The State of Animals in 2001

Overview: The State of Animals in 2001

Paul G. Irwin

he blizzard of commentary tors have taken part in a fascinating, environments; and change their inter- marking the turn of the millen- sometimes frustrating, dialogue that actions with other animals, evolving Tnium is slowly coming to an end. seeks to balance the needs of the nat- from exploitation and harm to Assessments of the past century (and, ural world with those of the world’s respect and compassion. more ambitiously, the past millenni- most dominant species—and in the Based upon that mission, The HSUS um) have ranged from the self-con- process create a truly humane society. almost fifty years after its founding gratulatory to the condemnatory. The strains created by unrestrained in 1954, “has sought to respond cre- Written from political, technological, development and accelerating harm atively and realistically to new chal- cultural, environmental, and other to the natural world make it impera- lenges and opportunities to protect perspectives, some of these commen- tive that the new century’s under- animals” (HSUS 1991), primarily taries have provided the public with standing of the word “humane” incor- through legislative, investigative, and thoughtful, uplifting analyses. At porate the insight that our human educational means. least one commentary has concluded fate is linked inextricably to that of It is only coincidentally that the that a major issue facing the United all nonhuman animals and that we choice has been made to view the States and the world is the place and all have a duty to promote active, animal condition through thoughtful plight of animals in the twenty-first steady, thorough notions of justice analysis of the past half century—the century, positing that the last few and fair treatment to animals and life span of The HSUS—rather than of decades of the twentieth century saw nonhuman nature. the past hundred years. It is in the unprecedented and unsustainable A humane society is compassion- last half-century that the role of ani- destruction of the natural world. This ate, sustainable, and just. It counts mals in modern life has changed in was taking place even as the concepts on a hopeful worldview that calls on unprecedented ways. Only in the of animal rights and human obliga- the better qualities of all people. It is last half century, for example, have tions gained currency in modern life driven by the moral imperative that domestic animals in the developed for the first time (Irwin 2000). every creature deserves (1) our con- world been freed from lives as beasts My own conclusions aside, it seems cern, by which we mean a caring of burden or have nonhuman pri- highly appropriate for scholars, re- heart, (2) our respect, by which we mates been granted recognition, by searchers, and opinion makers in the mean a mindful attitude, and (3) our some thinkers, as so cognitively simi- animal protection and animal re- consideration, by which we mean lar to their human relatives that they search fields to evaluate the position intellectual engagement with the merit inclusion in the human social of animals in society at the dawn of threats and diminutions to that framework of protection and justice the twenty-first century. Many con- animal’s well-being. It is perhaps (Cavalieri and Singer 1993). tributors to this volume are members obvious why The HSUS believes it From the animals’ perspective, the of the staff of The Humane Society of has as its mission the creation of a past half-century has not been one the United States (HSUS) and, as humane society. Indeed our vision of uninterrupted progress, however. such, share an overarching commit- statement envisions a world in Indeed, as some conditions have ment to creating a more humane which people meet the physical and improved, others have remained frus- society. Others are scholars from emotional needs of domestic ani- tratingly unchanged, and still others higher education. All of the contribu- mals; protect wild animals and their have undoubtedly deteriorated. 1 From 1973 to the present, the Table 1 demographics of dogs and cats in Shelter Euthanasia of Owned Animals shelters has changed dramatically. Table l presents summary estimates Total Owned Approximate % of of what has happened in the nation’s Year Dogs and Cats Euthanized Owned Animals Euthanized approximately 3,000 shelters (data from Rowan and Williams 1987; Rowan 1973 65 million 13.5 million 21.0 1992b; HSUS 2000). 1982 92 million 8–10 million 10.0 As one can see, shelters have made tremendous strides in reducing both 1992 110 million 5–6 million 5.5 the absolute and the relative number 2000 120 million 4–6 million 4.5 of animals euthanized because they are not wanted. Other evidence indi- cates that the rates of sterilization of How then to assess progress and ership.” The term “pet” itself had owned animals are already high and failure? In the absence of a universal- begun to be replaced by the more dig- continue to rise slowly and that there ly accepted, consistently applied set nified and evocative “companion ani- are parts of the country where it is of standards for data collection and mal,” which was being applied to ani- difficult to find puppies available for analysis, any attempt to answer the mals who carried with them more adoption in shelters. Shelters are now question, What is the state of ani- than minimal monetary value. addressing the challenges represent- mals in 2001?, must be based on a There are few good data on owned ed by the stray and feral cat popula- series of snapshots, an accumulation animal populations in the United tions by reaching out to cat colony of statistics from which we can draw States from 1950 to 1972. From 1970 feeders and are also looking at the conclusions. onwards, however, we have relatively challenges posed by harder-to-adopt reliable trend information as a result groups of dogs (e.g., those with behav- of surveys by a variety of organiza- ior problems and older animals). How Has tions. The surveys do not all agree in A number of trends can be cited as terms of the total number of owned proof of improving conditions for the State dogs and cats, but the trend data are dogs and cats. The most enlightened the same. In summary, the number of shelters have invested in better facili- of the Animals owned dogs and cats has increased ties, better training of shelter person- from around 60 million in 1970 to nel, and broad-based public education Improved? around 115–120 million in 2000. campaigns extolling the benefits of While total numbers of owned dogs pet sterilization; they have developed Dogs and Cats: No and cats have steadily increased more innovative adoption policies, Longer Expendable (because the total number of house- better forms of euthanasia and steril- holds in the United States almost ization, and a more sophisticated Property doubled, from around 60 to 100 mil- interaction with local governing bod- In 1950 in the United States, by and lion, over this time period), the actu- ies. Other shelters have struggled to large, dogs and cats were termed al rate of ownership of dogs (i.e., the improve their efforts in these areas “pets” and typically roamed and number per household) began to as expectations in their communities reproduced at will. If they made nui- decline in the mid- to late-1980s rose. Dialogue on the validity of sances of themselves, they were rele- while the rate of ownership of cats euthanasia as a means of pet popula- gated to the “pound,” where they stabilized in the mid- to late-1990s tion control and on the intrinsic value received an unmourned, often inhu- (Patronek and Rowan 1995; Rowan of companion animals above and mane, death. If they wandered off or and Williams 1987). Currently, approx- beyond their “market” value has were hit by cars, their human fami- imately 32 percent of households own added a moral dimension to the lies—if they had one—might view the at least one dog and 28 percent own previously unexplored relationship loss regretfully, but fatalistically. at least one cat (Rowan 1992a; AVMA between “guardian” and “companion Leash laws, spay/neuter contracts, 1997). Over the same time frame, the animal.” An expanding recognition of animal-care facilities, and compan- number of stray or feral dogs appears the link between cruelty to animals ion animals were alien concepts. By to have declined substantially. The and other forms of human violence 2000 most “pounds” had given way same cannot be said of stray and feral has legitimized concerns about pet to “animal shelters” and “animal- cats. There are no reliable estimates abuse. Such concerns have goaded care-and-control facilities” and spay- of the stray and feral cat population in law enforcement officials into pursu- ing and neutering had become part of the United States, but it could range ing abusers more vigorously and the concept of “responsible pet own- from 25 to 50 million individuals. judges into sentencing offenders to

2 The State of the Animals: 2001 more than a slap on the wrist. Knee-jerk, simplistic responses, such Table 2 as dog-breed-specific bans, to com- Hunters, by Census Division, 1955–1985 munity companion animal problems have prompted serious discussions Number of Total U.S. of responsible pet ownership, discus- Year Hunters (Millions) Population (Millions)* Percent sions that would have been impossi- ble to hold in 1950. The need for data 1955 11.8 118.4 10.0 on pet population demographics 1960 14.6 131.2 11.2 spawned the creation of the National Council on Pet Population Study and 1965 13.6 142.0 9.6 Policy in 1993. 1970 14.3 155.2 9.2 The decline in pound seizures and the widening disapproval of puppy 1975 17.1 171.9 9.9 mills reflected the rejection of the 1980 16.7 184.7 9.1 concept of dogs and cats as com- modities. That rejection was nowhere 1985 16.3 195.7 8.4 more evident than in the revulsion *U.S. population twelve years and older generated nationwide in 1998 by the Note: 1955 was the first year that the survey was conducted. The information is based revelation that foreign-made clothing on data from seven surveys conducted every five years, from 1955 to 1985. and novelties using dog and cat fur Source: 1991 National Survey of Fishing, Hunting, and Wildlife-associated Recreation, were being sold in the United States U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (HSUS 1998). Federal legislation to ban the items (which are produced under inhumane conditions) was Table 3 introduced in the U.S. Congress and by mid-2000 had thirteen cosponsors. Paid Hunting License Holders, 1989–1999

Number of Paid National Population Percentage of The Decline License Holders Estimate Population that in Sport Hunting Year (Millions)* (Millions)** Hunts The number of hunters as a percent- 1999 15.1 273.8 5.5 age of the population has been declin- ing in the United States for nearly 1998 14.9 270.3 5.5 thirty years (see Table 2). A number of factors are thought to be con- 1997 14.9 267.8 5.6 tributing to the decline, including 1996 15.2 265.2 5.7 lack of discretionary recreational time; difficulty in gaining access to 1995 15.2 262.8 5.8 acreage on which hunting is permit- 1994 15.3 260.3 5.9 ted; decreasing acreage on which hunting is permitted (and the resul- 1993 15.6 257.8 6.1 tant crowded conditions experienced therein); and most important, 1992 15.8 255.0 6.2 changes in the social support system 1991 15.7 252.2 6.2 that once encouraged hunting as a recreational pastime, but that now 1990 15.8 249.5 6.3 discourages it. 1989 15.9 246.8 6.4 State wildlife agencies, most of which rely heavily on sales of hunting *A paid license holder is one individual regardless of the number of licenses purchased. and fishing licenses and disbursement Source: Fiscal Year Reports of U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Office of Federal Aid of hunting-related federal dollars for **Source: Historical National Population Estimates, Population Estimates Program, Population Division, U.S. Census Bureau their funding, are concerned by the decline (see Table 3). In recent years they have developed programs aimed at retaining current hunters and recruiting new ones, focusing on under-

Overview 3 Table 4 Public Opinion on Wearing Fur

Question Year % Accepting Fur % Opposing Fur

Is it okay to wear (ranch) fur coats? (Sieber 1986)* 1986 45 47

Thinking about specific ways that humans assert their dominance over animals, please tell me if you think each of the following practices is wrong and should be prohibited by law, if you personally disapprove but don’t feel it should be illegal, or if it is acceptable to you: 1989 13 85 Killing animals to use their skins for fur coats. (Roper Center 1989a)

Do you think there are some circumstances where it’s perfectly okay to kill an animal for its fur or do you think it’s wrong to kill an animal 1989 50** 46*** for its fur? (Roper Center 1989b)

Do you generally favor or oppose the wearing of clothes made of animal furs? (Balzar 1993) 1993 35 50

The use of animal fur in clothing should be banned in the United States. (Survey Research Center, University of Maryland, College Park 1999) 1999 43.8 51.4

*Survey of 802 Toronto adults **Responding that under some circumstances it would be all right to kill an animal for its fur. ***Responding that it would always be wrong to kill an animal for its fur. represented constituencies such as population taking part in the activity. for sport—a reversal in attitudes in women and children. How long one The best news for animals may be twenty years (Balzar 1993). A 1995 remains an active hunter is strongly that the decline in hunting has more Associated Press poll revealed similar associated with the age at which one to do with changes in society—a attitudes (Foster 1995). first begins to hunt, so state agencies growing rejection of the idea of The decline of hunting in the Unit- are recruiting very young hunters killing for fun—than with any logisti- ed States is likely to continue. through special licenses and special cal problems that make hunting more children’s days. Most state wildlife difficult. In the late 1970s, 64 per- The Decline agencies sponsor “outdoors woman” cent of 2,500 Americans surveyed workshops that focus on developing approved of recreational hunting pro- in Trapping skills associated with sport hunting. vided that the hunter used the meat and Fur Sales Sport hunting continues an overall (Kellert 1979). A 1993 poll by the Los Since the 1980s, the fur fashion decline that began in 1975, both in Angeles Times found that 54 percent industry also has declined significant- overall numbers and in percent of the of the polled sample opposed hunting ly. Once a widely desired symbol of

4 The State of the Animals: 2001 success and beauty, fur fashion has become controversial because of its link to questionable practices such as trapping and fur ranching, publicized by animal protection and animal rights groups. Surveys from 1986 to 1999 on public attitudes toward fur reported a range of attitudes. Accep- tance of fur varied from a high of 50 percent (“under some circumstances”) to a low of 13 percent (see Table 4). Despite the “fur is back” hype spread by the fur industry at the end of the decade, U.S. retail fur sales—a statistic created by the fur industry itself—remain flat (see Figure l). Even with zero inflation, low unemployment, a booming stock market, and increased spending by consumers, fur apparel is not selling. Imports of all types of fur apparel continue to decline as retailers fail to empty their showrooms by winter’s end. Fur-apparel imports, which make up at least 60 percent of the U.S. fur market, are considered to be a reliable indicator of the health of the U.S. fur industry (see Figure 2). The number of wild animals trapped for their fur in the United States has declined from 17 million in the mid- 1980s to 3 million in 1999–2000. The United States is one of only three nations in the world that allows the use of devices such as the steel-jawed leghold trap, and the fashion industry has tried its best to distance itself from the cruelties of trapping. Fur from wild-caught animals has lost favor in the United States, and Russia, which traditionally has been a top consumer of wild-caught fur, has suffered an economic downturn that has hit the United States has fallen from 4.6 mil- raised mink killed worldwide declined fur industry hard. lion in 1989 to 2.8 million in 1999 from 41.8 million in 1988 to 26 mil- U.S. caged (or ranched) mink facil- (see Table 5). The number of cage- lion in 1999. Farmed foxes fell from ities have decreased by more than 50 raised foxes has declined from 100,000 5.6 million killed in 1988 to approxi- percent since the mid-1980s (see Fig- to 20,000 annually over the decade mately 3 million killed in 1999. The ure 3). The decline is attributed by from 1990 to 2000. Items of clothing Netherlands and Sweden have outlawed the fur industry and anti-fur activists made primarily from fur comprise fox farming, and Austria has effective- alike to low profits and an uncertain only 20 percent of the fur-apparel ly banned fur farming altogether. market future. Some fur farms have market; the rest is made up of fur- However, the fur industry is now closed down completely; others have lined garments (50–60 percent) and turning its attention to Asia as a pri- consolidated. Farmers face selling fur-trimmed items (20 percent), a mary market for fur apparel. New- mink pelts at prices lower than the reflection of the trend to “hide” fur in found wealth has allowed many Asians costs associated with breeding and linings or accents to avoid controversy. to adopt traditional Western life- raising the animals. As a result, the In Europe and elsewhere, the story styles, including luxury goods such as number of mink killed annually in the is the same. The number of cage- fur coats.

Overview 5 Table 5 U.S. Caged-Fur Statistics

Pelts No. of U.S. Produced Pelt Value Average No. of Females Mink No. of Farms Year (Millions) (Millions) $/pelt Bred Facilities with Fox

1975 3.07 $74.0 $24.10 1,084

1976 3.03 $87.8 $29.00 1,015

1977 3.08 $87.1 $28.30 1,040

1978 3.36 $132.0 $39.30 1,095

1979 3.39 $139.5 $41.10 1,105

1980 3.5 $123.6 $35.30 1,122

1981 $32.20

1982 4.09 $118.1 $28.90 1,116

1983 4.14 $123.7 $29.90 1,098

1984 4.22 $130.0 $30.80 1,115,000 1,084

1985 4.17 $116.8 $28.00 1,115,000 1,042

1986 4.1 $170.0 $41.30 1,073,000 989

1987 4.12 $177.2 $43.00 1,077,000 1,027

1988 4.45 $143.8 $32.30 1,198,000 1,027

1989 4.60 $93.9 $20.40 1,202,000 940

1990 3.37 $85.8 $25.50 922,200 771

1991 3.27 $71.6 $21.90 874,000 683

1992 2.89 $71.8 $24.80 782,000 571

1993 2.53 $86.2 $34.10 712,800 523 58

1994 2.53 $82.6 $33.00 708,300 484 47

1995 2.69 $142.8 $53.10 678,200 478 49

1996 2.65 $93.5 $35.30 714,900 449 40

1997 2.99 $99.1 $33.10 705,200 452 31

1998 2.94 $72.9 $24.80 659,900 438 31

1999 2.81 $94.8 $33.70 660,400 404 27

Source: “Mink” USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service

6 The State of the Animals: 2001 An Increased Presence in Federal and State Legislation Many animal protection issues are handled exclusively at the state level. Mandatory spay/neuter legislation, animal control laws, and general anticruelty laws, for example, must be passed state by state. Although in 1950 every state had an anticruelty law, a multitude of new and important laws have been passed since then. The period between 1980 and 2000 was particularly active. Although Massachusetts made cruelty to animals a felony offense in 1804, only three other states (Oklahoma, Rhode Island, and Michigan) had joined it by 1950. By 2000 twenty-seven other erinarians reporting suspected ani- animal protection, animal welfare, states had made cruelty to animals a mal cruelty immunity from civil and/ and animal rights organizations over felony offense—all since 1986 (see or criminal liability. last fifty years. In the United States Figure 4). Sixteen states have man- In 1950 there were three signifi- prior to 1950, only the American dated psychological counseling as cant pieces of federal legislation pro- Humane Association had an overtly part of their anticruelty provisions. A tecting animals from suffering: the national focus on all aspects of animal requirement that a bond be posted to so-called Twenty-Eight Hour Law, protection. Three anti-vivisection cover costs associated with holding which requires that animals be un- organizations had claimed national animals prior to court disposition has loaded and provided with food, water, audiences for many decades. Several been passed in six states. This brings and rest for five hours when trans- prestigious and influential state- to thirteen the number of states that ported across state lines for more oriented organizations, including the ease the financial burden on animal than twenty-eight hours; the Lacey American Society for the Prevention shelters, which may have to house Act (1900), which prohibits commerce of Cruelty to Animals (ASPCA), the seized animals for months until a cru- in animals protected by law; and the Massachusetts Society for the Preven- elty case comes to trial. Forty-five Bald Eagle Protection Act (1940). tion of Cruelty to Animals, and the state laws making dogfighting a (The Smoot-Hawley Tariff Act, passed Women’s SPCA of Pennsylvania, had felony offense have been passed since in 1930, and the Migratory Bird Treaty set agendas within their jurisdictions 1975. Cockfighting is illegal in Act, passed in 1918, might also be that served as models and inspira- forty-seven states and a felony offense included as animal protection legisla- tions for groups across the country, in twenty. Thirteen states now have tion.) By 2000 there were ten pieces but, by and large, had not lobbied vanity-license plate programs that of federal legislation, including the Congress. The 1950s saw the creation support spay/neuter efforts and six Humane Slaughter Act (1958); the of the Animal Welfare Institute, the states have pet overpopulation funds Endangered Species Act (1966); the Society for Animal Protective Legisla- to help increase the number of spayed Laboratory Animal Welfare Act (1966) tion, Friends of Animals, the Catholic or neutered pets in the community. and its subsequent amendments, in Society for Animal Welfare (later the Twenty-seven states have laws man- 1970—when the name was changed International Society for Animal dating that animals adopted from to the Animal Welfare Act—1976, Rights), and The HSUS. The 1960s shelters be spayed or neutered, and 1985, and 1990; the Wild Free-Roam- gave birth to the Fund for Animals, sixteen states now have consumer ing Horse and Burro Act (1971); the United Action for Animals, the Ani- protection laws covering the purchase Horse Protection Act and Fur Seal Act mal Protection Institute, and the of animals from pet stores. Eight (1976); the Marine Mammal Protec- International Fund for Animal Wel- states prohibit tripping horses for the tion Act (1982); and the Humane fare. Greenpeace, the Animal Legal purposes of sport or entertainment. Transport of Equines to Slaughter Act Defense Fund, People for the Ethical Nine states have passed laws prohibit- (1998). Treatment of Animals, and a number ing the sale of items made from the One factor behind the increased of single-issue national groups fol- fur of dogs and cats. As of 2000 six success at the federal level was the lowed in the 1970s and 1980s. By the states had enacted laws that give vet- tremendous expansion of national 1990s these groups had solidified

Overview 7 ness more apparent than in the Table 6 remarkable transformation of wild Number of Horses and Participants horse from vermin to symbol of Amer- by Industry, 1999 ican freedom. Since the 1920s, thousands of wild horses had been system- atically slaughtered each year by Activity No. of Horses No. of Participants Western ranchers, who viewed the Racing 725,000 941,400 horses as competition for their cattle- grazing public range land. By the Showing 1,974,000 3,607,900 early 1950s, hundreds of thousands Recreation 2,970,000 4,346,100 of wild horses had been rounded up and sent to slaughter. Galvanized by Other* 1,262,000 1,607,900 Velma B. “Wild Horse Annie” Johnson Total 6,931,000 7,062,500** of Nevada, an early opponent of such roundups, schoolchildren nationwide *Includes farm and ranch work, police work, rodeo, and polo. undertook a letter-writing campaign **The sum of participants by activity does not equal the total number of participants because that resulted in passage of the federal individuals could be counted in more than one activity. Wild Free-Roaming Horse and Burro Source: American Horse Council Act of 1971. This law prohibited the capture, branding, harassment, and slaughter of wild horses and delegat- ed their oversight, removal, and adop- their bases of support and had invest- conveying men and artillery into bat- tion into private hands to the U.S. ed resources in lobbying members of tle. Through the 1920s horses disap- Department of Interior’s Bureau of Congress. They could point to several peared at the rate of 500,000 a year. Land Management (BLM). Although significant successes at formal coali- Most were sold to meatpackers to be the BLM has been strongly criticized tion building among themselves, but processed into dog food, bonemeal, for its management of wild horses, the majority of their efforts were leather, and glue. The price of horses their protection was a major achieve- undertaken in informal alliances, par- reached an all-time low in 1950, and ment and demonstrated the depth of ticularly at the federal level. Alliances the horse population continued its the affection of the American public with environmental and conservation, steady decline until only about 3 mil- for the horse. social-justice, health advocacy, and lion horses could be found in the The horse-racing industry expand- consumer groups were less frequent United States in 1960, according to ed under the influence of increased but had occurred in pushing success- the U.S. Department of Commerce. pari-mutuel wagering until the mid- fully for favorable action on shared Then, a generally expanding economy 1980s. The number of registered agendas. Such cooperation reflected and an emerging middle class located Thoroughbreds (the vast majority of a level of political sophistication in the new suburbs (surrounded by which have always been bred for the unheard of on the national scene open land) led to an increase in par- racetrack) rose from 9,095 in 1950 to prior to 1950. ticipation in equestrian sports. A 24,361 in 1970 and peaked in 1986 at 1964 Cornell University study con- 51,296 before a change in tax laws cluded that “The horse has become a The Evolution made it less attractive to be involved status symbol for…entire families” in horse-related businesses. Competi- of the Horse (Howard 1965). Previously, only the tion from heavily televised sports Thoroughbred’s role in racing, long from Commodity led to an overall decline in racetrack acknowledged as the sport of kings, to Companion attendance and betting handle, had given horses a patina of glamour. although annual Thoroughbred foal After centuries of exploitation as a For many newly minted equestri- registrations rebounded somewhat in means of transport in war and peace, ans, the horse evolved from a status the 1990s to stabilize at approxi- the horse was fast becoming obsolete symbol to a member of the family. mately 36,000. in the United States by 1950. The Early television series like “My Friend Racehorses did not all live the life domestic horse and mule population Flicka,” “Mr. Ed,” “The Roy Rogers of Secretariat, the 1973 Triple Crown had peaked in 1915, at approximately Show,” and “Fury” featured horse winner who was named Athlete of the 26 million, in response to increased heroes interacting with their human Year by Sports Illustrated (against demands from farming, particularly families much as did the canine stars human competition), as well as the in hauling large tilling equipment. of “Lassie” and “Rin Tin Tin.” Eclipse Award winner of Horse of the After 1915 tractors and other mecha- Nowhere was the evolving perception Year. Indeed, many thousands of for- nized vehicles quickly began replac- of horses in the American conscious- ing horses for farm work and for mer and failed racehorses went to

8 The State of the Animals: 2001 slaughter for human consumption in Europe, along with thousands of long-suffering veterans of riding acad- emies, summer camps, and backyard horse-keeping experiments, particularly in the 1980s, when prices for horsemeat were higher than those for nondescript but serviceable riding animals. In response to inhumane conditions at horse auctions and slaughterhouses in the 1980s and 1990s, documented by animal protection advocates, federal legislation was passed in 1998 to address some of the most serious problems with horse transport and slaughter. As of mid- 2000 more than seventy horse rescue organizations and/or equine sanctu- aries were on the Internet (www. equinerescueleague.org). (That number did not include facilities associated with or operated by animal shelters.) These groups rescued slaughter-bound horses (sometimes through outright purchase at auctions) and rehabilitat- ed horses seized from private parties. There was also a public outcry over horses used in the production of the other activities, such as farm and The demand for laboratory animals to estrogen-replacement product Pre- ranch work, rodeo, polo, and police support such research increased as marin®, commonly prescribed to ease work (American Horse Council 2000) well. One survey conducted in the the symptoms of menopausal women (see Table 6). In each of these envi- late 1950s found that 17 million ani- and to treat osteoporosis. Manufac- ronments, individual horses were mals were being used in laboratories tured from the urine of pregnant vulnerable to exploitation and abuse in the United States. Laboratory ani- mares who are tethered for six (the decades-long practice of “soring” mal use reached its peak in the 1970s months at a time in narrow stalls to Tennessee Walking Horses—altering and then began a steady downward facilitate urine collection, Premarin their gait through painful means to trend, as evidenced by figures from was the most prescribed drug in the gain advantage in the show ring—is a Great Britain (see Figure 5). It is United States in 2000, with more than prime example). Nonetheless, it can probable that the same pattern of lab- 47 million prescriptions dispensed be persuasively argued that the status oratory animal use occurred in the (Noonan 2000). Animal protection of horses in the United States is high- United States (Rowan, Loew, and groups have publicized their welfare er than in 1950 and that their welfare Weer 1995), although the data from concerns about the treatment of the has improved. the United States are not as reliable. 35,000-plus horses involved in Pre- By the early 1990s, laboratory animal marin production and have intensi- use was estimated to have declined by fied their efforts to make information A Decline in 50 percent from its peak in the early on plant-based alternatives to the the Use of Animals 1970s. Alternative scientific tech- drug more widely available. as Research Subjects niques, such as Russell and Burch’s As of 1999, according to a survey (1959) Three Rs (reduction, replace- commissioned by the American Horse After World War II, the U.S. government, and refinement of animal use Council Foundation, 1.9 million peo- ment began to fund scientific research, in biomedical experimentation), had ple owned 6.9 million horses in the including biomedical research, at lev- gained wide acceptance in all but the United States. Of that number, els previously unseen. The discoveries most conservative of scientific circles. 725,000 were involved in racing and of a polio vaccine (in 1955) and of Public attitudes toward animal race horse breeding, 2 million were antibiotics such as penicillin fueled research have also changed over the involved in horse showing, 3 million an intense interest in research as the last half century. A survey conducted were involved in recreational activi- clear and shining pathway to cur- in 1948 by the Gallup organization ties, and 1.25 million were used in ing—literally—the ills of the world.

Overview 9 available from commercial suppliers. Nevertheless, government centers devoted to the validation and regulatory acceptance of alternative methods established during the 1990s seemed to signal that alternatives “had arrived” and that animal research was poised to enter a new and promising era from an animal protection perspective. How Has the State of the Animals Worsened? More Animals Raised for Food More Intensively Although conditions for some animals have improved significantly in the United States during the past fifty years, the story of farm animals is much more depressing. Humans are raising many more animals for food and fiber production (and the demand for food animals is far greater than for any other human use of animals). Increases in human population and meat consumption indicate that problems associated with animal agriculture are likely to intensify in the future. In the United States, the number of cattle raised for meat doubled during the past fifty years (see Figure 6a). More dramatic is the one-thousand-fold increase in chickens raised for meat (see Figure 6b); almost 8 bil- lion chickens are now raised for meat for the American Medical Association throughout the developed world and each year in the United States alone. found that 85 percent of those polled embraced by industry in Europe and The face of agriculture in the Unit- favored the use of live animals in med- the United States. In the meantime, ed States is changing at an alarming ical teaching and research. By 1985 procurement of disease-free animals rate. Traditionally, animals formed an that number had dropped to 58.5 became more expensive, as did virtu- integral part of sustainable farming percent in a poll undertaken by the ally all aspects of research. These fac- systems; they were fed from crops and Baylor University Center for Commu- tors contributed to a reduction in the forages grown on the farm, and their nity Research and Development number of animals being used in manure was returned to the land as (see “Social Attitudes and Animals” in experiments, although the declines in fertilizer. With demands on animal this volume). Spurred by public pres- mouse use were reversed somewhat in agriculture increasing, however, fami- sure, the alternatives approach (as the 1990s as researchers began to ly farms are being replaced by large the Three Rs came to be called) was maintain breeding colonies of geneti- “factory farms.” Factory farms have incorporated into national legislation cally engineered strains of mice not grown out of our ability to keep ani-

10 The State of the Animals: 2001 mals alive and growing in intensive confinement. Advances in feed formu- lation and dietary supplements have permitted farmers to raise animals almost entirely indoors, where the animals are mechanically supplied with carefully formulated feed that maximizes their growth rates. In such intensive environments, however, the animals have virtually no chance to express their normal behaviors. The waste from all these confined animals (farm animals in the United States produce more than one hundred times as much waste as humans) has to be managed. In sum, factory farms are associated with problems of environmental degradation, poor animal welfare, human illness and health risks, and damage to rural communities. Changes in the U.S. pork industry illustrate the problems of factory farm systems. The 1980s and 1990s saw a dramatic decrease in the number of hog farms, with a corresponding increase in farm size. By 2000 more than 80 percent of pigs were raised on farms housing one thousand or more animals (see Figure 7). Further- more, vertical integration in the pork industry has increased, and single companies now control all elements of the production system, from breeding and growing the pigs, to slaugh- tering the animals and processing their meat. Smithfields Foods, the largest hog producer and processor in the world (see Figure 8), swallowed its competitors through company mergers and acquisitions throughout the 1990s and, as of 2000, had sub- stantial hog operations in the United States, Poland, Mexico, and Brazil (Miller 2000). The same multination- al company names, such as ConAgra, Continental Grain, and Cargill, domi- nate production of beef, pork, and poultry meat, as well as grain production, and they export their farming systems throughout the world (Hef- and reliable energy sources, adoption volume markets to sell animals and fernan 1999). In China, where demand of factory farm systems is likely to higher input costs for feed, breeding for pork has skyrocketed (see Figure cause a plethora of environmental, stock, and veterinary care. 9), hog factories are replacing tradi- health, and socioeconomic problems. Animal production has also become tional backyard production systems. In the United States—and elsewhere— concentrated in particular regions Without the supporting infrastruc- it is increasingly difficult for family within the United States. Sixty-five ture of abundant water supply, well- farmers to compete with agribusiness percent of U.S. pigs are raised in just maintained transportation systems, due to their limited access to high- five states (see Figure 10), 15 million

Overview 11 mals indoors. Research into mecha- nisms of growth facilitated the use of hormones and synthetic compounds to boost productivity. Building design focused on minimizing labor and maximizing numbers of animals housed rather than on improving the quality of the environment for work- ers and animals. Consequently, animals on factory farms are raised in crowded, barren environments that do not correspond with the habitats in which their anatomy, physiology, and behavior evolved. Dairy and beef cattle often live in groups with ten thousand or more animals in outdoor yards, where there is no pasture for grazing or resting and no shelter from wind and sun. Pigs are raised in buildings with several thousand animals, where provid- ing bedding material such as straw would interfere with the manure handling systems required on such large farms. Laying hens are housed in cages, without opportunity to perch, dust-bathe, or even flap their wings. The vast majority of breeding sows and veal calves in the United States are housed individually in crates, where there is insufficient space to walk or even to turn around, and where there is little opportunity to interact with social companions. This level of animal husbandry is unacceptable. There is ample evidence to suggest that farm animals suffer in these factory farm systems. Painful procedures such as castration and tail-docking are standard management practices in the cattle, sheep, and pig industries, but unlike their companion animal coun- terparts, farm animals do not receive anesthesia or analgesia. Lameness, in Iowa alone (USDA National Agri- Network and the Izaak Walton League resulting from rapid growth and poor cultural Statistics Service 2000). of America 1999). It is particularly resting surfaces, is a painful and per- Similar trends exist in the raising and distressing to observe the negative sistent problem in cattle, hog, and processing of beef, poultry meat, milk, impact that changes in agriculture broiler chicken operations. Feeding and eggs. Regional concentration of have had on the well-being of farm high-grain diets results in rapid growth animal production places an enor- animals. In 2000 the welfare of rates, but also causes ulcers in pigs mous strain on local ecosystems and farm animals in the United States and digestive problems such as bloat results in environmental degradation. was shameful, despite the much- in cattle. Sores, injuries, and feather- Poor handling, storage, and applica- publicized gains in farm animal pro- and hair-loss are common due to tion of manure contaminates rural ductivity. Availability of antibiotics chronic irritation with pen and cage drinking water resources, destroys allowed management of subclinical surfaces. Injuries and bruising often wetland areas, and kills fish and aquat- levels of disease and thus facilitated result when animals are handled, ic wildlife downstream (Clean Water the housing of large numbers of ani- loaded, and transported. Where these

12 The State of the Animals: 2001 problems have economic impacts, animal scientists are also addressing decision makers to protect areas companies are motivated to make farm animal welfare by designing where large numbers of other species improvements. However, there are few equipment that addresses farm ani- have a chance to survive. financial incentives for addressing mal behavior and by using behavior In December 1999 government problems that affect animals of low to understand suffering and pleasure scientists reported that in the mid- economic value, such as non-produc- experienced by farm animals. 1970s average global surface temper- tive dairy cows or laying hens. Although the welfare of farm animals atures had begun increasing at a rate Currently, farm animals receive has diminished during the past fifty of 3.5 degrees Fahrenheit per century almost no protection from U.S. legis- years, improvements are possible if and would continue to rise by 2–6 lation (Wolfson 1999). The Animal citizens, government officials, and degrees over the next one hundred Welfare Act, designed to protect ani- farmers address the issue. years. While that rate might appear mals used in research or exhibition, moderate, in reality it is very rapid, specifically exempts animals that are The Environment: given that the earth has warmed only kept for food or fiber production. 5–9 degrees over the last 18,000– Farm animals are specifically exempt A Bumper Crop 20,000 years (Irwin 2000). Global from anticruelty laws in most states. of Extinctions warming will affect the earth in ways The two federal laws affecting the There is a growing consensus that the currently unknown. The melting of care of farm animals are limited in wild animal kingdom is under the the polar icecaps and resulting rise in scope and poorly enforced. The greatest threat in 65 million years— ocean levels—so that entire islands Humane Slaughter Act requires that when the reign of the dinosaurs was and large areas along coastlines are livestock be rendered unconscious ended by an asteroid that collided submerged and populations are dis- prior to slaughter; however, poultry with earth. Every day an estimated placed—is one possible, if alarming, are excluded from this law. The Twenty- one hundred species of animals are scenario (Irwin 2000). Since the Eight Hour Law was discussed previ- being pushed into extinction. mid-1970s scientists have known that ously (see p. 7). Scientists are not certain about the the earth’s ozone layer has been Until recently, farm animals have exact rate of extinction because no affected by industrial chemicals intro- received surprisingly little sympathy global effort has ever been funded duced into the earth’s atmosphere, from U.S. citizens, compared to the to find out how many species share causing it to thin and thereby reduc- attention they have received in the the planet. This deficiency can be ing its ability to protect nature from European Union (EU), Canada, Aus- explained by human beings’ lack of the sun’s ultraviolet radiation. Such tralia, and New Zealand. Recent pub- appreciation for the interdependence findings are slowly finding an audi- lic opinion polls, however, indicate of all living things and for the impor- ence beyond scientific circles. that concerns regarding agricultural tance of other life-forms to human The outlook for wild animals is practices are increasing. In telephone survival. That said, estimates of the rather bleak. While many organiza- surveys, 93 percent of U.S. citizens total number range from 10 million tions and individuals struggle to save polled agreed that animal pain and to 30 million species, the vast majori- wild species threatened with extinc- suffering should be reduced as much ty of them invertebrate. tion, rising human populations and as possible, even though the animals There is a wide consensus that human consumption continue to were going to be slaughtered (Cara- believes that the increasing human erode our efforts. The animal protec- van Opinion Research Center 1995). population is making escalating tion community is concerned not Seventy-seven percent expressed con- demands on the resources of the plan- only about the threats to animal pop- cern for abuse and inhumane treat- et. Animal habitats are routinely ulations, but also about the animal ment of animals on factory farms modified, degraded, and eventually suffering that is caused by human (Lake Snell Perry and Associates destroyed. Those attempts that are encroachment on and depredations in 1999). More significantly, citizens being made to preserve species typi- wild habitat. have showed a willingness to take cally concentrate on the biggest, the farm animal issues to the ballot box most beautiful, and the most charis- and are demanding more from their matic species (using human criteria) elected officials. Several states, includ- such as Asian elephants, snow leop- ing Colorado and North Carolina, have ards, Bengal tigers, Javan rhinoceros, passed moratoriums blocking the orangutans, marine mammals, giant development of factory hog farms. pandas, cheetahs, gorillas, eagles, Consumers are becoming critical of cranes, and sea turtles. These species their food purchases, with increased all require large areas of relatively sales of organic products and in- unspoiled habitat, and, as a result, creased involvement in community- existing small populations of such supported agriculture projects. Some “keystone” species require human Overview 13 Dolphins early 1980s and decrease the annual Where Beginning in 1959 and continuing quota of harp seals that could be Are Gains through the 1960s, as many as killed to 60,000. As few as 25,000 300,000 spinner and spotted dolphins harp seals were actually killed in any under Threat? were killed annually as a consequence one year as the public shunned prod- of purse-seine operations in the tuna ucts made of seal fur and the EU Marine Mammals: fishery of the eastern tropical Pacific threatened a complete embargo on Ocean (ETP). By the 1980s these seal products. Hanging On stocks had been reduced to 15–20 By 1995 the quota had been in- For marine mammals, the significant percent of their original numbers and creased to 200,000 harp seals, both gains of the last twenty-five years are were declared depleted under the to address fishermen’s concerns now being threatened. U.S. Marine Mammal Protection Act, about depleted cod stocks (seals were passed in 1972. From 1990 to 2000 suspected of taking cod as their pop- Whales the mortality rate of dolphins in the ulations increased) and to give jobs to In 1950 tens of thousands of whales ETP fishery had been reduced by 97 unemployed Newfoundlanders. Seals were being killed every year by whal- percent, due to the insistence by con- were being killed for their meat as ing nations (most notably the United sumers that the “dolphin-safe” label, much as for their fur. Killing the States, Japan, Norway, Iceland, and introduced in 1994 as a means of white-coat pups remained illegal, but the USSR). The International Whal- identifying product caught without several thousand were being poached ing Commission (IWC), which had harming dolphins, be applied to every year. In 2000 the quota for harp been established in 1946, set species include the chasing and encircling of seals stood at 275,000. The future of quotas based mainly on assumptions dolphins—not just to outright killing. the harp seal looks threatening. grounded in human economic inter- So-called dolphin-deadly tuna was ests—not on whale biology. Unsus- embargoed in the United States from Captive Cetaceans tainable quotas set by the IWC were 1994 until 2000. Due to pressure Captive cetaceans were almost un- frequently exceeded. As a result, sev- from Mexico (under the threat of a known in the 1950s (although a few eral species (such as grey whales and World Trade Organization challenge), bottlenose dolphins were kept in right whales) were pushed to the however, the United States seemed to aquariums) but, in the 1960s, a boom brink of extinction. Other species be on the verge of accepting fishing in marine parks, circuses, and dolphi- (such as blue whales, fin whales, and practices that would kill more dolphin naria was sparked by the successful humpbacks) continued to be hunted as “dolphin-safe” for labeling purpos- television series “Flipper” and the in very large numbers until the es. This is doubly troubling since saga of Namu, the killer whale who 1960s, when some species received a there is no evidence that dolphin lived a year in captivity after being degree of protection from whalers. stocks made an appreciable recovery rescued from a fishing net. By the Public sentiment in favor of whale in the decade 1990–2000. This is 1970s hundreds of dolphins and protection continued to grow probably because the stress and trau- whales were being captured and main- through the 1970s. In 1986 a world- ma created by chasing and encircling tained in marine parks and aquari- wide moratorium on whaling was the dolphins adversely affects repro- ums. By 2000 the situation worldwide established. By 2000 this moratorium ductive success. was mixed. Captive populations and on all commercial whaling had captures themselves were on the allowed some species (eastern grey Seals increase in Asia, particularly in China, whales, northern right whales) to In the 1950s hundreds of thousands Japan, and Indochina. Captive popu- begin to recover. Other species, how- of harp seals, including upwards of lations/captures were stable in east- ever, such as western gray whales and 300,000 white-coat pups, were killed ern Europe and the Caribbean. In southern right whales, showed no in Canada each year for their fur. The western Europe and Canada, captive signs of recovery. Japan (via a “scien- population declined significantly as populations were decreasing and tific” whaling exemption) and Norway a result, and the seals were brutally there had been no known recent cap- (which had continued to conduct slaughtered using inhumane methods tures. Captive populations were sta- domestic commercial whaling) were such as clubs and hakapiks. This ble or increasing in Africa, with cap- killing 1,200–1,400 minke whales slaughter was documented on film in tures proposed. Captive populations annually despite the ban. In the 2000 the 1960s and 1970s by animal pro- were stable or possibly increasing whaling season Japan also began tection organizations and broadcast with no known recent captures in killing Brydes’ and sperm whales, and across the United States. The intense South America. the IWC appeared to be poised to lift hue and cry that followed influenced In the United States the captive the moratorium. the Canadian government to outlaw population was stable or decreasing the killing of white-coat pups in the and there had been no known recent captures. The phenomenal success of

14 The State of the Animals: 2001 the “Free Willy” movies in the 1990s standards of care—both physical and rodents, since the beginning of focused the attention of millions behavioral—in the last fifty years, recorded time, their relationships with on the dark side of captivity for only a minority of zoo animals living many other species are relatively new. cetaceans. It would be ironic indeed if in a handful of progressive institu- Urbanization is associated with a rel- the publicity generated by “Free tions (fewer than 20 percent of the atively small number of species in the Willy” served as an impetus for the whole) can be said to benefit from environment, but in higher concentra- release of cetaceans kept in bondage them. The vast majority languish tions than are found in “wild” nature. as a result of enthusiasm generated unpublicized in barren, unsafe, and/ These species interact with people in by “Flipper” decades earlier. or inhumane conditions, their only a variety of ways, and although many advocates the occasional shocked people enjoy their relationships with Polar Bears zoo visitor who attempts to interest urban wildlife, particularly songbirds, In the mid-twentieth century, polar local authorities or zoo management it is the conflicts with wildlife that bears were hunted indiscriminately. in mitigating the general misery of garner the attention of community This was a major cause of population the animals. The larger zoos are now leaders. These conflicts can involve declines throughout their ranges. By devoting more time and attention to individual animals, local groups, or the time the decline was addressed— in situ conservation and to conserva- regional populations. in the 1973 International Agreement tion education. However, in the major- Squirrels, white-tailed deer, rac- on the Conservation of Polar Bears— ity of institutions, public education coons, skunks, or Canada geese can, several populations worldwide were is abysmal. by their very existence, create tension severely depleted. All five signatories and anger in communities that are (USSR/Russia, the United States, intolerant of droppings on walkways Denmark/Greenland, Norway, and The Way Ahead or the consumption of ornamental Canada) later disagreed on the inter- Fifty years ago, problems with urban plants. Species involved in actively pretation of the agreement’s provi- wildlife (with the exception of changing the environment (such as sions on sport hunting. Gains made humankind’s centuries-long battle beavers) or that are seen as threats to during twenty-five years of strong pro- with rodents), the link between cruel- human well-being (such as bats) may tection were undercut by the 1994 ty to animals and other forms of be actively pursued by state and local amendments to the Marine Mammal human violence, and the potential of officials either independently or in Protection Act, which lifted the prohi- immunocontraception for species response to public pressure. Virtually bition against importing sport-hunted population control were unheard of. all species interacting with human polar bear trophies into the United Now these issues are at the forefront urban populations run the risk of States. Since then, hundreds of tro- of some of the most promising work being termed “nuisance” or “pest” phies have been imported from Cana- being done in animal protection. species in specific situations and are da, including many that had been dealt with via a variety of methods, warehoused from earlier hunts. Envi- Wild Neighbors: ranging from the benign to the lethal. ronmental degradation of polar bear A consensus is needed among private habitats was the biggest threat to Moving Ever Closer nuisance wildlife control operators, polar bear populations in 2000 and Although cities occupy no more than wildlife rehabilitators, animal protec- the future is guarded at best. 2 percent of the world’s habitable tion organizations, and state and land mass, human urban populations local government agencies, in the now outnumber the rural population. absence of state regulatory and statu- Where Is Soon the majority of all humans on tory oversight, to address growing earth will live in urban environments. public demand for solutions to wildlife the State Those environments will be created problems that include nonlethal through land development—clearing, options before lethal options are con- of Animals grading, soil compression, wetlands sidered. (In this context, problems draining, and infilling—all of which are defined as human perceptions of Unknown? have a major impact on native species the results of urban wildlife doing of mammals, amphibians, inverte- what it can to survive and compete for The Plight of brates, and reptiles. Those species resources.) Tolerance must be accept- Zoo Animals that can withstand the drastic change ed as a primary response, and solu- in habitat—and those that can flour- tions that are “environmentally sound, The state of the approximately ish within it—will ensure that the lasting, and humane” must continual- 900,000 to 1 million zoo animals human tenants of these most human ly be sought and developed. around the world is, unfortunately, of environments will not be alone. largely unknown. Although great Although human beings have inter- strides may have been made in the acted with urban wildlife, particularly

Overview 15 The Tangled Web animal abuse and domestic violence; a one-shot vaccine (as opposed to the the social service response to cruelty current two-shot regimen) and on of Animal Abuse to animals; and the dynamics of pre- expanding the vaccine’s potential for Although cruelty to animals has been vention and intervention/treatment. use in domestic animals such as dogs acknowledged in the cultural and reli- These assume greater urgency as and cats. The development of a per- gious traditions of most societies, American communities grapple with manent, one-shot, cost-effective vac- only in the past few decades has sys- highly publicized incidents of seem- cine would undoubtedly be a major tematic attention focused on the link ingly random violence (such as the weapon in the struggle against com- between cruelty to animals and other murders at Colorado’s Columbine panion animal overpopulation. It could forms of human violence. Patterns High School in 1999) that implicate alleviate the effects of the painful and of behavior of serial killers, spousal perpetrators with a history of animal divisive debates over euthanasia, ani- abusers, and juvenile murderers abuse. Such incidents strike at the mal shelter spaying/neutering poli- became the subject of active investi- heart of a community’s feeling of cies, and stray animal control and gation in the 1980s and 1990s, but safety and well-being and increase the potentially unite many people of good insightful observers had sounded warn- urgency felt by society as a whole for will in their efforts to improve the ings earlier. In 1963 anthropologist diagnosis and intervention. lives of companion animals here Margaret Mead wrote, “It would . . . and abroad. seem wise to include a more carefully Wildlife planned handling of behavior toward living creatures in our school curricu- Contraception The Next lum…and alert all child therapists to The history of wildlife contraception watch for any record of killing or tor- is wholly contained in the period Fifty Years turing a living thing. It may well be from 1950 to 2000. Technologically, This chapter provides only a brief that this could prove a diagnostic sign nonhormonal chemicals, steroid snapshot of the progress achieved and and that such children, diagnosed hormones, nonsteroidal hormones, the setbacks that have occurred in early, could be helped instead of barrier methods, and immunocontra- animal protection from 1950 to 2000. being allowed to embark on a long ceptives have all been explored with Doubtless other people would select a career of episodic violence and mur- varying degrees of success. This explo- different set of topics and view the sit- der” (Lockwood and Ascione 1998). ration has taken place against a back- uation slightly differently. Nonethe- Lockwood and Hodge brought the drop of considerable resistance from less, the animal protection movement link between cruelty to animals and traditional state wildlife agencies, can, I believe, be reasonably pleased other forms of human abuse, particu- grounded in the “hunt/shoot/trap” with the progress made. Public opin- larly serial murder, to the attention of school of wildlife population control. ion polls and academic treatises sup- the animal protection community in Immunocontraceptive vaccines port the idea that concern for ani- 1986 through a review of work of Hell- show considerable promise, particu- mals has increased and that this has man and Blackman in 1966, Tapia in larly in light of significant success led to gains in animal welfare in a the early 1970s, and Felthous and with the porcine zona pellucida (PZP) range of areas. Kellert in the early 1980s (Lockwood vaccine. Kirkpatrick and Turner On the other hand, there have also and Hodge 1986). Interest from the (1991) created a standard by which been significant setbacks. The threats law-enforcement community came wildlife immunocontraception could to wild populations from habitat later, after FBI profiling of serial be evaluated, which included contra- destruction, human encroachment, killers incorporated cruelty to ani- ceptive effectiveness of at least 90 and human consumption are on the mals as a predictor of violence (HSUS percent; the capacity for remote increase and the plight of farm ani- 1996). In the period 1995–2000, delivery; the reversibility of effects; mals in modern intensive systems interest in the topic increased incre- safety for use in pregnant animals; (from birth to slaughter) can only be mentally, as evidence of links between absence of significant health side described as dreadful. The number of cruelty to animals and domestic effects; isolation of the contraceptive farm animals affected by such inten- abuse, youth violence, and other agent from the food chain; minimal sive systems has increased steadily forms of criminal activity began to effects on individual and social behav- through the last half of the twentieth mount and was disseminated by the iors; and low cost. By these criteria century and looks as though it will media. Ascione and Lockwood have the PZP vaccine has scored well and continue to increase in the coming identified five areas in need of atten- has shown exciting results in field use century. tion in the coming decades: the “ecol- in wild horses, white-tailed and Therefore, any plans and strategic ogy” of violence against animals; the black-tailed deer, African elephants, suggestions for the next century must developmental dynamics of cruelty to water buffalo, Tule elk, and more than include some ideas to address the wel- animals and other forms of human ninety species of zoo animals. Work fare of farm animals and the survival violence; the relationship between continues on refining and developing of wildlife. Such plans must come to

16 The State of the Animals: 2001 grips with a range of strategic chal- er threats to animal protection pro- In moving forward with plans to lenges that will confront any nonprof- gress mentioned above, there are also promote a more humane society, we it advocacy group. These challenges grounds for optimism that we can perceive a number of elements and include human population growth, move ahead to create a more humane strategies to be critical components increased human consumption (lead- society in the United States, the EU, of such a goal. First, we need to be ing humans to walk a little less “soft- and even worldwide. more inclusive in developing partners ly” on the earth with each passing Nonetheless, more needs to be and alliances. Many nonprofit organi- decade), threats to the security of done. Some cultural traditions, for zations view the corporate sector with human societies and the natural example, are perceived to be less sym- suspicion and thus cut themselves off areas that they occupy, technological pathetic to animal welfare than oth- from opportunities to make a consid- changes and innovations (e.g., the ers. The Roman Catholic Church has erable impact on how society views Internet), and questions relating to generally been viewed as less support- animals. Arguably, the most powerful different cultural, theological, and ive of animal welfare than have been influence on the decline in hunting in political views on a wide variety of some Protestant denominations. Such the United States is the Walt Disney issues around the world (e.g., differ- stereotyping, however, is based on the film “Bambi” (urbanization, another ences among Islam, Christianity, observation that animal welfare legis- candidate, has not increased in the Judaism, and Buddhism on a variety lation and activity is more advanced past thirty years). If one can work of topics). These strategic challenges in Northern European and American with a corporation like Disney to pro- can appear overwhelming and beyond communities than in the Mediter- duce such a product (or products), the grasp of even a relatively large and ranean countries and in Central and the impact on animal protection is influential sector of human society South America. Such differences may likely to be far greater than if we rely (such as a major religious denomina- be more a matter of economic than simply on our own channels of out- tion), let alone groups that enjoy less theological disparities. In the end, we reach. Thus, we need to look for part- influence in the corridors of geopolit- do not know how attitudes to animal ners in the corporate community and ical power, such as the environmental protection are influenced by different persuade them that they, too, have movement or the animal protection cultural traditions as opposed to eco- short- and long-term interests in pro- movement. Nonetheless, any of these nomic or political constraints. moting animal welfare. movements (a term used loosely since Our ignorance of the influence Second, we need to work more there are many shades of opinion— of important cultural, religious, and closely and effectively with academe. and even internecine conflicts—with- political traditions on animal welfare From 1950 to 2000, the most common in such movements) must continue thinking must be addressed. We need interaction between animal protection monitoring the larger strategic issues to understand whether Islamic soci- and academe involved a conflict over and develop its own strategies for eties are less supportive of animal the use of animals in research. Thus, progress that take into account larger welfare as a result of their theology both communities have a tendency geopolitical forces. or if their lack of attention to such to view the other with suspicion. For example, the World Trade issues is due to political and econom- Nonetheless, an increasing number of Organization (WTO) has the poten- ic constraints. If the latter, we can academics are paying attention to the tial to have a major impact on ani- devise strategies to address and to place of animals in society (the Amer- mal protection. Its decisions or influ- eliminate such constraints and devel- ican Sociological Association recently ence have already had an adverse op programs that will advance animal gave permission for a group to try to impact on dolphin protection pro- welfare in traditional Islamic cultures. establish an “animals and society” grams. The WTO is likely to continue The HSUS plans to develop institu- section) and their writings and stud- to slow animal protection progress. tions and projects that will address ies influence the way society views Countries defer setting standards for some of the broader cultural issues animals and animal welfare. In the animal welfare that may result in and to devise plans to promote ani- wake of the civil rights and women’s sanctions by the WTO, which could mal welfare more effectively in both rights movements, centers for African- interpret such standards as unfair the developed and the developing American and Women’s Studies non-tariff trade barriers. Attempts to world. It may be possible to extend sprang up at a variety of campuses reverse or to ameliorate some of the our First Strike initiative, which across the United States. These cen- worst practices in intensive animal focuses on the close links between ters have kept both movements vigor- husbandry are bound to run up human violence to animals and human ous and refreshed with new ideas and against WTO problems (as Europe violence to humans, and argue that new findings. Several centers for has already discovered with its societies (and countries) that pay animal welfare or the human-animal attempts to limit the importation of more attention to animal welfare are bond have been established in the last hormone-free beef or fur from ani- likely to be more civil and more decade at a few North American mals caught in leghold traps). secure for their human inhabitants universities. The animal protec- Despite the problems and the larg- than societies that ignore this issue. tion movement needs to support and

Overview 17 work more closely with such centers human empathy. They are fundamen- Heffernan, W. 1999. Consolidation in and to help expand their number and tal to our being and to our long-term the food and agriculture system. influence. survival as a species and a self-sus- Report to the National Farmers Third, we need to develop a new taining society. We discount such Union, 5 February. approach to our interactions with relationships at our peril. As Gandhi Howard, R.W. 1965. The horse in wildlife. Immunocontraception, men- is reputed to have said, “One can America. Chicago: Follett Publish- tioned earlier, is a major new technol- judge the civilization of a society by ing Company. ogy because it begins to give us an the way it treats its animals and its Humane Society of the United States alternative to killing animals when prisoners.” When we reach 2050, (HSUS). 1991. Statements of policy. conflicts between animals and humans let us hope that we can say that soci- Washington, D.C.: HSUS. occur. Thus, it allows us to change eties across the globe are more civi- ——————. 1996. Deadly serious: our mindset from lethal control to lized—and more humane—in the An FBI perspective on animal cruel- potentially gentler solutions. There broadest sense. ty. HSUS News. Fall. are many ways in which we can ——————. 1998. What is that arrange our human communities to they’re wearing? Washington, D.C.: lessen human-wildlife conflicts and Literature Cited HSUS. increase our enjoyment at sharing our American Horse Council. 2000. The ——————. 2000. HSUS Pet Over- lives with wild creatures. Close inter- economic impact of the horse indus- population Estimates. Available at action between a human and an ani- try in the United States. Washing- http://hsus.org/programs/com- mal can be (and has been in many ton, D.C.: American Horse Council. panion/overpopulation/opfaq.html. cases) a transforming experience for American Veterinary Medical Associa- Irwin, P. 2000. Losing paradise. Gar- the human involved. Such interactions tion (AVMA). 1997. U.S. pet owner- den City Park, N.Y.: Square One need to be safe, enjoyable, and com- ship and demographics sourcebook. Publishers. mon for both animals and humans. Schaumburg, Ill.: Center for Infor- Kellert, S. 1979. Public attitudes Fourth, for many people, a family is mation Management, AVMA. toward critical wildlife and natural not a true family unless it includes at Balzar, J. 1993. Creatures great and— habitat issues. Phase I of U.S. Fish least one companion animal. Approx- equal? Los Angeles Times. 23 and Wildlife survey: American atti- imately 95 percent of Americans grow December: A–1. tudes, knowledge, and behaviors up experiencing such a relationship, Caravan Opinion Research Center. toward wildlife and natural habi- but it is not always as satisfying for 1995. Attitudes toward protecting tats. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Fish the humans and animals as it could farm animals from cruelty. Prince- and Wildlife Service. be. We need to develop programs that ton, N.J.: Opinion Research Corpo- Kirkpatrick, J., and J.W. Turner Jr. increasingly celebrate the positive ration. 1991. Reversible fertility control in aspects of this human-animal interac- Cavalieri, P., and P. Singer, eds. 1993. nondomestic animals. Journal of tion—including improved physical The great ape project: Equality Zoo and Wildlife Medicine 22: and mental health for the human part- beyond humanity. New York: St. 392–408. ners (Wilson and Turner 1997)—and Martin’s Press/Griffin. Lake Snell Perry and Associates. prevent the negative aspects. Shelters Clean Water Network and the Izaak 1999. A nationwide survey of 1,000 could become the focus of such a cel- Walton League of America. 1999. registered voters about factory ebration in communities across the Spilling swill: A survey of factory farms. Washington, D.C.: Lake United States and thereby shed the farm water pollution in 1999. Wash- Snell Perry and Associates, Inc. image of being places that only handle ington, D.C.: Clean Water Network. Leach, E.R. 1989. Anthropological failed human-animal bonds. Food and Agricultural Organization aspects of language: Animal cate- Fifth, there are three categories of the United Nations. 2000. Statis- gories and verbal abuse. Anthrozoös of verbal abuse in many languages: tical database. Available at www. 2: 151–165. First published in New profanities, obscenities, and animal faostat.org/default.htm. directions in the study of language terms (Leach 1989). It is easy for us Foster, D. 1995. Animal rights pleas Cambridge, Mass: MIT Press, 1964, to understand why terms dealing with heard. Associated Press, 2 December. 23–63. (See also the companion God and sex should have the power to Freese, B. 1999. Pork powerhouses. articles in Anthrozoös 2: 166–174 shock us or to help us express vehe- Successful farming on-line. Available and 3: 214–233.) mence and passion. It is less under- at http:// www.agriculture.com/sfon- Lockwood, R., and F. Ascione, eds. standable why animal terms should line/archives/sf/porkpwr/pp.html. 1998. Cruelty to animals and inter- have the same potency. We should Accessed December 1999. personal violence. West Lafayette, understand that our relationships Ind.: Purdue University Press. with animals (and with nature and Lockwood, R., and G. Hodge. 1986. wilderness) are not a simple matter of The tangled web of animal abuse. exaggerated sentiment or displaced HSUS News. Summer.

18 The State of the Animals: 2001 Miller, D. 2000. Straight talk from Wolfson, D.J. 1999. Beyond the law: Smithfield’s Joe Luter. National Agribusiness and the systematic Hog Farmer, 15 May, 12–16. abuse of animals raised for food or Noonan, D. 2000. Why drugs cost so food production. Watkins Glen, much. Newsweek, 25 September. N.Y. and Orland, Cal.: Farm Sanc- Patronek, G., and A.N. Rowan. 1995. tuary, Inc. Determining dog and cat numbers and population dynamics. Anthro- zoös 8: 199–205. Roper Center for Public Opinion. 1989a. Question USKANE. 89PM10. ROZ2. Parents magazine. Septem- ber 22. ——————. 1989b. Question USABC. 89. R10. ABC Newspoll. Rowan A.N. 1992a. Companion animal demographics and unwanted animals in the United States. Anthrozoös 5: 222–225. Rowan, A.N. 1992b. Shelters and pet overpopulation: A statistical black hole. Anthrozoös 5: 140–143. Rowan, A.N., F.M. Loew, and J.C. Weer. 1995. The animal research controversy: Protest, process and public policy—An analysis of strategic issues. Grafton, Mass.: Tufts University School of Veterinary Medicine. Rowan, A.N., and J. Williams. 1987. The success of companion animal management programs: A review. Anthrozoös 1: 110–122. Russell, W.M.S., and R.L. Burch. 1959. The principles of humane experimental technique. London: Methuen. Sieber, J. 1986. Students and scientists’ attitudes on animal research. The American Biology Teacher 48, 2. Survey Research Center. 1999. Na- tional Omnibus 1999 Questionaire Project #1367. College Park, Md.: University of Maryland. USDA National Agricultural Statistics Service. 1960. Agricultural statistics 1960. Washington, D.C.: USDA. ——————. 2000. Agricultural statistics 2000. Washington, D.C.: USDA. Wilson, C.C., and D.C. Turner, eds. 1997. Companion animals in human health. Thousand Oaks, Cal.: Sage Publications.