (mn), curl. 374 kôrn (fn), corns (on the feet) k6rôn (fn), wreathe, kôrôsbl (pn) , small fishing village in the Sous Le

Vent section of St. Barts. (mn)

soursap fruit. kôrôsblyè (mn), soursop tree. A. foe y de kôrôsbl -

leaves of the soursop tree, used in

the preparation of a tea which acts

as a soporific. kôrs (fn), race, contest. kbrsê (mn), girdle. kôsèy (mn), judicial hearing. kôstamâ (adv), constantly. kôstipê (adj), constipated. kôt (fn), dispute. kùtà (adj), happy, glad. e.g., je srè kùtà d'alfe

vwar le pèy - I would be happy to go

see the country. kôté (fn) , 1. side. A. kôté de la figyur - the

cheek. 2. place. A. tchel kote -

where. B. lot de kôté - on the other 375

hand. kôté (vt), to count. A. kôté su - to count on

to depend on. kôtô (mn), cotton. A. fdey de kôtô - leaves of

the cotton tree which are used in the

preparation of a bath to relieve swell­

ing and boils. kotônyé (mn), cotton tree. kôtrebân (fn), contraband, smuggling. kou (mn), 1. blow. A. kou de lyân - whipping

with vines. B. atrapé dé kou d'èr -

to catch a draft. C. kou de vâ -

storm, squall. 2. neck. kouch (fn), large bed. kouché (vr), to lie down, to go to bed. koud, var. kouse (vt), to sew koule (vi), to sink. A. koule a fô - to sink to

the bottom. koulèr (fn), color. A. koulèr de vê - purple.

B. koulèr de sân - gray (i.e. color

of ashes. 376 koulibèt (fn), 1. a jingle, a short song aimed at

amusing. e.g., chat mwe den tit

koulibet pour pase le tâ - sing me a

little jingle to pass the time. koulirou, var. koulirou (mn), jack (i.e., a variety of

fish). kouldev (mn), snake. kouni (fn), female genitals. (N.B. Obscene term,

usually employed in swearing.) koupe (vt), 1. to spy on, to peep at. 2. to cut. koupur (fn), cut. kour (fn) , the yard beside or in front of a house.

(N.B. These are most usually cemented

to control dust and mud.) A. la kour

par déyèr - the backyard. kouraj (mn) , 1. feeling. e.g., iy a pa dé kouraj

dâ sé dwé - he doesn't have any feel­

ing in his fingers. kouri, var. koure. (vt), to run. (vt), to run something

in the sense of putting into place,

to lay something. (e.g., pipe). 377 kouté (vt), to cost. koutla (mn), machete, cutlass, all-purpose long

knife. koutô (mn), knife. kouvâ (mn), convent. kouvèr, var. kouvé, (vt), to cover. (fn) lid or cover of a

container. kouyèr (fn), spoon. A. tit kouyèr - teaspoon. B,

kouyèr a té - teaspoon. C. gros

kouyèr - serving spoon. kouze (mn), cousin. kouzin (fn), female cousin. kôvèrsê (vt), to converse. kôyé (vt) , to hit. koz (fn), cause, reason. koze (vi), 1. to talk, to chat. 2. to babble

(i.e., babies). krab (fn), 1. crab. 2. female genitals (N.B.

Obscene). kracha (mn), spittle, saliva. 378 kraché (vi), to spit, kraké (vt), to crack,

krâp (mn), cramp,

krapô (mn), toad.

kravat (fn), neck-tie,

krèiti (fn), cream.

krétyê, fem. kretyên, (mn), a Christian person, hence a

person, an individual.

krèy (fn), a strap used to bundle and carry fish.

A. cten krèy de pwésô - a stringer of

fish.

kreyo (mn), pencil.

kri (ran), cry, scream. (vt),1. to get, to

acquire. e.g., ô kriyê tout sa - we

used to get all that. 2. to fetch,

to go for. e.g., va kri sa - go get

that.

krim (mn), crime, misdeed.

krimoer (mn), criminal.

kriye (vt), 1. to call, to name. e.g., koma k 'o 379

kri sa? - what's that called? 2, to

cry out. A. kriyê for - to cry out.

B. kriyê pour I'ed - to call for help, kriz (fn), convulsion, seizure.

krbchêt (fn), large iron hooks used to fasten doors

and windows from within.

krokodil (mn), crocodile,

krout (fn), crust.

kru (adj), raw, uncooked.

kukôm (mn), cucumber.

kuryoe, fem. kuryoez, (adj), curious, nosey.

kuyas (fn), a female idiot or fool. (cf., kuyo.)

kûyi, var. kuyi (vt), to pick, to gather, to harvest, e.g.,

kuyi de pwa - to pick peas.

kuyo (mn), idiot, fool.

kuyonad (fn), stupidness, any insane, pointless,

unthinking actions.

kwa (fn), cross, cruxifix. A. fer oen kwa -

to make the sign of the cross. 380 kwadril (fn), quadrille. kwê (mn), corner. kw&r (vt), to believe, kwi (mn), an eating vessel made from a hollowed

out calabash. kwir (mn), belt. A. kwir a tchulot - man's

belt. kwis (fn), 1. leg of an animal. 2. the upper

leg. kwiyav see gouyav kwiyô (mn), belt. kwizin, var. kuzin, (fn), 1. kitchen. 2. cooking 381

la (adv), there. A. la âho la - up there.

B. lâba la - down there, over there,

(def art), the, feminine form.

(pron), her, singular direct object

pronoun feminine gender. lâbi (mn), conch. lâdemê (mn), the next day.

M a (fn), 1. tongue. 2. language. lâgaj (mn), language, form of speech. lagé (vt), to loosen, to turn loose. lâgous (fn), type of lobster. lak (mn), bait. lake (vt), to bait. lakmodé (vt), to clean (fish). lam (fn), tear, e.g., le lam koule dedâ sé

zyoe - tears came to her eyes. lam or lorn (fn), 1. shade, shadows. 2. swells or

waves in the sea. (N.B. The gender 382

is uncertain).

lap (fn), lamp. A. lap a cheminé - a small

lamp used in moving about at night.

lape (mn), rabbit.

lari (mn), occurs in the expression o larj, mean­

ing "far out to sea".

lase (vt), to lace. lasoer (mn), sea urchin. A. lasoer nwer - black

sea urchin. B. lasoer bla - white

sea urchin.

latiy (fn), lentils.

lavé (vt), 1. to wash. 2. to wash oneself.

e.g., jft ki lav me me - I am washing

my hands.

le (pron), him or it, third person singular direct

object pronoun. (def art), the, mascu­

line singular definite article.

led (adj), ugly, unsightly.

ledjum (fn), vegetable.

lei (adj), light. 383 lémo (mn), lemon. lèn (fn), 1. animal fur. 2. muslin. lèse (vi), to leave. lesô (fn), school lesson, lèt (mn), milk. (fn), letter. A. lèt de

maryaj - congratulatory letters which

are read by the parents of the bride

and groom at the wedding reception. lètus (mn), lettuce. lev (fn), lip. levé (vt), 1. to raise a child. 2. to lift

something up. A. levé dé nas - to

lift fishpots. (vr), to raise oneself

up. A. le ta se lev - a storm is

brewing. lez (pron), them, third person plural direct ob­

ject pronoun both masculine and femi­

nine. (def art), the, masculine and

feminine plural definite article. lezarn (ran) , iguana. li, var. y, (pron), to him or her, for him or her, third 384

person singular indirect object pronoun,

both masculine and feminine. liberté (fn), liberty, freedom. lichê (vt), to lick. lign (fn) , line, especially a fishing line. limônad (fn), dry bottled soft drink, usually car­

bonated. lir (vt), to read. litchder (mn), liquor. liv (fn), pound, a measure of weight. (mn),

book.

16 see o

1Ô, fem. lôg (adj), long. (mn), the length.

Idbdi (mn), Monday.

Ider (adj), their, third person plural possessive

adjective, both masculine and feminine,

(pron), them, third person plural in­

direct object pronoun. (N.B. This

form is sometimes confused with 16(z)

the direct object pronoun.) 385 log (fn), lungs (cf.,pâmô). lôgder (fn), length, lôm see lam lorlèt (fn) sleeve cuff. loryâ (pn), the Lorient section at St. Barts. lôtâ (adv), a long time. lour (adj), heavy. louwâ (fn), aloes, locally known as simple ivy.

(N.B. An extract of the gelatinous

substance in the stems of this plant

is employed to relieve congestion and

colds.) lôyé (mn), rent. lumyèr (fn), electric light, light. A. twe la

lumyèr - to turn off the light.

B. met la lumyèr - to turn on the

light. lun (fn) , the moon, A. la plèn lun - the full

moon. B . la nouvèl lun - the new

moon. C . la kartyèr lun - the guar-

ter moon. 386

Iwa (fn), law. A. poze den Iwa - to make a

law. B. de ka de Iwa - a court case,

suit.

(adv), far. (adj) far, distant.

Iwil (fn), oil. A. Iwil a bouyi - cooking oil.

B. Iwil a lap - lamp oil. C. Iwil

d 'oliv - olive oil.

lyân (fn), vine. (N.B. These vines were for­

merly employed in the construction

of fishtraps.) 387

M ma (mn), mast. (adj), my. mabi (mn) , beverage made from roots and spices, mach (fn), 1. handle. 2. faucet. A. rouvêr

la mach - to open or turn on a faucet.

B. fermé la mach - to close or turn

off a faucet. 3. sleeve of a shirt. machan (fn?), things, stuff, odds and ends, machin (fn), thing, device, contraption. machwer (mn), lower jaw. magaze (mn), store. magi (mn) , a small, white sea bird, perhaps a

variety of tern. mago (mn), mango. magous (mn) , mongoose. ma je (vt), to eat. (mn), food. A. mâjé du

kalbas - pulpy interior of the in­

edible calabash which is sometimes

used as bait in fishtraps. 388 majine (vt) to imagine. (N.B. Occurs usually in

the expression majinl - imagine I inakak (mn) , monkey. makarô (mn), macaroni, noodles. make (vt), to chew. make (vt), to fail, to miss. (N.B. Usually em­

ployed with an infinitive in expres­

sions like j 'é make de toebe - I al­

most fell) makou (mn), tomcat. makoumer (mn), male homosexual. mal (adj), male. (adv), badly, (mn), illness,

wound, pain. A. mal kadu - epilepsy.

B. mal de vat - diarrhea. C. mal 6

dâ - toothache. D. mal de tèt - head­

ache . malad (adj), sick, ill. maladi (fn), sickness, illness. A. movez maladi -

gonorrhea. B. maladi de fâm -

gonorrhea. C. maladi de potrin -

tuberculosis. D. maladi de tchder -

heart i Llness. 389 malègè (mn), a variety of dance, malfëtder (mn), criminal. malkapa (mn), plant which grows along the beach.

(N.B. Baths made from its leaves

supposedly relieves swelling.) malprop (adj), dirty. malvadu (adj), said of anything of which there is an

abundance and which therefore must be

sold cheaply, if at all. e.g., me le

pwésô été malvadu - but the fish sold badly. mama (fn), mother. mândev (mn), movement. manwa (mn), naval vessel, a man-of-war. mânyèr (fn), 1. way, manner. 2. solution. marb (fn), 1. marble. 2. gravestone, marché (vi), to walk. mardi (mn), Tuesday. maregwe (mn), a small mosquito. maren (fn), godmother. 390 m a n (mn), husband, marigouyav (fn), the maiden apple bush. (N.B. The

leaves are used in the preparation of

a bath which supposedly reduces high

blood pressure.) marmit (fn) , cooking vessel which has a handle or

handles. mars (mn), March. marswe (mn), porpoise. marto (mn), hammer. maryaj (mn), marriage. A. demâdé den fiy 6

maryaj - to ask for a girl in mar­

riage. marye (vt), to marry.(vr), to get married. (adj)

married. (mn), the groom. (fn), the

bride. maso (fn), 1. exterior wall around or in front

of a house. 2. interior wall of a

house. (mn), mason. maso] (mn), lie, untruth. masonoer (mn), mason. 391 mastchulê (mn), man, male person. masur (fn), very small dwelling.

mat (fn), place mat.

mat (mn), mint. (N.B. Used for flavoring va­

rious teas.)

materyo (mn), material. mat! (vi), to lie, to tell a lie. matla (mn), mattress.

, >S mate (mn), chin. mâtri (fn), a lie, fib. A. dir oen mâtri - to

tell a lie. maze (fn), missus, a term of respect generally

reserved for older ladies, e.g.,

maze lucy - Miss Lucy. me (adj), first person plural possessive ad­

jective, my. me (conj), but. (mn), May. me (pron), me, first person singular direct and

indirect object pronoun. me (fn), hand. A. sa set me - his or her holy 392

hand, in speaking of Christ or the Holy

Mother. mêchâsté (fn), occurs in the expression par méchâsté -

on purpose, expressly. e.g., iy a fet

dez erder par mêchâsté - he made mis­

takes on purpose. mèdsè (mn), doctor, mèdsin (fn), medicine. mekrèdi (mn), Wednesday. mêlé (vt), to mix. (vr), to mix oneself in some­

thing, to be nosey. e.g., i se mèl dS

lez afèr dez 6t - he noses into the af­

fairs of others. mélo (mn), melon. mem (adj), same. A. limem - himself, etc. (mn or

fn), the same. memwar (fn), memoray. mena] (mn), housework. menoer see om mènerez see fam meprize (vt), to criticize in a negative manner, 393 mèr (fn), 1. sea, ocean. A. la grâ mèr - the

open sea. 2. mother.

mèrd (fn), feces, excrement. A. la mèrd de

1'orèy - earwax.

merde (vt), to kid, dupe, trick. A. pa me mèrdê ■

don't kid me.

mérité (vt and va), 1. to deserve. 2. should, ought to.

e.g., i merit èdê sa mâmâ - he should

help his mother.

meriz (fn?), dark colored berry.

mes (fn), mass. A. done oen mes - to have a

mass said. B. mes de mare - sailor's

mass.(N.B. In former times special

ceremonies were held for fishermen

and seamen, but this practice has

been discontinued.)

mesyoe (mn), mister.

met (vt), to put, to place. A. met âsâm - to

put together, combine. B. met

âtchèr - to put together, assemble.

C. met débout - to stand up. D. met

a genou - to kneel down. E. met la

kadna t;u la port - lock the door. 394

F. met a la kié - to lock up. G. met

par mèrso - to take apart. H. mèt cfen

pyès - to patch. I. mfet su la waya -

to hang something up. J. mèt a tèr -

to put down. (vr) , se mèt a - to begin. mèt dékôl (mn) teacher. métâ (adv), supposing. mètrèz dékôl (fn), female school teacher. meyoer (adj), better. mézô (fn), house, building. mezur (fn) , size of clothing. (conj), a mezur - as. mezuré (vt), to measure. midi (mn), noon, noontime.

mil (adj), thousand.

milyônèr (mn), millionaire,

min (fn), facial expression.

minwit (fn), midnight.

mistèr (fn), mystery.

mit (fn), the interior of a loaf of bread. 395 mita (mn), the middle, the center, e.g., le ti

moun etet asi da'l mita de tout se bwa

la - the boy was sitting down in the

middle of the woods. A. 6 mita de

1'aj - middle age. miy, var. mign, (fn), corn. A. farin mign - cornmeal.

B. le bato de miy - corn cob (N.B.

In previous times these were used for

washing and scrubbing.) mo (mn) , word. mod (fn), style, fashion. A. biyê la mod - to

dress in style, e.g., i port dé had

k'e pu la mod - he wears clothes which

are no longer in style. B. bel mod -

hair style, hair-do. modir (vt), to curse someone. mol (adj), soft, smooth. mopya or mopyo (mn), fleas or ticks. mor (fn), 1. death. 2. the dead ones (always

in the plural). mord (vt), to bite. moren (fn), eel. 396 mbri (vi), to die. morign (mn), mooring. morn (fn), 1. hill. 2. mountain. mbrsô (mn), 1. piece. 2. part. mbru (mn), salt-fish. môt (mn) , 1. trip, voyage, passage. A. fèr le

môt - to make a trip, passage. 2.

wrist-watch. môtô (mn), motor. môtder (mn), motor. mou (adj), my, first person singular masculine

possessive adjective. mouch (fn), 1. fly. 2. general term for any

small flying insect. 3. bee (i.e.,

shortened form, see the following).

A, mouch a myel - honey-bee. B.

mouch a tchach - bumblebee or dragon­

fly. mduchas (fn), starch. mduche (mn), term sometimes used by local St.

Thomians in referring to Carenage 397 residents. (cf., mon cher) mouchwèr (fn) , handkerchief.

moulé (vt), to grind, to grind up.

moule (mn), 1. mill. 2. coffee-mill, grinder. motimâ (mn), moment. moun (mn), 1. person, individual. A. grâ moun -

adult. B. ti moun - child. C. vyde

mcAan - aged person. D. moun bla -

white person. E. mdbn de koulder or

mdbn kouldér - colored person. F.

mohn krëôl - refers to the white

francophone people of St. Barts or

St. Thomas, moun d 'alyer - foreigner,

stranger. 2. people in general.

(N.B. This plural construction nearly

always takes the singular e.g., le

motin - the people) . A. tout le moun -

or tout moun - everybody. moura (mn), gekko. (N.B. Locally referred to as

a "wood slave.") moustach (fn), mustache. moustik (fn), 1. small mosquito. 2. sand fly, sand 398 flea. mcTütaygn (fn), mountain. mdutê (vi) , 1. to climb. 2. to go up. A. â

mouta - upwards. e.g., kât oel a lez

âvirô douz a a mduta - when they are

about 12 years old and upwards. B.

moute ê desan - two ways, round trip.

mou to (mn), sheep.

mdutras (fn), a sample, a try or taste of something.

moutre (vt), to point out, to show.

mouve (vt), to stir (a liquid). (vr), to move

oneself, to scoot, e.g., mouv twe a

kotel - scoot over!

mouye (adj), wet.

mouyi (vt), to anchor. e.g., mouyi le bot - to

anchor the boat.

mov (mn), a sea bird, probably a gull or a booby.

move, fem. movez, (adj), bad. A. movez oey - a bad eye,

evil eye. e.g., i me vey d'oe movez

oey - he looks at me with a bad eye.

muk (adj), wet, damp. 399 mulat (mn), mulatto, individual of mixed parentage, mur (mn), stone wall constructed around a house,

(adj), ripe, mature. muray (fn?), wall, usually outdoors, muri (vi), to ripen. musk (mn), muscle. muskad (fn) , nutmeg. mwa see mwe mwâs (adj), less. mwatye (fn), half, mwê, var. mwe, mwa (pron), me, first person singular

disjunctive pronoun. mwet (mn), a person who cannot speak, a mute. myoe (adv), better. 400

N na see avwèr na] (fn), 1. swim. 2. flood. e.g., navé la

naj dâ la kaz, pas la kaz fèzê de 1*6

there was a flood in the house, be­

cause the house was leaking. na]e (vi), 1. to swim. 2. to row a boat. nas, var. nâs, (mn), fishtrap or fishpot to use the local

English. (N.B. These were originally

constructed of strips of wood (klis)

and tied with cord or vines (lyân).

Today they are made of wire. Ordinari­

ly they are placed in 15 to 2 0 fathoms

of water although some go as deep as 30

fathoms at a distance of up to 10

miles from shore. They are usually

lifted (i.e.,levé) by two men in a

boat,) natur (fn) , nature. nave see avwèr navigé (vi) , to sail. 401 ne (mn), 1. nose. 2. muzzle of an animal,

(adj), born. ne (pron), some, any. (N.B. This indefinite

pronoun is generally enclitic in na­

ture . ) neg (mn), Negro. (pn), nëg pâdu - name of a

hill to the west of Gustavia in St.

Barts. nëglije (vt), to neglect. nè j (fn), hail. e.g., la nëj é ki tdbm - it's

hailing. nèrf (mn), nerve. nërvOe, fem. nërvdëz, (adj), nervous. nêsâs (fn), birth. nësésèr (adj), necessary. nétiyé (vt), to clean. néyé (vi), to drown. ni (conj), neither. A. ni ... ni - neither

nor. nich (fn), nest. 402 nil6 (mn), nylon. nipbrt (adj), any, no matter (which). A. niport

tchel - whichever, whoever, whomever,

whatever. e.g., niport tchel moun

k'a veni, c'a so tout zami avek se

moun la - whoever comes, they are all

friends with those people. no (mn), name. A. done oe no - to give a

name, to name. (adv), no. A. no

plu - neither. noe (mn), knot. A. oe noe de bwa - a knot. noef (adj), nine. noes, var. nors, (fn), nurse. noevoe (mn), nephew. noevdez (fn), niece. nômé (vt), to name, to call. non, var. non, (fn), nun. nor (mn), North. nore see avwèr norv (mn), nerves. 403 nbt, plural n6 (z), (adj), our, first person plural pos­

sessive adjective, both masculine and

feminine. nôtès (mn) , notice. A. done notes - to give

notice, warning. nouritur (fn) , food. nouvel (fn), news. (N.B. Always in the plural.)

A. ki nouvel de vot kote? - what's

new with you? nouwel (mn?), Christmas. n o u (z) (pron), us, first person plural indirect ob­

ject and direct object pronoun. e.g.,

oe nouz a vaksine tout - they vacci­

nated all of us. nouzot (pron), us, first person plural disjunctive

pronoun. ndvâm (mn) , November. nu (adj), naked, bare. A. nu pyé - barefooted,

B. nu tèt - bareheaded. nul (adj), occurs only in the expression nul par

meaning "nowhere." (cf. pyès koté) .

A. a nul par - to nowhere. 404 numéro (mn) , 1. number. 2. size in clothing.

e.g., kômâ k'é to numéro? - what is

your size? nwa] (mn) , cloud. nwénât (adj), ninety.

nwèr (adj), black. (mn), 1. Negro. 2. dark­

ness. e.g., oel a marché, marché dâ

le nwèr - they kept on walking in the

darkness.

nwit (fn), night. A. nwit de myèl - honeymoon,

marriage night. 405

0

(conj), or. (prep), contraction of a + le or

lé. (fn), water. A. d de vi - eau

de vie. dbéyi (vt), obey. objé (mn), object, thing, article. obligasyo (fn), obligation. oblije (adj), obligated. A. dèt oblije - to be

obligated. obliye (vt), to forget. obor(de), (prep), 1. around, roundabout. 2. approxi­

mately e.g., iy a rèsté la dbôr de sèt

jour - he remained there approximately

seven days.

ôbri (mn), umbilical cord. A. ôbri de l'âfâ -

the part of the umbilical cord which

is tied to the child. dbsèrvé (vt), to observe.

ôddér (mn), odor, smell, scent. 406 d~ef (mn) , egg. A. le blâ de I'def - the egg

white. B. le j6n de 1'oef - egg yolk.

C. alé 6z def - to go hunting for

eggs. oe(1) (pron), they, third person plural personal

pronoun. dh(n), fem. cfen, var. ê (n) fem. ^ (indef art), a, an,

(adj) one. der (fn) , hour. o'ero'e, fem. oerdez, (adj), happy, glad. dey, pi. zyod (mn), eye. A. avwèr dhn dey blâ - to be

lacking an eye. B. dey nwèr - black

eye. beyê see ayê

ôfèr (vt), to offer.

6fis (mn), office.

6g (mn), claws, nails.

6h5r (prep), inside. ojoadi, var. ojowadi, (adv), today. ok (mn), uncle. 407 ôktob (mn) , October. om, var. ôm, (mn), 1. man. A. ôm dndbr - best man in a

wedding ceremony. B. ôm mender - he

along with la mendez carries the in­

fant from the parents' house to the

church on the day of baptism. (N.B.

Not to be confused with le parô.)

2= husband. omlet (fn), omelette.

Ô (n), var. â (n), (pron), 1. we, first person plural per­

sonal pronoun. 2. one, third person

singular impersonal pronoun. operasyo (fn), operation. opere (vt) , to operate (surgically). opinyô (fn), opinion. opital (mn) , hospital, opoze (vt) , to oppose, or a (de) (prep), next to, near to, nearby e.g., resté

ora de la port isit - stay nearby the

door. A. d'ora de - from next to.

e.g., kom je me levé d'ôra de sa

kouch, i'm krêyê - as soon as I would 408 get up from beside his bed,.he would

call me. draj (mn), thunder. drâj (fn), orange. drèy (fn), ear. A. bou d'ôrèy - earlobe. B.

drèy nwèr - black fin fish.

ôrfî, var. orfi (mn), garfish

orfle (mn), orphan.

osit, var. osi, (adv), 1. also. 2. as, so e.g., tu

merit pa de marché dâ le solèy osi

cho - you should not walk about when

the sun is so hot. (N.B. Preference

seems to be given to osi in structures

of comparison and intensification,)

osito ke (conj), as soon as. e.g., osito k& j'arivé,

süté ki fé la kaz - as soon as I ar­

rived, they were building the house.

ostine (vi) , 1. to argue, to fuss. 2. to brag (?).

oswer (adv), evening, night. (cf. aswer, asmate,

and asto^er)

ot (adj), other. (mn), the other. 409 dtcho'è (adj), no, any. e.g., dtcho^ lumyêr dd'l pêy,

nave pa - there was no light at all in

the country. otèl (mn), altar of a church.

6ti ke (adv), where. e.g., oti'k tu va? - where are

you going? (conj), where e.g., kdm sa

oti'k ma mèr aie, a m'amené avèk èl -

in that way, my mother used to take me

where she was going. (N.B. Sometimes

oti is employed alone, e.g., tout lez

âs oti'j res - all the bays where I

used to live.) dtour (mn), the distance around something. e.g.,

oe va veni vou pase le bra 1'dtour de

vot kou - they will come up to you and

put their arm around your neck. otremâ (adv), otherwise, rather. (conj), dtremd(ke)

- unless. ou see vou ouvêr, var. dvêr, (vt), to open. dvâ (prep), windward (adv), windward, in the wind.

(pn), the eastern section of St. Barts,

i.e., the windward portion of the island. 410

ôyô (mn), onion. oz (prep), contraction of a + lèz before a noun

beginning with a vowel.

(adj), eleven. 411

pa (adv), not, no. e.g., i mâjé pa - he didn't

eat. (mn), step. pâ (mn), peacock. pâché (vr), to lean over, to bend over. padsou, var. pardsou, (prep), under, beneath. (mn), the

bottom, the underside. A. le padsou

du pyé - the sole of the foot. padsu, var. pardsu, (prep), upon, on, on top of, (mn), the

top, the surface. pâdul (fn), clock. pak (fn), Easter. paké (mn), package. pâkôr, var. pôkèr, (adv), not yet. e.g., j'é pâkôr vu le

bway - I haven't yet seen the fellow. palèt (fn), the palate of the mouth. palm (adv), 1. light. (N.B. Term used to modify

color words. e.g. , blo'e palm - light

blue.) 412 palourd (fn), clam. pâmô (mn), lungs. pan (vt), to hang (up). A. pan le had - to hang

up the clothing. (fn), multi-purpose

metal can which is most usually employ­

ed for carrying water and washing.

A. pan a lavé - washing pan. B. pan

a rêsé - rinsing pan. C. pan a freko

- euphemism for the toilette (cf., En­

glish "can.") papa (mn), father. papay var. papaya, (fn), papaya. papaye (mn), papaya tree. papichô (mn) , joke, mockery. A. fèr papicho - to

make jokes, to clown around. (cf.,

local English "to make pappy show.") papxyo (mn), 1. butterfly. 2. any one of a num­

ber of small moths. papot (fn), homemade doll. papye (ran), 1. newspaper. 2. paper. par (prep), by. A. par an espri - on purpose,

expressly. 413 paralizé (adj), paralyzed. (mn), invalid. parât (fn), relative, family. paré (mn), godfather. paré (adj), ready, prepared. A. paré viré!

ready abouti (sailing command in pre­

paration of the tacking manoeuvre.)

(vt), to heal. e.g., oe bo mèdsê pde

paré oen person - a good doctor can

heal a person. paret (vi), to appear. parg (mn), snapper, a variety of fish. parlé (vi), to talk. (mn), talk, discussion,

speech. paroi (fn), word. A. parol de dyoe - the word of

God. parotchet (mn), 1. parrot. 2. parrot fish. parti, var. pati, (vi), to leave, to depart. (fn), 1.

private parts, genitals. 2. a party,

a celebration. partou (adv), everywhere. A. tou partou - every­

where. 414 pas, var. paske, (conj), because. e.g., la vi ètê pa si

môvê pas la kbmisyô ëtê bô marche -

life was not so bad because things

were cheap. (mn) brief visit. e.g.,

vyè prân cTe ti pas a la kaz - stop by

the house for a little visit. pasajé (mn) , passenger. pasê (vi) , to pass, to go by. (vt), 1. to un­

dergo. A. pase dbn ôpèrasyô - to un­

dergo an operation. 2. to move or

displace something. (adj), passed,

ago. e.g., j 'ëté la twa jour pasé -

I was there three days ago. pâsé (vt) , to think. (fn) thought, idea. pat (fn) , foot or hoof of an animal. patat (fn) , potato. pâti (mn) , panties. patwé (mn) , patois. (N.B. The Carenageois use

this term in referring to their form

of speech.)

paviyo (mn) , flag. A. paviyo frasé - the French

flag. B. paviyo rouj - red flag 415

which warns fishermen of heavy seas. payas (fn), mattress. (N.B. This was made from

banana leaves sewn together; this could

then be used for either a ti zâba or a

kabân.) pâyé (mn), basket. pâyèt (mn), 1. wrist. 2. cuff. pé (fn), peace. A. pé ta bouch! - shut upl

(i.e., peace to your mouth.)

Pe (mn), bread. pèch (fn), fishing. péché (vi), to fish. A. alé péché - to go fish­

ing. peche (mn), sin. pêche (vt), to pinch. pechoér (mn), fisherman. pël (fn), shovel. pèn (fn), trouble, difficulty. A. bat de pen

to have problems. per (mn), father. 416 pèrd (vt), to loose. pérê (vi), to die, to perish. pèrmèt (vt), to permit. pèrsbn (fn) , person. A. përsèn d'alyfer - stran­

ger. (pron), no one. pët (fn) , fart. A. fër cfen pët - to fart. peti (mn), the young of animals. (adj), see

:Ëi- peti mèrn (pn), small settlement near kôlôbyê in St.

Barts. pêturé (vt), to paint. pêturo'er (mn), painter. pey (mn), 1. country. 2. island. pêy (fn), comb. péyé (vt), to pay. pêyê (vt), to comb. e.g., je va pêyê ma tèt - I

will comb my hair. pi (mn), well. (adv), then. pijama (mn), pajamas. 417

Pijo (mn) , pigeon.

pijôné (vr), to make like a pigeon. (N.B. occurs

only in the verse of an old song sé

l'amour, pijôné you.) pikâ (mn), thorn.

pikê (vt), to hit, to strike. e.g., oel a piké

su le rétchê - they beat on the shark. pile (su) (vi), to walk on, to step on. e.g., kôm tu

pii su la tchoe d'db cha, tu va pa

maryè s'tâ isit - if you step on a

cat's tail, you won't marry right away, pilul (fn), pills. pimâ (mn), pepper. A. pimâ dou - sweet pepper.

B. pimâ ch6 - hot pepper. pip (fn), pipe (i.e., sewer or water lines.) pipin (mn), male organ. pirôg (fn) , canoe. (N.B. Larger than a kânèt.) pis, var. piske. (conj), since, because. e.g., iy avé fet

demâdé pour nouzdt désân, pis iy avé

dé kaz pour nouzôt - he sent for us to

come down since he had acquired houses

for us. 418 pise (vi), to urinate. (mn), urine. pistchèt (fn), small fish or fry used as bait to catch

larger fish. pityë (fn), pity, a shame. piyôté (vt), to nibble. pla (mn), plate or dish. plâ (fn), plant, vegetable, plâché (mn) , floor. plas (fn), place. plasé (vt), to place, to put. plat (adj), flat. plâté (vt), to plant. platfô (mn), foundation of a house. platin (fn), plantain. pie, fem. plen, (adj), 1. full. 2. pregnant. pleye (vr) , to complain. pleza (adj), pleasant, nJ.ce. pli (fn), rain. A. la pli toem - it's raining. 419 B. la pli tdbm a ho pâdu - heavy rain

■which falls straight down with no wind.

C. fèr la ti pli - to drizzle. (mn) ,

1. folds. 2. wrinkles in the skin. pliyé (vt) , to fold, to bend. A. pliye dé had -

to fold up clothing. plderê (vi) , 1. to cry. 2. to howl (of dogs and

cats). pin, var. plus, pluz, (adv), more. e.g., s'ale le fër môri

plu vit - that was going to make him

die more quickly. pluché (vt), to peel. plum (fn), 1. feather. 2. writing pen. p6 (fn) , 1. skin. 2. skin or peel of fruit or

vegetables. A. p6 d'arb - bark of a

tree. pbch (fn), pocket. poer (mn), fear. A. avwèr poer - to be afraid,

B. fër pder a - to frighten. pbetet (adv), perhaps, maybe, p6ki (ke) (adv), why. e.g., pdki k'o'e I'a fët? - 420

why did they do it? poli (adj), polite. polis (mn), policeman, officer. politès (fn), politeness. polka (mn), polka. pom (fn), 1. apple. A. pom de fras - apple.

B. pom suret - west Indian cherry.

2. fleshy base of the thumb. pon (vt), to lay (eggs). porta (vt), to carry. A. porté atâsyô - to pay

attention. B. pôrté dé had - to wear

clothing. (vr), to act, to behave. porto rik (pn), Puerto Rico. portre (mn), picture, photograph. pôrtuyé (fn), a variety of fish. posib (adj), possible.

p5t (mn), jar.

pôtich (fn), large porcelain jar or vase.

potitchèr (fn), pharmacy. 421 pôtur (fn), hinge. pou (mn), louse. poud (fn), powder. poul (fn), chicken, hen. poule (fn), chicken. A. ti poule - chick. pdhnyar (mn), dagger. pour (prep) for. (N.B. This preposition is used

in numerous pour phrases of the fol­

lowing variety: lé fâm é nouzôt été ki

priyé 6 bô dyo'e pour li nouzot èdé -

the women and we were praying to God

for him to help us.) pouri (vi), to rot. pous (fn), thumb. pousé (vt), to push. A. pousé dé rasin - to take

root. (vi), to grow. (vr), to push

oneself against, to lean against,

e.g., j*é vu félisia ki se pousé kôt

la masôn - I saw Felicia who was lean­

ing against the wall. poustach (fn) , peanuts, pouvwèr (va) , to be able. (mn), power, authority. p6zé (vr) , 1. to land upon. 2. to rest upon. prân (vt) , 1. to take. A. pran dez èkstrè - to

take x-rays. B. pran I'er - to get

some fresh air. C. pran I'espirasyo -

to inhale. D. pran le kours - to run

away, to race. E. prân d e march - to

take a walk. F. prân dé tès - to take

tests or exams. G. prân parti de - to

be aware of. 2. to catch on with

(i.e., job, position). pré (prep), near. A. db pu pré - about, approxi­

mately. B. 6 plu pre - close-hauled,

close to the wind in sailing.

préfère (vt) , to prefer,

prékosyô (fn), precaution. A. pran prekosyo - to

take precaution.

prepare (vt), to prepare.

prèsé (vr), to hurry oneself.

prêsipal (adj), main, principal. (mn), the main one,

prêsipalmâ (adv), mainly. 423 presipis (mn), cliff. prèske (adv), almost. prêt (mn), priest. prétân (vt), to pretend. prézâ (mn) , gift. A. prézâ de maryaj - presents

given to the newly married couple by

the father. prêzâtê (vr), to present oneself. e.g., na twa bway

ki se prêzâté - there were three boys

who presented themselves (to ask for

my hand) • priyèr (mn), prayer. priz (fn), prize. A. gâyê dten priz - to win a

prize. prôblèm (mn), problem. pr6ch (adv), close, near. (adj), close, near. prdêv (fn), proof. prôfité (vi), to grow, especially of plants and

children. promès (fn), promise. 424 prômnad (fn), 1. a walk. 2. a ride. pronose (vt), to pronounce. pronôsyasyô (fn), pronunciation. prop (adj) , clean. propoze (vt), to propose, propté (vt) , to clean. A. propté la tab - to

clear the table.

prosesyô (fn), street procession. A. prosesyô de

set an - funeral procession in which

members of the community walk behind

the coffin to the cemetery.

protéje (vt), 1. to protect. 2. to take someone's

side in a matter.

protekte (vt), to protect,

prouve (vt), to prove.

provizyô (fn), provisions, foodstuffs.

provoke (vt), to provoke, to tease.

pu (adv), no more, no longer. e.g., i parlé pu

he didn't speak any more.

pucho (mn), 1. a /ariety of tree parasite. 425 2. waterspout, funnel (?). punez (fn), bedbug. punx (vt), to punish. pur (mn), pus. putê (fn), prostitute. A. kaz a putê - house

of prostitution. pwa (mn), 1. beans. A. pwa bla - white beans.

B. pwa savâ - small kidney shaped

bean. C. pwa rouj - red beans. D.

pwa vèr - green beans. 2. peas. A.

pwa d'âgôl - pigeon peas. B. pwa zyoe

nwer - black eyed peas. 3. weight. pwe (vi), to stink. pwe (mn), fist. pwèl (mn), 1. hair. A. pwèl de zyoe - eye­

lashes. 2. fur. pweso (mn) , fish. A. pwêsô rouj - squirrel fish

known locally as "redman;" pwêt (fn), point, tip, end. A. pwêt de vu -

poxnt of view. pwèv (mn), black pepper. 426 pwe 2 0 (fn), poison. pwezone (vt), to poison. pye (mn), 1. foot. 2. tree. A. pye de bwa -

tree. (N.B. Specific types of trees

may be referred to in this fashion

i.e. pye de koko, etc. in addition to

suffixization e.g., kokoye, etc.)

3. bush. A. pye de filipin - croton

bush. B. pye de pwa - pea plant (pro­

bably pigeon peas). py&r (fn), stone. pyes (adj), no, any, e.g., j 'é pa pyès liv - I have

no book. A. pyes mdun - no one.

B. pyes kôté - nowhere. (pron), none,

nothing. 427

R radi (mn), radish. raf al (fn), a gust of wind. raferme (vt) , to close in, to close up. rak (fn) , death-rattle. “A. dfet dâ le rak - to

be on one's death-bed. rakomunye (vi), to take communion again, rakote (vt) , to tell, to recount. A. rakote dez

istwa - to tell stories. (vr), to

meet. ralign (fn), used only in the expression, had &

ralign - tattered or badly worn cloth­

ing . râmase (vt), to take back, to take up. A. râmasé

lak - to take the bait (of fish). ran (vt) , to render. A. rân o'é. sèrvis - to do

a favor. raplé (de) (vr), to remember. raporté (vt), 1. to make a complaint. 2. tq report, 428

rar (adj), rare.

rarivé (vi), to come back, to return.

ras (fn), race.

rasin (fn), root.

rasurvëyë (vt), to look at again and again. rat (mn) , rat. rat (prep), between. râtré (vi), 1. to come in. 2. to come in again,

to return. râvêrsé (vt), to spill. ravet (fn), large roach. ravin (fn), 1. ravine, gulley. 2. gutter, raze (vr), to shave oneself. razwèr (mn), rasor. rê (mn), the lower back. rèch (fn), the spine of the back, backbone, rédi (vr) , to straighten oneself out. refuzé (vt), to refuse. 429 reg (fn), 1. rule. 2. menstrual period. A.

atrapé sê règ - to have one’s period. règlemâ (mn), in the expression fer le règlemâ - to

figure something out. règlis (mn), jumbi pepper bush. (N.B. Leaves are

used to make a tea which relieves

constipation and fevers. The brightly

colored red seeds of the plant are

poisonous but are often used as decora­

tive beads.) regne (vi), to exist. e.g., le kâsèr règne pa

astder - cancer didn’t exist at that

time. regrèté (vt), to regret. rekônèt (vt), to recognize. relijoe, fem. relijdez, (adj), religious, pious. remèd (fn), remedy, cure. A. fer dé remèd - to

remedy. remersi, var. armersi, amersi, (vt), to thank. repa (mn) , meal repare (vt), to repair. 430 répété (vt), to repeat, répôn (vt), to answer. rêprân (vi)/ to recover, revive. reprézâté (vt), to represent. rêsérvê (vt), 1. to reserve. 2. to keep, resévwër (vt), to receive. rëspê (mn), respect. rëspëktê (vt), to respect. rèspëta (mn), domestic animals (?) reste (vi), 1. to remain. 2. to live, reside. resusité (vt), to revive. retartiné (adj), stunted. rétchê (mn), shark. A. rétchê blâ - white shark,

B. rétchê martô - hammerhead shark. retdêbé (vi), to relapse, to fall back. retourné, var. artourné (vi), to return. rëv (mn), dream. A. môvé rëv - nightmare.

B. fër cfe rëv - to have a dream. 431 révé, var. arévé, (vi), to dream. reveye (vt) , to wake (someone) up. (vr) , to wake

up. révolté (vt), to revolt. revwer (vt), to see again. reze (mn), grape. A. reze bor de mèr - sea side

grapes. reziste (vt), to resist. rezo (mn), reason. A. avwer rezo - to be right,

correct. rézônab (adj), reasonable. rx (mn), rice. rigwez (fn), a small stick with which children are

punished. rir (vi), to laugh. A. rir sur - to laugh at. rizet (fn) , joke, mockery. A. fer oen rizet - to

make a joke, usually at someone's ex­

pense. rob (fn), dress. roche (mn), boulder. 432

rog (mn), roe. A. avwer de règ - to be in roe. rôm (mn) , rum. rôti (vt), to roast. rou (fn), wheel, roubarb (fn), rhubarb. rou] (adj), red. rouvèr, var. ouvèr, (vt), to open. roz (fn), rose. A. la lôyé roz - the oleander

flower. ru (fn), street, rubâ (mn), ribbon. rumatif (adj), rhumatic, 433

sa (pron), this, that. A. sé pour sa - for that

reason, consequently. (adj), his,

hers, its, third person singular femi­

nine possessive adjective.

sâ (mn), blood. A. sâ h6 - high blood pres­

sure. (adj), hundred. (prep), with­

out. sab (fn) , sand. sâblé, var. sam, (vi), to seem, to appear. A. sable bye

to look good or well. B. sable a

koler - to look angry. sadal (fn), sandal. safra (mn) , saffron. A. le flower de safrâ

saffron flower.

sak (fn), sack, bag, sal (adj), dirty. salad (fn), salad.

salé (adj), salted. A. pwésô salé - salted fish.

B. ti salé - scraps of salted meat 434

with which soups are prepared. (vt),

to salt. salin (fn), sait fiat. sâmdi (mn), Saturday. sân (fn), ashes, cinders. A. koulder de sân -

gray colored.. sânalé (vi), to leave, to depart. e.g., je sânalé

joedi - I left Thursday. sapôtiy (fn), mespil. A. la fIder de sapôtiy -

flower of the mespil tree which is

used in the preparation of certain

teas.

sapôtiyé (mn), mespil tree.

sard (fn), occurs in the expression sard griz -

meaning a variety of small reef fish

locally called a "grunt."

sasiz (vi and vr), to sit down. e.g., k5m k'al ëtê

ki agardé pour sasiz a tèr ... - while

she was looking to sit down ...

satê (mn), satin.

sâté (fn), health. 435 sâti (vi) , 1. to smell. 2 to feel, A. sâti

pour avwèr dekwë - to feel like having

something. (vr), to feel e.g., je me

sâ byê - I feel well.

sdtimâ (mn), conscience, feelings.

savo (mn), soap.

se (adj), this, that, (pron), himself, herself,

itself, oneself, themselves, third

person singular and plural reflexive

pronoun.

se, fem. set, (adj), holy.

sêdou (mn), shortening,

sèdwa (mn), 1. a Swede-(N.B. The Swedes held St.

Barts for the period 1784-1877). 2. A

small fish resembling a sardine.

segre (mn), secret. A. gardé oe segre - to keep

a secret.

sê jâ (pn), 1. St. Jean, a section on the north

side of St. Barts. 2. St. John, one

of the Virgin Islands, located to the

east of St. Thomas.

sek (adj), five, 436 sekat (adj), sixty. sekwe (vt), to shake. A. sekwe sa tèt - to shake

one's head. sel (mn) , salt. A. sel a grên - salt clusters,

(fn), occurs in the expression sou le

sel meaning "armpits." sèlibatèr (mn), unmarried person. A. sèlibatèr èl

sbèl - old maid. B. sèlibatèr li

sdel - bachelor. sèlibrasyô (fn), celebration. selô (prep), according to, seloup (mn), arrowroot. semen (fn), week. sen (fn) , seine, sêparasyo (fn), separation. separe (vt), to divide. septam (mn), September. sere (mn), 1. morning dew. 2. cold, steady

drizzle. sèrkdey (mn), coffin, casket. 437 sèrtè, fem. sèrtèn, (adj), certain, sure. sèrvâ (mn), servant. sèrvèl (fn), brain. sèrvyèt (fn), cloth, towel, napkin, or table cover. sês (mn) , cent. A. cfe sêk sês - five cent

piece, a nickel. sê(b) bartelmi (pn), St. Barts. sètât, var. sèptât, (adj), seventy. sètla (pron), this one, that one. demonstrative

pronoun, occasionally used in place

of stèla. sêtur (fn), waist. sèt(z) (adj), seven. A. sèt de jâvyé - Three King's

Day. sêyê (vi), to bleed. sëz (adj), sixteen. se(z) (adj), 1. his, hers, its, theirs, third

person singular and plural possessive

adjective. 2. these, those, plural

demonstrative adjective. 438 sezi (vt), to grab, to seize. sézô (fn), season. A. dèt â sézô - to be in

season, especially of fish.

SI (adj), SO. (intensifying agent). (conj), if.

(N.B. Usually combines with ke e.g.,

si'k o^bn âfâ toem dâ sa, sê fini - if

a child falls in that, it's all finish­

ed. ) sifte (vt), to sift. sigal (fn), cigar. sigarèt (fn), cigarette. A. twé oén sigarèt - to

put out a cigarette. sign (fn?), sign.

signé (vt), to sign.

simâ (mn) , cernent.

simâté (vt) , to cernent,

simikôtra (mn) , worm grass.(N.B. The leaves of this

plant are used to prepare a tea

against worms. In addition, small

bags containing the leaves are worn

around the neck by young children as 439 a preventative.) simitybr (fn), cemetary. sink (mn), sink. sitâ (adj), so many. e.g., aprê de la la mbr lavé

sitâ le môd twé - afterwards, the sea

had killed so many people. sitèrn (fn), cistern. sitrô (mn), lime. sitrônèl (fn), lemon grass (N.B. A mild tea is pre­

pared from this grass as a remedy for

colds.) s IV (fn), leeks. si (z) (adj), six. sizôné (vt), to season with spices. skipe (avek) (vt), to look after, e.g., ma mèr ave pa

pa person pour skipe avek mwe - my

mother had no one to look after me.

so (adv), so, well. Often employed as an in­

troductory element in sentences, e.g.,

so kit mwe dir - so let me tell you.

(conj), so ke, so that. 440 soel (adj), alone, only.

3 0 ( 2Imâ (adv), only. soer (fn), sister. s6f (conj), except. s61 (fn), flounder (fish) . solda (mn), soldier. sôlèy (mn), 1. sun. A. brulder du sôlèy - sun­

burn. 2. a variety of fish. solid (adj), solid, firm.

S(hm, var. s6m, (fn) , nap. A. prân dbn ti s6m - to take a

nap.

SÔ (n) (adj), his, hers, its, third person singular

masculine possessive adjective. sôné (vt), to sound, to toll. e.g., sôné lé

trépa - to toll the funeral bells. sôpèr (vi), 1. to breathe. 2. to sigh. sôrti (vi), to go out. sbrtou (adv), especially.

s6s (fn), gravy, sauce. 441

SOSl (mn), eyebrow. sôsis (fn), sausage, sosyete (fn), society. (N.B. One noteworthy society

was that of St. Anne under the direc­

tion of the local priest. Monthly

dues were paid which were to cover fu­

neral expenses.) sote (vi), to jump. sotoer (mn), 1. jumper. 2. mackerel. sotrel (fn), grasshopper. sou (adj), drunk. (prep), under. A. sou le vâ -

leeward.(N.B. Also the name for the

western section of St. Barts where the

Carenageois originated.) souf (mn), breath, breathing. souffer (vt), to suffer. soukwé (vt), to shake, soulajé (vt), to help, to assist. soular (mn) , drunkard. soulé (vt), to drink alcoholic beverages heavily. 442 soulri (mn), drunkeness. soulyê (mn), shoes. soumfel (fn), sole of a shoe. soup (fn), soup. A. soup a pwa rouj - red bean

soup. B. soup a vyân - meat stew.

C. soup a pwa d'âgol - pigeon pea

soup. D. soup a pwa zyde nw&r - black

eyed pea soup. soupe (mn), supper. soupir (mn), sigh. souri (fn), mouse. A. souri'd ch6d - bat. soutèni (vt), to support, to help out. sôvê (vt), to save, to preserve. sôyé (vt), to care for, to raise, especially

pertaining to animals. e.g., ô mâjê

sa k'ô sôyé - we used to eat what we

raised. stèla see stila stëp (mn), steps leading up to the front door.

(N.B. Always plural.) 443 stila, fern, stèla (pron), that one. e.g., mè le syê ke j 'é

maryé sé stila but the one I married

was that one. stdv (mn), kitchen stove. su (mn), south. subitmâ (adv), quickly, suddenly. suk (mn), sugar. A. suk bla -refined white

sugar. B. suk broe - unrefined brown

sugar. supôrté (vt), to support. A. supôrté a l'êr - to

hold up, to buttress. surjiyê (mn), doctor fish. A. surjiyê nwèr - black

doctor fish. surveye (vt), 1. to look at closely. 2. to look

out for. suse (vt), to suck. suset (fn), remora fish. suska see juske swa (fn), silk, swasât (adj), sixty. 444 swé (vi), to perspire, to sweat. (mn), perspira­

tion. swe (mn), care. A. pran swe - to take care. swef (fn), thirst. A. done la swef - to make

thirsty. swer , var. swar, (fn), evening, night.(cf., aswèr) swèté (ft), to wish, to desire. e.g., je swët k'i

vyêdrê - I hope that he will come. sweti (conj), employed exclusively in the correla­

tive construction sweti ... 6 meaning

"either ... or." e.g., se swèti mdh

per 6 ma mèr - it's either ray father

or my mother.

syê, fern, syen, pi. syen, (pron), the one (who, which,

that) e.g., sa sé le syê ki t'a

môrdu - that's the one that stung

you. d&n mwe tout le syèn ke t'a

da la bwèt - give me all the ones

which you have in the box.

syel (mn), 1. sky. 2. heaven. 445

T ta (mn), 1. weather. A. move ta - storm.

B. gro tâ - bad weather. C. fhr bô

tâ, etc. - the weather is good, etc.

2. time. A. a tâ - on time.

B. tâzâtâ - from time to time. C.

ta d 'ava - the old days. D. le bô ta

d 'avà - the good old days. E. a tou

tâ - always. F. dâ se tâ la - at

that time, in those days. (adv), so

much, too much. e.g., se mdun la èm

ta blayê - that guy likes to brag too

much. tab (fn), table. A. arâjê la tab - to set the

table. B. propte la tab - to clear

the table. tabak (mn) , tobacco. tabliye (fn?), apron. tabour (mn) , drum. tâdi ke (conj), while, during. e.g., ma ve fer atâsyo

a l'âfâ tâdi'k t'é pati - I will look

after the child while you are gone. 446 tafeta (mn), taffeta. taksine (vt) , to tease. talâ (mn), heel. taloer (adv), in just a moment. tâmarê (mn), tamarind. tap (mn), a slight slap or blow. tâp (fn), temple (of the head). tâpêrasyô (fn), temperature, weather. A. koma k'e la

tâpêrasyo ojoadi? - how is the weather

today? tâpët (fn) , storm. tar (adv), late, tarzan, var. tazan, (mn), kingfish. tas (fn), coffee or tea cup. tât (fn), aunt. tâyâ (mn), tania, local tuber, tazata see ta tcha tcha (mn), a mildly pejorative term for a resi­

dent cf Carenage. 447 tchâs (fn), 1. opportunity. 2. occasion. tché (fn), wharf. tchê (vt), 1. to hold, to grasp. e.g., tchê la

cTen tit bêkê pour êl pa toebé ! - hold

her a little bit so she doesn't fall!

2. to keep, to maintain. A. tchê

d'en dâs - to hold a dance. B. tchê

byê - to keep something in good con­

dition. tchê de dcTey - to be in

mourning. C. tchê dbn fam a dehor -

to keep a mistress. D. tchê den

promes - to keep a promise. (vr), to

hold one another, to hold oneself. tchebc (vt), 1. to hold, to grasp, to seize, e.g.,

i na be zobi k'a tchebodu de dez âfâ -

there was a zombi who grabbed one of

the children. 2. to support, to hold

up. e.g., tchebo a I'er pour li pa

toebe - hold it up so it doesn't fall. tchek (adj), expresses an indefinite quality (i.e.,

some) in a number of compounds.

A. tchèkchoz - something (N.B. Less

common than dekwe). B. tchèkoe -

someone. C. tchekpar - somewhere. 448 te hub (fn) , tube. tchulüt (mn) , pants, trousers. te (mn), 1. tea. A. té nwèr - black tea

(i.e. table tea) 2. term used to de­

signate any one of a considerable num­

ber of warm beverages prepared from

leaves, stalks, flowers or roots of

various plants in a number of possible

combinations. (N.B. Most of these are

believed to have medicinal value.) A.

té du pèy - a purgative used with

convalescents to improve appetite and

general well-being. (N.B. Some in­

formants say that it is the "hita" or

"ita" plant in local English.) te (pron), you, to you, second person singular

object and reflexive pronoun. té (mn), thyme. têbré (adj), wise, intelligent. telefone (vt), to telephone. tèm.wê (mn), evidence, proof. ter (fn), 1. land. A. a tèr - down, on the 449

ground. 2. soil. tèrib (adj), terrible. term (mn), 1. term. 2. form of speech. têrt (mn), mountain dove. tes (mn), test, medical test.A. pran de tes -

to make tests (on a patient. tbt (fn), 1. head. 2. the top of something,

its highest, most prominent part.

3. refers occasionally to hair in a

general sense as in the expressions

pGye la tèt - to comb one's hair and

tèt frize - frizzy hair. 4. sheath

of palm fronds (i.e. tèt dëz âmar). teto (mn), female breast, t i , var., p' t i , fem. tit, p* tit, (adj), little, small.

A. ti mdun - child. B. ti bway - a

young boy. C. ti zaba - a small

wooden bed for children. D. ti salé -

scraps of salt meat used in the prepa­

ration of stews and soups. E. tit

mizen - jib sail. tik (fn) , tick. 450 tiki (mn), ticket. tirâ (mn), belt loops. tiré (vt), to fire upon with guns, to throw at

with stones. tiyé (vt), to split. tizan (fn), any one of numerous drinks prepared

from leaves, fruits or flowers. tô (mn), tuna. tobiyô (mn), a puff or gust of wind. tctebé, var. têbé, (vi), to fall. A. tObbe par dèryèr

to fall backwards. B, tdebé hotbor -

to fall overboard. tok (fn), trunk of a tree. tom (fn), 1. grave. 2. tomb. tomad (fn), tomato. to(n) (adj), yours, second person singular, mascu­

line possessive adjective. tônèl (fn), porch-like structure alongside a house, topi (fn), toy top. 451 tor (mn), wrong. A. avwer tor - to be wrong,

incorrect. tord (vt), to twist. tormate (vt), to torment, tortchet (fn), 1. cloth, rag. 2. cloth placed on

top of the head to aid in carrying

pans of water. tortol (pn), Tortola, British Virgin Islands. tortu (fn), turtle. (N.B. Usually refers to the

greenback variety.) A. tortu de

tèr - tortoise. tou, fem. tout, (pron) , all, everything. A. tout le mcfhn -

everybody. B. tou le jour - everyday.

C. a tou tâ - always. (fn), cough.

A. avwèr la tou - to have a cold. touche (vt), to touch. (adj), spoiled. (N.B.

Said of a fruit or vegetable which

has a visible blemish on it.) toujour (adv), always, still, tour (mn), turn. touris (mn), tourist. 452 tourné, var. tôrné, (vt), to stir. A. tourné la soup -

to stir soup (cf., local English "to

turn fungi" meaning to stir corn meal)

(vi), to turn. tousé (vi), to cough. toutouch (fn), female genitals, usually of a young

girl. toutoun (fn), female genitals, usually of a young

girl. trâblé (vi), to tremble. trach (fn), slice, trâché (vt), to slice, trâpê (vt), to soak. trâspbrtê (vt), to transport, trat (adj), thirty. tratchil, var. tatchil, (adj), calm. A. sc tchê trâtchil -

to keep calm, to remain aloof, modest. travay (mn), i. work. 2. job. travaye (vt), to work. traversé (vt), to traverse, to cross. 453 tré (adv), very (rare). trê (mn) , noise. A. fër du trè - to make

noise. trëmâ (mn), shaking. A. trfemâ de tèr - earth­

quake . trene (vt), to drag, to pull along behind, trépa (mn), tolling of the bells at 10:00 a.m.

the day of the funeral for a member

of the Society of St. Anne. très (fn), long braided strips made from palm

fronds. (N.B. These très are then

fashioned into hats, placemats, bags,

etc. ) tret (adj), traitorous. (mn), traitor. trete (vt), to threaten. trete (vt), to treat. trètmâ (mn), treatment. trez (adj), thirteen. trian (fn), metal triangle used as a percussion

instrument in small bands. 454 trinidad (pn), Trinidad. tris (adj), sad, disheartened. trop, var. trop, (adj), too, too much. (N.B. When used

before verbs, it has the meaning of

"over" e.g., trop bouyi - to over­

cook, etc.). trope (vt), to deceive. tropet (fn), trumpet fish. trou (mn) , hole. A-. trou du né - nostril. troub (fn), trouble. trouble (vt), to bother or annoy. troup (mn), a large group, a gang, e.g., oe troup

de matlo - a gang of sailors. trouve (vt), 1. to find. A. trouvé tchêkde de

mâk - to miss someone, e.g., ma ki

va te trouvé de mâk - I'm going to

miss you. 2. to meet up with, to

run into someone. (vr), to meet, to

get together. trouyo (mn) , a fooler or oral pacifier for an in­

fant. 455 tu (pron), you, second person signular subject

pronoun. twa(z) (adj), three. twe (pron), you, second person singular disjunc­

tive pronoun. twe (vt), to kill. A. twe le foe - to put out

the fire. (vr), to kill oneself, to

commit suicide. twel (fn), cloth, material. A. la twel de

toulejour - everyday cloth. tyer (mn), a third. 456

U ulsèr (fn), ulcer. uni (adj), smooth. A. p6 uni - smooth skin. uzé (vt), to use. 457

V va (mn), wind, breeze. A. kou de va - storm,

hurricane. vach (fn), cow. vddoer (mn), salesman who usually sells in the

street or door to door. vddredi (mn), Friday. vaksiné (vt), to vaccinate. vais (fn), waltz. vdn (vt), to sell, vâniy (fn), vanilla. varèt (fn), 1. algae. 2. seaweed. vât (mn), stomach, belly. vâté (vi), to blow e.g., i vat epil - thewind is

blowing hard. (vt), to fan. e.g. ,je

l'é vâté, vâté - I kept on fanning her. vâtré (fn), intestines. vâtre jdn (mn), banana quit, a small canary-like bird,

(cf. vât). 458 vê (m.i) , wine. A. koulder de vê - purple,

burgundy.

vê (t) (adj), twenty.

vêkat (adj), eighty. A. vèkatroer - venomous

local spider.

ven (fn), vein.

veni (vi), 1. to come, to arrive. 2. to be­

come, to get. A. vèni fâché - to

become angry. B. vèni byê -to get

better. C. vèni mal - to get worse. vèr (mn), drinking glass. (fn), worm. A. ver

de tèr - earthworm. (adj), green. ver a (mn), boar pig.

vérèt (fn), occurs in twoexpressions. A. gros

vérèt - smallpox. B. petit vérèt -

chicken-pox. vérité (fn) , truth. vêrmichêl (fn) , vermicelli noodles, vêrvên (fn) , a local plant, the leaves of which are

dipped in sweet oil and then applied

to sores and boils. 459 veye (vt), to look at, to watch. A. veye apre -

to look after. (vr), to look at one­

self, to look at each other.

VI (fn), life. A. la set vil - exclamatory

expression whose meaning is roughly

"you're telling me I" vid (adj), empty. (fn), emptiness, empty space.

A. vid de I'dey - pupil of the eye. vidé (vt), to pour. vign (fn), vine. A. vign de rêzê - grapevine. vil (fn), city, town. A. & vil - to town, in

town. vineg (mn), vinegar. violet (adj), violet. viré (vi), 1. to turn, to make a turn, to veer.

2. to tack (sailing term). A. pare

viré: - ready about: vit (adj), quick, rapid. vitma (adv), quickly, rapidly. viv (vi), to live. 460 viva (adj), living. vivano (mn), red snapper (fish) vizite (vt) , to visit. voev (fn), widow. voevye (inn) , widower. vole (vi), 1. to fly. 2. to steal, voider (mn), thief, burglar. voloter (adv), willingly, gladly. vomi (vt), to vomit, voulwer (va and vt), to want. A. voulwèr dir - to

mean. B. voudre kônèt - to wonder. vout (fn), cave, cavern, vou(z), var. ou, (pron), you, second person plural and po­

lite subject and object pronoun.(N.B,

This form, employed infrequently, is

generally reserved for the very old

and for strangers who speak French). vu (fn), sight.

vwa (fn)f voice. 461' vwatur (fn) , car. vwazin (fn) , neighbor. vwèl (fn) , sail of a ship. A. grâ vwèl - main­

sail. (N.B. This sail is permanently

attached to the mast. When not in use,

the sail along with the mast is removed

from the kânot and stored. At sea un­

der heavy wind, reefing can be accom­

plished by simply turning the mast and

taking up sail.) vwer (vt) , to see. A. vwer pour - to look for,

to search. vyân (fn), meat. A. vyân salé - salted meat. vyay (mn), grouper (fish).

vyerj (fn), 1. virgin. 2. The Virgin Mary.

vyoeolo (mn), violin.

vyoeyi (vi), to grow old, to age.

v y o e (z ) , fem. vyey, (adj), old, aged. A. vyoe mdbn d'avâ

- ancestors, forebears. (mn or fn),

an old person. 462

W

wa, var. rwa, (mn), king. A. de wa - Three King's day,

the sixth of January.

waya (mn), 1. wire. 2. clothes-hanger.

wer see vwer

wes (mn), west. wi (interj), yes. wil see Iwil

wiro (mn), musical instrument. (N.B. This instru­

ment is produced from a hollowed-out,

long squash. A grating, scratching

sound is made when a metal wire is

scraped across its notched surface).

wit(z) (adj), eight. 463

(pron), to him, to her, to it, indirect ob­

ject pronoun which often replaces li. yad (fn), yard. (N.B. A measure used in the

buying and selling of cloth.) yèr (adv), yesterday. A. yèr ôswër - last

night. B. avat yèr - day before

yesterday. you (prep), at the home of, at the place of e.g.,

oe koure you le syèn k'ave dé kaz

k'èté solid - they ran to the homes

of those who had solid houses. also

na den èspri k'é vèni you mwê - there

was a spirit which came to me. (conj)

you ke - where. e.g., oel âvoyé I'o

you k'oel a la baz - they used to send

the water where they have the base. 464

zafèr see afèr zâmi see ami zânoli (mn), any one of a variety of small lizards.

A. zânoli de tèr - ground lizard.

B. zânoli de bwa - three lizard.

(N.B. Any small lizard which spends

most of its time in trees, bushes, on

walls, in houses, etc.) zerb, var. êrb, 1. grass. 2. weeds, any kind of

small, wild plants. zêrpyât (mn), stink weed. (N.B. A tea from the

roots is reputed to induce an appetite

and relieve constipation. Often bread

is soaked in the tea and then eaten.) zipe (vt), to zip up. zipèr (mn), zipper. z6 (mn), bone. A. z6 de pweso - fishbone.

B. z6 de la jam - shin-bone. C. zo

de l'épôl - shoulder blade. 465 zôbi (mn), zombi, ghost, zôg see ôg zômar (mn) , a type of palm tree from which straw

is obtained. (N.B. After cutting and

drying, the straw is then used for

weaving.) A. zômar krêbl - type of

palm. B. tèt zômar - a sheath of

palm fronds cut from the tree before

they are mature. zbrtôla (fn) , a small dove. zôzyô (mn) , 1. bird. 2. slang for male member,

(cf., jibiyé) zw: (mn) , fish gills. zwit (mn) , oyster.

zyoe (mn) , eye, eyes. (N.B. Most often employed

as the plural of dey. However, in the

speech of many Carenageois it appears

to be in free variation with dey.) A.

dè zyoe de travèr - a crossed eyed.

B. dfe zyoe dou - a wink (of the eye).

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