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SYBA GEOGRAPHY PAPER - III HUMAN GEOGRAPHY © UNIVERSITY OF MUMBAI
Dr. Sanjay Deshmukh Vice Chancellor, University of Mumbai Dr. Ambuja Salgaonkar Dr. Dhaneswar Harichandan Incharge Director, Incharge Study Material Section, IDOL, University of Mumbai IDOL, University of Mumbai
Programme Co-ordinator : Prof. Anil R. Bankar Asst. Prof. Cum Asst. Director, IDOL, University of Mumbai.
Course Co-ordinator : Prof. Ajit Patil IDOL, University of Mumbai.
Editor : Dr. Hemant M. Pednekar, Principal Sonapant Dandekar College, Palghar
Course Writer : Dr. Maushmi Datta Prof. Bharti Unni N.K. College, HOD of Geography, Malad, Mumbai Sathye College, Vile Parle, Mumbai
Prof. Prakash G. Shinde Dr. Rajaram B. Patil Ex-VP and Head, Joshi- Bedekar College Hod of Geography, Phondaghat College, Thane, Ex-Chairperson, BOS Geography, Sindhudurg, Member BOS Geography, University of Mumbai University of Mumbai
Dr. Mrs. Savitsmita Vilasrao Chawan Prof. Suresh Shetkar Associate Professor, HOD of Geography, N. K. College, Dept. of Geography, Malad, Mumbai University of Mumbai
Dr. Shivaram A. Thakur Dr. Bhimrao B. Sonule HOD of Geography, Sindhudurg College, Prof. Dept. of Geography, Chairman, BOS Geography, University of Mumbai University of Mumbai
November 2016, S.Y.B.A. Geography Paper - III, Human Geography Published by : Incharge Director Institute of Distance and Open Learning , University of Mumbai, Vidyanagari, Mumbai - 400 098.
DTPipin Enterprisescomposed by : Ashwini Arts GuruTantia Krupa Jogani Chawl, Industrial M.C.Chagla Estate, Marg, Unit Bamanwada, No. 2, Vile Parle (East), Mumbai - 400 099. Ground Floor, Sitaram Mill Compound, J.R. Boricha Marg, Mumbai - 400 011 Printed by : CONTENTS
Unit No. Title Page No.
1. Human Geography 1
2. Population 17
3. Migration 29
4. Tribes 46
5. Rural Settlement 63
6. Urban Settlement 93
7. Colonization and Third World 114
8. Multinational Corporation and Globalisation 126
9. Human Geography - Practicals 143
I
Syllabus S.Y.B.A. Geography Paper - III, Human Geography
Unit -1
Introduction to Human Geography, Nature and scope of Human Geography, Branches of Human Geography, Different approaches to Human Geography, Man-Environment relationship: Determinism, Possibilism, Probablism
Unit - 2
Population: Population Explosion, Factors affecting growth of population, Factors affecting distribution of population policy of India
Unit - 3
Migration: Concept, Types of migration, Causes and Consequences of migration, International migration, Recent trends in migration
Unit - 4
Tribes in the world: World distribution of tribes, Distribution of primitive tribal population, Examples of tribes in different parts of the world
Unit - 5
Rural Settlements - Concept of hamlet and village – House types in different parts of India and World – Variation in building material used for the construction of houses – Site and Situation of rural settlements
Unit - 6
Urban Settlements - Concept of ‘urban’ – Difference between rural and urban settlements – Urbanisation and Suburbanisation – Problems of urbanisation – Causes and Solution to urban problems. II
Unit -7
Colonisation and the Third World - Concept of the third world – Characteristics of Developed and Developing/Underdeveloped countries – Problems related to Underdeveloped/ Developing countries
Unit - 8
Multinational Corporations and Globalisation- Multinational Corporations: Characteristics – Advantages and Disadvantages – Globalisation – Effects – Association of the countries Unit - 9 Practical: Construction of Simple bar diagram, Multiple bar diagram, Divided bar diagram Thematic map: Located bar diagram based on the World Map, Construction: Circle diagram, Square diagram, Divided circle Thematic map (World) reading based on Located Divided circle, Located Proportional circles, Located Proportional Square.
1 1
HUMAN GEOGRAPHY After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure:
1.0 Objectives 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Subject- Discussion 1.3 Branches of Human Geography 1.4 Different Approaches to Human Geography 1.5 Man Environment Relationship 1.6 Summary 1.7 Check your Progress/ Exercise 1.8 Answers to the self learning questions. 1.9 Technical words and their meaning 1.10 Task 1.11 References for further study
1.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to – understand the meaning of Geography · Know Human Geography in pre-historic times, mediaeval time and in the modern times · Understand the relationship among human groups in different parts of the world · Know the contribution of different geographers such as German, French, British, American, Soviet and Indian. · Know the nature and scope of Human Geography · Learn why the knowledge of Human Geography is essential · Study different branches of Human Geography · Understand different approaches to Human Geography · Study Determinism · Understand Possibilism 2
1.1 INTRODUCTION
Human Geography is considered as a diverse discipline. This field of geography explains the relationships between people and places in the world where we live.
1.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Geography can broadly be classified as Physical Geography, Human Geography and Cartography. Human geography on the other hand, is the study of the relationship between the natural and the human world, and the spatial distributions of the human phenomena, created by the human beings through mutual interactions. In this chapter we will learn about the various concepts and approaches in Human Geography which has been evolved over time. Attempts have also been made to classify different fields and sub fields of human geography which states its inter disciplinary nature.
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY:
The term Geography is derived from the Greek word ‘Geo’ meaning ‘Earth’ and ‘Graphy’ meaning ‘Description’. Thus, we can define ‘Geography’ as “Description of the Earth”. Today Geography has. Become a very important part of natural science and social science. Geography is divided into 3 main branches:
1. Physical Geography 2. Human Geography 3. Cartography
One of the most popular and widely accepted definitions of Human Geography is “man and his adjustments to his natural environment”. We can say Human Geography is that branch of Geography which deals with distribution of various phenomena of the Earth. Everything that makes the environment is a part of the subject of Human Geography. Human Geography as the branch of the Geography has developed very recently. According to Vidal-De-La-Blache, relationship of man and nature is the subject matter of Human Geography. In fact, there are different definitions which are put forward by different experts about the subject matter of Human Geography. But we can say that the subject matter of Human Geography is the study of relationship between man and nature, and this relationship is dynamic. However, in Human Geography the centre of study is the man.
It is found that in the same world, all human groups do not enjoy the same level of development. For example: Congo, 3
Amazon and Indonesia fall in the same n a t u r a l environment, but, there is a difference in their levels of development.
We generally find that our food, clothing, shelter, tools, technology, customs, tradition, faith, literature are directly or indirectly influenced by the physical environment.
In today’s world, there is a need to study Human Geography as it is changing in nature. About 10,000 years ago man discovered the art of agriculture and he started settling down in the fertile river valleys. In 15th century, man discovered new lands and the exchange of knowledge was very slow. Later, man learned how to utilize the available resources in a better manner. Human migrations b e c o m e common. Industrial revolution took place. There were progress in the field of science and technology.
However, with, the passage of time, man became more greedy and careless about the use of the environment and as a result in the 20th century, environmental degradation took place. Several problems like pollution, soil erosion, population explosion, energy crisis had started to take place. This is the right time to examine human behaviour and to find out a solution to all the problems that are taking place.’ We should see how human actions can be controlled and hence here lies the importance of Human Geography. It is said that the need of study of Human Geography is the need of the hour.
The most important consideration to be studied in Human Geography is to understand the relationship among human groups in different parts of the world. Today, there is no place for human values and the problem of global pollution and population explosion are increasing. We are sure that a proper and systematic study of Human Geography will provide a solution to all the above problems.
1. Human Geography in Pre-Historic Times: In the pre-historic times, Human Geography was mainly a descriptive subject. During this time, Human Geography mainly studied about land, water, air and people. During this time, 4
Human Geography was less scientific. Maps during this time showed only the location of places. The Greeks actually laid the foundation of Geography. Ptolemy made several contributions in the development of Human Geography.
2. Human Geography in the Medieval Times: It was the Arabs who spread the work of Ptolemy to Western Europe. The Arabs travelled a lot and they made important contribution to Cartography. New lands were discovered. Many laws and theories were added to Human Geography. This brought a tremendous change in Human Geography.
3. Human Geography in Modern Times: In the 18th century, there was a development of Physical Geography as well as Human Geography. Several contributions were made by the German, French, British, American, Soviet and the Indian Geographers. Below is a list of the Geographers who contributed towards the development of Human Geography.
School of Geographer and Contribution Thought German 1. Alexander Von Humboldt : Latitudes and Longitudes 2. Carl Ritter : Unity in Diversity and Concept of Land 3. Friedrick Ratzel : Established Cultural Geography French 1. Vidal-de-la-Blache: Father of French Geography; idea of ‘Possibilism’. 2. Jean Brunhes : Scope of Human Geography 3. Albert Demongeon : Transport Geography British 1. J. Mackinder: Concept of ‘Heart Land’ 2. Sir Patrick Geddes : Founded ‘British Regional Studies’ 3. F-Ierbertson : Concept of ‘Natural Regions’ 4. Peter Hagget : Statistical Techniques and Models in Geography 5. Roxby: Scope and Aim of Human Geography American 1. W.M. Davis: Cycle of Erosion 2. Bowman : Great Physical Geographer 3. Huntington : Great Human Geographer 5
Soviet 1. Vorikov: Climatology for Development of Agriculture 2. V.V. Dokuchaev : Contributed to Regional Geography and Planning Indian 1. Prof. G. Kurian : Department of Geography at Madras 2. Prof. M.K.Bose : Taught Human Geography at Calcutta University 3. Prof. R.L. Singh : Department of Geography at Banaras University
Geography is an old field of knowledge and it is known to the scholars of the ancient world. It is a well-developed multi- dimensional subject. Geography covers a vast field and includes many branches of different disciplines. The scope of Geography has become very vast. The subject matter is broken into a number of branches. Human Geography covers the evolution of human beings, its different races, their description and distribution and adaptation to the environment. Human Geography has a very long history. The view is that there is a close relationship between man and nature.
Strabo and some other Roman Geographers said that environment plays a very important role in the level of progress of people. Miss Sample defined Human Geography as “a study of the changing relationship between untrusting man and unstable Earth”.
We can say that Human Geography covers a wide field or say that the scope of the subject is immense. We study about physical and cultural differences among the human groups in Human Geography. Human Geography covers the relationship between man and his natural environment. Human Geography also studies about types and patterns of rural settlements, growth and functions of urban settlements, functional classification of towns, distribution of economic activities, industries, trade and transportation and communication.
Human Geography also deals with the world as it is and the world the way it should be. It gives most importance to man- where they are, what they are like, how they adjust themselves to their surroundings and so on.
The nature of Human Geography is not uniform. It has relationship with other subjects also. Human Geography changes with time and needs of the people. Human Geography deals with several laws and theories for better understanding of 6 relationships. All these discussion put forward the wide scope of Human Geography.
The knowledge of Human Geography is essential due to the following:
1. For the scientific development of Geography: The study of Human Geography brings out the scientific relationship between man and environment. In Human Geography, we study about the population distribution in the world, differences among different groups of population and this study makes Human Geography so very important. In Human Geography, we also study about the types of settlements and all these studies make Human Geography a very important part in Geography.
2. For planning of the national economy: The knowledge of Human Geography is very much required in the planning of national economy. The planners have to take ideas from Human Geographers regarding the welfare of the state. The study of Human Geography also involves techniques on how to raise the standard of living, improve health and educational facilities in the developing countries.
Human Geography serves the objective of liberal -education. It helps us to understand the world where we live; we also study about the people of the other nations of the world. In Human Geography we have several modules which explains us the economic, social and political system of different countries of the world Our study of Human Geography can help us to make us better informed citizens who can understand and face the problem and find a solution as well. Thus, the scope is wide and importance of Human Geography is immense.
Q.1. Explain the nature and scope of Human Geography. 7
1.3 BRANCHES OF HUMAN GEOGRAPHY:
The main Branches of Human Geography are as follows:
This branch of Human Geography is concerned with distribution of population density, ratio, occupational structure, age- sex pyramid, rate of fertility, rate of mortality, Human Development Index (HDI), migration of population, etc. Population Geography also deals with several laws and models of population growth. Today, most of the universities of the world have a separate department dealing with Population Geography. Much research work and field work has been carried on today in this field. Many geographers have made an elaborate study on international migration. In Population Geography, the geographer uses statistical data, as well as the data from several Government sources. At present, population explosion has become a serious problem. Today, there are several population policies to control this ever- increasing growth of population. The Population geographers are interested to study the pattern of population growth and its distribution in the third world countries. Hence, we can say that Population Geography is one of the major branches of Human Geography.
2. Economic Geography: Economic Geography mainly deals with human occupation and their types as well as their development. Economic Geography can be classified into three parts: a) Commercial Geography: In Commercial Geography, we study about distribution and consumption of goods. b) Transport Geography: In Transport Geography, we study about the movement of goods. c) Resource Geography: Resource Geography deals with resources and their types, distribution, utilization as well as their future.
Economic Geography as mentioned above mainly studies about the pattern of economic development of different groups of people. Human wants are unlimited. Today, at every step, man tries to bring development. In this manner, he feels, he will be able to satisfy his wants. Man has brought about industrial revolution, he has worked hard to improve his economy, but, at the same time he has brought about several problems like population explosion, degradation of the environment, etc. Economic Geography tries to study all these issues regarding the economic 8 development of man and so it is an important branch of Human Geography.
3. Political Geography: Political Geography is very recent in nature, it studies about different places, border areas and the areas of strategic importance; It also includes the study of division of power and rise and fall of the Government of the country. In the initial times, Political Geography was one of the weakest branches of Human Geography. It became very interesting during the First and the Second World War. Today, Political Geography is taught in several universities, but, this branch lacks research work. Actually, Political Geography has failed to attract new geographers. It has infact become very old fashioned. However, after 1970, Political Geography has started gaining importance. A part of Political Geography has come to be known as ‘Electoral Geography’. At present Electoral Geography has made an outstanding progress in Political Geography.
4. Social Geography: Social Geography is very wide and deep in its content. Social Geography studies about different races, religions, languages, societies, class and caste structures. Social Geography started in 1960s and has expanded during 1970s. It was during 1970s that Social Geography became a part of Human Geography.
5. Geography of Settlements Geography of Settlements studies about the location of rural and urban settlements. Geographical, economic, social, political and technological factors influence the site and situation of rural and urban settlements. It studies about the growth and development of settlements. Although, Geography of Settlements is a traditional branch of Human Geography, but, in the recent years, this branch has made a great progress. Rural Geography and Urban Geography are the two branches of Geography of Settlement. a) Rural Geography: It includes the study of social and economic characteristics of the village. Every detail of the rural area like house design and building materials are studied under this. b) Urban Geography: It is vast in nature and is developing rapidly. It studies about the location and growth of the cities as well as their relationship with each other. The main aim of Urban Geography is to make laws and theories. At present, Urban Geography has become an important part of Geography of Settlements. 9
6. Cultural Geography: Cultural Geography is a traditional branch of Geography. It mainly focuses on the pattern of human culture. Cultural Geography in the recent years covers new approaches, techniques and ideas. Cultural Geography in the 21st century has been given much importance in U.S.A.
7. Historical Geography: Historical Geography is the study of history of Geography.
8. Medical Geography: Medical Geography has become an important branch of Human Geography in the present years. It studies about the distribution of disease, illness, death and healthcare.
9. Military Geography: This branch of Human Geography studies the strategic places, frontiers and boundaries.
10. Agricultural Geography: This branch studies the distribution and location of different agricultural and other associated activities.
11. Transportation Geography: Transportation Geography studies various transportation networks used in the distribution of goods, people and services.
12. Geography of Tourism: This branch studies about tourist activities and services.
13. Hazard Geography: It mainly focuses on extreme hazards and disasters. It tries to explore the human interaction and response to extreme events.
Q.2. Describe various branches of Human Geography. 10
1.4 DIFFERENT APPROACHES TO HUMAN GEOGRAPHY
This concept of this approach originated in 1920s and 1930s by the German school approach believes that the way in which people behave depends upon the understanding of the environment in which he lives. The term was brought to prominence by William Kirk and Kant.
1. Behavioural Approach This gives more importance to one’s society. It believes that man is a goal oriented animal. He influences the environment and in turn is influenced by it. This approach has a multi-disciplinary outlook because several scientists, philosophers, historians and sociologists have contributed towards its development.
2. Welfare Approach: This is a very important approach in Human Geography. It deals with the questions related to inequality. It has been widely accepted after 1960s and after 1970s; importance has been given to issues like poverty, hunger, malnutrition, unemployment, crime, distribution of income, quality of life, etc. The basic focus of this approach is ‘who gets what, where and how?’ “Who” refers to the group of population- this may be a population of a village, city, region, nation or entire world. This population may belong to particular class, caste, community, religion, race, gender and so on. “What” refers to various goods and services which the population receives. “Where” receives to different areas and “how’ refers to the process through which differences occur.
3. Humanistic Approach: This is an important approach in Human Geography. The main feature of this approach is that it gives central and active role to man, In Humanistic approach, human beings are not treated as machines. ft can be traced back to the French school of thought.
4. Radical Approach Radical approach in Geography developed in 1970s. The followers of this approach were mainly concerned with the social issues like inequality, crime, discrimination against females, etc. The followers of this approach were interested in restructuring of the capitalist society. In the late 1960s, all this led to social Unrest and tension. All this gave a boost to this approach. The main objective of this approach is to develop a just, equal, tension free, peaceful and enjoyable life. 11
5. Quantitative Approach In the beginning of the 20th century, a lot of data was collected. There was an urgent need to analyse the data. This led to the development of Quantitative approach in Geography. Descriptive Geography, now, was given less importance and stress was put on mathematical and sophisticated statistical techniques. The introduction of statistical techniques is known as Quantitative Revolution after which statistical techniques are extensively used in Geography.
1.5 MAN ENVIRONMENT RELATIONSHIP:
1. Determinism: This approach implies the dominance of nature. According to Determinism, the history, culture, lifestyle, stages of development of man are largely governed by the physical factors of environment. Here, nature is active and man is passive.
Although Determinism was established in the 19th century the roots go back to the 5th century A.D. During this time, Hippocrates said that “Human life is totally dependent on nature.”
Strabo, the leading Roman Geographer explained how slope, relief, climate are the works of God and all of them influence the life style of the people.
The German geographers, Humboldt and Ritter also studied on how man is controlled by nature. Another German geographer Kant also contributed to the concept. Actually speaking it was Kant’s philosophy about man and environment relationship which was adopted by Humboldt and Ritter in the later years.
Determinism is criticized by some geographers. The geographers feel that there is lack of discipline in this approach and this discipline can only be brought about by man. Man has the ability to bring a change in the nature. Nature is monotonous and variety is created by man. Today, dense forests, marshy lands and barren deserts are all changed by man who has applied his knowledge to bring this change. He has created the gardens, the roads, and the agricultural fields and thus made the nature unique. It is the man who can save problems, which the nature cannot.
Although, Determinism is criticized from various angles, but it is an important approach to study Human Geography. 12
2. Possibilism This is the philosophy, which states that man is most important in man-environment relationship. According to Possibilism, with knowledge and intelligence man can master the forces of nature. Man is active and nature is passive. Man is the supreme power. Man can never be the slave of the nature. He is more active than nature and has the capacity to change the nature.
Vidal-de-la-Blache was the strong supporter of Possibilism. According to him, nature only offers a number of opportunities from which man is free to select. Today, man has planted new varieties of crops, domesticated several types of animals and nature could not control his actions. This proves that man is active and nature is passive. Discovery of fire was only possible by man. There are many geographers who are the followers of Possibilism. According to Possibilism, nature is only an advisor to man.
However, Possibilism cannot be fully accepted. Many times man has to put his head down in front of the nature. Man is unable to produce minerals and power resources. These are only provided by the nature. During nautical disasters, man always suffers and nature becomes powerful. Man has definitely brought several changes but his actions and powers are only up to a particular limit.
In spite of all these criticism, Possibilism is of a great importance. It has inspired man to study about man-environment relationship in a detailed manner.
3. Stop And Go Determinism Taylor put the idea of stop and Go determinism. He said that neither the idea of Determinism nor the idea of Possibilism can be fully accepted. Nature is controlled by man but it is so when nature is passive. When nature becomes active, we have to wait for a change. This concept is often compared with the traffic signal. When the signal is red, man has to wait and when it is green, man can proceed further.
If red light is crossed, accidents are bound to happen. Similarly, man has to wait for a favourable situation and then only he can succeed. This Stop and Go Determinism and Possibilism states that human progress will depend on how man takes the chances offered by nature. From the above, it can be understood t h a t , the relationship between man and the environment has been established in the early periods itself. The influence of nature is seen in every aspect of his life. Therefore, any change in his environment can cause harm to his race. 13
The relationship between man and environment forms the core of Human Geography. Historical evidences say that, man could develop only the basis of natural elements. For example: All civilizations have developed on the banks of the rivers, because, it gave him resources like water, fertile soil and suitable land to settle. Similarly, man depended only on monsoon for agriculture. This relationship exists today also. This implies that, man heavily depended and still depends on nature for his survival. Thus, the role and power of nature is inevitable.
However, this relationship is changing through man’s intelligence, with the help of which he has been able to find out ways to face the vagaries of nature. He has used techniques to cultivate the land, build houses, use water for irrigation, to store and bring water from elsewhere for fixed settlements, developed roads and towns, etc. The whole credit for reducing the dependence on nature goes to technology and the people behind it.
4. Probabilism Probabilism can be understood as a thesis about the relationship between culture and nature. This theory proposes a balance between environmental determinism and possibilism. It reflects upon the fact that, there is no specific or fixed response to the present environmental conditions. It states that the physical environment helps us know the probable responses that might be experienced in the future. Thus, the theory tries to predict the future or probable impacts according to the environmental conditions present today.
Q.3. Explain the various view point related to man environment relationship.
1.6 SUMMARY
In this chapter we have learnt about the contribution of different geographers such as German, French, British, American, 14
Soviet and Indian beside the nature and scope of Human Geography which is immense as it covers a wide field. It also takes into account the relationship between man and his environment. We have also learnt the Physical as well as the Cultural environment and the relationship between these environments and human activities. The knowledge of Human Geography is essential for the scientific development of geography and for planning of the national economy.
By studying different branches of Human Geography we have been able to understand the world where we live in as well as the effects of varied social and political systems existing in different part of the same. Also the definition of Determinism, Possibilism and Probabilisim Geography has been learnt.
1.7 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false a) The most important consideration to be studied in Human Geography is to understand the relationship among human groups in different parts of the world. b) A dirty and unhealthy environment has immense contribution to human’s physical and emotional wellbeing. c) In Commercial Geography we study about the distribution and consumption of goods. d) Resource geography deals with resources and their types, distribution, utilisation and future. e) Febver the founder of Determinism stated that there are no necessities but everywhere possibilities and man as a master of these possibilities is the judge of their use.
2. Fill in the blanks a. Cultural geography mainly focuses on the pattern of ______. b. Historical geography is the study of ______. c. ______is the theory that the human habits and characteristics of a particular culture are shaped by geographic conditions. d. ______is the founder of possibilism. e. According to Huntington, ______and ______characters are the products of climate. f. Contributions of geographer Alexander Von Humbolt is in the field of ______and ______. 15
3. Multiple choice question
3. a. The concept of ‘neo-determinism’ was put forward i. by Griffith Taylor—a leading Australian geographer ii. Huntington iii. Febver iv. Weber
3. b. Culture is the man-made part of the environment that determines i. Physical environment ii. green house iii. social environment and social action iv. atmosphere
3. c. Father of French geography and idea of possibilism was put forwarded by i. Huntington ii. Weber iii. Vidal de la Blache iv.JeanBrunhes
3. d.Behavioral approach gives more importance to one’s i. environment ii. society iii. food habit iv.unemployment
4. Short answer question 1. Describe in short the nature and scope of Human Geography. 2. Define Determinism. 3. What are the different approaches of human Geography? 4. What are the different branches of Human Geography? 5. Define possibilism
1.8 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1. a) True 1. (b) False, clean, healthy 1. (c) True 1(d) True 1(e) false, possibilism 2 .a. human culture 2. b.History of geography 2. c. Geographic determinism 2 .d. Febver 2. e. Religion, racial 2. f. latitudes and longitudes 16
3. a.i. 3. b.iii 3.c.iii 3.d.ii
1.9 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Human Geography - one of the two major divisions of Geography; the spatial analysis of human population, its cultures, activities, and landscapes. 2. Environment – natural surroundings 3. Globalisation – universalisation 4. Culture – consist of activity like art and philosophy which are important for the development of civilization 5. Pollution –the process of polluting water, air, land especially with poisonous chemicals. 6. region - an area on the Earth's surface marked by a degree of formal, functional, or perceptual homogeneity of some phenomenon 7. cartography- the art and science of making maps, including data compilation, layout and design; also concerned with the interpretation of mapped patterns 8. Culture- The sum total of the knowledge, attitudes, and habitual behaviour patterns shared and transmitted by the members of a society. 9. Possibilism- Geographic viewpoint-a response to determinism- that holds that human decision making, not the environment, is the crucial factor in cultural development.
1.10 TASK
1. In a chart show the different branches of Human Geography.
1.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY http://www.sctimst.ac.in/conferences/resourcesAVlnvitation%20%2 1’World%20Environment%2ODav%20 Celebration. Pdf Gregory, D eta! ed. (2011): ‘The Dictionary of Human Geography’, Wiley Blackwell, New Jersey, 5th Edition. 17 2
POPULATION After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure:
2.0 Objectives 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Subject- Discussion 2.3 Terms of Population 2.4 Factors affecting distribution of Population 2.5 Factors affecting growth of population 2.6 Population policy of India, its objectives and goals 2.7 Promotional and motivational measures for adoption of Small Family Norm 2.8 Check your Progress/ Exercise 2.9 Answers to the self learning questions. 2.10 Technical words and their meaning 2.11 Task
2.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to · Understand the meaning of different terms of population such as population density, birth rate, death rate, sex ratio, fertility rate. · study population explosion · Learn the factors responsible for distribution of population, such as availability of natural resources, age of civilisation, connectivity and accessibility, restrictions of national boundaries · Understand the factors affecting growth of population such as the large size of the population in the reproductive age group, higher fertility, infant mortality rate, child marriage or early marriage and poor literacy rates. · Learn population policy of India, its objectives and goals 18
2.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapter you have learnt about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography. All the factors influencing the Human Geography have been discussed. Definition of Determinism and Possibilism also learnt. In this chapter you are going to study about population as well as its characteristics. Special attempts have been made to study population policy of India, its objectives and goals.
2.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The word population and also the word populace has been derived from the Latin populus, meaning people. Population is a group of organisms of the same species inhabiting a given area. When the carrying capacity of an area is exceeded by its population the area is said to be over populated, when a population is too small, to fully utilise the available natural resources and optimum population lies between two extremes, i.e., overpopulation and under-population. In terms of number, the human population keeps changing all the time. In India, population growth is mainly the result of the natural increase of population. Birth rates and death (or mortality) rates are the two major statistical instruments for studying the population trend. In India, the birth rates and death rates were almost equal between 1901 and 1921, which explains why population did not increase in this period. From 1921 onwards, improvements in medical facilities and a check over epidemics reduced the death rates, although there was widespread poverty. After independence, special measures undertaken by health and family planning programmes further reduced the infant mortality rate (IMR) and the maternal mortality rate (MMR), causing a decline in death rates.
Some Important Terms of Population: - Population: The total number of persons inhabiting a country, city, or any area. - Population Density: The number of people living per unit of an area i s termed as density of population. It is calculated using the following formula:
Total Population Population Density = Total Land Area
- Birth Rate umber of live births per 1000 population in a particular year. - Death Rate Total number of deaths per 1000 population in a particular year. 19
- Sex Ratio: The number of females per 1000 males in a particular year. - Fertility Rate The total fertility rate (TFR), sometimes also called the fertility rate, of a population is the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her lifetime.
Q.1. Write note on important terms of population.
2.3 POPULATION EXPLOSION :
Population explosion refers to the rapid and dramatic rise in world population that has occurred over the last few hundred years. Between 1959 and 2000, the world’s population increased from 2.5 billion to 6.1 billion people. According to United Nations projections, the world population will be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion by 2050. Most of the growth is currently taking place in the developing world, where rates of natural increase are much higher than in industrialized countries. Considering that this might lead to over population some countries have adopted population control policies. However, since people in developing countries consume far less, especially of non renewable resources, per head of population than people in industrialized countries, it has argued that the West should set an example in population control instead of giving, for example, universal child benefit.
Q.2. Write short note on Population Expansion. 20
2.4 FACTORS AFFECTING DISTRIBUTION POPULATION:
1. Availability of natural resources Natural resources like arable and other land, water and clean air are the basic natural resources needed for a human’s living. Thus, there is a direct relationship between the availability of natural resources and population. Thus, we find, in areas where the land is suitable for agriculture and water is available in ample quantities, the population ranges between high and very high. The Indo- Genetic Plains in India are a fine example of this. It is the most densely populated region of the country with all natural resources available in large quantities. However, pollution and improper administration are causing problems. Similarly all the river valleys around the world have a very high density of population. The Nile River Valley in the continent of Africa is a great example of the same.
2. Age of Civilization The age of civilization and population are directly related to each other. The older it is, the more is the population. This is due to the well-established economic, social, political and administrative structure. Thus, we find, older cities are more populated and dense as compared to newer cities. For example, Mumbai has a population of 11.98 million which is very high as compared to Navi Mumbai with a population of 704,002 persons (Census, 2001).
3. Connectivity and Accessibility The greater the connectivity, the higher the population. In the present era, when the world has become a global village, the need for higher connectivity and accessibility has increased. If a place is not well connected, it will receive poor response economically and therefore socially. This would not allow the place to grow and population would therefore be very less. This is particularly true in the cases of unstable topography. In Konkan division of Maharashtra, the southern districts of Ratnagiri and Sindhudurg are very less populated as compared to its northern districts of Thane, Mumbai and Raigad. This imbalance is primarily due to the varied topography of the districts making it difficult for transportation to develop. However, the recent development of Konkan Railways has solved the problem to a certain extent.
4. Restrictions of National Boundaries The strictness of international migration laws and population are inversely related to each other. If the migration laws of a country are too strict, the immigration is less and 21 vice-versa. This is particularly applicable for people working overseas and on a temporary basis. This not only affects the number of immigrants in a particular country but also its population and the pressure on resources. It also helps to prevent brain drain from the country people tend to migrate on a large scale. The UNDP estimates that India loses $2 billion a year because of the emigration of computer experts to the U.S. Indian students going abroad for their higher studies cost India a foreign exchange outflow of $10 billion annually. If this continues, India would lose a hoard of its professionals every year causing a shortage of the same. However, it can be stopped by generating employment opportunities in the country so that unemployment ration comes down.
2.5 FACTORS AFFECTING GROWTH OF POPULATION
Population growth in India continues to be high due to the following reasons:
1. The large size of the population in the reproductive age- group In India, the population in the age group of is very high. Thus, the population continues to increase. It is necessary that the reproductive age group adopts without further delay or exception the ‘small family norm, for the reason that about 45 percent of population increase is contributed by births above two children per family.
2. Higher fertility High fertility rate is due to unmet need for contraception. Urgent steps are currently required to make contraception more widely available, accessible, and affordable. Around 74 percent of the population lives in rural areas, in about 5.5 lakh villages, many with poor communications and transport. Reproductive health and basic health infrastructure and services often do not reach the villages, and, accordingly, vast numbers of people cannot avail these services.
3. Infant mortality rate (IMR) The mortality rates are very high, due to which couples believe in giving birth to more than two children so that if one of them dies, the other can replace him/her.
4. Child Marriage / Early Marriage Over 50 percent of girls marry below the age of 18, the minimum legal age of marriage, resulting in a typical reproductive pattern of “too early, too frequent, too many”. Around 33 percent 22 births occur at intervals of less than 24 months, which also results in high IMR.
5. Poor Literacy Rates The literacy rates in India are, low. Low levels of literacy is an obstacle in the process of spreading awareness because people are not mentally ready to accept concepts such as small family, contraception, family planning, etc. they find it very difficult to adopt the new trends over their traditional beliefs; which may not necessarily be applicable always.
Q. 3. Explain various factors affecting growth of population.
2.6 POPULATION POLICY OF INDIA
Introduction On 11 May, 2000 India was projected to have 100 crore people, i.e. 16 percent of the world’s population on 2.4 percent of the globe’s land area. If current trends continue, India may overtake China in 2045, to become the most populous country in the world. While global population has increased threefold during this century, from 2 billion to 6 billion, the population of India has increased nearly five times from 238 million (23 crores) to I billion in the same period. India’s current annual increase in population is 15.5 million.
Half a century after formulating the National Family Welfare Programme, India has reduced crude birth rate (CBR) from 40.8 (1951) to 26.4 (1998, SRS); halved the infant mortality rate (IMR) from 46 per 1000 live births (1951) to live births (1998, SRS);
· Achieve universal access to information / counseling, and services for fertility regulation and contraception with a wide basket of choices. 23
· Achieve 100 percent registration of births, deaths, marriage and pregnancy. · Contain the spread of Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (AIDS), and promote greater integration between the management of reproductive tract · Infections (RTI) and sexually transmitted infections (STI) and the National AIDS Control Organisation. · Prevent and control communicable diseases. · Integrate Indian Systems of Medicine (ISM) in the provision of reproductive and child health services, and in reaching out to households. · Promote vigorously the small family norm to achieve replacement levels of TFR. · Bring about convergence in implementation of related social sector programs so that family welfare becomes a people centred programme.
Public Support : Demonstration of strong support to the small family norm, as well as personal example, by political, community, business, professional and religious leaders, media and film stars, sports personalities, and opinion makers, will enhance its acceptance throughout society The government will actively enlist their support in concrete ways.
New Structures: The NPP 2000 is to be largely implemented and managed at panchayat and nagarpalika levels, in coordination with the concerned state I Union Territory administrations. Accordingly, the specific situation in each state / UT must be kept in mind. This will require coordination of planning and implementation between health and family welfare on the one hand, along with schemes for education, nutrition, women and child development, safe drinking water, sanitation, rural roads, communications, transportation, housing, forestry development, environmental protection, and urban development. Accordingly, the following structures are recommended.
2.7 NATIONAL COMMISSION ON POPULATION
A National Commission on Population, presided over by the Prime Minister, will have the Chief Ministers of all states and UTS, and the Central Minister in charge of the Department of Family Welfare and other concerned Central Ministries and Departments, for example Department of Woman and Child 24
Development, Department of Education, Department of Social Justice and Empowerment in the Ministry of HRD, Ministry of Rural Development, Ministry of Environment and Forest, and others as necessary, and reputed demographers, public health professionals, and NGOs as members. This Commission will oversee and review implementation of policy. The Commission Secretariat will be provided b he Department of Family Welfare.
Coordination Cell in the Planning Commission The Planning Commission will have a Coordination Cell for inter-sartorial coordination between Ministries for enhancing performance, particularly in States / OTS needing special attention on account of adverse demographic and human development indicators.
Promotional & Motivational Measures for Adoption of Small Family Norm:
The following promotional and motivational measures will be undertaken:
· Panchayats and Zila Parishads will be rewarded and honoured for exemplary performance in universalising the small family norm, achieving reductions in infant mortality and birth rates, and promoting literacy with completion of primary schooling.
· The Balika Samridhi Yojana run by the Department of Women and Child Development to promote survival and care of the girl child, will continue. A cash incentive of 500 is awarded at the birth of the girl child of birth order I or 2.
· Maternity Benefit Scheme run by the Department of Rural Development will continue. A cash incentive of 500 is awarded to mothers who have their first child after 19 years of age, for birth of the first or second child only. Disbursement of the cash award will in future be linked to compliance with ante- natal check up, institutional delivery by trained birth attendant, registration of birth and BCG immunization.
· A Family Welfare-linked‘ Health Insurance Plan will be established. Couples below the poverty line, who undergo sterilisation with not more than two living children, would become eligible (along with children) for health insurance (for hospitalization not exceeding ` 5,000 and a personal accident insurance cover for the spouse undergoing sterilisation. 25
· Couples below the poverty line, who marry after the legal age of marriage, register the marriage, have their first child after the mother reaches the age of 21, accept the small family norm, and adopt a terminal method after the birth of the second child, will be rewarded.
· A revolving fund will be set up for income-generating activities by village-level self help groups, who provide community-level health care services.
· Crèches and child- care centres will be opened in rural areas and urban slums. This will facilitate and promote participation of women in paid employment.
· A wider, affordable choice of contraceptives will be made accessible at diverse delivery points, with counseling services to enable acceptors to exercise voluntary and informed consent.
· Facilities for safe abortion will be strengthened and expanded.
· Products and services will be made affordable through innovative social marketing schemes.
· Local entrepreneurs at village levels will be provided soft loans and encouraged to run ambulance services to supplement the existing arrangements for referral transportation.
· Increased vocational training schemes for girls, leading to self- employment will be encouraged.
· Strict enforcement of Child Marriage Restraint Act, 1976.
Strict enforcement of the Pre-Natal Diagnostic Techniques Act, 1994. Soft loans to ensure mobility of the ANMs will be increased.
The 42nd Constitutional Amendment has frozen the number of representatives in the Lok Sabha (on the basis of population) at 1971 Census levels. The freeze is currently valid until 2001, and has served as an incentive for State Governments to fearlessly pursue the agenda for population stabilisation. This freeze needs to be extended until 2026.
Conclusion In the new millennium, nations are judged by the well- being of their peoples: by levels of health, nutrition and 26 education; by the civil and political liberties enjoyed by their citizens; by the protection guaranteed to children and by provisions made for the vulnerable and the disadvantaged.
The vast numbers of the people of India can be its greatest asset if they are provided with the means to lead healthy arid economically productive lives. Population stabilisation is a multicultural endeavour requiring constant and effective dialogue among a diversity of stakeholders, and coordination at all levels of the government and society. Spread of literacy and education, increasing availability of affordable reproductive and child health services, convergence of service delivery at village levels, participation of women in the paid work force, together with a steady, equitable improvement in family incomes, will facilitate early achievement of the soda-demographic goals. Success will be achieved if the Action Plan contained in the NPP 2000 is pursued as a national movement.
Q.4 Explain the Population Policy of India
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following.
Population means all the inhabitants of a particular place. Availability of natural resources has a direct relationship with population growth. As a result in agriculturally developed areas population ranges between high and very high. Moreover, the older the civilisation the more is the population. In the present day Global Village population has increased with the effect of developed connectivity and accessibility. It is noticed that if the present trend of population growth continues India may overtake China in 2025.The rising population of India is one of the major problems of the country. The present population of India consists of over 1.21 billion people. The increasing pressure of population on natural resources will retard the economic progress and minimize the scope for social services in the form of education, wealth, housing, etc., so essentially needed for a progressive state. Therefore, a 27 planned growth of our economy needs some effective check on population.
2.8 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false f) Birth rates and death (or mortality) rates are the two major statistical instruments for studying the population trend. g) Birth rate is number of live births per 1000 population in a particular year. h) Fertility rate of a population is the average number of children that would be born to a woman over her life time. i) The strictness of international migration laws and population are directly proportional to each other. j) Promote early marriage for girls.
2. Fill in the blanks : a) The word ______has been derived from the Latin populus. b) Birth rates and ______rates are the two major statistical instruments for studying the population trend. c) India has the second largest population in the world after ______. d) The UNDP estimates that India loses dollar ______a year because of the emigration of computer experts to the U.S. e) High fertility rate is due to unmet need for ______.
3. Multiple choice question a. Over population may lead to i) high unemployment ii) employment for everyone iii) economic development b. Sex ratio is i) The number of females per 1000 males in a particular year. ii) The number of females per 2000 males in a particular year. iii) The number of females per 100 males in a particular year. c. According to United Nations projections the world population will be between 7.9 billion and 10.9 billion by i) 2051 ii) 2060 iii) 2050 28
4) Short answer question 6. What are the important terms of population? 7. Define population. 8. What is population explosion? 9. What are the reasons for growth of population? 10.What is the population policy of India?
2.9 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1. (a) True 1. (b) True 1. (c) True 1. (d) false, inversely related 1. (e) false, promote delayed marriage
2 .a. Population 2. b.death (or mortality) 2. c. China 2. d. Two billion 2. e. contraception
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.iii
2.10 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Population - all the people who live in it 2. Mortality – number of people who die in an area 3. Distribution-The spread of people over an area 4. Infant Mortality Rates-The number of deaths per 1000 children under one year old in a country per year 5. Birth Rate: The number of live births per 1000 people per year.
2.11 TASK
1. In a map of India show the population distribution of any three states of India in bar graph 2. In a chart show the promotional and motivational measures for adoption of small family norm. 29 3
MIGRATION After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure:
3.0 Objectives 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Subject- Discussion 3.3 Check your Progress/ Exercise 3.4 Answers to the self learning questions. 3.5 Technical words and their meaning 3.6 Task
3.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
· Learn the definition of Migration and its three fold impact · Understand the difference between migration and circulation, commuting, transhumance · Learn different types of migration · Study the difference between emigration and immigration · Understand different types of migration such as short distance and long distance migration · Understand the types of migration on the basis of political units or countries · Study the distinction between internal and international migration · Study the historical perspective of migration · Present trend of international migration · Push factors and pull factors · Understand different consequences of migration 30
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography. Also Population, its growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them has been learnt. In this chapter you are going to study about migration. Special attempts have been made to study the difference between migration and circulation, commuting, transhumance, emigration and immigration, short distance and long distance migration, internal and international migration. The last part of this chapter deals with the historical perspective of migration and present trend of international migration. This again helps us to understand different consequences of migration.
3.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Human Migration is the movement of people from one place in the world to another for the purpose of taking up permanent or semi-permanent residence, usually across a political boundary. Similar to mortality and fertility migration do holds a place of prominence in a geographical analysis of population change in any area. Migration happens for a range of reasons classified as economic, social, political or environmental. International migration being a global phenomenon is growing in scope, complexity and impact. Migration is both a cause and effect. International migration has become a priority for the international community. The contribution of various phenomena in this regard include, rise in global mobility, the growing complexity of migratory patterns and its impact on countries, migrants, families and communities.
Migration is the movement of population from one place to another.
Fig. 3.1 Migration
According to Trewartha-Migration, like fertility and mortality, holds a place of prominence in a geographical analysis of population change in any area. 31
Fig. 3.2 Various Components of Population Change
Bogue considers migration as an instrument of cultural diffusion and social integration those results into more meaningful distribution of population.
Migration has three-fold impact: i) On the area experiencing in migration. ii) On the area experiencing out migration. iii) On the migrants themselves.
Fig. 3.3 : Areas of out and in migration and migrants
According to Beaujeu-Garnier and Smith the area from which people out migrate, the area to which they immigrate and the migrants themselves-never remain the same.
Lee considers migration as a permanent or semi- permanent change of residence with no restrictions on the distance involved in the movement.
Migration is different from ‘circulation’, ‘commuting’ and ‘transhumance’.
Circulation has been defined to cover a great variety of movements, usually short- term repetitive or cyclical in character, but all having in common, the lack of any declared intention of a permanent or long-lasting change in residence.
Commuting refers to the movement of individuals from place of residence to place of work and back either daily or 32 weekly. Transhumance refers to the seasonal movement of people up and down the hills along with their heads.
Population geographers consider migration as a movement of people which may involve a change in place of normal residence of people from one settlement to another. Migration can be age selective i.e. people belonging to working age group may move more than the children and the aged.
Migration can also be sex selective i.e. in certain situations more females may move than the males, while in others male may move more than the females. e.g. in India females change their place of residence as they adopt their husband’s residence after marriage.
On the other hand in rural to urban migration more males migrate to urban areas than the females. In western countries more girls migrate to urban areas from the surrounding rural areas.
The movement of people through the process of migration is normally indicated by two terms — Emigration and immigration. Emigration is movement from a country e.g. the migration of people from India to U.K. is an emigration, while immigration is migration into a country e.g. migration from Bangladesh to India. Emigration reduces the population of country while immigration increases it.
1. Define the term migration.
Migration can be classified:
The movement of people through the process of migration is normally indicated by two terms Emigration and immigration. Emigration is movement from a country e.g. the migration of people from India to U.K. is an emigration, while immigration is migration into a country — e.g. migration from Bangladesh to India. Emigration reduces the population of a country while immigration increases it. 33
Fig. 3.4 Immigration & Emigration
Migration can be classified on the basis of (A) Distance, (B) Political units or countries, (C) Cause.
Q. Distinguish between immigration and migration.
A. TYPES OF MIGRATION ACCORDING TO THE DISTANCE TRAVELLED. i) Short distance or local migrations. ii) Long distance or regional and global migrations
The migration of people from UP., Kerala and South Konkan to Mumbai is an example of regional migration; while the migration of Indians to U.S.A., Canada and U.K. is a global migration. In the 19th century large scale global migration took place from Europe to the newly discovered countries like U.S.A., Canada, Australia etc. and hence there was a combined movement of people and capital from the overpopulated countries to the under populated countries. In that century global transfers of population was one of the important reasons for the population growth in many countries
Fig. 3.5 Short and Long Distance migration
As the short distance local migrations are easy and less expensive such migrations are on a large scale than the global 34 migrations but at the same time the influence of local migrations is limited to that particular region. On the other hand long distance, global migrations are more expensive and difficult or restrictive due to the various restrictions imposed on the migrants by different countries.
Sometimes international migrations are of short distance such as migrations from Bangladesh to India. On the other hand internal migration could be long distance e.g. migration from Kashmir to Kerala.
3. Distinguish between shot-distance and long distance migration:
B. TYPES OF MIGRATION ON THE BASIS OF POLITICAL UNITS OR COUNTRIES
When migration takes place within a particular political unit or country it is termed as an internal migration. But if the migration is from the one political unit to another political unit or country then it is known as international migration. All long distance or global migrations are international migrations.
Fig. 3.6 Internal and External Migration
As there are less restrictions for the internal migrations than the international migrations, internal migrations are more frequent than the international migrations. According to Kingsley Davis internal migration is more important than international migration from the point of view of demography. Sometimes the distance involved in internal migration may be greater than that involved in international migration. e.g. the migration from UP. to Bombay and Kathmandu in Nepal. 35
Internal migration can be further subdivided into four categories as follows : i) Migration from the village to the city. ii) Migration from one village to another village. iii) Migration from one city to the city. iv) Migration from the city to village.
Fig. 3.7 Types of Internal Migration i. Migration from the village to the city: Migration from the village to the city or urban areas is most important especially in India. Almost all major Indian metropolitan cities like Kolkata, Chennai and Mumbai have experienced tremendous growth of population during last few decades mainly due to the rural to urban migration.
In a research project taken up by Dr. Hemant Pednekar on the rural urban migration from South Konkan to Mumbai it was found that 82% of the migrants from the village Devbag (Malvan taluka) and 95% migrants from the village Kupavade (Kudal taluka) preferred Mumbai as their place of destination. Mumbai being an economic capital of India, there are many industries as well as job opportunities in Mumbai and hence it has acted as a strong magnet — attracting migrants from the underdeveloped region of South Konkan. ii. Migration from one village to another village : This type of migrations take place due to economic, and social reasons. Normally people from the underdeveloped, inaccessible villages migrate to the better developed, accessible village for employment. Similarly marriage is a social reason, which is responsible for the large scale rural to rural migration. iii. Migration from one city to another city : Skilled workers and educated people migrate from one city to another in 36
search of the better employment opportunities. People working in the government and private organizations are sometimes transferred from one city to another city. iv. Migration from the city to the village : Generally retired persons prefer calm and pollution-free life of the villages and hence they migrate from city to the village. Some specific job opportunities like those of development officers, social workers, doctors and nurses, teachers etc. attract, population from cities to villages
4. Distinguish between Internal and International migration :
C. TYPES OF MIGRATION ACCORDING TO THE CAUSES OF MIGRATION i) Migration due to the geographical reasons i.e. natural calamities like volcanic eruptions, earthquakes, floods and droughts etc. ii) Migration due to the economic reasons: people migrate from Kerala to Mumbai or Saudi Arabia as the employment opportunities are more in these areas. iii) Education as a reason of migration: Many students migrate to USA., U.K., and Canada for their higher studies and most of them settle in the foreign countries after completing their studies. This type of permanent migration of the more educated people from one country to another is termed as Brain drain. iv) Migration due to the social factors: Discrimination of an individual on the basis of language, religion, caste etc. leads to the migration of that person from one place to another place. Similarly marriage is also an important social factor which is responsible for the large scale social migration. v) Political or forced migration: Change in the administration or partition of a country leads to the political migration. Many Jews migrated from Nazi Germany to other countries before the second world war. The partition of India in 1947 was responsible for the large scale migrations of Hindu and Muslim population among India and Pakistan. 37
5. Define the term migration. What are its different types:
MIGRATION - A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ‘Transport’ played a very important role in promoting migration from one region to another. The scale and distance of movements increased considerably with the developments in transport systems.
In the past small groups of people moved along relatively small distance, either in search of new land or because they were forced to move by invading people. Many people entered South East Asia from north and pastoralists moved from Central Asia to eastern Europe in search of better lands. These types of movements were still in progress when Europeans entered Africa. All early migrations were gradual and were basically land migrations; as sea travel was difficult and dangerous. Few small scale movements did however take place e.g. between the various Pacific islands and those around the Indian Ocean. Arabs and Indians reached S.E. Asia.
Due to the favourable physical conditions, early migrations in Europe were numerous. Most of these were small scale land migrations. During the same period Seafaring Vikings reached the Mediterranean and settled in many parts of Western Europe. They also reached N. America and Greenland.
In the sixteenth and seventeenth century the Americas were discovered. At the time agriculture was the main occupation in Europe and Europe was already becoming overpopulated, the situation was very bad in the poorer countries such as Portugal and Spain. People were ready to move to new lands. In sixteenth century three million people from Spain left for America. It is estimated that more than 100 million Europeans have left for Australia, Africa, Asia and America.
During sixteenth century Spanish and Portuguese migrants were more in number while during the eighteenth and early nineteenth century British. French and German migrants were most numerous. Still later these migrants were joined by Spaniards, Italians and East Europeans such as Hungarians, Russians and Poles (from Poland).
Developments in ship and railway transport accelerated the process of migration.
In East Asia Chinese and Japanese people migrated to south-east Asia, Hawaii and South America. Indians went to work 38 on sugar plantations in Mauritius, West Indies, Fiji. They also went to east Africa as traders.
European colonies developed in different parts of the world. They developed plantations in these areas and in order to meet the large scale requirement of labour, slave-trade started. Many Africans were moved to North and South America as slaves by the European traders. This type of forced migration continued until the abolition of slavery during the 19th century. In 19th century the densely populated countries of Asia were exploited by the Dutch and British colonists. Hence this semi-slave trade supplied labour to newly developed plantations of Sri Lanka, Fiji, Hawaii, Malaysia, Mauritius etc
A. African to North and South America B. Indians to South Africa C. Indians to South East Asia D. Chinese to South East Ass E. European to North America F. Europeans to Siberia G. Europeans to South America H. Europe it to South Africa I Europeans to Australia
European migrants migrated to America, S. Africa, Australia and New Zealand which constituted one of the most important migratory movement in human history which involved about 20% o Europe’s total population.
As a result of revolution of 1917 over one million Russians moved to the adjacent parts of Europe. More than 300,000 Americans migrated from Turkey in 1920; and more than one million Jews left Germany in 1930 to escape from Nazi rule. In 39
1947 about 15 million people were forced to move horn one part of the Indian subcontinent to another s a result of the partition of British India. In 1948, after the emergence of Israel about 1.5 million Palestinians were forced to move to Arab countries. The Gulf War of 1990 was responsible for the large scale movement of people of Indian origin to return to their native country.
6. Briefly explain the migration of people of before pre- industrial period.
4. PRESENT TRENDS OF INTERNATIONAL MIGRATION
· The developed countries of the world are no more the major recipients of immigrants. Some of the less developed countries have started attracting large-scale immigration e.g. oil producing countries of Asia. · Due to the restrictive policies adopted by many countries the international migrations have declined.
· The number of illegal immigrants is fast increasing. · The number of refugees has increased after the second world war. The wars, conflicts and changing political situation in many countries are responsible for such a large scale movement. e.g. emergence of Bangladesh.
5. CAUSES OF MIGRATION - ‘PUSH - ‘PULL’ FACTORS The reasons for migration can be due to either push or pull factors.
5.1 Push factors are factors that encourage or force people to move away from their own areas of residence / countries.
Fig. 3.9 Push-Pull factors of Migration
5.2. Pull factors are those that attract people to a particular new area / country. 40
Both push and pull factors are present in different proportions in any type of migration.
5.1. Push factors: These can be further grouped into three types: a. Physical, b. Economic and c. Political. a) Physical — Environmental push factors The adverse environmental conditions force people to move out from a particular region.
The most common environmental problem is related to water which forms one of the basic need of man. Too much or too little water creates problem. People are forced to move out from land affected by floods or storms that destroy farmlands and homes.
Drought is another water-related push factor. Such region dry normally and hence becomes regions of low population. The scarcity of water in the Sahel region of North Africa has produced drought conditions for several years as a result land lost its productive capacity. Many thousands of people have been forced to move out of the SaheI.
In the interior part of Maharashtra e.g. the Desh region is sometimes affected by the severe drought condition. At that time people move to the nearby areas in search of temporary jobs and food. Sometimes they move to as far as Mumbai and never return back to their original village / town. b) Economic Push Factors The differences in the standard of living between one country or region and another encourages people to leave their homes for higher wages. Though Mumbai is a part of Konkan, the urban development, the wages, the standard of living in Mumbai is still much higher than rest of the Konkan. Due to poor infrastructural development, non availability of jobs, people migrate to Mumbai from Konkan in search of jobs. c) Political Push Factors Refugees are the people who are forced to migrate from a particular country to another country due to political reasons. People may be forced to move during wartime, if hostile forces invade their land or if boundaries are changed after the ceasefire. e.g. Movement of refugees from South Vietnam and Kampuchea (Combodia) to U.S.A. and Thailand. Movement of refugees from Bangladesh to India. 41
5.2 Pull Factors These are the factors related to the desirable features of a particular location. These attract people to live there pull factors can also be grouped into three main categories - Physical, Economic and Political. a) Physical pull factors Favourable environmental conditions — with respect to climate, vegetation, soil etc., attract people. in this age of improved communications and transportation systems people can live in relatively remote areas and still not be isolated from other areas. b) Economic pull factors People move to places where jobs are available. Favourable economic conditions are not distributed evenly on the earth’s surface. The uneven distribution of prosperity is a result of the location of a particular type of economic activities. Generally economic growth is found where growing industries are located. Thus more people are now attracted to countries with such industries as electronics, chemical, engineering etc. c) Political pull factors The most important political factor is the lure of freedom. More people are attracted to democratic countries where individual decisions can be made concerning place of residence, career etc. e.g. many youth migrate from China to India.
7. Distinguish between Push and Pull factors of migration :
6. CONSEQUENCES OF MIGRATION
Migration affects the area of out-migration, the area of in- migration, and the migrants themselves.
6.1 Economic Impact
The areas from which the people move out and the area to which the people move in both undergo quantitative as well as qualitative change in their demographic structure. Due to migration of people from one region to another all the demographic attributes like numbers, density, growth, fertility, mortality, age, sex, literacy etc. experience a quantitative change. Density of population increases in the region of in migration — i.e. cities in the case of rural-urban migration. The quality of life in the region increases due to the migration of educated and technically trained people. 42
6.2 Health Problem
Migrants face serious adaptation problems. For e.g. migrants moving from rural to urban areas suffer from lack of pure air and open space also fume, dust etc. Their dietary habits (food habits) and timings of food intake also change. Many migrants from rural areas are not able to adjust with new environment, polluted environment in the city areas and hence the incidences of respiratory diseases among these people is more. Diseases like AIDS have spread worldwide due to migration of HIV infected persons from one region to another.
6.3. Change of Culture
People carry their own culture like language, religion etc. when they migrate from one region to another. Language becomes a serious problem when people of different languages migrate in large numbers and live together for long e.g. Dutch and English in South Africa or French and English in Canada. They pose a serious problem for their respective local governments.
6.4. Lack of Man Power
The region of out migration faces serious problem of lack of man power; due to large scale male migration from that region. The problem of Brain Drain is also server in many underdeveloped and developing countries. Highly educated people from these countries migrate to more developed countries and permanently settle in those countries as they get higher salary. The parent country suffers heavy loss in terms of money and skilled manpower. The amount of money spend by the local government on the education of these students is wasted.
6.5. Cultural Diffusion
Migrants try to spread their culture and religion in the new region. e.g. Immigration of Christians (Catholic and French and British Protestants) in Canada and many countries and Asia and Africa.
Cultural diffusion takes place due to migration as the civilization gets enriched due to the contribution of the migrants who integrate the two areas. This is very important process in better understanding of different cultures and religions and bringing people together. 43
8. What are consequences of migration?
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following.
Migration can take place within the country or a particular political unit. This is known as internal migration but if the same is from one country to another country it is termed as international migration. Natural calamities, employment opportunities, education, discrimination due to various social factors and major political issues like partition, in case of India, may be considered as the factors behind migration. There may be innumerable benefits of International migration, but it is true that migrants themselves remain among the most vulnerable members of society. High- income countries have absorbed most of the recent growth in the global population of international migrants. To conclude it may be said that International Migration affects population change directly by adding to or subtracting from the population in countries of destination and origin. It also affects population indirectly by impacting, for example, mortality and fertility in the respective countries. Migration also plays a vital role in the cultural and religious field of a society because migrants from different parts of the world try to spread their culture and religion in the new region.
3.3 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1.True and false i. Migration is the annual growth of population in a country. ii. According to Trewartha migration holds a place of prominence in a geographical analysis of population change in any area. iii. Emigration is a movement from a country. iv. When retired persons migrate to have a calm and pollution free life it is termed as city to city migration. v. Migration of Jews from Nazi Germany to other parts of the world during world war II is an example of migration due to economic reasons.
2. Fill in the blanks : i. Bogue considers migration as an ______of cultural diffusion. ii. Permanent migration of educated people from one country to another is termed as ______. iii. ______factors are those that attract people to a particular new area or country. 44 iv. People moves to places where ______are available. v. Migrants spread their ______and religion in the new region.
3. Multiple choice questions:
1. Migration on the basis of distance travelled may be classified as i. Long and short distance ii. Internal and international iii. Village to city
2. Indians migrated in Mauritius, Fiji, to work in i. Sugar plantations ii. Jute factories iii. Cotton textile industries
3. The scale and distance of movements increased with the developments i. In barter system ii. in transport systems iii. in education system
4. Short answer question i. What do you understand by short and long distance migration? ii. Define migration. iii. What are push and pull factors of migration? Distinguish between them. iv. What are the different types of migration? v. What are the consequences of migration?
3.4 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1. (a) False, the movement of population from one place to another. 1. (b) True 1. (c) True 1. (d) false, city to village migration 1. (e) false, political or forced migration
2.a. instrument 2. b.Brain Drain 2.c. Pull 2.d.jobs 2. e. culture
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.iii 45
3.5 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING i. Migration - The movement of a person or a group of persons, either across an international border, or within a State ii. Emigration - The act of departing or exiting from one State with a view to settling in another. iii. Immigration - A process by which non-nationals move into a country for the purpose of settlement.
3.6 TASK
1. In a map of world show the trend of international migration 2. In a chart exhibit the types of migration according to the causes of migration 46 4
TRIBES
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure 4.0 Objectives 4.1 Introduction 4.2 Subject- Discussion 4.3 World distribution of tribes with their general features 4.4 World’s major tribes and their habitats 4.5 Different tribes learnt in details such as: Eskimos, African Pygmies, Masai, Bedouin 4.6 Check your Progress/ Exercise 4.7 Answers to the self learning questions. 4.8 Technical words and their meaning 4.9 Task
4.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to
· Learn the definition of tribes and their general features · Understand the wide range of tribes throughout the world and their varied habitat · Learn the ways of life of different types of tribes such as Eskimos, African Pygmies, Masai, Bedouin
4.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography. Also Population, its growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them has been learnt. Furthermore we have studied about migration and the difference between migration and circulation, commuting, transhumance, emigration and immigration, short distance and long distance migration, internal and international migration. In this 47 chapter we are going to learn about the world distribution of tribes and their habitat. Every year August 9 is observed as the International Day of the World’s Indigenous People. India has one of the largest tribal populations in the world with 7.5 % of its population classified as tribal. Maximum tribal population in India is found in Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Odisha, Jharkhand, North Eastern States (Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, Mizoram, Manipur, Meghalaya, Nagaland), and Sikkim.
4.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Tribes are a group of people that includes many families and relatives who have the same language, customs, and beliefs. They are spread over the length and breadth of our world. They are found on the hills, along the plains and even in the deserts. Different studies by the anthropologists suggests that the tribal people and ethnic races throughout the world have developed their own culture, customs, cults, religious rites, taboos, totems, legends and myths, song, foods, medicinal practices. It is felt that the increasing trend of globalization, industrialization, and homogenization have contribution in our lives to become global citizens. This has again helped us to be at home in any part of the world. However, these processes have taken a heavy toll on traditional ways of life around the world, particularly tribal cultures that are trying to preserve their age-old traditions and customs.
4.3 WORLD DISTRIBUTION OF TRIBES
Tribes can be defined as an aggregate of people linked together by means of social ties, a common language and the recognition of a common cultural heritage. The term tribe refers to a cultural or social rather than a biological or racial group. Most of the tribal communities have only a low level of technological development, productivity per capita is generally low.
4.3.1 General Features of Tribes
Cultivation of plants is the mainstay of tribal groups.
· Animal domestication forms a part of their agriculture. · The herding tribal community are semi-nomadic way of life. · Tribal groups have some typical economic characteristics plant cultivation animal rearing, hunting. · Since they cannot use modern technologies, even if they are available their productive capabilities are limited. · Exchange (Barter) and redistribution are the chief means of disposal of surplus production if any. 48
· They cannot compete with modern political organizations, such as state.. · Though the members of any tribe have common language and common culture, they are not united group. · Tribes with simple technology cannot resist the onslaught by the people with more sophisticated technology as a result they are pushed into the areas of less hospitable environment.
The isolation of tribes widen the cultural and technological differences between tribal society and the rest of the population of the country. For example, tribal population of India concentrated in hilly and forested areas, while most of the original inhabitants of Australia; the Aborigines are today confined to the Northern Territory.
Q. Define the term tribe. What are the general characteristics of Tribes?
4.4 WORLD-MAJOR TRIBES THEIR HABITANTS
Table 4.1
Tribes Habitats Afikpo Tribal people inhabiting Southern Nigeria
Ainu Racial stock of Japan Alacaluf A tribal society of Southern Chile. Tribes Habitats Andamanes Inhabitants of Andaman and Nicobar Islands.
Apache Inhabitants of South-West U.S. Arapaho Tribal people inhabiting in Rocky Mountains in U.S. Arapesh Tribal Inhabitants of Papua New Guinea.
Arunta Tribal inhabitants of Central Australia
Ashanti A Tribal community of shana. Aztec Central Mexico Babinga Tribals inhabiting in North Congo in Africa Bantu Negrows of Central and Southern Africa
Basques Tribes of northern Spain and Southern France. 49
Basseri A native tribe of Iran.
Bedovins Nomadic tribe in Southwest Asia.
Bemba A tribal community of Zambia in Africa
Berbers Tribals of Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia
Bindibu Natives of western Australia
Blackfeet Tribal people inhabiting in Northwest US and Southern Canada.
Bushman Inhabitants of Kalahari Desert in Africa
Cheroke Inhabitants of Southeast US Chileat Inhabitants of southeastern coastal region of Alaska US
Chono Tribal Community in Southeastern Chile. Cree Tribal community in eastern Canada south of Hudson Bay.
Creek Tribals in Florida state in US.
Dani Tribal inhabitants of West Irian (Indonesian Guinea)
Delaware Tribal inhabitants of northeastern part of US Dobuans Inhabitants of Melanesian islands in South Pacific
Eskimos Natives of the cold Tundra region in Canada and Greenland
Fins Native people of European Tundra.
Fox Tribal people in US inhabitants to the South of Great Lakes
Gaucho Nomads of the Pampa region in Uruguay and Argentina
Gumuz Inhabitants of valley of river Nile in Ethiopia.
Hamites Dark skinned Muslims inhabiting northwest Africa Haida Hunting and fishing tribe of northwestern coast of Canada. 50
Hanunoo Jungle farmers of one of the islands of Central Philippines
Hopi Inhabitants of northeastern Arizona in US.
Hottentots One of the original racial stocks inhabiting in tropical Africa Hupa Tribals once aboriginal of California in US
Hutu An agricultural tribe in central Africa in Zaire, Rawanda and Burundi Jabo Inhabitants of eastern Liberia in Africa
Javanese Inhabitants of Java island in Indonesia
Kachin A community in the northern highlands of Myanmar. Kikuyu A tribe in East Africa
Kirghiz A group of pastoral people inhabiting the steppe in Asia . Koaka Inhabitants of Guadalcanal (Solomon Island) Lapps Inhabitants of European Tundra
Maori Native inhabitants of rainforests of New Zealand Masai Nomadic cattle herders of East Africa
Tribes Habitats
Miskito Inhabitants of Nicaragua and Honduras
Nayar Tribals of Kerala region
Noolcta Tribes living between the mountains and coast Northeastern Canada Pygmies Inhabitants of tropical rainforests of Zaire Basin, Africa Yakuts Tribal people of Tundra region of Russia. 51
Q2. Mark and Name any 10 type of tribes in the World Map.
4.5 DIFFERENT TRIBES LEARNT IN DETAILS SUCH AS: ESKIMOS, AFRICAN PYGMIES, MASAI, BEDOUIN
African Pygmies The pygmy people live in the rainforests of Central Africa in areas such as the Congo and Equatorial Guinea. There are different pygmy groups in these areas, including the Bambuti, Baka, Twa and Babinga pygmies. More pygmy groups live in Cameroon and Gabon. The pygmies are among the oldest populations of Africa. They call themselves “Mambuti” or “Elf”. Egyptian record mentioned the Pygmies 4000 years ago.
A pygmy is a member of an ethnic group whose average height is unusually short; many anthropologists define pygmy as a member of any group where adult men are on average less than 150 cm (4 feet 11 inches) tall.
They are traditionally hunter-gatherers living in the rainforests throughout central Africa. They are nomadic. They also carry on fishing to some extent. Primarily though, these communities identify themselves as ‘forest people’ due to the fundamental importance of the forest to their culture, livelihood and history. They hunt with flash and arrow and hunting nets. Pygmies eat a variety of foods that they either hunt or gather, including antelopes, wild pigs, wild yams, honey, termites, mushrooms and fruits. They also may eat fish from rivers or streams. Pygmies also trade for food with people from nearby villages. Current estimates put the population of the ‘Pygmy’ peoples at about half a million.
The Pygmy families live in dome shaped huts made from leaves. Their mattresses are also made from leaves. In these huts they sleep very close to one another around a fire that protects 52 them from the humid cold temperature. The smoke keeps out the mosquitoes as well.
The importance of the forest as their spiritual and physical home, and as the source of their religion, livelihood, medicine and cultural identity cannot be overstated. Traditionally, small communities moved frequently through distinct forest territories, gathering a vast range of forest products, collecting wild honey and exchanging goods with neighbouring settled societies. Hunting techniques vary among the forest peoples, and include bows and arrows, nets and spears.
Pygmy culture is closely connected to their “polyphonic” music and dance, which everybody is involved in. Besides their voices they use musical instruments such as drums, flutes, feet bells, trumpets, mouth bows, thumb pianos, etc. Their original bark clothes are painted with beautiful abstract patterns but at present western clothing is pushing away this tradition.
In Africa, the Pygmies are in very real danger of losing their forest home, and consequently their cultural identity, as the forest is systematically cleared by logging companies. In some situations, like that in the Democratic Republic of Congo, there exists a sad irony: civil war and uprisings that create a dangerous environment for the Pygmies and their neighbors are in fact responsible for keeping the logging companies at bay. Whenever a more peaceful situation is created, the logging companies judge the area safe to enter and destroy the forest, forcing resident Pygmies to leave their home and that which gives them their sense of cultural and spiritual identity.
In addition to the persistent loss of the rain forest, African Pygmy populations must deal with exploitation by neighbouring Bantu, who often consider them equal to monkeys, and pay them for their labour in alcohol and tobacco. Many Bantu view the Pygmies as having supernatural abilities, and there is a common belief that sexual intercourse with a Pygmy can prevent or cure diseases such as AIDS; a belief that is causing AIDS to be on the rise among Pygmy populations. Perhaps most disturbing of all are the stories of cannibalism from the Congo; soldiers eating Pygmies in order to absorb their forest powers. Although this is an extreme example, it graphically illustrates the attitude that Pygmies are often considered subhuman, making it difficult for them to defend their culture against obliteration.
ESKIMO The term Eskimo, refers to a number of groups who traditionally inhabit the coastline from the Bering Sea to Greenland and the Chukchi Peninsula in NE Siberia i.e. the northern 53 circumpolar region from eastern Siberia (Russia), across Alaska (United States), Canada, and Greenland. Eskimos constitute the chief element in the indigenous population of these regions. The Inuit of Canada, Northern Alaska, Greenland; and the Yupik of eastern Siberia and Alaska are the two main peoples known as "Eskimo". Since the 1970s Eskimo groups in Canada and Greenland have adopted the name Inuit. But this term has not gained currency in Alaska or Siberia. In Canada and Greenland, the term "Eskimo" has been criticised and widely replaced by the term "Inuit", "Alaska Natives", or terms specific to a particular tribe, each of which is a regional variant meaning, “the people” or “the real people.” The name Eskimo has been applied to Arctic peoples by Europeans and others in the 16th century.
In the 21st-century estimated Eskimo population is more than 135,000. Among them 85,000 live in North America, 50,000 in Greenland, and the remainder of them dwell in Siberia.
In spite of regional differences, Eskimo groups, a distinctive aboriginal people, have uniformity in language, physical type, and culture. They speak dialects of the same language, Eskimo, which is a major branch of the Eskimo-Aleut family of languages. These characteristics made them different from all their neighbours.
The Eskimos adapted themselves to an extremely cold, snow-and ice covered environment in the Arctic region. Their basic social and economic unit was the nuclear family, and their religion was animistic.
Agriculture was never possible in the millions of square kilometres of tundra and icy coasts. Moreover, in this icebound region as trees were scarce, vegetable foods were almost nonexistent. The major food sources were caribou, seal, walrus, and whale meat, whale blubber, and fish. Eskimos are basically hunters. Their hunting technologies included several types of harpoons, the bow and arrow, knives, and fish spears and weirs. Eskimo people hunted seals using harpoons. They killed the seals either on the ice or from kayaks which are skin-covered, one- person canoes. Larger boats called umiaks were used to hunt whales. In the summer most Eskimo families hunted caribou and other land animals with bows and arrows. Eskimo of central Canada were a littoral people. They moved inland in the summer for freshwater fishing and game hunting. They ate raw meat. Besides saving scarce fuel this provided their diet with essential nutritional elements which cooking would have destroyed
Eskimo clothing was sewn from caribou furs and hides. They included parkas, breeches, mittens, snow goggles, and boots. It provided protection against the extreme cold. 54
Eskimos traditionally used various types of houses. Among some Eskimo groups the snow hut or igloos made of ice-block was used as a winter residence. Sometimes they also live in semi subterranean houses. These were built of stone or sod over wooden or whalebone frameworks. In summer many Eskimo lived in animal-skin tents. Tents of caribou skins or seal skins provided adequate summer dwellings.
The basic means of transport on land was Dog sledges, used for the hauling of heavy loads over long distances. This was necessary for the Eskimos' nomadic hunting life. Their skin canoe, known as a kayak, is one of the most highly maneuverable small craft.
Most Eskimo groups relied on sea mammals for food, illumination, cooking oil, tools, and weapons. Fish and caribou were also important in their economy. In the traditional Eskimo economy, the division of labour between the sexes was well defined; men constructed homes and hunted, and women took care of the homes.
Eskimo groups were famous for elaborate technologies, artisanship, and well-developed art which other hunting and gathering populations lack. They lived in small groups, under a leader who could provide them with the necessary needs. Most properties were for community own except for those of private and personal use.
In the past weapons were crafted from ivory, bone, copper, or stone. Since 20th century iron and guns have come to be used. Finely crafted items such as needles, combs, awls, figurines, and decorative carvings on weapons were executed with the rotary bow drill.
Nowadays Eskimos in the United States and Canada live in settled communities. They earn wages for livelihood and use guns for hunting. For transportation they use the all-terrain vehicle or the snowmobile.
Although animals for hunting are now in short supply with the increase use of firearms, shortfall is made up by other sources of food imbibed under the influence of other cultures.
Sami, or Lapps (as they were formerly called), are commonly thought of as the inhabitants of Lapland, they have never had a country of their own. They are the original inhabitants of northern Scandinavia and most of Finland. Their neighbours have called them Lapps, but they prefer to be called Samer or Sami. 55
The Sami live in tundra (arctic or subarctic treeless plain), taiga (subarctic forest), and coastal zones in the far north of Europe, spread out over four different countries: Norway, Sweden, Finland, and Russia's Kola Peninsula. They live on coasts and islands warmed by the Gulf Stream, on plateaus dotted by lakes and streams, and on forested mountains. Sami territory lies at latitudes above 62 degrees north, and much of it is above the Arctic Circle, with dark, cold winters and warm, light summers. It is often called the "land of the midnight sun" because depending on the latitude, the sun may be visible for up to seventy days and nights straight in the summer. The far north sees almost three months of continuous daylight. Balancing this out, however, is an equally long period of darkness in the winter, which may last from October to March. Beginning in November, the sun disappears for weeks. Much of the Samis' land is at high altitudes, rising to over 6,000 feet (1,800 meters) above sea level. The highest point is Kebnekajse, at 6,960 feet (2,121 meters).
Traditionally, the Sami lived in a community of families called a siida, whose members cooperated in hunting, trapping, and fishing. Officially, the number of Sami is estimated at between 44,000 and 50,000 people. An estimated 30,000 to 35,000 live in Norway, 10,000 in Sweden, 3,000 to 4,000 in Finland, and 1,000 to 2,000 in Russia. However, some think the actual number is considerably higher. For many years, the Sami culture and way of life were criticized by their neighbours, causing many to conceal their true identity. Thus, it is difficult to know how many Sami there actually are (some estimates are as high as 200,000).
Traditionally, the Sami have pursued a variety of livelihoods, including coastal fishing, fur trapping, and sheep herding. Their best-known means of livelihood is semi-nomadic reindeer herding. Currently about 10% of the Sami are connected to reindeer herding, providing them with meat, fur, and transportation. 2,800 Sami people are actively involved in herding on a full-time basis. For traditional, environmental, cultural, and political reasons, reindeer herding is legally reserved only for Sami people in certain regions of the Nordic countries. Their main handicraft is called “Duodji”. Men mostly use wood, bone, and antlers to make items like knives, drums, and guksi (burl cups). Women used leather and roots to make items such asgákti (clothing), and birch- and spruce- root woven baskets.
Traditionally, the gákti was made from reindeer leather and sinews, but nowadays, it is more common to use wool, cotton, or silk. Women's gákti typically consist of a dress, a fringed shawl that is fastened with 1-3 silver brooches, and boots/shoes made of reindeer fur or leather. Boots can have pointed or curled toes and often have band-woven ankle wraps. Men's gákti have a shorter 56
"jacket-skirt" than a women's long dress. Traditional gákti are most commonly in variations of red, blue, green, white, medium-brown tanned leather, or reindeer fur.
Today the Sami are citizens of the countries within whose borders they live, with full rights to education, social services, religious freedom, and participation in the political process. Norway, Sweden, and Finland all have Sami parliaments. At the same time, however, the Sami continue to preserve and defend their ethnic identity and traditional cultural values.
Many Eskimo have abandoned nomadic hunting. They have settled in northern towns and cities with regular jobs in mines and oil fields. In Canada forming cooperatives they market their handicrafts, fish catches, and tourism ventures. The creation of Nunavut, a new Canadian territory, in 1999 helped to support a revitalization of traditional indigenous culture in North America.
The Masai are a Nilotic ethnic group of semi-nomadic warrior tribe inhabiting southern Kenya and northern Tanzania. They are among the best known local populations due to their residence near the many game parks of the African Great Lakes, and their distinctive customs and dress. The Maasai speak “Maa”a member of the Nilo-Saharan language family. They are also educated in the official languages of Kenya and Tanzania, Swahili and English.
According to their own oral history, the Masai originated from the lower Nile valley north of Lake Turkana (Northwest Kenya) and began migrating south around the 15th century towards northern Kenya to central Tanzania between the 17th and late 18th century. The Masai territory reached its largest size in the mid-19th century, and covered almost all of the Great Rift Valley and adjacent lands from Mount Marsabit in the north to Dodoma in the south.
Masai society is strongly patriarchal in nature, with elder men, sometimes joined by retired elders, decides most major matters for each Masai group. A full body of oral law covers many aspects of behavior. Formal execution is unknown, and normally payment in cattle will settle matters. An out-of-court process is also practiced called 'amitu', 'to make peace', or 'arop', which involves a substantial apology. The Masai are monotheistic, worshipping a single deity called Enkai or Engai. Many Masai have also adopted Christianity and Islam. The Masai are known for their intricate jewellery. They can be recognised by the special red cloth they wear which is called a Shuka. 57
Masai generally lead a traditional life. The end of life is virtually without any ceremony, and the dead are left out for scavengers. A corpse rejected by scavengers is seen as having something wrong with it, and liable to cause social disgrace. Burial is reserved for great chiefs, since it is believed to be harmful to the soil.
Traditional Masai lifestyle centres around their cattle which constitute their primary source of food. The measure of a man's wealth is in terms of cattle and children. A herd of 50 cattle is respectable, and the more children the better. A man who has plenty of one but not the other is considered to be poor.
All of the Masai’s needs for food are met by their cattle. They eat the meat, drink the milk and on occasion, drink the blood. Bulls, oxen and lambs are slaughtered for meat on special occasions and for ceremonies.
The central unit of Masai society is the age-set. Young boys are sent out with the calves and lambs as soon as they can toddle. However, the childhood for boys is mostly playtime. Girls are responsible for chores such as cooking and milking, skills which they learn from their mothers at an early age. Masai men herd cattle and carry spears to protect their cattle from wild animals such as lions.
Over the years, many projects have begun to help Masai tribal leaders find ways to preserve their traditions while also balancing the education needs of their children for the modern world.
The emerging forms of employment among the Masai people include farming, business (selling of traditional medicine, running of restaurants/shops, buying and selling of minerals, selling milk and milk products by women, embroideries), and wage employment (as security guards/ watchmen, waiters, tourist guides), and others who are engaged in the public and private sectors.
Bedouin The term "Bedouin" has been derived from Arabic "bedu" meaning "desert dwellers" in Arabic language. Traditionally Bedouins are an Arab semi nomadic group inhabiting long stretches that extends from the vast deserts of North Africa to the rocky sands of the Middle East. They are the descendents of nomads inhabited the Arabian and Syrian deserts in the past. These nomads were termed Bedouin to differentiate between two populations in that area. One who raised livestock as their 58 livelihood by mainly natural graze and browse and the other populations who have an agricultural or urban base knows as hadar.
Bedouin tribes have traditionally been classified according to the animal species that are the basis of their livelihood. Most Bedouins are animal herders who migrate into the desert during the rainy winter season and move back toward the cultivated land in the dry summer months. Camel nomads occupy huge territories and are organized into large tribes in the Sahara, Syrian, and Arabian deserts. Sheep and goat nomads have smaller ranges, staying mainly near the cultivated regions of Jordan, Syria, and Iraq. Cattle nomads are found chiefly in South Arabia and in Sudan, where they are called Baqqārah (Baggara).
The Bedouin are very kind and generous people. They are masters of the desert, and are able to survive in some of the harshest conditions on earth. Like other Arabs, Bedouin speak various dialects of Arabic, which belongs to the Semitic Language Group.
Bedouin society is tribal and patriarchal. The head of the family, as well as of each successively larger social unit making up the tribal structure, is called sheikh; the sheikh is assisted by an informal tribal council of male elders.
The traditional shelters where the Bedouin lived are long, low black tent supported by a line of central poles in the middle, while the back and sides of the tent were supported by lower poles. These were made from goat or camel hair, woven by the women of the family. The number of poles used in the back and side areas indicated wealth and social standing of the tribe. It is also waterproof.
Women held a very important position in Bedouin society. They played a versatile role, because they raised the children, herd the sheep, milk the animals, cook, and make the clothes, and also weave the cloth that makes the Bedouin Tent.
They wear loose flowing clothing perfectly adapted for desert life. It covers the skin and prevents heat stroke and sun burn in one hand and allows air to flow around the body so that it can be cooled in the heat. The Keffiyeh (a cloth) and Agal (woven cord) placed on the head are iconic symbol of the Bedouin. It helps shade them from the sun, allows air to flow freely around the head, but also shades the face, and can be wrapped around the nose and mouth in case of a dust storm. The Bedouin women generally wear the family’s wealth on them. 59
Bedouin societies are found in the arid steppe regions of Arabia and North Africa and along the margins of rain-fed cultivation. Most Bedouins are animal herders.
The growth of modern states in the Middle East and the extension of their authority into previous ungovernable regions greatly impinged upon Bedouins’ traditional ways of life. Following World War I, Bedouin tribes had to submit to the control of the governments of the countries in which their wandering areas lay. This also meant that the Bedouins’ internal feuding and the raiding of outlying villages had to be given up, to be replaced by more peaceful commercial relations. In several instances Bedouins were incorporated into military and police forces, taking advantage of their mobility and habituation to austere environments, while others found employment in construction and the petroleum industry.
In the second half of the 20th century, Bedouins faced new pressures to abandon nomadism. Middle Eastern governments nationalized Bedouin rangelands, imposing new limits on Bedouins’ movements and grazing, and many also implemented settlement programmes that compelled Bedouin communities to adopt sedentary or semi sedentary lifestyles. Some other Bedouin groups settled voluntarily in response to changing political and economic conditions. Advancing technology also left its mark as many of the remaining nomadic groups exchanged their traditional modes of animal transportation for motor vehicles.
Some of the other tribes of the world are Abhors tribe of Arunachal Pradesh and Assam, Afridis tribe of Pakistan, Akuntsu (Akunt'su or Akunsu) tribe of Brazil, Awa tribe of Brazil, Batak tribe of Indonesia, Bantus tribe of Africa, Berbers tribeof Morocco, Algeria and Tunisia, Boers tribe of South Africa, Bindibu tribe of Western Australia, Cossacks tribe of Russia, Canada Flemings tribe of Belgium, Gaucho tribe of Uruguay, Argentina Hamits tribe of Africa, Jarawas tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Korowai tribe of Papua (New Guinea), Kyrgyz (Kirghiz) tribe of Central Asia, Kikuyu tribe of Kenya, Kurds (Kurdish) tribe of Iraq, Magyars tribe of Hungary, Maoris tribe of New Zealand, Negroes tribe of Africa, Papuans tribe of New Guinea, Red Indians tribe of North America, Sentinelese tribe of Andaman and Nicobar Islands, Veddas tribe of Sri Lanka, Zulus tribe of South Africa, Zo'é tribe of Brazil.
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following.
An aggregate of people linked together by means of social ties, a common language and recognition of a common cultural heritage is known as tribe. Anthropologists found that technological development and productivity per capita in most of the tribal 60 communities is very low. Although cultivation of plants is the mainstay of tribal groups animal domestication is also a part of their domestic activities. Barter and redistribution of surplus products are one of the chief characteristics of tribal community. We have also learnt about the world distribution of major tribes and their habitat such as Aztec of Central Mexico, Basseri of Iran, Cree of eastern Canada, Fins of European Tundra, Gaocho of Uruguay and Argentina, Hamites of Africa and many others. Going through this chapter we have been able to understand tribal cultures that live close to nature, and often in harmony with nature’s rhythms. Some of the world’s fascinating and endangered tribal cultures around the world have been learnt through the detailed study of Eskimos, Bedouin, Masai and Pygmies. The Eskimo are the indigenous peoples who have adopted themselves to an extremely cold, snow covered environment in the Arctic region where agriculture was never possible due to vast icebound region. Hence major food products were caribou, seals, walrus etc. Many Eskimo have abandoned nomadic hunting whereas Masai inhabiting in southern Kenya and northern Tanzania are Nilotic ethnic group of semi- nomadic warrior tribe. Masai society is strongly patriarchal in nature. On the other hand Bedouin societies are found in the arid steppe regions of Arabia and North Africa. They are mostly animal herders and women hold a distinctive position in Bedouin society. As the quality of life of these people is poor the authorities should emphasize on rapid educational development to bring them into the mainstream of its population.
4.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false
a. The tribes cannot compete with modern organisations, such as state. b. The Ainu tribes are the racial stock of southern Nigeria. c. Basseri is a native tribe of Iran. d. Eskimos are among the oldest population of Africa whose average height is unusually short. e. Eskimo groups have uniformity in languages, physical type and culture in spite of their regional differences.
2. Fill in the blanks :
a. ______of plants are the mainstay of tribal groups. b. ______and redistribution of ______products are one of the chief characteristics of tribal community 61
c. Dani are tribal inhabitants of ______. d. The Negros of Central and Southern Africa are known as ______. e. The Eskimos have adapted themselves to an extremely cold and ice covered environment in the ______region.
3. Multiple choice question
a) Eskimo people hunted seals with i. harpoons ii. bow and arrow iii. spears
b) The highest point of Sami’s land is i. Kebnekajse at 2121 metres ii. Mt. Everest 8848 metres iii. Ladakh
c) According to their own oral history the Masai originated from the i. Lower Ganga valley ii. Upper Brahmaputra valley iii. lower Nile valley
d) Masai can be recognised by the special red cloth they wear known as i. Skirt ii. Shuka iii.Shorts
4. Short answer question
1. Define tribes. 2. What are the general features of tribes? 3. Write a short note on a. Eskimo b. Bedouin c. Masai 4. State how is a woman’s position in the Bedouin society.
4.7 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS:
1. (a) True. 1. (b) False, Japan 1. (c) True 1. (d) false, Pygmies 1. (e) true 62
2.a. Cultivation 2. b.Barter, surplus 2.c. West-Iranian (Indonesian Guinea) 2.d. Bantu 2. e. Arctic
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.iii 3.d.ii.
4.8 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Tribal Society- It is the stable social system with a division of labour organised around extended family relations, in which people lived before the rupture into social classes. 2. A patriarchal society- It is a social system where men are in authority over women in all aspects of society. 3. Technology- It is the application of scientific knowledge for practical purposes. 4. Community- when a group of people live in the same place or have a particular characteristic in common
4.9 TASK
1. In a map of world mark the regions inhabited by the Eskimos, Bedouins, Pygmies and Masai. 2. In a map of India mark the regions inhabited by the Abhors and Jarawas. 3. In a chart show world major tribes and their habitats.
63 5
RURAL SETTLEMENT After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features
Unit Structure 5.0 Objectives 5.1 Introduction 5.2 Subject- Discussion 5.3 Evolution of Human Settlement 5.4 Factors of rural settlement a. Water supply b. Arable land c. Dry land d. Shelter e. Defence 5.5 Site of rural settlements i. On the river bank ii. Dry point settlement iii. Wet point settlement iv. Confluence point settlement v. Ford point settlement vi. Ferry point settlement vii. Bridge point settlement viii. Raised beach location ix. Bay point location x. Gap point location xi. Hill top settlements xii. Settlements on terraces xiii. Spur end settlement xiv. Settlement inside valley xv. Shoulder point settlement 5.6 Pattern of rural settlement a. Isolated b. Hamlet c. Village 64
5.7 Nucleated rural settlements 5.8 Dispersed rural settlements 5.9 Factors affecting house types 5.10 Summary 5.11 Check your Progress/ Exercise 5.12 Answers to the self learning questions. 5.13 Technical words and their meaning 5.14 Task
5.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
· Learn the Evolution of Human Settlement · Understand different factors that are responsible for rural settlements · Learn various sites of rural settlements · Study patterns of rural settlements · Study the factors affecting house types in rural settlements
5.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography. Also we have studied Population, its growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them. Furthermore we have studied about migration along with world distribution of tribes and their habitat. In this chapter we are going to study Rural Settlement.
5.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Evolution of human settlement shows that there was a transition of man from hunter and food gatherer to agriculture and settlement. This is known as Neolithic Revolution. We know any form of human habitation is a settlement. It varies from a single house to the largest city. It is a place where people live and interact through activities like agriculture, trading and entertainment.
By rural settlement it is meant a sparsely populated community existing in the country, away from densely populated urban centres. The rural settlements derive their life support or basic economic needs from land based primary economic activities. It is observed that the rural people are less mobile and hence social relations among them are intimate. Rural settlement may be of several types such as, Clustered or Nucleated Settlements, Semi- 65 clustered or Fragmented Settlements, Hamleted Settlements and Dispersed or Isolated Settlements.
Rural settlement means a rural space occupied by rural community with their economic, social and cultural environment. This environment influences the entire rural way of life and their dynamic structure. Geographers look at the rural settlements as agglomeration of manmade habitats on the earth which is dependent mostly on primary occupation.
5.3 EVOLUTION OF HUMAN SETTLEMENTS
In the initial stages of development man was a food gatherer. As food supply was not secured man used to move from one place to another in search of food. Hence there was no permanent settlement at that stage.
Man is the most intelligent animal on the earth’s surface. He observes the natural phenomenon and understands the scientific principles related to them. He must have observed the growth process of plant from seed to plant and must have realized that it is possible for him to procure his own food supply through the process of cultivation.
Fertile soil and perennial supply of water were the two most important requirements of cultivation or agriculture. Both these requirements were fulfilled in the lower part of the river course i.e. river valleys and fertile flood plains having perennial supply of water.
Fig.5.1 Suitable location for Settlements
Hence in order to protect his agricultural field it became necessary to construct house or shelter near to his agricultural field. This could have been the starting point of the permanent rural settlement. It occurred about 5000 to 6000 B.C. which is termed as Neolithic Revolution. 66
Man is a social animal and he prefers to live in the company of his friends and relatives. Hence the flat, fertile and accessible areas having supply of water are densely populated: than the isolated, hilly and inaccessible areas.
Fig. 5.2 Location of Settlements
1. Write a short note on evolution of human settlement.
5.4 THE SITE OF RURAL SETTLEMENT
The site is the absolute location of an object or an activity, being the ground or an area upon which a village or a dwelling unit has been built. A site is vertical referring to the local relationship between a building and its immediate physical environment.
In rural settlements the site has to fulfill some basic needs of mankind — water, food and protection from natural elements and outside attacks. So the factors which the villagers look for while choosing a site are whether the site is near a water source, near available land, and close to source of fuel and fodder. The micro-relief also plays an important part. A hill-top site or an island in a river is often chosen as 67 it is easy for defence purpose. The swampy land is generally avoided, while a dyke is often favoured as it gives protection from floods. We will now be looking at some of the siting factors in greater detail.
2.1 Water Supply: Water is the most important of human need. Examples of settlement which are not located near a water body are rare. Ancient settlements which for reasons of defence had to be located at some distance from water, often have a drop well or a artificially dug pond. Today some settlements which are located in middle of deserts — since they are blessed with the presence of oil or other precious mineral — have piped water brought into the settlement.
Sometimes the need for water drive people to settle in otherwise disadvantageous sites, such as islands surrounded by swamps or on low lying river banks. In dry areas springs end wells allow settlements to service and are known as wet point settlements. A good example of this type of settlement is the series of springs usually found along the base of scarp slope, and the consequent settlements called the spring-line settlements.
2.2 Arable land: Farmers would not choose to settle at localities where land, is unsuitable for their traditional crops. Thus the founders of villages in Europe avoided swampy low-lying land and settled in areas of rolling country. On the other hand, when the Mongoloid people entered South East Asia and began to settle they chose the low lying river valleys and coastal plains which were suited to wet-rice cultivation. Not only the land suit the crop, it also has to suit their tools and implements. For example, the early farmers in Europe built their homes in the uplands where the soil was lighter and more friable, than the heavy clayey soils of the valleys, which they could not turn with their ploughs. It is also important to remember that most original village settlements were almost self sufficient and thus would choose a site from which they had access to a variety of lands including pasture, arable land and woodland.
2.3. Dry land : If water and land were available the site chosen for building a village was usually one where the land was dry and not subject to frequent flooding. Whenever settlements has taken place near rivers or in low lying areas people have sought out the higher grounds or dry points. Thus these are called dry point settlements. These may be on the outsides of meanders, on river terraces or on levees; for example along the levees of the lower Mississippi there is a continuous line of settlements; on the side of the valleys above the flood plains, on the islands in the marshes and lakes and even on the man made mounds for example on the dykes in Netherlands. 68
2.4. Shelter: The site is also chosen taking into account its suitability as a shelter from natural elements. In the Alpine Himalayan region people often choose the sunny south facing slope. Villages also avoid wind-swept heights, frost hollows and areas prone to damp unhealthy mists. Where winds are strong in open country, settlements are built behind the natural wind break of a grove of trees. Coastal villages are often sited on sheltered bays or lagoons. Another important factor in deciding the site is health. People do not choose to settle in disease prone areas, for example in Italy the low-lying malarial area was not settled till malaria was brought under control.
2.5 Defence: Most villages were created when political instability and hostility of neighbouring groups made defensive sites a great advantage. For this reason many villages were built on defensible hills, islands or promontories. In Nigeria, for example, upstanding ‘inselbergs’ formed good defensive positions and were often used as settlement sites. Many villages though not actually built on hills were located at their foot, so that in times of trouble the people could retreat into their fortified heights. In many areas villages were also built near monasteries and castles of powerful lords, which offered them some protection in times of unrest.
Fig 5.3 defence site
2. What are the factors that decide the site of human settlement? 69
5.5 SITE OF THE RURAL SETTLEMENTS
I) On River Bank : Water is one of the essential requirements of man and hence most of the settlements are located on the banks, of the perennial rivers.
Fig 5.4 H) Dry Point Settlements: These are found in the areas which are likely to get flooded by river. The settlements are located on the elevated land in order to avoid danger of food.
Fig 5.5 70 iii) Wet Point Settlements : In the areas having scarcity of water, the settlements are located near to the sources o water and hence are called as Wet Point Settlements.
Fig 5.6 iv) Confluence Point Settlement: these settlements are located at the confluence point of two rivers.
Fig 5.7 71 v) Ford Point Settlement: Ford is a location in the river where river can be crossed by an individual person on his own. (i.e. without using boat) This is possible when the level of water in the river is less. As the land routes converge at this point, settlements are located near to the ford point.
Fig 5.8 vi) Ferry Point Settlement: If the level of water in the river is more, it can be crossed only by using boat. Boat is also known as Ferry. Hence such location is termed as Ferry Point.
Fig 5.9 72 vii) Bridge Point Settlement: Normally land routes converge near the bridge and hence settlements develop near to the bridge.
Fig 5.10 viii) Raised Beach Location Settlements: These are located along the coastal areas at the higher elevations — i.e. the raised beach in order to avoid the danger of high tide.
Fig 5.11 73 ix) Bay Point Location: These are located near to the bay. These are contact point Settlements i.e. contact between fishing and farming.
Fig 5.12 x) Gap Point Location: Gap is a place between two hilly areas where elevation is less and hence it is a suitable location for crossing the hill ranges. Land routes converge near gaps and hence settlements develop near to the gap e.g. Khopoli.
Fig 5.13 74 xi) Hill Top Settlements: Tourist places or forts are located at the higher elevations; and hence settlements develop at these places.
Fig 5.14 xii) Settlements on terraces: In the hilly areas Rat land — suitable for the establishment of settlements is very scarce and hence settlements arc located on terraces
Fig 5.15 75 xiii) Spur End Settlement Ridges form obstruction for transportation and hence transport routes take a turn at spur ends. Hence like gap points settlements develop near to the spur end.
Fig 5.16 xiv) Settlements inside Valley: River valleys are the favourable sites for the location of settlements. Such settlements are found near to the river inside river valley.
Fig 5.17 76 xv) Shoulder Point Settlements: Shoulder point location provides a beautiful view of the areas either side of the hilt range and hence such locations develop as ideal tourist place locations.
Fig 5.18
5.6 PATTERN OF RURAL SETTLEMENT
The pattern of rural settlement can be approached in two ways. Firstly through studying the size of the settlement and secondly through the approach of the shape of the settlement.
The rural settlement range in size from a single dwelling unit to clusters of hundreds of units; however they are generally graded into three main sizes.
3.1 The isolated settlement
3.2 The hamlet
3.3 The village.
3.1 The isolated settlement usually consists of one building or a group of buildings, housing one family and perhaps a number of farm workers. Isolated settlements are usually farms built at a distance from other settlements, either because the farmer wishes to live on his own land, rather than travel from a distant village or the farm is located far from any regular settlement. They are also very common in the animal rearing economy, since the work entails large climbs of per farmer land. They are also more common in the new world, where due to more recent habitation more land was available to farmers, and old well established settlements were non-existent. Since such settlements are many kilometers apart, they have to be self-sufficient. Though 77 isolated settlements are found all over the world, horn crafts in Highlands of Scotland to wheat farms of Canada, sheep farms of Australia, the ‘estancius’ of Argentina even in the sheep rearing communities of Himalayas, they are usually the product of economic necessity rather than social preference.
Fig 5.19 Isolated house
3.2 Hamlets: The distinction between the hamlet and the village is not clear-cut. Typically, however the hamlet is smaller, and the buildings composing it more scattered. The hamlet generally situated in remote areas where the population is sparse consisting of a few farms and houses.
Fig 5.20 Hamlet or Wadi
It may or may not have church, shop, post office or school Hamlets are again more common in the animal rearing communities such as the Pennines or the hilly areas of Wadis and Scotland in Great Britain or among the animal rearing communities of Himalayan region . The wadis of Maharashtra are good example of hamlets. 78
Fig 5.20 patterns of rural settlements 3.3 Village: In most Countries however the village is the typical form of rural Settlements. Apart from houses and farms it usually contains some social features like a temple or a church, a school, post office a few shops and a meeting place or a village hall. All of these may not necessarily be present in all villages and their size and. number vary with the size of the village, but it is usually these features which distinguishes a village from a hamlet. Villages range in size from a few dozen people to thousands. Occupationally also they vary though the farming village is the most common. There are also fishing vi1lge, forest villages and mining villages.
The size of the village is determined by a number of factors a) The absolute size of the population; b) The ability of the land to support the population; c) The stage of development of the settlement; and d) Other factors like physical limitation of the land or a preconceived size. 79
3. What are the different patterns of rural settlements?
The shape or form of the village can vary a lot, however two of the most common forms are the nucleated settlement and dispersed settlement. Nucleated settlement itself can be of various shapes like the irregular cluster, linear villages, square or rectangular village, round village or a star shaped settlement. Nucleated settlements are more common than dispersed settlements, because men tend to dislike solitude and thus gather together for company and protection.
3.4 Nucleated Rural Settlements
Nucleated villages may take many forms and these are governed by a number of factors including the original site of the village, the historical and social factors of its evolution and the methods of farming practice. i) Limitations of site: Site is an important factor in deciding the shape of a village. For example if it is sited in a valley with rather steep sides it will tend to be linear and spread along the valley floor. Examples of such villages are common in French and Swiss Alps and in Rhine gorge. Levee settlements or coastal settlements are also linear in form e.g. the coastal villages of Konkan region or South Gujarat. Settlements based on islands or hill tops on the other hand are often square or circular. ii) Farming organization and land tenure system : The method of farming employed in an area, together with the land tenure system affect the settlement pattern. Many nucleated village were built in the centre of the village lands, especially where fields were farmed communally or when individual farmers owned highly stretched plots of land. In such systems no particular shape emerged. In some cases the village would be square and compact, elsewhere it might be cross or star-shaped, and often it would be linear in form. This is because in addition to the 80 distant plots each farmer would have a garden plot stretching back from his house.
Similarly in a plantation economy, the settlement constructed by the plantation owner is compact square, whereas the individual farmers who own a small plot of land and build his house on it live in a dispersed or loose form of village. In areas where transhumance is practiced the valley villages are compact, where the land is divided into individually owned fields. Whereas in the mountain pastures, where land is commonly owned, the settlements are dispersed. iii) Date of development : In many areas which have a basically nucleated pattern various villages have deplored various shapes. For example large square or star shaped villages may be interspersed with smaller linear settlements. Such a pattern might arise if the large villages where the original settlements and the smaller ones were established at a later date, as a result of overpopulation in the original village, or migration of some of the original villagers to marginal lands. As technology advances more and more marginal lands come under cultivation, hence movements are becoming common. These newer villages are generally built along existing road and assume a linear form.
4. Write a Short not on nucleated pattern of settlements.
v) Changes in pattern with time : The present day shape or size of many villages may be different from their original form. This can be caused by several factors. Changes in agricultural techniques may mean that fewer people are needed on the land, so the villages become smaller in size or completely disappear. Many English villages disappeared this way in 1411 century. On the other hand villages may grow in both population and area. Such additions of population, changes the original shape and a village which was round and compact may extend in all directions along the road to produce a star shape or may extend in one direction to produce an irregular 81 shape. Changes may also occur due to complete rebuilding of village, either due to defense purpose or rebuilding after a natural calamity like earthquake, fire or flood.
Fig 5.21 patterns of rural settlements
5. What are the factors responsible for change of the pattern of rural settlements?
3.5 Dispersed Rural Settlement
Dispersed settlements are usually found in areas where it is essential or at least desirable that the farmer should live on his land rather than in a distant village. In rugged topography where there is only a small proportion of cultivable land, agricultural settlements are necessarily limited to good land and are thus dispersed. As a result almost all settlements based on farming in mountainous land are dispersed. Dispersed 82 settlement is also associated with animal rearing communities all over the world.
Some areas of scattered settlement however have rich farmland and a good climate. Here the scattered pattern is due to historical or social factors. The settlement of North America for example show a gradual change from a traditional nucleated pattern of Settlement to a dispersed pattern as a result of social changes taking place in the country. The original 17th century settlements on the Atlantic coast followed the traditional pattern of European village, as the land with its mountains and forests resembled Europe. The need to live together was spurred by religious factor as well as the need for defense against Red Indians. When the migrants moved westward the major expansion took place along the rivers like St. Lawrence, Mississippi, Ohio. The pattern was linear with parallel strips of land at right angles to the river. Later in the 19th century people began to settle further west in the empty prairie land. The land had no forest. The farmer could only claim a land if he lived and worked on it. Therefore only dispersed settlements are found in the interiors, with no villages at all.
Dispersed settlement though not restricted to the new lands of America, Australia and New Zealand it is rarer in Asia and Africa. It is however more common in Europe. In Europe the establishment of dispersed settlement came much later than village development and was caused by two factors. The first of the two factors is the enclosure act, which led to the fencing of individual fields, rather than the old common fields. This affected rural settlements in two ways; firstly a number of people left village leading to depopulation and secondly since the farmer had a consolidated plot rather than scattered plots, he preferred to live on his own land. Thus the original village was surrounded by a series of outlying farms. The second reason for dispersion was overpopulation and as a part of the population left the village to found a new settlement, they often founded dispersed settlement rather than new village.
In some parts of Africa, especially in the south and east of the continent settlement by Europeans on large farms and ranches has created some dispersed settlement, but the typical form of rural settlement remain in the village. There is a tendency towards some dispersion in areas where small holdings for cash crops have been established or where old European estates have been broken up. 83
6. Write a short note on dispersed settlement.
5.7 HOUSE TYPES IN RURAL AREAS
One of the basic requirements of man is a shelter. The house is therefore a universal feature of any region permanently settled by human beings. The house as a shelter regulates the harshness of the climate to meet the physiological requirements of the body.
Man needs shelter for various reasons. They are: · To protect himself from vagaries of climate like high temperature, cold climate, heavy rainfall or snowfall and so on.
· The house acts as a source of security both physically and emotionally. Physically it protects man from attack of wild animals and hostile action of fellow men. Emotionally provides a protective environment from the stress and strain of outside world.
· House also provides a receptacle where man store his possessions be it food grains, animals, water or other luxury items. That it is one of the prime function of the ()I1-C s b(a tie out by the fact that in a two room rural house, one room becomes the storehouse of food grains, or of animals.
The various factors which affect the house type are: a) Environment b) Socio-economic condition of the inhabitant. c) Level of technological development of the society. 84
The various aspects of house which are affected by these factors are:
I) The site ii) The structure iii) The layout or the plan; and iv) The building material.
Thus it is said that house is a testimonial of the complex relationship between man and environment and reflects the direct influence of ecology. In rural societies these fundamental issues are more apparent. Social, climate and geographic conditions are combined to produce architecture on which fashion or style plays little or no part.
The impact of these various factors on the different aspects of rural house types is discussed in the following text. a) Environmental factors: In choosing the site of a dwelling unit a number of ecological factors play an important role. A number of climatic factors have to be taken into consideration. In mountainous areas of the world for example the availability of the sunlight is the most important determining factor. The sunny slope is naturally favoured, therefore in northern hemisphere houses are often situated on the south facing slopes.
Fig 5.22 settlements of sunny slopes
In the lesser Himalayan belt a house is naturally built on spur jutting out from the hillside. The site is then well drained and dry, while at the same time safe from landslides. The shelter of a forest or a large number of trees can also be helpful, as they protect the house from landslides and avalanches.
Besides sunlight the other very important reason for siting of a house is the availability of suitable sufficient drinking water for both human and domestic animals. The houses from the simple to the most complex are always located 85 close to a source of water. Proximity to fertile land is also taken into consideration. In hilly areas for example land is chosen in such a way, so that terracing can be done without much difficulty. Again rural dwellings are usually contiguous and compact as it ensures safety. While selecting land for housing sites therefore, surplus land is kept in reserve so that more houses can be constructed when population increases in the course of time.
Fig 5.23 Rural settlements on spur
The structure of a house is greatly influenced by the nature and degree of precipitation. Protection against rains is important a function as protection from sunlight. The climate according to J.Brunches express itself through the roof and this remark is truly applicable to rural dwellings of monsoon India. Areas of heavy rainfall in India, for example Konkan region sees not only steeply sloping roofs, but the eves are also constructed in such a way that the verandah or the open space in front of the house is protected from rainfall.
Thatch roofs on the other hand are common to dry areas for example Punjab region.
In areas of high temperature the openings are kept to a minimum. A thick wall with slit like windows prevent the suns heat from entering the house and keep the interiors cool. Such dwellings with a bon-like shape are common in Middle East. Verandahs are also common features of houses in hot sunny lands , for example India, and southern United States. 86
Fig 5.24 Rural House from Konkan region
In swampy and tidal areas on the other hand, houses are built on stilts, so that with the rise in tidal waters the houses can not gate flooded. It is a common feature in certain parts of Assam. Stilts are also common in areas infested with wild animals as a security measure.
Fig 5.25 House on Stilts - Assam
The layout of a house is more the function of economic and social factors rather than the physiographic ones. At times, however environment does have an indirect influence over the housetype. In Bengal, for example a dwelling house of a homestead is composed of four huts facing a central courtyard, with a pond somewhere at the back. The pond is the source of mud which is the main building material.
Geology and the general physiography on the other hand play a very important role in deciding the nature of building material. In hilly, rocky areas stone slabs are used extensively both as walls and roofs. In Western Himalayas, for example slate roofs on stone houses are a common sight. In the more vegetated 87
Eastern Himalayas, on the other hand, wood, bamboo, rattan and thatch are main building material. The local geological structure also dictates the nature of stone that is used. Therefore, while sandstone is common in Orissa, it is granite in Maharashtra. The houses in Indo Gangetic plains on the other hand are mainly mud and brick structure as clay is easily available.
Geology plays another important role as well. In earthquake prone areas the building material used are lightweight ones. For example, Japanese are famed for their use of paper, since Japan is an earthquake prone area. In India, inhabitants of such areas use wood instead of stone. In flood prone areas again the cheapest building material is used, as in case of flood the full house may be washed away. A good example of this can be found in the riverine tracts of Bihar. Here cultivators live in huts with wattle walls and thatched roof. These are not only the cheapest of all building material, but are also easily available. b) Socio-Economic factors: Economic factors play an important role in deciding the grandeur of the building and its location with respect to other important village sites. The chief’s house in all societies is elaborate, more decorated and of greater height than a commoner’s house. The complexity of structure indicates the elevated position of the chief in the society. Similarly every village in India shows the contrast between the houses of the upper and lower classes. The upper class houses occupy better position as regards in village well; the well drained sites are invariably more elaborate affairs with a courtyard (angina) and build of more durable or expensive material such as brick, wooden beam etc. The poor houses on the other hand are one or two room structures often housing livestock and humans under the same roof. Building material are also much inferior, and they generally occupy the worst possible sites, like the flood prone tracts or untrained swampy locations.
Social and religious factors influence both the overall layout of the structure as well as choosing the site. In Timbuktu, for example, the houses never face west, the direction of the prevailing wind, least evil spirits and misfortune enter. In Kumaun and Garhwal the house site is selected by the village priest after performing certain religious rituals which are believed to be essential in order to make the spirit or ghost to quit that particular place. In India caste an important social factor determines the site of the house. Members of the same caste usually build their houses adjoining one another. The schedule castes live in areas far from the higher castes and the village proper, so as not to pollute either The wells of the schedule castes are also separate from that of the higher cactus. Again as social values and perception of private space varies 88 between societies, in a number of tribal societies the whole village may live in one long hut or all the young boys might live in a communal dormitory. c) Levels of technological development: Finally it is the levels of technological development that determines the building material today, as well as the overall structure of the house. A good example of this are the modern Eskimo houses, which rather than being ‘igloos’ built of ice slabs are modern brick-wood structure. Similarly in a number of villages in India today asbestos or corrugated sheets have replaced tiles or thatch. Mud and wattle is being replaced by brick or stone. Similarly there is some change in the structure of the house albeit slowly. However the major change today is as regards the site. Through land reclamation and draining a number of marginal sites are being used today. Also rather than the traditional siting factors modern ones like proximity to a roadway or an irrigation canal is becoming more important. So we can conclude this discussion by saying that higher the societies knowledge of technology, the higher is the uniformity in rural houses in terms of structure, layout and building material.
7. What are the Factors deciding house types?
5.8 SUMMARY
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following.
Rural settlement and urban settlement geography are two integral parts that constitute the discipline of Settlement geography.
Fertile soil and adequate supply of water were two parameters of cultivation. So when man evolved from food gatherers to cultivators they chose river valleys to settle down. As a result fertile lands free from environmental hazards have dense 89 population and compact rural settlements. These areas also have central places with more confined hinterland due to inter competition. For example in the Ganga-Yamuna doab, high fertility of soil, adequate irrigational facilities, and means of well developed transport have given rise to almost uniform distribution of settlements. In rural settlements the sites have to fulfil some basic needs of mankind such as water, food natural elements and protection from outside attack. There can be several patterns of rural settlements. Some of them are: a. Linear Pattern b. Radial Pattern c. Star Shaped Pattern d. Rectangular Pattern e. Fan Pattern and f. Circular Pattern.
Apart from these there are various factors like environment, socio-economic condition of the inhabitant and level of technological development of the society which affect the rural house types. In the lesser Himalayan belt a house is naturally built on spur jutting out from the hill side. This site is well drained, dry as well as safe from landslide and avalanches. On the other hand in swampy areas houses are built on stilts. Economic factors also play important role in deciding the location of rural settlement with respect to other important village sites. The best built house in the village belongs to the chief which is more decorated and of greater height than a commoner’s house. Moreover, with the advent of time and technological development, the building material of rural houses has also developed. In India asbestos or corrugated sheets have replaced tiles or thatch.
To conclude it may be said that rural settlement study identifies the economic, social and environmental aspects of the villages. Several aspects like availability of key facilities and services, the ability of residents to access employment, shops, health facilities and recreational opportunities and identifies environmental and landscape factors which make each settlement unique.
5.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false a. In mountainous areas availability of sunlight is very important determining factor of rural settlement. b. The transition of man from hunter and food gatherer to agriculture and settlement is known as Neolithic Revolution. 90 c. Dry point settlement occurs in the areas which have scarcity of water hence the settlements are located near to the sources of water. d. When settlements are located at the confluence point of two rivers they are known as confluence point settlements. e. In the upper Himalayan belt a house is naturally built on spur jutting out from the hill side.
2. Fill in the blanks a. To protect his ______man constructed house near it. b. Dry point settlement may occur on the outsides of______, on river terraces or on levees. c. In Nigeria ______formed good defensive positions and were often used as settlement sites. d. Round and compact village when extend in all directions along the road produce a ______settlement. e. ______roofs are common in dry areas like Punjab.
3. Multiple choice question a. The upper class houses occupy better position and use
i. more durable or expensive material like brick, wooden beam etc .in rural areas ii. more inexpensive material like thatch, tin in rural areas iii. more durable material like tin, corrugated sheet, rubber cloth in rural areas b. The rural settlement which usually consists of one building or a group of buildings is known as i. Isolated settlement ii. Dispersed settlement iii. Wet point settlement c. The size of villages is determined by i. The absolute size of the fishing ground and the ability of it to support the population ii. The absolute size of the population and the ability of land to support the population iii. The absolute size of the cultivable land and the ability of land to support the population 91 d. Settlement developed on the island or hill tops are often
i. Rectangular ii. Star shaped iii. square or circular iv. Short answer question
1. What is Neolithic revolution? 2. What are the factors determine the site of rural settlements? 3. Write short notes on: a. Dry point settlement b. Hill top settlements c. Settlement on terraces d. Shoulder point settlements e. Settlement inside valley 4. Describe nucleated pattern of settlement 5. What are the factors behind the change of the pattern of rural settlements? 6. State the factors that affect house types in rural settlements.
5.10 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS
1. (a) True. 1.b True, 1.c.False, Wet point 1. d.True 1.e. False, lesser Himalayan.
2.a. agricultural field 2. b. meanders 2.c. “inselbergs” 2.d. star shape 2.e. Flat
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.ii 3.d.iii. 92
5.11 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Altitude-the height of the land 2. Clustered Settlement Pattern: a settlement where buildings are clustered around a particular point. 3. Dry-point Site: a settlement site on dry land surrounded by low, wet ground; this was good for defence. 4. Linear Settlement: a settlement which follows the line of, for example, a road or river. 5. Nucleated Settlement Pattern: a settlement where buildings are clustered around a particular point.
5.12 TASK
1. In a chart show different patterns of rural settlements
93 6
URBAN SETTLEMENT
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure 6.0 Objectives 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Subject- Discussion 6.3 Definition of Urban Settlement 6.4 Concept of Urbanisation 6.5 Difference between rural and urban settlements 6.6 Different problems of urbanisation and their causes, such as: a. Urban sprawl b. Overcrowding c. Housing d. Unemployment e. Slums and squatter settlements f. Transport g. Water h. Sewage problems i. Trash Disposal j. Urban crimes k. Urban pollution 6.7 Solution of urban problems 6.8 Summary 6.9 Check your Progress/ Exercise 6.10 Answers to the self learning questions. 6.11 Technical words and their meaning 6.12 Task 94
6.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
· Learn the definition of Urban Settlement · Understand the Concept of Urbanisation · Learn different problems of urbanisation and their causes · Study the solutions regarding urban problems
6.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography. Also we have studied Population, its growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them. Furthermore we have studied about migration along with world distribution of tribes and their habitat along with rural settlements. In this chapter we are going to study Urban Settlement.
6.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Growth of urban settlement is a recent phenomenon and very few settlements have reached the population size of more than a few thousand inhabitants till recent past. By around A.D. 1810 the city of London was the first urban settlement to reach a population of one million. By 1982 approximately 175 cities in the world had crossed the one million population mark. Presently 48 per cent of the world’s population lives in urban settlements compared to only 3 per cent in the year 1800.
The definition of urban settlement varies from one country to another. Some of the common basis of classification is size of population, occupational structure and administrative setup.
Locations of the earliest urban settlements were based on the availability of water, building materials and fertile land. In the present era these considerations still remain valid with modern technology playing a significant role in locating urban settlements. Piped water can be supplied to a distant settlement; building material can be transported from long distances. For example, the requirements of a holiday resort are quite different from that of an industrial town. Industrial towns generally need local energy supplies or raw materials while tourist centres require attractive scenery.
Cities in urban settlements play a central role in the ability of nations to achieve sustainable development. Today, half the world’s 95 seven billion people live in cities. By 2030 there will be over one billion more urban residents and for the first time ever in many parts of the world the number of rural residents will start to shrink. Between 2010 and 2050, the urban population will grow significantly, by 2.5 to 3 billion people, increasing the urban share to two-thirds of the world’s population.
Urbanization is a population shift from rural to urban areas and sound urban development will accelerate progress towards social and economic fields and may help in eradicating extreme poverty. Without adequate management and investments, slums may expand, and cities may fail to generate the jobs necessary to improve livelihoods. As a result, inequalities, exclusion, and violence may increase. If countries do not utilise resources properly, cities may fail to provide economic opportunities to surrounding rural areas. They may become vulnerable to climate and other environmental changes. There is a rise in population all over the world in the urban settlements. Cities around the world are trying hard and struggling to accommodate the influx of population and address the multidimensional challenges of urban development.
6.3 RURAL VERSUS URBAN SETTLEMENT— Concept of Urban:
The difference between urban and rural settlements is very important in understanding the concept of settlement geography. The word rural may be defined as those parts of the country which show unmistakable signs of being dominated by extensive use of land, either at present time or in the immediate past. Urban on the other hand is associated with the city or a town.
The difference between the two however is narrowing, and today it is becoming difficult to clearly distinguish between the two. In older days, the cities were clearly demarcated by a boundary wall, thus limiting both urban and rural space. Cities were centres of cultural innovations and places with a comparatively higher standard of living. With the improvement of science and technology and spread of mass communication however lifestyles in rural areas are not very different from those of urban areas. Many urbanities are seeking the rustic lifestyle and are deliberately moving back to the villages, commuting to the cities for work. Cities have therefore both literally and figuratively broken through the barriers of their former walls and spread throughout the countryside. There are all degrees of urbanization between a 96 city and a village and the relationship between the two lies become a continuum rather than a dichotomy.
Each country however has to have a definition of urban for its administrative purpose and each one has adopted a definite and distinctive criteria. The criteria chosen are ones that are best suited to that particular countries socio-economic structure. For example — when regarding population size as a criterion populous countries have taken figures in thousand, while countries with sparse population have taken the figures in hundreds.
Majority of the countries have adopted population size as the main criterion, but the actual number of people in a settlement, for it to be called urban varies considerably. on the lower end of the scale is Denmark where a settlement of two hundred people constitutes a town as it does in Sweden and Finland. On the other side of the scale lies Greece where a settlement must have over 10,000 inhabitants for it to be called urban. In between these two extremes lies a variety of figures. A thousand inhabitants make a town in Canada, but it requires 2500 in the U.S.A. A 1000 is enough in Venezuela, but Ghana requires 5000. Clearly numbers alone mean very little.
Other urban factors such as density of population, trading activities and administrative functions have also been taken into account. Most cities generally have a dense population, but this might not always be true. And with the exception of India — where a settlement must have density of over 1000 persons/square mile it is rarely used as a criterion.
More critical than density of a settlement is its function. It is generally accepted that one of the distinguishing characteristics of urban areas is that its work force is divorced from soil, that is, they are not primarily food producers. Yet very few states include function in its definition. India is one exception, where to be classified as urban a settlement must have over seventy five percent of its adult male population engaged in work other than agriculture. Among others Israel refuses the status of a town to a settlement of over 2000 if more than a third of the heads of the household are engaged in agriculture. Congo also states that a settlement of 2000 people must be pre dominantly non-agricultural to be called urban.
The administrative functions of the town are used by some states as the sole criterion of urban. This is so in Turkey, Czechoslovakia and United Arab Republic. Many more define their towns by giving them a certain kind of government, as in Japan, Algeria and United Kingdom. This really means that a city or a town is what a state is prepared to call it by. 97
The United Nations has identified three main types of localities in order to classify urban areas:
1. Agglomerations or clusters of population without regard to official boundaries or administrative functions;
2. Localities with fixed boundaries having a legally recognized “town status”, some form of local government, and an official designation as ‘city’, ‘borough, ‘urban district, or municipality’;
3. Minor civil divisions which actually comprise the entire country and may not have local government or town status.
Therefore UN has concluded ‘Because of national differences in the characteristics which distinguish urban from rural areas, the distinction between urban and rural population is not yet amendable to a single definition which would be applicable to all countries. For this reason, each country should decide, for itself which areas are urban and which are rural.’
In India since the 1961 census the following criteria are used to define urban. All municipal areas continue to be classified as urban irrespective of whether or not they fulfill other criteria. For non-municipal an as the following conditions have to be fulfilled
1. There should be a population density of not less than 1000 persons/square mile.
2. They should each have a population of 5000 or more.
3. Three fourth of the population should be engaged in non— agricultural occupation
However as each state of India, is allowed to determine the municipal status of a unit, certain municipalities do not fulfill one or more of the criteria, whereas there are also settlements which fulfill all three criteria, but are not considered urban.
Besides these physical aspects of urban society, geographers have found that city is a state of mind, a body of customs and traditions. The city is a meeting point not only of roads and merchandise but also of men and ideas. City has also been seen as a relatively large, dense and permanent settlement of socially heterogeneous individuals. The large size makes for less personal contact and communication substitutes face to face contact. Density makes way for diversity and growth of new ideas and technology. Cinder a city structure the old social order breaks curd is replaced by a new one. 98
Thus kinship ties weaken to he replaced by economic and occupational groupings. Finally instability becomes a norm and mobility increase. However many of these characteristics are also increasingly being found in the rural areas, especially in the more affluent countries where the communication network is well developed. And in doing so is blurring our concept of what is rural and what is urban.
1. Distinguish between Urban and Rural settlement.
6.4 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN RURAL AND URBAN SETTLEMENTS
There is no doubt that there is division between rural and urban settlements today, we do not know what exactly defines a village or a town. In fact, it has become common to use the term “continuous” rather than a clear division between the two. There is no single criterion which helps to distinguish the rural areas from the urban areas. Although population is an important indicator, we find in many village of India and China the population is more than 10,000.
Generally the people in the village are mostly engaged in agricultural or other types of primary activities. Thus a village consists of people who are working in the village itself.
Today, however, the situation has changed. A large section of population prefers to live in the village because it provides open space and a pollution free environment. However this trend is prevalent more in the western countries.
Often it was argued that the differences between the rural and urban areas should be on the basis of function. But the village in India provides much less function than that of the villages in USA. Petrol pumps are very common in a village in USA but in India, it is mostly found in the urban centres only. 99
A telephone exchange is an urban function in India, while it is not so in Western Europe or USA. In the present days, however, telephone services have developed incalculably in the rural areas of India. Within India also, the functions are different in different villages. For example; villages of Punjab and Maharashtra have facilities which are rare in the villages of Eastern India.
In the developed countries, the difference between the urban and rural areas has almost vanished. Here village consists of residential suburbs where everyone can easily reach the urban areas. On the other hand farmers of wheat belts of USA live in the town and they go to the farm only when there is work. They are known as suitcase farmers. In this case, it is very difficult to analyse whether farmers should fall in the category of urban or rural population. Thus, differentiating between rural and urban settlements becomes very difficult.
In LCD’s (Less Developed Countries), the situation is different. In India, for example, majority of the population lives in rural areas but all the villages do not come under the same category. Villages, which are much close to the cities, are far more developed than the villages found in remote areas. While settlements at the two extreme ends can be called either rural or urban but the village in the middle can’t be categorized clearly. This makes us to think about rural urban continuum rather than the dichotomy because of this gradual change.
URBAN SETTLEMENT:
Different countries have different definitions of an urban settlement. In Israel and Italy a settlement with higher population of people employed in non-agricultural work can be called a town.
The census of India also defines an urban settlement, . in a different way. This definition however changes from time to time. In 2011, census of India defines urban settlements as:
1. All places with municipality, corporation and containment boarder notified town area committee, etc.
2. All other places which satisfies following categories a) Minimum population of 5000. b) 75% of male working population engaged in non-agricultural pursuits. c) A density of Population of at least 400 person per sq. km. 100
2. Define Urban Settlements.
6.5 CONCEPT OF URBANISATION
The demographic definition of urbanization is the increasing share of the population living in urban areas. Many other definitions of urbanization are used by researchers and policymakers, leading to confusion about the concept. Urbanization often takes place at the same time, but is not the same thing as, population growth, economic growth or cultural change; it’s more informative to see all these as separate processes. The concept has crept almost all parts of the world to an extent that, nearly half of the world’s population now lives in urban areas.
URBANISATION AND SUB-URBANISATION
The process of ulbanisation can be sub-divided into 4 parts
1. Sub-urbanisation 2. Metropolitianisation 3. Urban - commercialisation 4. Rural Urbanisation
Sub-Urbanisation refers to the spread of urban conditions towards the rural areas. This has brought about haphazard and unplanned development in the rural areas.
Metropolitianisation refers to the growth of metropolitan centres. The rapid growth of metropolitan cities has been a result of direct migration of the rural people of the metropolitan city.
Urban — commercialisation refers, to the growth of industrial cities. The industrial cities like Rourkela, Durgapur, and Bhilai have developed as industrial towns and cities. Rural Urbanisation refers to the urbanisation of the rural areas through the growth of small towns and villages. We can say that the process of urbanisation is still going on in India. 101
The emergence of Rural — Urban fringe in India is a very recent development. Before 1950, the Rural — Urban fringe was not existing in India. The main reason for the absence of Rural — Urban fringe was the very slow growth of cities in that period. At present migrationis high into the cities requiring more space. Due to this cities started expanding physically and development started taking place around the vacant land within the city itself and then the land lying outside the city limit also started developing. In the post-independence period, it was found that the cities with I lakh population started growing very fast. The city was unable to accommodate the sudden population resulting into the development of rural areas around the cities. The net result was that the urban land uses started intruding within the, rural areas.
In the suburbs there are residential houses with small gardens attached to them. More than half of the active population in the suburbs works in the towns or in the main cities. The growth of suburbs depends upon the level of development of transportation and geographical topography.
At present we find Mumbai is extending northwards due to heavy pressure of population and geographical locations. The northern suburbs are quite developed and have all the facilities which are available in Mumbai city. With development of western and eastern railways the city is very well linked with the northern suburbs. Not only that, the western and eastern express highways also connects the suburbs with the main city. The middle and low class people who cannot afford houses in Mumbai city are settling down in northern suburbs. At present, the other facilities for life like education, markets, entertainment and recreational centres are very well developed here. It is expected that in future the facilities in suburbs will not be less than that of the city itself.
A new satellite city has developed around Mumbai viz. Navi Mumbai. It is not far away from the old city and it is connected with the main city by roads and railways. The real development of this area started in 1972 and a bus service now links Navi Mumbai with Thane and Navi Mumbai with Dadar, a ferry service now operates linking up Nariman point — Churchgate with Belapur in Navi Mumbai. Two new ports are developed viz. Thane and Belapur. Many Government offices from the main cities have shifted to Navi Mumbai. This will also create many job opportunities. The wholesale market has also shifted to Vashi. The plans laid down for the development of Navi Mumbai may be very progressive and attractive but there are some short comings in these plans. 1. Transportation between Mumbai and Navi Mumbai is yet to be developed. Trains should be more frequent. 102
2 There is huge load on Vashi Bridge. 3. Lack of finance is creating problems resulting in improper development. 4. Local schools are not developed and many of the students come to Mumbai for studies. 5. Local people are not ready to give up their land. 6. There is corruption among the house agents and development agencies. 7. Pollution in Thane Belapur area is another problem.
From a detailed study we can say .that the suburbs are a phenomenon of recent times. The urban development of Mumbai shows that there are long and narrow strips of built up areas. The western strips extend from Bandra to Dahisar and the Eastern strip extends from Kurla to Mulund. Actually speaking during the earlier times the process of sub-urbanisation was slow. During this time, the suburbs were occupied by different social communities, like, Bandra was a Roman Catholic Suburb, Khar a Maharashtrian suburb and Vile Pane and Andheri were Gujarati suburbs. All these suburbs were residential suburbs and most of the people were commuters to the city.
In the initial stage, there was no sub-urban growth to Mumbai. However, after Second World War, there was rapid growth of suburbs. This was mainly because of the partition of the country and migration of the refuges. Moreover, the growth of the industries within the cities also Iead to growth of suburbs.
The eastern suburbs mainly assume an industrial character. It was because the first industries developed at Kurla and further development preceded from Kurla to Thane, which is another main industrial location.
After 1960, however the residential growth in suburbs took place on a large scale. many agricultural and fishing villages developed into residential areas.
An important development in settlement studies during the last several decades has been the expansion of population. The development of fringe areas started in USA and today the fringe areas are much larger than the central parts of the city. This expansion of the fringe areas is made possible by the development of transportation; automobiles and railways. In the fringe areas today, there is provision of electricity and water and so people can easily live here. Most of the people living in the 103 fringe areas depends upon the main cities for employment an services.
3. Explain the Concepts of urbanization and sub - urbanization.
6.6 PROBLEMS OF URBANISATION AND THEIR CAUSES
Although India is one of the less urbanized countries of the world with only 27.78 per cent of her population living in urban agglomerations/towns, this country is facing a serious crisis of urban growth at the present time. Whereas urbanization has been an instrument of economic social and political progress, it has led to serious socio Economic problems.
The sheer magnitude of the urban population, haphazard and unplanned growth of urban areas, and a desperate lack of infrastructure are the main causes of such a situation. The rapid growth of Urban population both natural and through migration, has put heavy pressure on public utilities like housing, sanitation. transport, water, electricity, health, education and so on.
Poverty, unemployment and under employment among the rural immigrants, beggary, thefts, dacoities, burglaries and other social evils are on rampage. Urban sprawl rapidly encroach the precious agricultural land. The urban population of India had already crossed the 285 million mark by 2001. By 2030, more than 50 per cent of India’s population is expected to live in urban areas. Following problems need to be highlighted. a) Urban Sprawl Urban sprawl or real expansion of the cities, both in population and geographical area, of rapidly growing cities is the root cause of urban problems. In most cities the economic base is incapable of dealing with the problems created by their 104 excessive size. Massive immigration from rural areas as well as from small towns Into big cities has taken place almost consistently; thereby adding to the size of cities.
This is due to the fact that such large cities act as magnets and attract large number of immigrants by means of their employment opportunities and modern way of life. Such hyper urbanisation leads to projected cities sizes of which challenge imagination. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore, etc. are examples of urban sprawl due to large scale migration of people from the surrounding areas. b) Overcrowding Overcrowding is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. Overcrowding is a logical consequence of over-population in urban areas. It is naturally expected that cities having a large size of population squeezed in a small space must suffer from overcrowding. This is well exhibited by almost all the big cities of India.
For example, Mumbai has one-sixth of an acre open space per thousand populations though four acre is suggested standard by the Master Plan of Greater Mumbai. Delhi has a population density of 9,340 persons per sq km (Census 2001) which is the highest in India. This is the overall population density for the Union territory of Delhi. Population density in central part of Delhi could be much higher. This leads to tremendous pressure on infrastructural facilities like housing, electricity, water, transport, employment, etc. Efforts to decongest Delhi by developing ring towns have met with the required success. c) Housing Overcrowding leads to a chronic problem of shortage of houses in urban areas. This problem is specifically more acute in those urban areas where there is large influx of unemployed or underemployed immigrants who have no place to live in when they enter cities/towns from the surrounding areas. The major factors are shortage of building materials and financial resources, inadequate expansion of public utilities into sub-urban areas, poverty and Unemployment of urban immigrants, strong caste and family ties and lack of adequate transportation to sub-urban areas where most of the vacant land for new construction is located. d) Unemployment The problem of unemployment is no less serious than the problem of housing mentioned above. It is estimated that about half of all educated urban unemployed are concentrated in 105 four metropolitan cities (Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai). One of the major causes of urban unemployment is the large scale migration of people from rural to urban areas. But the growth of economic opportunities fails to keep pace with the quantum of immigration. The limited capacity of urban areas could not create enough employment opportunities and absorb the rapid growth of the urban labour force. Efforts made by the central and the state governments to create employment opportunities in rural areas and to check the large scale rural- urban migration have not met with much success. e) Slums and Squatter Settlements The natural consequence of unchecked, unplanned and haphazard growth of urban areas is the growth and spread of slums and squatter settlements which present a striking feature in the ecological structure of Indian cities, especially of metropolitan centres.
The rapid urbanisation in conjunction with industrialisation has resulted in the growth of slums. The proliferation of slums occurs due to many factors, such as, the shortage of developed land for housing, the high prices of land beyond the reach of urban poor, a large influx of rural migrants to the cities in search of jobs etc.
In India, slums are one or two-room hutments mostly occupying government and public lands. Slums have invariably extreme unhygienic conditions. Slums are known by different names in different cities. They are called bustees in Kolkata, jhuggi- jhoparies in Delhi, Jhoparpattis or Chawl in Mumbai and Cheri in Chennai.
No clear-cut distinction can be drawn between slums and squatter settlements in practice except that slums are relatively more able and are located in older, inner parts of cities compared to squatter settlements which are relatively temporary and are often scattered in all parts of the city, especially outer zones where urban areas merge with their rural hinterland.
Squatter settlements are constructed in an uncontrolled manner and badly lack essential public services such as water, light, sewage. Such an environment leads to several health problems. They can occur through or organized rapid (almost overnight) invasions of an area by large number of people or by gradual accretion, family by family.
Dharavi is one such example. It was an arm of the sea that was filled by waste, largely produced by the people who have come to live there. The other cities with over 40 per 106 cent slum population to the total population (Municipal Corporation) are Faridabad and Meerut. Kolkata, Nagpur and Thane have about one-third of their population as slum population.
1) Transport
With traffic bottleneck and traffic congestion, almost all cities and towns of India are suffering from acute form of transport problem. Transport problems increase and become more complex as the town grows in size. With its growth, the town performs varied and complex functions and more people travel to work or shop.
As the town becomes larger, even people living within the built-up area have to travel by car or bus to cross the town and others naturally bring their cars or travel by public transport. Wherever, trade is important, commercial vehicles such as vans and trucks will make problem of traffic more complicated.
Since most of the commercial activities of the towns are concentrated in the Central Business District (C.B.D.), the centres are areas of greatest congestion. However, other parts of the town are not free from traffic congestion.
The traffic scenario in almost all the Indian cities presents a pathetic picture with Mumbai still having the best city transport system and Chennai, Ahmedabad and Pune being reasonably well served by local transport system. In all other cities, if one does not own a personal vehicle, great hardship is experienced in moving about in the city.
Similar conditions prevail in most of the Indian cities. In Kolkata, metro rail and Vivekanand Setu were constructed to ease traffic flow. But traffic congestion in several old localities and near Haora bridge is almost a daily routine. In Ahmedabad, the speed of vehicles comes down to 5 km/hr on Gandhi Marg and several other roads due to congestion and overcrowding. g) Water Today we have reached a stage where practically no city in India gets sufficient water to meet the needs of city dwellers. In many cities people get water from the municipal sources for less than half an hour every alternate day.. In dry summer season, taps remain dry for days together and people are denied water supply at a time when they need it the most. 107
The individual towns require water in larger quantities. Many small towns have no main water supply at all and depend on such sources as individual tube wells, household open wells or even rivers. Accelerated Urban Water Supply Programme (AUWSP) was launched to provide water to towns with population of less than 20,000.
Keeping in view the increased demands for water by the urban population, Central Public Health and Environmental Engineering Organisation (CPHEEO) fixed 125-200 litres of water per head per day for cities with a population of more than 50,000, 100-125 litres for population between 10,000 and 50,000 and 70-100 litres for towns with a population below 10,000. h) Sewerage Problems Urban areas in India are almost invariably plagued with insufficient and inefficient sewage facilities. Not a single city in India is fully sewered. Resource crunch fated by the municipalities and unauthorised growth of the cities are two major causes of this pathetic state of affairs.
Most of the cities have old sewerage lines which are not looked after properly. Often sewerage lines break down or they are overflowing.
Most cities do not have proper arrangements for treating the sewerage waste and it is drained into a nearly river (as in Delhi) or in sea (as in Mumbai, Kolkata and Chennai), thereby polluting the water bodies.
In most Indian cities, water pipes run in close proximity to sewer lines. Any leakage leads to contamination of water which results in the spread of several water borne diseases.
I) Trash Disposal As Indian cities grow in number and size the problem of trash disposal is assuming alarming proportions. Huge quantities of garbage produced by our cities pose a serious health problem. Most cites do not have proper arrangements for garbage disposal and the existing landfills are full to the brim. These landfills are hotbeds of disease and innumerable poisons leaking into their surroundings.
Wastes putrefy in the open inviting disease carrying flies and rats and a filthy, poisonous liquid, called leachate, which leaks out from below and contaminates ground water. People who live near the rotting garbage and raw sewage fall easy 108 victims to several diseases like dysentery, malaria, plague, jaundice, diarrhoea, typhoid, etc. j) Urban Crimes Modem cities present a meeting point of people from different walks of life having no affinity with one another. Like other problems, the problem of crimes increases with the increase in urbanisation. In fact the increasing trend in urban crimes tends to disturb peace and tranquility of the cities and make them unsafe to live in particularly for the women.
Growing materialism, consumerism, and competition in everyday life, selfishness, lavishness, appalling socio-economic disparities and rising unemployment and feeling of loneliness in the crowd are some of the primary causes responsible for alarming trends in urban crime.
Not only the poor, deprived and slum dwellers take to crime; youngsters from well- to-do families also resort to crime in order to make fast buck and for meeting requirements of a lavish life. Occasional failures in life also drag youngsters to crime.
The problem of urban crime is becoming more complicated in the present day world because criminals often get protection from politicians, bureaucrats and elite class of the urban society. Some of the criminals reach high political positions by using their money and muscle power. k) Problem of Urban Pollution With rapid pace of urbanisation, industries and transport systems grow rather out of proportion. These developments are primarily responsible for pollution of environment, particularly the urban environment.
4. Describe various problems related to Urban Settlement. 109
6.7 SOLUTIONS OF URBAN PROBLEMS
Many solutions to solve the problems in urban areas have been recommended by various studies. Some of them are as follows: a) Systematic development of urban centers and creation of job opportunities : One important solution of our-urban problems is the systematic development of the fast growing urban cities and planning an investment programme which could give rise to a large number of well distributed visible urban centers throughout the country. b) Regional planning with city planning. Urban planning is almost city centered.
There should be regional planning along With city planning to solve the problem. c) Encouraging industries to move to backward area: It should be encouraged to open newer and heavy industries in the backward areas. This will also take care of linear development of metropolitan big cities. d) Municipalities to find own financial resources: If roads are properly mentioned, it provides sewage system, Supply drinking water and electricity, and then people will pay taxes properly. If the municipality failed to give service, the trade union will resort to strikes. It is necessary that private transportation be encouraged. Privately operated bus and tempos services will charge a little more fare. e) Amendment of Rent Control Act: Laws which inhibit the construction of new houses or giving of houses on rent must be amended. The municipality should build more houses.
1) Adopting Pragmatic Housing Policy: In May 1988, the Central Govt. presented the National Housing Policy (NHP) to the Parliament which aimed to abolishing homelessness by the turn of the century and upgrading the quality of accommodation to a fixed minimum standard. Such policy looks to be too ambitious and appears to be auto pain. 110
5. State solutions to the Urban Problems.
6.8 SUMMARY
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following.
Any form of human habitation is a settlement. It varies from a single house to the largest city. It is a place where people live and interact through activities like agriculture, trading and entertainment. Although the definition of urban settlement varies from one country to another, in a nutshell, urban settlement is a human settlement which is characterised by high population density and are created through urbanization. These are categorized by urban morphology as cities, towns, conurbations or suburbs. There are differences between rural and urban settlements but till today there is no exact definition of a village or a town. Thus, urban fringe is a marginal area both of town as well as countryside. Rural-Urban fringe is a transitional zone and the urban impact on rural social life has been felt well away from the immediate surroundings of cities. Generally the village population is engaged in primary activities. But the present day scenario is different as many city dwellers prefer to live in villages to have a pollution free atmosphere. In the developed countries there is actually no demarcating line between the rural and urban areas. Urbanization is a population shift from rural to urban areas and globally, more people live in urban areas than in rural areas. Urbanization may be driven by local and global economic and social changes, and is generally a product of modernization and industrialization. Urbanization has economic and environmental effects also. Although India is one of the less urbanised countries of the world with only 27.78 percent of her population living in urban agglomeration, this country is facing a serious crisis of urban growth at present due to rapid growth of urban population both natural and through migration. This has created immense pressure on public utilities such as housing, sanitation, transport, education, occupation etc. With systematic 111 development of urban centres, job opportunities, regional planning some of these problems may be solved. In addition to these industries should be encouraged to develop in rural areas.
6.9 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
True and false a. Mumbai, in India is extending towards the north due to heavy pressure of population. b. The emergence rural-urban fringe in India is a very recent development. c. Urban sprawl is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. d. In most Indian cities water pipes run in close proximity to sewer lines. e. One of the major causes of urban unemployment is the large scale migration of people from urban to rural areas.
4. Fill in the blanks :
a. ______is a new satellite city has developed around Mumbai. b. ______and ______are two new ports. c. The urban development of Mumbai shows that there are ______strips of built up areas. d. ______is a situation in which too many people live in too little space. e. Most of the commercial activities of the towns are concentrated in the ______.
5. Multiple choice question
a) Sub-urbanisation refers to the spread of urban conditions towards the i. rural areas ii. urban areas iii. both rural and urban areas
b) Overcrowding leads to problems like i. Housing, unemployment, poverty ii. Housing, playground, availability of sunlight iii. Housing, function, poverty 112
c) Examples of Urban sprawl or real expansion of cities due to large scale migration of people from surrounding areas are as follows: i. Delhi, Darjiling, Thane, Jalandhar, Bangalore ii. Delhi, Pune, Thane, Malda, Bangalore iii. Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, Chennai, Bangalore
d) The areas where trade is important traffic problems become more complicated by i. Personal cars ii. Commercial vehicles, like vans and trucks iii. Car pools
6. Short answer question
7. Define urban settlements. 8. What are the various problems related to urban settlements?
9. Write a short note on a. Problems of urban pollution b. Urban crimes c. Sewage problems 10.What are the solutions to the urban problems?
6.10 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS:
1. (a) True. 1.b True, 1.c.False, overcrowding 1. d.True 1.e.False, rural to urban areas.
2.a. Navi Mumbai 2. b.Thane and Belapur 2.c.long and narrow 2.d.Overcrowding 2.e. Central Business District (C.B.D.)
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.iii 3.d.ii. 113
6.11 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Conurbation-Large urban area where towns and cities have merged 2. Industry (industrial areas) - Places where things are made such as factories or workshops 3. Rural-urban fringe- On the outskirts of an urban area beyond the suburbs where there is a mixture of rural land uses and urban land uses 4. Urban sprawl-Spreading outwards of a city and its suburbs, leading to changes in rural areas 5. Urbanisation-Increase in the percentage of people living in urban areas
6.12 TASK
1. In a chart show problems of urbanisation and their causes.
114 7
COLONIZATION AND THIRD WORLD
After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure
7.0 Objectives 7.1 Introduction 7.2 Subject- Discussion 7.3 The concept of Colonization 7.4 Concept of Third World 7.5 Concept of Developed & Developing countries 7.6 Characteristics of Developed, Developing& Underdeveloped Countries 7.7 Problems Related To Underdeveloped & Developing Countries 7.8 Summary 7.9 Check your Progress/ Exercise 7.10 Answers to the self learning questions. 7.11 Technical words and their meaning 7.12 Task
7.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to:
· Learn the concept of Colonization · Understand the Concept of Third World · Learn the Concept of Developed & Developing countries · Study the Characteristics of Developed, Developing& Underdeveloped Countries · Study the Problems Related To Underdeveloped & Developing Countries 115
7.1 INTRODUCTION
In the previous chapters you have learnt about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography. We have also studied Population, its growth and distribution as well as the reasons behind each of them. Furthermore we have studied about migration along with world distribution of tribes and their habitat. Rural and Urban Settlement both a part of settlement geography have also been studied by us beforehand. In this chapter we are going to study Colonization and Third World.
7.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
Colonisation happening for thousands of years has played a pivotal role in shaping the modern world. From ancient times, through the middle-ages and to the modern era, people have travelled to and settled in new areas and countries and came into contact with other people and cultures. This has sometimes led to conflict resulting into destruction of the indigenous people and their culture. Apart from this there was exchange of knowledge, goods and traditions also. In ancient times, the Greeks and Romans established colonies in other territories. In the middle ages there was a large scale movement of people establishing new colonies all over Western Europe. Some modern day nations of Europe were established at this time such as Hungary, colonised by the Huns; France, colonised by the Franks; and England, colonised by the Anglo-Saxons.
After the discovery of America by explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492 Europeans started exploring and trading with the indigenous people in this new land and in1607, the British set up a colony at Jamestown in Virginia, North America. The benefits of discovering new lands and set out to claim new territories was new realisation of other European nations. The Dutch took control of Indonesia in 1619 and called it the Dutch East Indies. The French and English set up colonies in India and North America.
Colonisation usually involves large-scale immigration of people to a 'new' location and the expansion of their civilisation and culture into this area. Colonisation forms a settlement or colony by these groups of people who seek to take control of territories or countries. The colony is under the immediate political control of the country where the colonisers came from. This country in control is usually geographically-distant, and is sometimes called the parent country or the mother country. 116
COLONIZATION AND THIRD WORLD
7.3 COLONIZATION: THE CONCEPT
The term Colonization is derived from the Latin word colere, which means "to inhabit". Thus, Colonization can be explained as a process of gaining control by a central system of power which tries to dominate the surrounding land and its components (people, animals etc.). The world has been already affected by colonization, for example, India was colonized by the British for almost 300 years.
7.4 CONCEPT OF THIRD WORLD
Since 1950, people have been aware about the contrast in the standards of living of different countries. Some of the countries of the world are rich and many countries are poor. The people of rich countries have very high standards of living as compared to poor countries. It is very difficult to give exact definition of richness and poverty. Both of these terms are relative. It is also observed that within the rich countries too, there is a difference in the standards of living of the people.
The concept of development is related to the economy of the country. When we discuss about overall development we must also consider social, political and environmental development. Inspite of difficulties to define poor and rich countries, many people made attempts to divide the two types of worlds into different groups of countries. The poor countries came to be called by different names, one of them being ‘Third World’ countries. Some of the common terminologies used for third world are backward, underdeveloped, developing, less developed, south countries and more. All these terminologies are relative to their applications. Each terminology has different context.
The concept of Third world is European in origin. In 1940, France used this term for the 1st time since early 1960s the word “Third World” has gained importance. During this time the economists and geographers divided the world’s countries into three categories on the basis of economic and political aspects. a. First World: - Economist called the 1st world countries as democratic and capitalist countries. Under this category they included the countries like U.S.A, U.K, W. Germany, Japan, Canada, Australia etc. In these countries, standard of living is very high. 117 b. Second World: - Countries under communist scale were under 2nd world category. The important nations were Russia, China, Cuba, N. Korea, and E. Germany. c. Third World:-Many countries of the world got their independence after the end of Second World War. The newly independent nations were facing problems of poverty, illiteracy, over population, poor technology, etc. These newly independent democratic nations came to be known as “Third World Countries” by the economists. Some of the important third world countries are Bangladesh, India, and Sri Lanka.
*Source: http://www.nationsonline.org/bilder/third_world_map.jpg
If we look at the world map we find that most of the developed nations of the world are located in the northern hemisphere. The important nations are U.S.A, Canada, Japan, Russia, etc. Two nations from southern hemisphere are called northern countries. They are Australia and New Zealand.
According to the commission large number of poor countries are located in the southern hemisphere. So, they use the terminology ‘south’ for the 3rd world countries of the world. There are very few poor countries in the northern hemisphere.
Following are the descriptions of important terminologies used for the Third World countries.
1. East Countries:- Some scholars have meaning distinction in the world as East-West. Here the western countries are considered as developed countries. Here, the people are having high standard of 118 living, high proportion of employment, democracy, etc. The eastern countries are considered as “Backward countries” and here the people are having lower standard of living. The ‘west’ world is related to the modern, open, society; whereas ‘east’ world is related to the traditional conservative societies.
2. Fourth World:- On the basis of the working of an economy rather than political standard “New Week Magazine” divided the countries of the world into 4 categories. According to them 1st is belonging to the developed nations. 2nd world belongs to socialist, communist nations. 3rd world nations includes all those nations which has made significant progress after their independence. In this category they included Argentina, S. Africa, and S. Korea, Thailand etc. In the 4th world category, they included those nations which are having worst economic conditions. In these nations there is a dominance of primary activities. In this category they included countries like Bangladesh, Nepal, Pakistan, etc.
3. Bandung Nations:- This world was introduced by Mr. Berad in 1957. This world has taken its name from the city in Indonesia. This city hosted an important meeting and so people started calling these poor nations as ‘Bandung nations’.
4. Non-Aligned Nations:- This world is sometimes used with 3rd world. These two words are related to history and ideology. Many of the participants at the Bandung conference started to institutionize their movement. Many of the Bandung Nations again held a conference at Belagard in 1961. During the conference they formed the group of non – aligned nations. This was a group of poor nations and so the countries started getting called non – Aligned Nations.
7.5 CONCEPT OF DEVELOPED & DEVELOPING
Following terminologies are used to differentiate among the levels of development in the countries of the world.
1. Backward :- The word “backward” is related to the economic, social and political backwardness. In most of the Third World countries, we find eco-social sectors. There is use of primitive technology in the industries, agricultural sector, fishing, etc. The social backwardness is observed with differences among male and female, literacy, infant mortality rate etc. 119
2. Underdeveloped :- The word “underdeveloped” is related to resource utilization. Due to non-availability of capital, technology, demand, skilled labour etc. the resources are not properly developed. The resources in many African nations remain under-developed and so these countries are called as underdeveloped countries
3. Less Developed or Developing Countries :- Some of the Third World countries after their independence made remarkable progress in the industrial sector. The GDP growth rate at present is very high, per capita income is also very high but still the country is having certain characteristics of the Third World country and so they are called as developing countries. Most of the newly industrialized countries of the world come under this category. They are Brazil, Argentina, Korea, Thailand, Malaysia, etc.
4. Developed Countries:- A developed country, industrialized country, or "more economically developed country" is a sovereign state that has a highly developed economy and advanced technological infrastructure relative to other less industrialized nations. Developed countries have post-industrial economies, meaning the service sector provides more wealth than the industrial sector. They are contrasted with developing countries, which are in the process of industrialization, or undeveloped countries, which are pre- industrial and almost entirely agrarian.
7.6 CHARACTERISTICS OF DEVELOPED, DEVELOPING & UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES:
The size of the progress of a country can be seen from the successful development of the country. Income per capita, economic growth, unemployment, and population growth rate is partly an indicator to measure the success of development. Grouping the countries into developed and developing countries is generally based on economic and technological sectors.
The characteristics of developed countries are as follows: a. Average income per capita of the population is generally high. b. Education level of high average population. c. Life expectancy of the population average height. d. Population growth rate per year is relatively small. e. The death rate per year is relatively small population. f. Life-style market economy. g. His wide and varied field. 120 h. Economic activity in most industry sectors, as well as export commodities. i. The majority of the population lives in cities. j. Relatively high level of population health.
The characteristics of developing countries are as follows: a. Average income per capita of the population was generally low. b. Education levels low average population. c. Life expectancy lower average population. d. Population growth rate per year is quite high. e. The mortality rate is relatively high population per year. f. Livelihoods of the population are generally patterned agrarian. g. Narrow the field work. h. Commodity exports of raw materials, rather than processed ingredients. i. The majority of the population lives in rural areas. j. Low levels of population health. k. High unemployment figures.
7.7 CHARACTERISTICS OF UNDERDEVELOPED COUNTRIES:
1. Low per capita income 2. Inequitable distribution of wealth and income 3. Predominance of agriculture 4. Deficiency of capital 5. High rate of population growth 6. Unemployment and underemployment 7. A dualistic economy 8. Technical backwardness
7.8 PROBLEMS RELATED TO UNDERDEVELOPED & DEVELOPING COUNTRIES
More than half of the people of the under developed and developing countries lives below poverty line and are leading a tuff life. Though, each country faces a different set of specific problems some of them are common to all of them. They are as follows:
1. Poverty: Poverty is definitely one of the main reasons of why third world countries belong to developing category. Due to unstable economic and social conditions, people in these countries continue to be poor. Moreover, the prevalent political structure is creating a gap between the rich and poor and the gap is increasing day by day. 121
2. Lack of Proper Drinking Water: Due to overpopulation and over exploitation of natural resources like fresh water, the developing and underdeveloped countries are facing shortage of clean and accessible drinking eater. Many people die due to famines and thirst in these areas. The rivers and lakes are badly contaminated and measures to improve the situation are inadequate.
3. Lack of Electricity Supply: Improper planning and over use of the resources have resulted in depletion of natural resources capable of producing electricity. Thus, the developing and underdeveloped countries are facing shortage of electricity. The problem can be solved with the help of renewable sources of energy such as wind power, solar power, tidal energy, nuclear energy and others.
4. Agriculture: More than half the population of all the developing nations in the world depends on Agriculture or farming for survival and for at least two meals a day. That is almost 75 percent of the world’s poorest people. Many internationally accepted projects are carried out every year in order to train and empower these people from such countries to at least to help them learn to live off Agriculture.
5. Health Care: improper and lack of access to healthcare is posing a threat on the lives of the people of these countries. It is found that countries like Africa and interior parts of the Indian subcontinent are suffering from many communicable epidemics which do not allow the economic stability to come in.
6. Geopolitical Issues/War: Most of the countries that fall in the third world category or the ones that are developing are either facing heavy duty corruption or buried deep under the ashes of war. Civil wars, cold wars, war on religion and so on, are fought even after knowing the consequences on society, economy and polity. The main reasons behind wars and geo political issues are illiteracy and religious intolerance. Political or individual interests are some other reasons of the same.
7. Pollution: Pollution is the contamination of natural resources. In the developing and underdeveloped countries, it is one of the major reasons of shortage of natural resources. It is an outcome of improper planning, lack of awareness and ignorant attitude of the citizens and the government. Though all types of pollutions prevail in these countries, water and air pollution dominate the scene.
8. Social and Cultural Exclusion: All third world countries are facing issues pertaining to social exclusion which is basically a 122 state where people lose their self-confidence and bury themselves into deeper and deeper wretched poverty along with greater isolation. Due to lack of social and cultural framework, a country can go non-functional due to complete loss of morals and ethics from the society.
9. Hunger: More than 870 million people of the entire third world population have no food to eat or a very precarious food supply i.e. more than the population of the US and the European Union combined. This is a result of regional disparity and regional diversity. If these situations are left uncontrolled, the conditions any worsen very soon.
It is really surprising how things go around in this small Earth of ours. On one hand we have a small handful of people and their families get the entire resources and facilities and all the good that this world has to offer, whereas more than half of the world’s population is dying because of their destiny’s cruelty on their lives and the other three quarters are barely managing to keep it up and dying every second of the day, not living life the way it was meant to be lived i.e. abundantly; only in their desperate hopes to create a secure and prosperous lives for their little ones. The concerned Governments must join together and take joint efforts towards the upliftment of the third world countries.
7.9 SUMMARY:
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following.
After going through the chapter we have learnt what Colonisation is and how it has shaped the modern world. This very term derived from Latin means “to inhabit”. Colonisation usually involves large-scale immigration of people to a 'new' location. This country in control is usually geographically-distant, and is sometimes called the parent country or the mother country.
Geographers and economists opined that the concept of development of a nation entirely depends on the economy of the country. Overall development of a nation includes social, political and environmental development. There is huge contrast in the standards of living of different countries. Some of the countries are rich while many are poor. Both of these terms are relative hence it is very difficult to define exactly richness and poverty. The people of rich countries have very high standards of living as compared to poor countries. In spite of difficulties to define poor and rich countries, many people made attempts to divide the two types of worlds into different groups of countries. 123
The economists and geographers divided the world’s countries into three categories on the basis of economic and political aspects. The third world countries are those underdeveloped nations of the world, particularly with widespread poverty especially of Asia and Africa. Second World refers to the former communist-socialist, industrial states. The important nations were Russia, China, Cuba, North Korea, and East Germany. First World countries refer to the developed, capitalist, industrial countries, having more or less common political and economic interests that include North America, Western Europe, Japan and Australia. The terminologies such as Backward, Banding Nations, Non-Aligned Nation, East Countries, Fourth World has been used to differentiate among the levels of development in the countries of the world.
Characteristics of Developed, Developing and under developed Countries vary as the economic and technological sectors differ between them. For example average income per capita of the average population and education level is generally high in developed countries whereas in developing countries average income per capita of the population as well as education levels were generally low. The scenario is different in the Underdeveloped Countries where per capita income is low and distribution of wealth and income among average population is inequitable. In spite of this, three categories of countries face several problems such as poverty, lack of proper drinking water and electricity supply, agriculture, health care geopolitical issues/war, pollution, social and cultural exclusion and hunger.
7.10 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false a) The term Colonization is derived from the Latin word “colere” means "to inhabit". b) The concept of Third world is Asian in origin. c) Economist called the 1st world countries as democratic and capitalist countries. d) The eastern countries are considered as “Backward countries” and here the people are having lower standard of living. e) This world “First world” was introduced by Mr. Berad in 1957
2. Fill in the blanks a. India was colonized by the ______for almost 300 years. b. The word “backward” is related to the ______, ______and political backwardness. 124
c. The word “______” is related to resource utilization. d. Population growth rate per year is relatively ______in developed countries. e. In developing countries commodity exports of ______is more rather than processed ingredients.
3. Multiple choice question a. In developed countries there is i. relatively high level of population health. ii. relatively low level of population health. iii. low per capita income b. In underdeveloped countries there is i. predominance of agriculture ii. the majority of the population live in rural areas. iii. life-style market economy.
c. The country that used the term “Third World” In 1940 is i. Germany ii. France iii. Japan d. Economist called the 1st world countries as a. Socialist and capitalist countries b. democratic and capitalist countries c. communist, socialist and capitalist countries
4. Short answer question
1. Define Colonization. 2. What do you understand by third world? 3. What are developed and developing countries? 4. What are the characteristics of developed, underdeveloped and developing countries? 5. State the problems related to underdeveloped & developing countries
7.11 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS:
1. a.True. 1.b. False, European 1.c. True 1.d.True 1.e. False, “Bandung Nations” 125
2.a. British 2. b.economic, social 2.c. “underdeveloped” 2.d. small 2.e. raw materials
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.ii 3.d.ii
7.12. TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. Basic education- This involves literacy, innumeracy, and life skills.
2. Developed country-This is a term used to refer to relatively wealthy and technologically advanced countries in which most people have high life expectancies, access to education, and a high gross national income per capita.
3. Developing country- refers to low- and middle-income countries in which most people have a lower standard of living with access to fewer goods and services than do most people in high-income countries.
4. Economic growth-Through this process, a country increases its ability to produce goods and services.
7.13 TASK
2. In a chart show the differences between the characteristics of developed, underdeveloped and developing countries?
126 8
MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION AND GLOBALISATION After going through this chapter you will be able to understand the following features.
Unit Structure 8.0 Objectives 8.1 Introduction 8.2 Subject- Discussion 8.3 The concept Multinational Corporation 8.4 Concept of Globalisation 8.5 Summary 8.6 Check your Progress/ Exercise 8.7 Answers to the self learning questions. 8.8 Technical words and their meaning 8.9 Task
8.0 OBJECTIVES
By the end of this unit you will be able to: · Learn the concept of Multinational Corporation · Learn different characteristics of MNCs · Advantages of MNCs · Understand the Concept of Globalisation, its meaning and positive as well as negative effects · Learn The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN and their Aims and Purposes · Understand The Commonwealth · Understand the International Air Transport Association (IATA) which is the trade association for the world’s airlines · Study the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations that is The World Trade Organization (WTO). · Study the UNESCO 127
· Learn The Arab League formally, the League of Arab States · Study The European Union (EU), a politico-economic union of 28 member states · Understand the concept of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization or the North Atlantic Alliance, an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty. · Learn the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries
8.1 INTRODUCTION
In the last few chapters we have studied about the Definition, Scope and Nature of Human Geography along with Population, its growth and distribution. Furthermore we have learnt about migration and world distribution of tribes and their habitat. Rural and Urban Settlement both a part of settlement geography have also been studied by us beforehand. Colonization and Third World was the topic of the seventh chapter. Now in the eighth chapter we are going to study Multinational Corporation and Globalisation.
8.2 SUBJECT DISCUSSION
The literal meaning of multinational is involving several countries or individuals of several nationalities. The gigantic size of the MNCs reflects that they are super powerful organisations. No matter how big an MNC is, their controls exist in the hands of a single institution. Moreover the multinationals in the world have American dominance.
On the other hand globalisation is the worldwide movement toward economic, financial, trade, and communications integration. It is the process that helps businesses or other organizations develop international influence or start operating on an international scale. Globalisation as a concept refers to the ways in which developments in one region can rapidly come to have significant consequences for the security and wellbeing of communities in quite distant regions of the globe. The commonwealth is a voluntary association of 53 independent and equal sovereign states. It was formally established by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. 128
8.3 MULTINATIONAL CORPORATION AND GLOBALISATION
Multinational Corporations (MNCs):
The word Multinational literally means many countries. Any multinational company is that business organization which has its head office in one country and the operations are spread over several other countries. The head office is called as parent company and branches as subsidiary companies. The parent company manages and controls the activities of subsidiary company. The subsidiary companies are affiliated with parent companies through investment, trade-mark, patent and technology. Today, MNCs are found in all the sectors of the economy and in all market segments. In almost all countries of the world MNCs have shown a great success. They cover large area of market. India too, has several parent companies and subsidiary companies. Standard Chartered Bank, Coco-cola, SONY Electronics, etc are some examples of multinational companies found in India.
Characteristics of MNCs:
The multinational corporations have certain characteristics which may be discussed below:
(1) Giant Size: The most important feature of these MNCs is their gigantic size. Their assets and sales run into billions of dollars and they also make supernormal profits. The MNCs are also super powerful organisations. In 1971 out of the top ninety producers of wealth, as many as 29 were MNCs, and the rest, nations. Besides the 129 operations, most of these multinationals are spread in a vast number of countries. For instance, in 1973 nearly 45 per cent had affiliates in more than 20 countries.
(2) International Operation: An essential feature of a multinational corporation is that in such a corporation, control exists in in the hands of a single institution. But its interests and operations are spread across international boundaries. The Pepsi Cola Company of the U.S operates in 114 countries. An MNC operates through a parent corporation in the home country. It may assume the form or a subsidiary in the host country. If it is a branch, it acts for the parent corporation without any local capital or management assistance. If it is a subsidiary, the majority control is still exercised by the foreign parent company, although it is incorporated in the host country. The branches and subsidiaries of MNCs operate under the unified control of the parent company.
(3) Oligopolistic Structure: An oligopoly is a market structure in which a few firms dominate. Through the process of merger and takeover, etc., in course of time an MNC comes to assume a huge power. This coupled with its giant size makes it oligopolistic in character. So it enjoys a huge amount of profit. This oligopolistic structure has been the cause of a number of evils of the multinational corporations.
(4) Spontaneous Evolution: One thing to be observed in the case of the MNCs is that they have usually grown in an unstructured and unconscious manner. Very often they developed through "Creeping incrementalism." Many firms become multinationals by accident. Sometimes a firm established a subsidiary abroad due to wage differentials and better opportunity prevailing in the host country.
(5) Collective Transfer of Resources: An MNC facilitates multilateral transfer of resources Usually this transfer takes place in the form of a "package" which includes technical know-how, equipment and machinery, materials, finished products, managerial services, and soon, "MNCs are composed of a complex of widely varied modern technology ranging from production and marketing to management and financing. B.N. Ganguly has remarked in the case of an MNG "resources are trans- ferred, but not traded in, according to the traditional norms and practices of international trade."
(6) American dominance: Another important feature of the world of multinationals is the American dominance. In 1971, out of the top 25 MNCs, 18 were of U.S. origin. In that year the U.S. held 52 per cent of the total stock 130 of direct foreign private investment. The U.E. has assumed more of the role of a foreign investor than the traditional exporter of home products.
Advantages of MNCs: The multinational corporations today have a revolutionary effect on the international economic system. It is so because the growth of international transactions of the multinationals has affected the more traditional forms of capital flows and international trade for many economies. Today they constitute a powerful force in the world economy.
The value of the products sold by the MNCs in 1971 was more than $ 500 billion which was about one-fifth of the GNP of the entire world, excepting that of socialist economies. In the host countries, the volume of their production was about $ 330 billion. The present growth rate of their output in the host countries is a spectacular 10 per cent per annum which is almost double the growth rate of the world GNP.
In the field of international trade and international finance, the multinational firms have come to exercise enormous power. In early seventies the MNCs accounted for about one-eighth of all international trade- From the nature of their growth it may be presumed that in the early eighties their share will rise to one- fourth.
Among the developing countries only India had an annual income twice that of General Motors, which is the biggest multinational corporation. Otherwise the annual income of the other less developed countries is much less than that of the giant MNCs. By their sheer size the MNCs can disrupt the economies of the less developed countries, and may even threaten their political sovereignty.
We may comprehend the relative economic power of the MNCs vis-a-vis the nation-states by ranking them together according to gross annual sales and gross national product respectively. As Lester R. Brown has shown, out of 100 entries in the merged list 56 were nation-states and as many as 44 were MNCs.
According to one estimate by early eighties some 300 large MNCs will come to control 75 per cent of the world's manufacturing assets. 131
8.4 GLOBALIZATION: MEANING & EFFECTS
Meaning:
When several countries come together to work in harmony with respect to economic, financial, trade and communications sectors, it is called Globalization. It implies the opening of local markets to become an interdependent world with free transfer of capital, goods, and services across national frontiers. In short, globalization refers to the interconnectedness of countries around the globe and the practice is becoming serious year by year.
Positive Effects: · It creates greater opportunities for firms in less industrialized countries to tap into more and larger markets around the world · This can lead to more access to capital flows, technology, human capital, cheaper imports and larger export markets · It allows businesses in less industrialized countries to become part of international production networks and supply chains that are the main conduits of trade · It allows cultural exchange in a healthy manner. This helps the countries to broaden their social aspects and develop socially.
Negative Effects: · The growth of international trade is exacerbating income inequalities, both between and within industrialized and less industrialized nations · Global commerce is increasingly dominated by translational corporations which seek to maximize profits without regard for the development needs of individual countries or the local populations · Protectionist policies in industrialized countries prevent many producers in the third world from accessing export markets; · The volume and volatility of capital flows increases the risks of banking and currency crises, especially in countries with weak financial institutions · Competition among developing countries to attract foreign investment leads to a "race to the bottom" in which countries dangerously lower environmental standards · Cultural uniqueness is lost in favour of homogenization and a "universal culture" that draws heavily from American culture 132
Association of the Countries
ASEAN The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand, with the signing of the ASEAN Declaration (Bangkok Declaration) by the Founding Fathers of ASEAN, namely Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Singapore and Thailand.
Aims and Purposes
The aims and purposes of ASEAN are:
1. To accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region through joint endeavours in the spirit of equality and partnership in order to strengthen the foundation for a prosperous and peaceful community of Southeast Asian Nations. 2. To promote regional peace and stability through abiding respect for justice and the rule of law in the relationship among countries of the region and adherence to the principles of the United Nations Charter; 3. To promote active collaboration and mutual assistance on matters of common interest in the economic, social, cultural, technical, scientific and administrative fields; 4. To provide assistance to each other in the form of training and research facilities in the educational, professional, technical and administrative spheres; 5. To collaborate more effectively for the greater utilisation of their agriculture and industries, the expansion of their trade, including the study of the problems of international commodity trade, the improvement of their transportation and communications facilities and the raising of the living standards of their peoples; 6. To promote Southeast Asian studies; and 7. To maintain close and beneficial cooperation with existing international and regional organisations with similar aims and purposes, and explore all avenues for even closer cooperation among themselves.
Fundamental Principles ASEAN Member States have adopted the following fundamental principles, as mentioned in the Treaty of Amity and Cooperation in Southeast Asia (TAC) of 1976: 1. Mutual respect for the independence, sovereignty, equality, territorial integrity, and national identity of all nations; 133
2. The right of every State to lead its national existence free from external interference, subversion or coercion; 3. Non-interference in the internal affairs of one another; 4. Settlement of differences or disputes by peaceful manner; 5. Renunciation of the threat or use of force; and 6. Effective cooperation among themselves.
ASEAN Community The ASEAN Vision 2020, adopted by the ASEAN Leaders on the 30th Anniversary of ASEAN, agreed on a shared vision of ASEAN as a concert of Southeast Asian nations, outward looking, living in peace, stability and prosperity, bonded together in partnership in dynamic development and in a community of caring societies.
At the 12th ASEAN Summit in January 2007, the Leaders affirmed their strong commitment to accelerate the establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015 and signed the Cebu Declaration on the Acceleration of the Establishment of an ASEAN Community by 2015.
The ASEAN Community is comprised of three pillars, namely the ASEAN Political-Security Community, ASEAN Economic Community and ASEAN Socio-Cultural Community. Each pillar has its own Blueprint, and, together with the Initiative for ASEAN Integration (IAI) Strategic Framework and IAI Work Plan Phase II (2009-2015), they form the Roadmap for an ASEAN Community 2009-2015.
The Commonwealth The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 53 independent and equal sovereign states. The Commonwealth includes some of the world’s largest, smallest, richest and poorest countries, spanning five regions. Thirty-one of its members are small states, many of them island nations.
Commonwealth countries are supported by an active network of more than 80 intergovernmental, civil societies, cultural and professional organisations.
The Commonwealth Secretariat The Commonwealth Secretariat provides guidance on policy making, technical assistance and advisory services to Commonwealth member countries. They support governments to help achieve sustainable, inclusive and equitable development. Their work promotes democracy, rule of law, human rights, good 134 governance and social and economic development. We are a voice for small states and a champion for youth empowerment.
Priority areas of work are agreed at Commonwealth Heads of Government Meetings, which occur every two years. The next summit is in the United Kingdom in 2018.
Their vision is to help create and sustain a Commonwealth that is mutually respectful, resilient, peaceful and prosperous and that cherishes quality, diversity and shared values.
Their mission is to support member governments, and partner with the broader Commonwealth family and others, to improve the well-being of all Commonwealth citizens and to advance their shared interests globally.
The Commonwealth organisations are involved in diverse activities, from helping countries with trade negotiations to encouraging women’s leadership, building the small business sector, supporting youth participation at all levels of society and providing experts to write laws.
The Commonwealth Secretariat promotes democracy, rule of law, human rights, good governance and social and economic development. We are a voice for small states and a champion for youth empowerment.
The Commonwealth Fund for Technical Co- operation (CFTC) was set-up in 1971 and is the principal means for the Commonwealth Secretariat to provide technical assistance to Commonwealth countries. Our approach emphasises country ownership by delivering technical assistance on a demand-driven basis.
IATA The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the trade association for the world’s airlines, representing some 260 airlines or 83% of total air traffic. They support many areas of aviation activity and help formulate industry policy on critical aviation issues. IATA is led by Tony Tyler, Director General & CEO since July 2011.
IATA's member airlines account for carrying approximately 83% of total Available Seat Kilometers air traffic. IATA supports airline activity and helps formulate industry policy and standards. It is headquartered in Montreal, Canada with Executive Offices in Geneva, Switzerland. IATA was formed in April 1945 in Havana, Cuba. It is the successor to the International Air Traffic Association, which was formed in 1919 at The Hague, 135
Netherlands.[4] At its founding, IATA consisted of 57 airlines from 31 countries. Much of IATA’s early work was technical and it provided input to the newly created International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), which was reflected in the annexes of the Chicago Convention, the international treaty that still governs the conduct of international air transport today.
Aviation grew rapidly over the following decades and IATA’s work duly expanded. It transformed its trade association activities to take account of the new dynamics in aviation, which was seeing increasing demand from the leisure sector. Price flexibility became increasingly important and the United States led the way into deregulation in 1978.
IATA has cemented its position as the voice of the aviation industry in recent years, launching a number of important programs and lobbying governments in the wake of successive crises. Despite its factual influence, the IATA is a trade group with no legislative powers.
WTO The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
The WTO was born out of negotiations, and everything the WTO does is the result of negotiations. The bulk of the WTO’s current work comes from the 1986–94 negotiations called the Uruguay Round and earlier negotiations under the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). The WTO is currently the host to new negotiations, under the ‘Doha Development Agenda’ launched in 2001.
Where countries have faced trade barriers and wanted them lowered, the negotiations have helped to open markets for trade. But the WTO is not just about opening markets, and in some circumstances its rules support maintaining trade barriers — for example, to protect consumers or prevent the spread of disease.
At its heart are the WTO agreements, negotiated and signed by the bulk of the world’s trading nations. These documents provide the legal ground rules for international commerce. They are essentially contracts, binding governments to keep their trade policies within agreed limits. Although negotiated and signed by governments, the goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business, while allowing governments to meet social and environmental objectives. 136
The system’s overriding purpose is to help trade flow as freely as possible — so long as there are no undesirable side effects — because this is important for economic development and well-being. That partly means removing obstacles. It also means ensuring that individuals, companies and governments know what the trade rules are around the world, and giving them the confidence that there will be no sudden changes of policy. In other words, the rules have to be ‘transparent’ and predictable.
Trade relations often involve conflicting interests. Agreements, including those painstakingly negotiated in the WTO system, often need interpreting. The most harmonious way to settle these differences is through some neutral procedure based on an agreed legal foundation. That is the purpose behind the dispute settlement process written into the WTO agreements.
UNESCO In 1945, UNESCO was created in order to establish peace on the basis of humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity.
UNESCO strives to build networks among nations that enable this kind of solidarity, by: · Mobilizing for education: so that every child, boy or girl, has access to quality education as a fundamental human right and as a prerequisite for human development. · Building intercultural understanding: through protection of heritage and support for cultural diversity. UNESCO created the idea of World Heritage to protect sites of outstanding universal value. · Pursuing scientific cooperation: such as early warning systems for tsunamis or trans-boundary water management agreements, to strengthen ties between nations and societies. · Protecting freedom of expression: an essential condition for democracy, development and human dignity. UNESCO’s goal is to create holistic policies that are capable of addressing the social, environmental and economic dimensions of sustainable development. This new thinking on sustainable development reaffirms the founding principles of the Organization and enhances its role: · In a globalized world with interconnected societies, intercultural dialogue is vital if we are to live together while acknowledging our diversity. · In an uncertain world, the future of nations depends not only on their economic capital or natural resources, but on their collective ability to understand and anticipate changes in the 137
environment - through education, scientific research and the sharing of knowledge. · In an unstable world - marked by fledgling democratic movements, the emergence of new economic powers and societies weakened by multiple stress factors – the educational, scientific and cultural fabric of societies – along with respect for fundamental rights - guarantees their resilience and stability. · In a connected world - with the emergence of the creative economy and knowledge societies, along with the dominance of the Internet, the full participation of everyone in the new global public space is a prerequisite for peace and development.
Arab League The Arab League formally, the League of Arab States is a regional organization of Arab countries in and around North Africa, the Horn of Africa and Arabia. It was formed in Cairo on 22 March 1945 with six members: Kingdom of Egypt, Kingdom of Iraq, Transjordan (renamed Jordan in 1949), Lebanon, Saudi Arabia, and Syria.
The League's main goal is to "draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them, to safeguard their independence and sovereignty, and to consider in a general way the affairs and interests of the Arab countries".
Through institutions such as the Arab League Educational, Cultural and Scientific Organization (ALECSO) and the Economic and Social Council of the Arab League's Council of Arab Economic Unity (CAEU), the Arab League facilitates political, economic, cultural, scientific, and social programmes designed to promote the interests of the Arab world. It has served as a forum for the member states to coordinate their policy positions, to deliberate on matters of common concern, to settle some Arab disputes and to limit conflicts such as the 1958 Lebanon crisis. The League has served as a platform for the drafting and conclusion of many landmark documents promoting economic integration. One example is the Joint Arab Economic Action Charter, which outlines the principles for economic activities in the region.
European Union
The European Union (EU) is a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. It covers an area of 4,324,782 km2, with an estimated population of over 508 million. The EU operates through a system of supranational institutions and intergovernmental-negotiated decisions by the member states. The institutions are: the European Parliament, the 138
European Council, the Council of the European Union, the European Commission, the Court of Justice of the European Union, the European Central Bank, and the Court of Auditors. The European Parliament is elected every five years by EU citizens.
The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. Within the Schengen Area, passport controls have been abolished. EU policies aim to ensure the free movement of people, goods, services, and capital, enact legislation in justice and home affairs, and maintain common policies on trade, agriculture, fisheries, and regional development.
NATO The North Atlantic Treaty Organization also called the North Atlantic Alliance is an intergovernmental military alliance based on the North Atlantic Treaty which was signed on 4 April 1949. The organization constitutes a system of defence whereby its member states agree to mutual defense in response to an attack by any external party. NATO's headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium
OPEC Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organization of 13 petroleum-exporting nations, founded in 1960 by the first five members, and headquartered since 1965 in Vienna, Austria. The 13 countries account for 40% of global oil production and 73% of the world's "proven" oil reserves, making OPEC a major influence on global oil prices.
OPEC's stated mission is "to coordinate and unify the petroleum policies of its member countries and ensure the stabilization of oil markets, in order to secure an efficient, economic and regular supply of petroleum to consumers, a steady income to producers, and a fair return on capital for those investing in the petroleum industry."
8.5 SUMMARY
After studying this lesson, we will be able to understand the following. Any multinational company is a business organization that has its head office in one country and the operations are spread over several other countries. It has certain characteristics such as their gigantic size and control that exist in the hands of a single institution. But its interests and operations are spread across international boundaries. For example, the Pepsi Cola Company of 139 the U.S operates in 114 countries. It has an Oligopolistic Structure and Spontaneous Evolution also. Globalization, a term in heavy current usage means working of several countries together in harmony with respect to economic, financial, trade and communications sectors. It has some positive and negative effects. Some positive effects are that it provides greater opportunities for firms in less industrialized countries, can lead to more access to capital flows, technology, human capital etc. Among the negative effects come the protectionist policies in industrialized countries that prevent many producers in the third world from accessing export markets and competition between developing countries to attract foreign investment leads to a "race to the bottom" in which countries dangerously lower environmental standards
The Association of Southeast Asian Nations, or ASEAN, was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand. The aims and purposes of ASEAN accelerate the economic growth, social progress and cultural development in the region.
The Commonwealth is a voluntary association of 53 independent and equal sovereign states. The Commonwealth includes some of the world’s largest, smallest, richest and poorest countries, spanning five regions. Thirty-one of its members are small states, many of them island nations.
The International Air Transport Association (IATA) is the trade association for the world’s airlines, representing some 260 airlines or 83% of total air traffic.
The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization dealing with the rules of trade between nations. The goal is to help producers of goods and services, exporters, and importers conduct their business.
UNESCO was created in 1945 in order to establish peace on the basis of humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity. It aims at child education so that every child, boy or girl, has access to quality education as a fundamental human right. Through protection of heritage and support for cultural diversity it is building intercultural understanding.
Arab League’s main goal is to draw closer the relations between member States and co-ordinate collaboration between them.
The EU has developed an internal single market through a standardised system of laws that apply in all member states. 140
The North Atlantic Treaty Organization headquarters are located in Haren, Brussels, Belgium
Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries is an intergovernmental organization of 13 petroleum-exporting nations, founded in 1960 by the first five members, and headquartered since 1965 in Vienna, Austria
8.6 CHECK YOUR PROGRESS/ EXERCISE
1. True and false f) India has several parent companies and subsidiary companies. g) Standard Chartered Bank, Coco-cola, SONY Electronics, etc are some examples of multinational companies found in India. h) The most important feature of these MNCs is their small size. i) The Pepsi Cola Company of the U.S operates in 114 countries. j) Another important feature of the world of multinationals is the Indian dominance.
2. Fill in the blanks a. When several countries come together to work in harmony with respect to economic, financial, trade and communications sectors, it is called ______. b. .______or the Association of Southeast Asian Nations was established on 8 August 1967 in Bangkok, Thailand. c. The ______provides guidance on policy making, technical assistance and advisory services to Commonwealth member countries. d. The WTO was born out of______, and everything the WTO does is the result of negotiations. e. Protecting freedom of expression: an essential condition for ______, ______and human dignity.
3. Multiple choice questions a. In 1945, UNESCO was created i. in order to establish peace on the basis of humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity. ii. in order to establish independence on the basis of humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity. iii. in order to establish hardship on the basis of humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity. 141 b. The World Trade Organization (WTO) is the only global international organization
i. dealing with the rules of trade between nations. ii. dealing with the rules of craftsmanship between nations. iii. dealing with the rules of trade between cities. c. In order to establish peace on the basis of humanity’s moral and intellectual solidarity i. UNESCO was created in 1954 ii. UNESCO was created in 1945 iii. UNESCO was created in 1949
4. Short answer question 1. Define Globalisation. 2. What do you understand by Positive Effects of Globalisation? 3. Write a short note on Commonwealth. 4. What are the aims and purposes of ASEAN? 5. Write a short note on the International Air Transport Association (IATA)
8.7 ANSWERS TO THE SELF LEARNING QUESTIONS:
1. a. True. 1. b True 1. c. false, gigantic 1. d. True 1. e. False, American
2.a. Globalization 2. b. ASEAN 2.c. Commonwealth Secretariat 2.d. negotiations 2.e. democracy, development
3. a.i. 3. b.i 3. c.ii 142
8.8 TECHNICAL WORDS AND THEIR MEANING
1. The Commonwealth- is a voluntary association of 53 independent countries. 2. EU - The European Union is a politico-economic union of 28 member states that are located primarily in Europe. 3. The Arab League- The Arab League founded in Cairo in 1945, has 22 member states as of 2016
8.9 TASK
3. In a chart show the Advantages of MNCs. 4. In a world map show the Founding Fathers of ASEAN.
143 9 HUMAN GEOGRAPHY - PRACTICALS
Introduction: Statistical diagrams are drawn with the help of quantified data to represent the variation in the given distribution between the regions or within the region at a particular time or over a period time. Digrams help to analyse the facts at a glance that are much more easily understood than just the numerical figures which may not given a better understanding of the facts. Different diagrams are drawn depending upon the size and range of statistical data under study. Following are some the statistical diagrams that are used to represent statistical information in the research studies, documentation of data by government agencies etc.
1. Bar Diagrams are one dimensional or linear statistical diagram. In bar diagram data represented is made proportional to the length of the bar while the width remains constant for all the bars. These bars may be drawn vertically or horizontally. The time element is the main factor which is involved in the drawing of bar graphs. Different types of bar diagrams are used with reference to the nature of data to be plotted on a graph. These are:
1.1. Simple Bar diagram: Here only one variable is represented. For example annual rainfall, annual production of crops, minerals, population etc. over a period. They are generally drawn for comparison of quantities.
1.1.1 Simple Vertical Bar: Study the vertical bar graph in which the bars of uniform width are standing on a line or point. Since the bars are drawn at the location of these places on world map representing the amount of carbon-di-oxide emission by respective countries, they are therefore said to be (cartographic technique) ‘Located proportionate simple bar diagrams’ (figure 1).
Construction: Simple vertical bars have no sub-divisions. They represent one variable (fact) only at a time e.g. a column may be erected straight to show the total carbon di-oxide emission of each country. In simple bar the length of the bar varies with quantity while the width representing country in this case remains same for the countries. Figure 1 depicts the percentage amount of total carbon dioxisde emissions in the world by simple bar diagram. These are vertical bars. The map represents that USA is the largest emitter of carbio- 144 dioxide in the world followed by former USSR, China, Japan, U.K.Germany, India, Poland, Canada and France.
figure 1
Table 1. Growth of Population in India: 1901-2011
Year Population in Million 1901 238.4 1911 252.1 1921 251.3 1931 279.0 1941 318.7 1951 361.1 1961 438.2 1971 548.2 1981 683.3 1991 846.3 2001 1027.0 2011 1210.2 145
figure 2
Figure 2 represents growh of population in India by simple bar diagram from 18901 to 2011.
1.2. Multiple Bars: Bars are drawn to represent Spatial Data {spatial is related to space or area e.g. production in different countries states or regions). Multiple bars are used to represent data containing more than one dependent variable & when comparison between different variables is required. The procedure for drawing multiple bars is similar to procedure of drawing simple bars, but in this case two or more bars representing different variables are drawn together e.g. represent the following data with the help of multiple bars. Figure 3.
PRODUCTION OF WHEAT AND RICE IN INDIA AND CHINA CHINACrop India China Rice 110 182 Wheat 57 105
Note: Production is in million Tons 146
figure 3
Multiple Bars
figure 4
Figure 4 represents production of rice and wheat in India and China in million tones. It facilitates the comparison between two crops within a country as well between two countries. This is the advanatage of multiple bar diagram.
1.3. Divided Bars: Divided bars are drawn when the spatial data contains more than one dependent variables and the total value of all these variables is required. Divided bars can be drawn vertically or horizontally. E.g. Represent following data with the help 147 of divided bar. The advantage of divided bar diagram is they help us to differentiate the degree of variation within the given variable as well as we can compare the total of all these variables together over a period of time or between difference regions. Figure 5 represents production of crops by countries in world by divided bar diagram
WORLD - PRODUCTION OF RICE Country Production in million tone China 182 India 110 Other 227
Figure 5
2. Areal diagrams or two dimensional statistical diagrams: Circles and squares are the examples of areal or two dimensional statistical diagrams. In these diagrams areas are drawn proportionate to the given quantity.
2.1 Circle Diagrams: In this diagram the area of a circle is shown in proportion to the quantity it represents. To draw the circle one has to drawn a ‘parabolic curve’ (figure 6)wih the help of the 'square root' of the actual value on a graph paper is drawn. Apropriate scale is selected to include the lowest as well as the highest in the given data series on the ‘x’ axis of the graph.Then to draw a circle the value is located on the ‘x’ axis to 148 drawn a perpendicular touching the parabolic curve. This perpendicular is a radius for drawing a circle/ square to represent its quantity.
Figure 6
Let us represent the following data with the help of circle diagram.
World-Production of Natural Gas Country Production in million U.S.S.R. tonnes656 U.S.A.• 444 Canada 88 Netherland 55 Algeria 43
World: Production of Natural Gas By Located Proportionate Circle diagram
Figure 7 149
Located proportionate circle diagram is shown to represent following aspects: Figure 7 represents the total amount of natural gas production by repestive countries represented in the world map. We thus notice that bigger the size of a circle larger the amount and vice versa. Here Russia is largest producer of natural gas followed by USA, Canada, Netherlands and Algeria countries.
Figure 8 represents continentwise proportion of population distributed in the world. Asia continent has the highest number of population while the continent of Australia has the lowest size of population in the world.
World: Continentwise Proportion and Distribution of Population By Located Proportionate Circle diagram
Figure 8
In comparison with bar diagram, circle diagrams are more difficult to construct, on account of the additional calculations involved. Though circles will help in quickly recognizing the order of importance from the relative sizes, the proportionate quantities are more difficult to compare, particularly for laymen. Their major merit lies in the fact that they compress the data in lesser space areas where bars cannot be used on account of larger size of data range where circles can be drawn.
2.2 Divided Circle or Pie diagram or Circle and Sector statistical diagram: Pie diagram helps us to understand the totality of the given phenomenon as well the variation among this totality. For example total population of a counry is its totality, while the proportion of rural and urban population of the total 150 population is its variation. This type of data can help us to unsersatand whther a country is more or a rural nature or urban or balanced. The size of a circle stands for its total population, while its sectors ( division of a circle) stands for proportion of rural and urban population of that country. The whole circle consists of 360° is divided into proportional parts to get sectors of the required area. This diagram is known as divided circle diagram.
World - Rural and Urban Population
Continents Population-Percentage
Rural Urban Total Africa 68 32 100 N. America 26 74 100 S. America 32 68 100 Asia 72 28 100 Europe 27 73 100 Australia 28 72 100
In the above mentioned example all values are in the percentage. Hence if we equate 100% to the angle of 360° then we get 1% equal 3.6°. now we can multiply the various percentage values by 3.6° to get the corresponding angles, i.e. Africa - Rural population 68% x 3.6 = 244.8° which means 245°. This angle can be drawn on the circle which is drawn for Africa. Once we represent rural population, the remaining part of the circle represents the urban population. As there are only two variables, there is no need to calculate values for the urban population.
Figure 9 151
Figure 9 represents continentwise proportion of rural and urban composition in the world. We thus notice from figure 8 that the continents of Asia, Africa are largely rural in character while that of Europe, North America, Australia and South America are largely urban in nature. This helps to understand that Asia and Africa are relatively less developed due to large proportion of rural population and the rest continents are more urbanized and so are relatively more developed in the world.
Figure 10 is also a pie diagram representing the type of landuse existing in different continents of the world.
Figure 11 represents the environmental aspect of risk and intensity of desertification level in different continents of the world by located pie diagram.
Figure 10
Figure 11 152
WORLD MAP - Students are expected to mark and name following places / countries in the map of the world; with the help of atlas.
New York Delhi Washington Sri Lanka San Francisco Colombo U.S.A. Singapore U.K. Indonesia Canada Australia Mexico Sydney Brazil Canberra Argentina New Zealand Peru Korea Chile Pakistan Riode Janeiro Iran Los Angeles Iraq Lima Kuwait London Saudi Arabia France Egypt Paris Libya Berlin Nigeria Germany South Africa Norway Kenya Sweden Ghana Finland Turkey Rome Bangladesh Russia Indian Ocean Japan Pacific Ocean Tokyo Atlantic Ocean China Arctic Ocean Hongkong Greenland Thailand Poland India Spain