Language and Culture Archives
Dinka Noun Systems and Their Impact on Learning English by Dinka
Lino Kiir Kuony Jok
©2004, Lino Kiir Kuony Jok
License
This document is part of the SIL International Language and Culture Archives. It is shared ‘as is’ in order to make the content available under a Creative Commons license:
Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivativeWorks (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/4.0/).
More resources are available at: www.sil.org/resources/language-culture-archives. Table of Contents
Page Dedication i Acknowledgements ii Abstract iii Table of Contents iv CHAPTER ONE Framework of the Research 1 1.0. Introduction 1 1.1. Statement of the problem 2 1.2. Questions of the research 2 1.3. The aims of the study 2 14. Significant of the study 3 1.5. Basic assumptions 3 1.6. Limitations 4 CHAPTER TWO Review of Literature 5 2.0. Introduction 5 2.1. Theoretical background 6 2.2. Phonemics 7 2.3. Consonant phonemes 8 2.4. Vowel phonemes 9 2.5. Tones 13 2.6. Syllables 13 2.7. Morphology 14 2.8. Dinka nouns in singular and plural 14 2.9. Dinka nouns with possessive and numeral (one) 19 CHAPTER THREE Methodology 25 3.0. Introduction 25
i 3.1. Research method 25 3.2. Setting 25 3.3. Data and Sample 26 3.4. validation 27
CHAPTER FOUR Results and discussion 29 4.0. Introduction 29 4.1. Consonant Sounds 29 4.2. Place of Articulation 30 4.3. Manner of Articulation 32 4.4. Vowel Sounds 35 4.5. Tongue height 36 4.5.1. Tongue Advancement 37 4.5.2. Lip rounding 37 4.5.3. Diphthong Vowels 40 4.5.4. Tones 41 4.5.5. syllables 42 4.6.0. Dinka noun systems 43 4.6.1. Codified Morphonemic 50 4.6.2. Nuon Classification 50 4.6.3. possessive and Quantified nouns 51 4.6.4. Summary 53 CHAPTER FIVE Summary and conclusions 56 5.0. Introduction 5.6 5.1. Summary of the study 56 5.2. Overview of the findings. 58 5.3. Pedagogical implications 59 5.4. Recommendations for further research 60 5.5. Conclusions 60
References 63
ii Dedication To the memory of my late mother Aguek Bak kuc and my late father kuony
Jok kuony, and to my only two sisters for their love and patience since my childhood till now.
iii Acknowledgements
My thanks goes to the Almighty God for giving me this opportunity and health to study in the University of Juba.
I would like to express my gratitude to my supervisor Dr-Lodu Lo – Wani
Pitia for his guidance and encouragement.
I am grateful to the Sudan Workshop Programme for sponsoring my studies in the University of Juba and to Dr.John Hollman and Pam Hollman, Dr.
Leoma Gilley, Miss. Elizabeth Newport, Mrs. Pam Cope and Ustuz Protasio
Dut Wol for their constructive advice and guidance in my training on writing vernacular languages and recommending sponsorship for M.A. Study.
I would also like to extend my thanks and appreciation to following people: my wife and my children for their patience, understanding, encouragement and love.
I would also like to extend my thanks and appreciation to the following: Peter
Majwok, Dominic Thomas and Ruaf Rahamatalla for their assistance which has contributed positively to the success of this paper.
iv Abstract
The results obtained were assessed using the available Dinka vocabularies.
The findings show that there are eight Noun system that depend heavily on vowel change process, especially the singular/plural. This process sometimes has little consistancy and that makes the establishment of rules difficult. Most of the nouns depend on the length and lowering of high vowels and vice- versa. The possessive and quantified nouns include nasalization of ending certain stops and vowel sounds. The finding of this study further indicate that the noun systems of Dinka language tend to use more length and lowering strategies more than the other six processes. However, the difficulty may be attributed to lack of proper linguistic study of Dinka morphology. The study also indicates that vowel length covers all the Dinka vowels than the other strategies. The results of the qualitative analysis of
Dinka morphological nouns agreement suggest that the major problem faced by the Dinka learners of English seem to be this sharp difference between the two languages in the area of phonetics, phonology, morphology and syntax.
Thus, inorder to overcome this a learner must be made aware or guided in these areas. the results of the study also suggest that there is a need for more linguistic research in Dinka to discover other hiden elements.
v
UNIVERSITY OF JUBA
COLLEGE OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
DINKA NOUN SYSTEMS AND THEIR IMPACT ON LEARNING ENGLISH BY DINKA
BY: LINO KIIR KUONY JOK
SUPERVISED: BY
Dr. LODU LO- WANI PITIA
A THESIS SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT FOR THE REQUIREMENTS OF M.A. DEGREE IN TEACHING ENGLISH AS A FOREIGN LANGUAGE (T.E.F.L)
NOV. 2004
vi CHAPTER ONE
Framework of the Research
1.0. Introduction
Morphemes: are units of words or words i.e. one part of language description. Morphemes form a linguistics branch called morphology. They are termed as lexical units and lexicon is defined by dictionaries as the vocabulary of an individual speaker or total stock of morphemes or words which do not carry meanings only in isolation. Their meanings are affected by situational context, social usage. (language file.)
It is an important phenomenon for both teacher and student of the language to be aware of such knowledge. Always the grammar of language relies very much on this phenomenon for its description of meanings.(language file.)
The present investigation aims at identifying the areas of difficulties in the process of singular and plural and categorizes the existing Dinka nouns. However, challenges are expected to arise, since the Dinka language is still in the process of development.
1.1. Statement of the problem
Dinka learner of English faces problems in English nouns systems due to differences and difficulty in pronunciation of certain sounds and formation of plurals, possessives and quantified nouns (experiences.)
The problem to be investigated is the varying systems of vowel change in Dinka nouns. The influence of plural, possessive and quantitative noun cases in affecting the form of the word. It is a good exercise for a teacher and learner to see that morphological patterns of different languages are approached differently.
1. 2. The Questions of the study
The questions of the study are:
1. What are the morphological systems of Dinka nouns?
2. What types of patterns are there?
3. What difficulty do they present to the learner of English as a second language?
1. 3. The aims of the study
The study aims to satisfy the following objectives:-
2 1. To identify, describe and categorize the morphological
elements of Dinka nouns.
2. To discover a rule that may reduce too much variation and
difficulty in the use of patterns.
3. To see where consistency is possible.
4. To suggest Possible approach or method which could be used
in dealing with given patterns.
1.4. Significance of the study
This study attempts to explain the Dinka nouns. The results of this study may be useful to the teachers of language because morphology is a part of language study that has to be described and is a source of absorbing practical problems, (Mathew 1991).
The significance of the study is that, it is providing strategies for teaching and language learning. It is contributing to the resources of developing writing and understanding Dinka Grammar. It is suggesting or high-lighting areas for future research.
1. 5. The basic assumptions
1. Always, the teachers and learners of Dinka are frightened by
the complexity of Dinka morphology based on vowels.
2. Too many varied elements affect performances.
3 3. There has been no adequate morphological studies so discoveries are expected.
4. Fossilizations in the use of some consonants and vowels which
exist in Dinka (i.e. th,dh, Ř Óå
1.6. Limitation of the study
The study is limited to the following:-
1. Description of Dinka nouns singular and plural morphemes.
2. Nouns morphemes in possessives.
3. Nouns morphemes in numerals.
4 CHAPTER TWO
Review of Literature
2.0. Introduction
This chapter attempts to investigate the Dinka nouns morphology at the bases of singular and plural, possessive and numeral (one) which may require a simple introduction to the orthography.
The Orthography for writing Dinka language began with the Rejaf
Conference (1928).The Rejaf Conference recommended nine southern Sudanese languages to be used as media for instructions in Primary education in the southern Sudan. The
Orthography for the nine languages consisted ( a,e,i,o,u ) vowel sounds.
For Dinka language, other conferences and investigations were held at (!P׌ ×åO to add ( Ç Ä ǨIA ŒI )DǨMOJPH
1P H H ř M ' I N O Œ O P O ř J B G Œ I C P Œ N O Œ @ N Ǩ I A (J ? O J M ř Q Œ N ř
ODř "ŒIFǨ .DJIJGJCT and recommend the use of breathy and vowel-length to solve some reading problems. But the morphological problems remain to be investigated.
5 2.1. Theoretical background.
Languages can be classified according to the number and kind of morphemes that are most commonly used to form their words. Languages in which most words are formed from roots, Prefixes and suffixes are called Agglutinating languages . A Bantu language like kikuyu is one of such languages . Languages in which most words are formed from single morphemes are called Isolating languages . A Niger-Congo languages like Ndogo is an example of an Isolated languages in which many words are formed by adding suprafixes to roots or making other internalized changes are called Fusional languages. A Nilo-Saharan language like Dinka is a fusional language. ( Pace ,1997). Dinka is one of the Nilotics languages spoken in the Sudan. The
Nilotic are the major language groups that belong to the Nilo-
Saharan Family.
The Dinka and Nuer form one Subdivision of Western Nilotics.
The second division is constituted by Burun and the third division is constituted by Shilluk, Anuak, Jur, Bor, Acholi of Sudan,the Luo of Kenya and the Lango and Alur of Uganda. This Western Nilotic is a branch of the Eastern Sudanic division of the Chari-Nile subfamily of the Nilo-Saharan language Family (Job,1988).
The area covered by Western Nilotic languages extends from the white Nile River and its tributaries from Renk in the north to lake
Kyogo in the South and to the North East of lake Victoria
(Job,1988)
6 The Nilotic languages are characterized and categorized by vowel system similarities. They have vowel voice quality, Non-breathy and breathy vowels.
The Dinka language is spoken by more than two million and a half people (Job,1988). Dinka is divided into four dialect groups namely: Padaang, Agaar, Bor and Rek.
2.2. Phonemics
Before embarking on Dinka morphology we need to have a basic knowledge about the system of Dinka speech sounds because it is suggested that learners perceive sounds in new languages in terms of their languages to which the have earlier been exposed to (Jack C. Richadrd 1974). In the view of this fact we need first to see what are the real phonemes of this language we are investigating. This will enable us to have a quick look and general acknowledgment in four areas namely: Phonetics Phonology,
Morphology and syntax.
A descriptive structural grammar of English progresses upward through three levels of structure. The first or lowest level deals with the system of speech sounds employed by native speakers of English. The study of this level is called Phonology The next higher level is concerned with the meaningful forms made from the individual speech sounds. Generally speaking, we may say that it deals with words and their meaningful parts. This is the realm of Morphology The top level treats the ways in which words are arranged to form sentences. This level is called syntax . Hence, we begin our study of English grammar at the first level, with a consideration of the speech sounds of English. ( Norman S. C 1981).
7 2.3. Consonants Phonemes
In Dinka there are nineteen simple consonants phonemes (Gilley,
1993). They are classified linguistically into Place and Manner of articulation and Voicing.
The Place of articulation (voiced and voiceless) sounds have
1) Labial sounds(p,b,m,w).
2) Dental sounds(th,dh, nh).
3) Alveolar sounds(t,d,n,l,r).
4) Palatal sounds(c,j,ny,y).
5) Velar sounds(k,g,,-
./! ! 0
Whereas the Manner of articulation has:
1) Plosive sounds in which (p,th,t,c,k) are voiceless and (b, dh, d, j, g ) are voiced.
2.) Nasal sounds (m, nh, n, ny, ,' # -
1 ! !' # ).
4) Trill sound (r, voiced).
5) semi-vowel sound (w,y,2' #
8 **!# 3!# 3 4 #!
labial dental alveolar palatal velar plosive vl p th t c k vd b dh d j g nasal m nh n ny , lateral l trill r semi-vowel w y 0 Diagram2.1: Dinka consonants.
The final stops are voiceless in Dinka utterances, (Gilley,1993).
This is one point of difficulty for Dinka learner of English. All the
English words ending with (b, d, ,j, g) will not be well pronounced by a low level learner.
2.4.Vowels Phonemes
The vowel sounds are composed of five basic positions with features of short, long, breathiness, and lowering. These vowels plus ( 5!+ 5 ! 5!" #! 5# -
6 + # %
'7 ! -
8%#)'7 ! -
%#)'7 !-
9 3
#! '7 ! -
8 ! #! -
5 '7 !
(Duerkson 1992) identifies them as shown below: i o
( "8--8-9( )'7 ! 5 -( "8--8-9( )'7 ! 5 -
( ) / !! + 8 '7 ! #
' 5 ' ! ! "
% !7 "-: #
% " 5 "8-8-- ;# <7 ! 5 +
' => += +'7 ! -6 +
'7 ! " 5# # !7
# - ! 5 #!!+ " " "
=> +# 5 -6 % # +
10 QJRřGNBJMODřBŒQřKJNŒOŒJIN@ǨI?řMřKMřNřIOřAǨNNDJRI
?řGJR
ŜPŜP
ŚśŚś
ŘŘ
"ŒǨCMǨH "ŒIFǨ?MřǨODTQJRřGN"ŒIFǨ?MřǨODTQJRřGN
The other feature, the vowel length of each position may be either
Non- Breathy (NB) or Breathy (B). It can be represented as below: ii oo ïï öö ee ÓÓ ŚŚŚŚÓÓåÓååå åååå
aa ää
Diagram 2. 4: Dinka long vowels
The third feature of Dinka vowels is lowering. It can be represented as below. The term lowering is represented by a class of vowels which function grammatically in the same way where a high vowel glides down to a lower vowel (see from the diagram) to form diphthongs. For each of the five vowels positions, there are Non-Lowered (NLow) vowels and
11 Lowered (Low) vowels( Œï ×OJBJMHŒ× 'OŒNǨGNJ@ǨGGřA
.ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJI.ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJIǨIAPï ÓOJBJMHPÓ 'OŒN@ǨGGřA
GǨ?ŒJGŒUǨOŒJIGǨ?ŒJGŒUǨOŒJI
2DřNǨHřKMJ@řNNRŒOD× ÓCGŒAŒICAJRIOJBJMHǨǨIAQŒ@řǨǨIAQŒ@řǨǨIAQŒ@ř
QřMNǨQřMNǨ
Œ×PÓŒŒ×PÓŒ××ååPåå PPÓÓåååå
×Ǩ×Ǩ××åÓååå åååå
ǨŘǨŘ.
Diagram 2. 5: Dinka lowering vowels.
Whereas the English vowels can be described in four ways also in which the speaker can change the shape of the vocal tract and thus change vowel quality. This is done by:
1. raising or lowering the body of the tongue.
2. advancing or retracting the body of the tongue.
3. rounding or not rounding the lips.
4. making these movements with a tense or a lax gesture.
12 2.5. Tones
In Job (1988) thesis, three levels of Dinka tones have been identified in which low tone is the most common among the level tones. He argued that gliding tones are rare and rising tone is found only on long vowels.
The voices of breathiness affects the preceived tones. The identified level are high ( ' ), mid ( ` ), low ( ~ ).The function of tone in Dinka language is to distinguish lexical items and syntax as well. The high tone is produced when vocal folds are stretched, with an increase of airflow from the lungs and they are in normal position for mid tone and for low tone the folds are relaxed.
2.6. Syllables
Dinka is a monosyllabic language. The basic syllable pattern is consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC). Other patterns are of V, VC and CV. Being a monosyllabic language, generally most of the words are of a pattern CVC e.g. meth (child) and some words begin with a vowel V.CVC e.g. at5 7
'7 ! << -"-E" %"- ( ) 8-
4## " ( ) 6 ( )!5% #! " ! )
13 ODŒNǨ Ř ? @ A AD ř Ś × ×å C Ø Œ Ŝ DZ F G H I ID IT
º J ś Ó Óå K M O OD P R T
"ŒIFǨAJřNIJOPNřODřGřOOřMNŏB D L N Q S Uŏ 2DPN
RDřIǨ"ŒIFǨGřǨMIřM@JHřNOJGřǨMI#ICGŒNDGǨICPǨCřŒOOǨFřN
DŒH JM DřM OŒHř OJ HǨNOřM ODřNř GřOOřMN ŒI KMJIPI@ŒǨOŒJI JM
NJHřOŒHřNBJNNŒGŒUǨOŒJIHǨTJ@@PMǨNǨNTNOřH
2.7. Morphology
We are now trying to investigate the Dinka noun systems on singular/plural, possessive and numeral phrases. The singular/ plural runs as follows. Class one and two have about seven roots each according to the number of Dinka basic vowels. Here is the representation of Dinka singular and plural nouns based on vowel and words changes.
2.8. Dinka nouns system in singular and plural
Let us begin with class 1, most of roots consisting of short ( i,e,×
Ǩ Ó J PQJRřGNHǨFřODřŒMKGPMǨG?TGřICODřIŒICŒŒ řř ××
ǨǨ ÓÓ JJ PPQJRřGNǨNNDJRI?řGJR
14 Table 2.7.1.Class 1. Singular short vowel ->plural long vowel glossary
1.a. Root bith bith = biith fishing spear 1.b. Root adhe, adhe, = adhee, glands 1.c. Root k ) J) +5 "D! 1.d. Root pal pal = paal knife 1.e. Root t, , J , 5 1.f. Root agor agor = agoor animal of cat;s family 1.g. Root wut wut = wuut ostrich The opposite occurs in class 2. where most of roots consisting of long (ii, ee, '7 ! ) 5!! %+
" '7 ! 7 % !7-
K7 ' # # # 7 +5
"5 ) #! %! ! - 4! "
% "" %+ ( ) / !! +
!7+ 7 !" ' -
! !H #)!+-
Table.2.7.2.Class 2.Singular long vowel->Plural short vowel glossary
2.a. Root apiir apiir = apir fish trap. 2.b. Root leeth leeth = leth root plant. 2.c. Root ) #) #J) # +5 -
2.d. Root taar taar = tar jute. 2.e. Root k)J) !%7- 2.f. Root koot koot = kot acaca tree. 2.g. Root kuur kuur = kur joint.
15 The third class 3. is a simple process in which singular nouns consisting Non- breathy (i, e, × Ǩ Ó J vowels make their plural by changing ( ï, ë, ×å Ř ÓåśŒIOJ?MřǨODTBJMHN
Table 2.7.3.Class 3.Singular NB-Breathy->plural Breathy v.wel glossary
3.a. Root- lith lith = lïth eagle 3.b. Root de» de» = dë» rain 3 c. Root. p×׌K×׌ K×åŒHJJI 3.d. Root. mac mac = m×å@ fire. 3.e. Root yÓHTÓH TÓåH@JGJPM
Class 4. is the occurance of palatalization in plural form when the root consists of (i or e) and the opposite occurs when a root consists of ( Œ×JMŒřCJřN?Ǩ@FOJODřNŒICGřQJRřGŒJMř
ODŒNŒNǨGNJǨIJODřMKPUUGř 'O?řDǨQřNNŒHŒGǨMGTGŒFřODřBŒMNO
ORJ@GǨNNřNRDřMřRřNřř@GřǨM@JIOMǨAŒ@OŒJI
Table2.7.4.Class.4.singular marker->(palataliUǨOŒJIplural V glossary
4.a. Root dit dit = dŒ×O?ŒMA. 4. b. Root mi×OD mi×ODHith threat like material @ 0JJOǨGŜŜFǨGŜŜFǨGŒŚF?ǨO A 0JJOOŒŚOOŒŚOOŜORŒUřM
16 In class 5.The group of nouns here deals with the process of labialization in which the two vowels (o,u) reverse their singular and plural with(uÓ PÓå
(O): {dor-->APÓMNGǨQřJMAPÓ» AJ»DǨŒMX2DřNǨHřŒI
3VRPO RPÓåO@JPIOMTJMIPÓåF IPFRǨOřM?ŒMAX
Table 2.7.5.Class.5.Singular marker->(labiolization)/CVC PL glossa.
Root tol OJG OPÓGNHJFř
5.b. Root tuÓ» tuÓ» OJ»řCC 5. c. Root rup rup --> ruÓåKQŒGGǨCřN A 0JJO»PÓåO»PÓåO »PPOBřHǨGř 'I!GǨNN !GǨNN !GǨNN 1ŒICPGǨMIJPINǨMřŒAřIOŒBŒřABMJHKGPMǨGIJPIN?T
QǨMTŒIC OJIř 'O ŒN Ǩ QřMT NOMǨŒCDO BJMRǨMA @GǨNN RDŒ@D PNřN
JIGTORJOJIřN&ŒCDǨIA*JRBJMNDJRŒICGřSŒ@ǨGAŒBBřMřI@řN
1řř2Ǩ?Gř !GǨNN
2Ǩ ? G ř !G Ǩ N N Singular marker>plural marker reversing tone glossary
6.a. Root kŜO FŹO = kít colour. 6.b. Root kök F©F = kòk arm 6.c. Root rok ròk = rók kidney 6.d. Root tu»O¯»O°»DJMI 6.e. Root athakǨODFǨODFHPA @ǨGǨ?ǨND
17 In class 7. The two forms of words for singular and plural are different. The singular word form is equated with different plural word form as shown in Table 2. 7.7.Class 7:
Table2.7.7Class.7Singular marker wrd.1- >plural marker diff. word.2.
glossary
7.a. Root. wř» we» = ØŘF cow 7. b. Root raan raan = kÓ@KřMNJI @ 0JJOOŒFOŒFAŒŘŘMRJHǨI A 0JJOHJ@HJ@MśśMHǨI
Class 8. is a group of irregular nouns in terms of their plural formation. It appears that ( i, e, × Ó J @DǨICřBJMKGPMǨGŒIǨ
MJJO OJ JODřM QJRřGN ŒI PI @JINŒNOřIO RǨT 2DŒNŒN ODř HJNO
AŒBBŒ@PGO @GǨNN ǨGODJPCD APřMFNJI NřřH OJ CMJPK ŒO PIAřM
GJRřMŒICKDřIJHřIJIRDřMřǨQJRřGCGŒAřNBMJHDŒCDOJGJR
ǨIAQŒ@ř QřMNǨ 1řřODřBJGGJRŒIC NřřŒIODř2Ǩ?Gř
Table 2.7.8.Class.8.(Singular marker (lowering V)->plural marker
glossary
8.a. Root r×å@ M×å@ Mř@BŒND
8.b. Root gÓG gÓG CǨG@GǨI
8.c. Root gai gai <- gÓŒCMǨQřGN
18 8.d. Root nya nya <- nyïïr girl
8.e. Root meth meth <- m? child
What has been observed from these eight categories is summarized as follows:
Singular--> Plural
1. CVC--> CVVC (short vowel --> long vowel)
2. CVVC <-- CVC ( long vowel --> short vowel)
3. CVC --> CVC Breathy ( Non- Breathy vowel -->Breathy vowel)
4. Palatalization (CI>>C<3M<R >>
5. labialization (CU>>C<3M<R >>P
6.Tone --> Reversing tone
7. word --> Differing word
8. Lowering Vowel
2. 9. Possessive and Numeral cases
The other two elements are dealt together on the same scale in order to see the relationship in the change effect and to save time and space. It is suspected that the change which occurs in a noun when followed by possessive pronoun is the same when followed by quantifier, one. See below, all the cases are
19 represented on the nouns taken from the above- mentioned eight group nouns. You can see almost all the nouns given behave in the same way when followed (attach to) by either possessive pronoun or the quantifier one (numeral).
Table.2.8.1.Class 1. Singular possessive numeral
glossary
1.a. Root bith % > % A) his/one fishing spear 1.b. Root adhe, ,> , A) his/one glands 1.c. Root k ) > ) A) N +5 "D!! 1.d. Root pal pal-de pal tök N knife 1.e. Root t, ,> , A) N 5 1.f. Root agor "> " tök N animal of cat's family 1.g. Root wut wuA> wuA A) N country
There is nasalization of ( th, u, t), Palatalization ( i--> , labialization ( o/u-->u and single vowel lowering ( e--> -
Table.2.8.2.Class 2. Singular possessive numeral glossary
2.a.Root apiir 5 > 5 tök his/one fish trap. 2.b.Root leeth ! > ! tök his/one root plant. 2.c.Root ) ####) +> ) + A)his/one +5 -
2.d.Root taar tar-de tar tök his/one jute.
20 2.e.Root kÓMFǨM AřFǨMOśFhis/oneřG?JR 2.f.Root koot kuÓI-de FPÓI tök his/one acaca tree. 2.g.Root kuur kPÓåM Ař FPÓåMOśF his/one joint.
There is nasalization ( th,c, t), Palatalization( i-->Œ× GǨ?ŒǨGŒUǨOŒJI
J P PÓ 4JRřG*JRřMŒICř ×
Table.2.8.3.Class 3. Singular possessive numeral glossary
3. a.Root- lith GŒ×ID Ař GŒ×IDOśF his/one eagle 3.b.Root de» A×» Ař A×»OśF his/one rain 3 c.Root. p×׌ŒŒK×I AřK×IOśFhis/oneHJJI 3.d.Root. mac many-de many tök his/one fire. 3.e.Root yÓHTǨH AřTǨHOśFhis/one@JGJM
There is nasalization (th, i,c), Vowel Lowering ( e-->×
Table.2.8.4.Class.4.Singular possessive numeral glossary
4.a. Root dit dŒ×I Ař dŒ×IOśFDŒN JIř?ŒMA. 4. b. Root mi×ODODODHŒ×ID AřHŒ×IDOśF DŒN JIř threat like material @ 0JJOODřř@ODŒ×ID AřODŒ×ITOśFDŒN JIřNOŒ@F
A 0JJOOŒŚOOOOŒŚI AřOŒŚIOśFDŒN JIřRŒUřM There iNIǨNǨGŒUǨOŒJIO OD .ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJIŒ Œ×
Table.2.8.5.Class.5. Singular possessive numeral glossary
5.a. Root OJG OPÓG AřOPÓGOśFDŒN JIřNHJFř 5.b. Root tuÓ» OPÓ» AřOPÓ»OśFDŒN JIřřCC 5.c. Root rup ruÓåH AřruÓåHOśFDŒN JIřQŒGGǨCřN
21 A 0JJO»PÓOå »PÓåI Ař»PÓåIOśFDŒN JIřBřHǨGř
2DřMřŒNIǨNǨGŒUǨOŒJIK O*Ǩ?ŒJGŒUǨOŒJIJ P PÓ PÓå
2Ǩ ? G ř !G Ǩ N N Singular poNNřNNŒQřIPHřMǨGglossary
6.a. Root kŜOO kiën-de kiën tök his/one color. 6.b. Root kök kÓå» Ař kÓå» tök his/one arm 6.c. Root rok MPÓF Ař MPÓFOśF his/one kidney 6.d. Root tu» OPÓå» Ař OPÓå»OśF his/oneDJMI
There iNIǨNǨGŒUǨOŒJIO F .ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJIŒ Œř
*Ǩ?ŒǨGŒUǨOŒJIJ P PÓ
Table.2.8.7.Class.7.Singular poNNřNNŒQřIPHřMǨG glossary
7.a. Root. wř» R×» Ař R×» tök his/one cow 7. b. Root raan raan-de raan tök his/one KřMNJI @ 0JJOOŒFFFOŒ×» AřOŒ×»OśFDŒN JIřRJHǨI A 0JJOHJ@@@HPÓIT AřHPÓITOśFDŒN JIřHǨI
There is nasalization ( k, c) Vowel Lowering( e-->×.ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJI
Œ Œ×
Table.2.8.8.Class. 8. Singular possessive numeral glossary
8.a. Root r×å@ M×å@ AřM×å@OśFDŒN JIřBŒND
22 8.b. Root g! g!> "! A) N #! 8.c. Root meth manh-de tök N child 8.d.Root nya nyan-de nyan tök N girl
8.e. Root wai wan-de wan A) N #)
There i ! D Z <7 !17 " >>CC-
It has been also observed that nouns are affected by possessive pronouns in the same way like when they are followed by quantifiers, one. The system is that most of the nouns they under go the same processes of vowel change that occurs in plural forms of the eight group of nouns. This change includes palatalization, labiolization, vowel lowering and nasalization of some final consonants and final vowels. One special character of possessive nouns and nouns quantified by one is the nasalization which is very systematic.
The final consonants and final vowels which are nasalized by possessor and quantifier as you have seen from the above illustrations are as follows:
(th-->nh, t-->n,c-->ny, k-->,5,5,5>>,5>>>>>>CCCC>>>>>>>>C C C C >>>>>>>>CZCZ CZ
Moreover, the structure of the Dinka phrase is not the same with the English phrase as seen in the table above of possessive and
23 quantified nouns. The Dinka: (Noun+Possessor) or
(Noun+Numberal). While the English: (Possessor+Noun) or
(Numberal +Noun) very opposite.
24 CHAPTER THREE
Methodology
3.0. Introduction
This chapter narrates the research design of the study and the instrumentation. It also covers the methods used for data collection and data analysis.
3.1. Research Method
This study is qualitative in nature. The data consists of noun agreement analysis (Gilley 19991) proposed that noun agreements provide a precise and reliable source of evidence about human cognitive processes when interpreted.
3.2. Setting
The materials of this study comprised four sources: (1) Workshop wordlist 1991 (2) Dinka Literacy materials (3) Rev. Fr. Nebel's primaries (4) native speaker's knowledge
The workshop materials were produced by a group of literacy and
Bible translators under supervision of An NGO SIL, Khartoum.
The participants were from four Dinka dialect groups: Agaar, Bor,
25 Rek, Padaang. Their levels of education range from secondary to
University. Their ages range from 35-65 years. Most of them had their basic education in English.
The other materials were from Rev. Fr. a missionary who founded the first orthography for Dinka language plus that of participants of literacy centers who were attending a class with the researcher. They were 15 in number and come from four dialect groups. All contributed a useful data. The literacy group were the focus of the testing ground because they were fully aware and in the process of learning writing systems. they participated in naturalness checking. Knowledge of how they used noun system strategies would enable more appropriate materials to be prepared for literacy. Findings on the use of noun system strategies by literacy participants would enable their instructors to understand their difficulties and be in a better position to help them.
3.3. Data and sample
Vocabulary analysis: the data was gathered from Nilotic phonology workshop material (wordlist 1991). This wordlist was adopted from SIL( Summer Institute of linguistics) used by Dr.
26 Leoma Gilley, University of Khartoum 2004. The wordlist consists of 13 categories: body parts, animal parts, animals, nature, liquids, plant parts, man-made objects, numbers, time, location, relationship, pronouns, quantity, quality size.
From these wordlists only 40 nouns have been taken for analysis of singular/plural and in possessive and quantative analysis.
In the identification of different types of systems resulting from
Singular and Plural, eight categories have been established.
On the other hand noun system resulting from possessive and quantifier cases have been also deduced from singular and plural processes.
3.4. Validation
The data used for investigation was chosen for the following reasons: (1) This vocabulary is very reliable and covers all the nouns of general concepts. This was to ensure the fact that the native speakers have some existing knowledge of noun structure like English language. (2) As common noun words that Dinka could automatically produce plural (when given singular and vice- versa).The other vocabularies were collected from Rev. Fr. Nebel
27 and literacy materials by the researcher himself in his mother tongue. These sources were equally useful for providing a very reliable information on nouns.
The researcher' s native knowledge about the structure of Dinka systems confirms the appropriateness of strategies used for investigation. Also the natural checking at the literacy center was practical and natural. All the four dialect groups participated
28 CHAPTER FOUR
Results and Discussion
4.0. Introduction
This chapter presents the results and discussions of the findings of the study. The second part discusses a short Phonetical and
Phonological account of the language leading to the explanation of Dinka orthography. The third part discusses the morphological system of singular plural noun. Whereas the fourth part discusses possessive and quantitative nouns cases simultaneously.The discussion here is making reference to their
English equivalences.
4.1. Consonant Sounds
6 ( )*# 7 7
5# ;"! ! -6 ## !!! ' !
* # *!"+[ 5!"+ !
7 # ;"! <3 ( ) 3<
+ # #- ! ) !+ 5%! ! "
5!# #! * # -
29 LL-8--8- *!# 3 4 #! >4 #! >>>7 '#! #
7 \ 5!# #!
!"" ! -8- 6 !!7 " %+ ;"!
( )5!! !+-
] !% !> %+ % " " % ! 5 #!
" -6 ' # ;"! 9>^5_5555 ^%_
%%% ^_% ^7_7777 ^7_7777 ( )
9>^5_5555 ^%_%%%% ^_ ^7_7777 -
]1% !# 7 !7 ! 5"
55 -;"! 7!% !
''''' 7 ( ) -^>_>>>^>_>>>
-
] ! 7 5 " % 7
-;"! 7 ! 9 "
+-
6 ( ) 7 ! ! ! %
#!-
30 ] 4!' !9E % 55 !!
" #!! !' ! " - ;"! has seven alveolar sounds:
[t] tab, [d] dab, [s] sip, [z] zip, [n] noose, [l] loose and [r] red. The
Dinka has only [t] tab, [d] dab, [-] ,---- [-], -- - [n] noon, [l] looc and [r] ret. It has five of these but no [s[ and [z]. But their equivalences are [th] thip and [dh] dhim.
* Palatal: are sounds made with the tongue near the hard part of the roof of the mouth. English has five sounds in the region of the hard palate:
[s] leash, [z ] measure, [c ] church, [j ] judge, [y ] yes. The Dinka has
[- ] --- , [- ] ------, [c] ciec , [-] --- , [y] yec only.
* velar: the soft part of the roof of the mouth behind the hard palate is [velum]. Velar sounds are made with the tongue near the velum. Both English and Dinka have three velar sounds: [k] kill,
[g] gill and [,_ """"-9^)_)))) !^"_"""" ! ?,-,-,-,-
31 ] /! !96 5# % 7 '#! ! "! -
;"! 7 "! 9^_
^`_7
( ) ^0_02BB^>_
labial dental alveolar palatal velar plosive vl p th t c k vd b dh d j g nasal m nh n ny , lateral l trill r semi-vowel w y 0000
Diagram.4.1. Dinka consonants
4.3. Manner of articulation:- It is how the air stream is modified by the vocal tract to produce the sound. The manner of articulation of a sound depends on the degree of how close together or far apart are the articulators.
* Stops- are made by obstructing the air stream completely in the oral cavity. Like when you say [p] and [b] your lips are closed together for a moment, stopping the airflow. [p] and [b] are bilabial stops. [t], [d], [k], [g] are also stops that exist in both English and
Dinka.
32 * Glottal stop: [?] is made by momentarily closing the vocal folds.
The expression uh, oh has [?] before each vowel. Like its equivalence [2_ ( )#% % +'7 !-
]: # ' > %+ " !+#5! 55"
-6 5 " "7 # #5
!! # 5# ) " " -
;"! ^ ' D_-6 ( ) !+ 7^ _-
] 4 # ' > # %+ % !+ 55 "
#5! !+ ! " #!
! " !+ # 5# - ;"! !+ 7
# ^#_^E_-6 ( ) H '! -
] = ! > 6 ' ! # % !7 -
!7 " ! % " "
5# ! " !
# #5 " !#' +-6 ^_^_
^,_ 5# 7 ' ! !7 #5!
% # !#' +- ;"! ( )'
-
33
n o i t a l u c i t r a f o r e n n a M š ž W
34 Compare to English consonant phonemes, we have seen that
(s,z,x, f,q) do not exist in Dinka and this is one of the areas where interference or language transfer occurs. The other area is the area of (b,d,dh,g,j) which are devoiced by the end of a Dinka word. The Dinka English language learners always need time to master these in order to acquire correct English pronunciation
(experience).
4.4. Vowel Sounds
The Dinka vowel sounds are much more complicated than the consonants. In addition to ‘regular’ vowel sounds, there are
Breathy vowels and/or Long vowels. There are also diphthong vowels beginning with ‘i’ and ‘u’.
Since the pronunciation of the vowel sounds in English greatly differ between Dinka letters it is important not to read the English as if they were Dinka sounds. Generally, there are several ways in which speakers of every language can change the shape of the vocal tract and thus change vowel quality.( language file). With the English and probably Dinka language, they do these:
1. Raising or lowering the body of the tongue
2. Advancing or retracting the body of the tongue.
35 3. Rounding or not rounding the lips.
4. Making these movements with a tense or a lax gesture.
4.5. Tongue Height
If you say these vowel sounds of seat, set, sat as transcribed [i],
[ _^_-c7 !! +5 + ! ! 7
+ #" ^ _ ^ _ ! ! 7 !!
+#" ^ _ ^_-6 '+ " " 5
# 5 " " " !""
! -K " ^ _ ^ _!7 ^_-K "'7 ! ! )
^ _ 7 ! 5 % #
" %+ "- "'7 ! ;"!
^ P_ ! )! #)!) !)
! 7 ( )- i o ( "-L--8-( )'7 ! 5 ----
36 4.5.1. Tongue Advancement
Besides being held high or mid or low the tongue can also be pushed forward or pulled back within the oral cavity. For example, in the high front vowel [i] as in beat the body of the tongue is raised and pushed forward so it is just under the hard palate. The high back vowel [u] of boot, on the other hand is made by raising the body of the tongue in the back of the mouth, toward the velum. The tongue is advanced or pushed or push forward for all the front vowels [i,ı,e, _ ) #) ) # #)
# 5!! %#) %#)'7 ! ^P_
D !)57 -6 # !'7 ! ^d_
!#)^_ '7 ! 7 H
" # " - ! !
I % 7 ;"! ( )!"" -
L-&-81 5 "L-&-81 5 "
<7 !H! +! 5 ! 55 -b + +^_
7777+! 5 -: ^ _ +
-;"! '7 ! ^P_
37 !5 5 #" - 6 ( ) !!7
* -
: : : : !%#) !%#)
K "K "K "K " P [ d D Æ
17117717 æ (( "-L-L-;"! <7 ! !"" ( "-L-L-;"! <7 ! "-L-L-;"! <7 ! !"" ! 5-L ! 5-L
Breathy Vowels
????
@A@A
( "L-&( )% +'7 !
The other feature, the vowel length of each position may be either
N- Breathy (NB) or Breathy (B). It can be represented as below:
In English vowels in certain phonetic environments are longer
than the same vowels in other environments (language file, 3.8.)
38 Vowels which are followed by a voiced consonants are longer in duration than those followed by a voiceless consonant. The duration of vowel is the discriminating factor in pairs of words like bad and bat. The length is transcribed using the symbol [:] following the vowel as in : peas [phi:z] vs peace [pis] had [ha:d] vs hat [hat] road [ro:d] vs rote [rot]
However, there are clear examples in English that can explain length of the Dinka vowels. Look at the diagram below. ii oo ïï öö ee ÓÓ ŚŚŚŚÓÓåÓååå åååå
aa ää
Diagram.4.6.Dinka long vowels
The third feature of Dinka vowels is lowering. It can be represented as below. The term lowering is represented by a class of vowels which function grammatically in the same way where a high vowel glides down to a lower vowel (see from the diagram 4.7) to form diphthongs. For each of the five vowels
39 positions, there are Non-lowered (Nlow) vowels and lowered
(Low) vowels
( Œ ×OJBJMHŒ×ŒOŒNǨGNJ@ǨGGřA.ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJI.ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJI.ǨGǨOǨGŒUǨOŒJIǨIAPï Ó
OJBJMHPÓ'OŒN@ǨGGřAGǨ?ŒJGŒUǨOŒJIGǨ?ŒJGŒUǨOŒJIGǨ?ŒJGŒUǨOŒJI 2DřNǨHřKMJ@řNNRŒOD
× ÓCGŒAŒICAJRIMřNKř@OŒQřGTOJBJMHǨǨǨ
Œ×PÓŒŒ×PÓŒ××ååPåå PPÓÓåååå
×Ǩ×Ǩ××åÓååå åååå
ǨŘǨŘ.
Diagram.4.2.3. Dinka lowering vowels
The low vowels of English like the [a ] in sat are pronounced with the front of the mouth open and the tongue lowered [œ,a ] as in cat and cot are the low vowels of English. The mid vowels are these [e, × Ó o] as in bait, bet, but, bought, boat.
4.5.3. Diphthong Vowels
2DřMřǨMřNřQřMǨGAŒKDODJICQJRřGNJPIAN GGJBODřHNOǨMO
RŒODřŒODřMñŒòJMñPò
40 Œ× Œ×× Œ×åŒ×å×å
ŒǨ ŒǨǨ ŒŘ ŒŘŘ
PÓ PÓÓ PÓåPÓåÓå
In English the Diphthong vowel sounds can be seen in words like hide, loud and coin. Two part sounds consisting of a vowel and a glide in the same syllable. This diphthong which consists of two articulations and the two corresponding sounds, is written with two symbols [ay] as in [hayd] hide and [aw] as in [lawd] loud,[oy] as in [koyn]. These can be also written like [ai], [au] and [oi].The system is the same with the Dinka except that the high vowels are placed differently.
4.5.4.Tones
Tone languages fall into two categories, register tone languages and contour tone languages (language file).The first kind of language contains only high, mid and low. While the contour tone language can have four or five distinct tones. Many of the languages of sub-saharan Africa are register tone languages among which Dinka is one.
In Job (1988) thesis, three levels of Dinka tones have been identified in which low tone is the most common among the level
41 tones. He argued that gliding tones are rare and rising tone is found only on long vowels. The voices of breathiness affects the perceived tones.
The identified levelNJBOJIřN are high ( ), meduim (~ ), low (` ).
The function of tone in Dinka language is to distinguish lexical items and syntax, example,( kït =kït, rok=rok), sentences, ("ř»
Ǩ?Óå wutic) in this sentence the low tone on object means [to] and high means [from].The high tone is produced when vocal folds are stretched, with an increase of airflow from the lungs and they are in normal position for mid tone and for low tone.
4.5.5. Syllables
In every language there are restrictions on the kinds of sounds and sounds sequences possible in different positions in a word.
This restrictions can be formulated in terms of rules stating which sound sequences are possible in a language and which are not.
Dinka is a monosyllabic language. The basic syllable pattern is consonant-vowel-consonant (CVC)..Generally most of the words are of a pattern:
42 V, 2 VC, ic CV,ma CVC, meth, V.CVC, at<<E"
( ) 8M 5 ' 5 ) \ )7! " - b ! ;"! !"" !!7 +!!%! % " 7
# $#) M # 5
# 75' ^ _
# ^5_^ _ ^)_ ^!_^_^+_ ^7_
% !7-
<<< ! 7< 5 - < < < ! < 5! - < )<5< ! < " - < ) <5 <# <
" -
4.6.0. Dinka Nouns system
Nouns are identified as nouns by two aspects of form, their inflectional morphemes and their derivational morphemes are the noun plural [-s pl] and the noun possessive [-s ps. Any word that has the possessive[-s ps] is a noun.(language file).
Most of English nouns endings indicate a difference between
"one"(singular) and more than one (plural).The vast majority of
43 them add-s or -es to show the plural form. If they end in a consonant +y they change that to -ies.
Table.4.5.1. English plural of (–s, -es, -ies)
SG PL book books dog dogs banana bananas tree trees kiss kisses berry berries fairy fairies Most of Dinka nouns, vowels indicate a difference between "one"
(singular) and more than one (plural). The vast majority of them lengthen or shorten the vowels to show the plural form (see 1.and
2.).Table.4.5.2.Class1.Singular short vowel>plural long vowel glossary
1.a.Root bith bith = biith fishing spear 1.b.Root adhe, adhe, = adhee, glands 1.c.Root k ) J) +5 "D! 1.d. Root pal pal = paal knife 1.e.Root t, , J , 5 1.f.Root agor agor = agoor animal of cat'S family 1.g.Root wut wut = wuut ostrich
The opposite occurs in class 2. where most of roots consisting of long ( ii, ee, '7 ! ) 5!! %+
" '7 ! 7 % !7-
44 K7 ' # # # 7 +5
"5 ) #! %! ! -
Table.4.5.3.Class 2.Singular long vowel -->Plural short vowel. glossary
2.a.Root apiir apiir = apir fish trap. 2.b.Root leeth leeth = leth root plant. 2.c.Root ) # ) # J) # +5 -
2.d.Root taar taar = tar jute. 2.e.Root k ) J) !%7- 2.f.Root koot koot = kot acaca tree. 2.g.Root kuur kuur = kur joint.
Class 4. is the occurance of palatalization in plural form when the root consists of (i or e) and the opposite occurs when a root consists of ( " %#) "! '7 ! -
! 5DD! - % ' !!+ ! )
7#! 7 7 #! # # -
Table.4.5.4.Class.4.Singular marker-> (palataliD D D plural V) glossary
4. a. Root dit dit = d % . 4. b. ROOt mi mi Jith threat like material L-#-M !??)!??) J! @)% L--M @ @ J ? 7 D
45 In class 5.The group of nouns here deals with the process of labiolization in which the two vowels (o,u) reverse their singular and plural
(O): { dor=>APÓM NGǨQř JM APÓ» AJ»DǨŒMX2DřNǨHřŒI
3VRPO RPÓåO@JPIOMTJMIPÓåF IPFRǨOřM?ŒMAX
Table.4.5.5.Class.5.Singular marker =>(labiolization) or CVC Plural.
glossary
5.a.Root tol OJG OPÓGNHJFř 5.b.Root tuÓ» tuÓ» OJ»řCC 5. c.Root rup rup => ruÓåKQŒGGǨCřN A 0JJO»PÓåO»PÓåO »PPOBřHǨGř A few English nouns are irregular and form their plurals in other ways by changing their vowel by adding -en or following a foreign rule:
Table.4.6. 0.Irregular English nouns
SG PL man men woman women ox oxen foot feet goose geese mouse mice larva larvae stimulus stimuli criterion criteria
46 automaton automata
This class corresponds with three Dinka classes (3,7, 8)
The third class 3. is a simple process in which singular nouns consisting Non- breathy (i, e, × Ǩ Ó J vowels make their plural by changing ( ï, ë, ×å Ř ÓåśŒIOJ?MřǨODTBJMHN
Table.4.6.1.Class3.Singular NB-Breathy->plural Breathy vowel glossary
3.a. Root lith lith = lïth eagle 3.b. Root de» de»= dë» rain 3 c. Root. p×׌K×׌K×åŒHJJI 3.d.Root. mac mac= m×å@ fire. 3.e.Root yÓHTÓHTÓåH@JGJPM
The seven Class.7 is the variation of word forms
Table.4.6.2.Class.7(Singular marker word.1->plural marker diff.word.2.
glossary
7.a. Root. wř» we» = ØŘF cow 7. b. Root. raan raan = kÓ@KřMNJI @ 0JJO OŒFOŒFAŒŘŘMRJHǨI A 0JJO HJ@HJ@MśśMHǨI
Class 8. is a group of irregular nouns in terms of their plural formation. It appears that ( i, e, × Ó J @DǨICřBJMKGPMǨGŒIǨ
MJJO OJ JODřM QJRřGN ŒI PI @JINŒNOřIO RǨT 2DŒNŒN ODř HJNO
AŒBBŒ@PGO @GǨNN ǨGODJPCD "PřMFNJI NřřH OJ CMJPK ŒO PIAřM
47 GJRřMŒICKDřIJHřIJIRDřMřǨQJRřGCGŒAřNBMJHDŒCDOJGJR
ǨIAQŒ@ř QřMNǨ 1řřODřBJGGJRŒIC
Table.4.6.3.Class.8.(Singular marker lowering V->plural marker glossary
8.a.Root. r×å@ M×å@ Mř@BŒND
8.b.Root. gÓG gÓG CǨG@GǨI
8.c.Root. gai gai <--- gÓŒCMǨQřGN
8.d.Root. nya nya < --- yïïr girl
8.e.Root. meth meth < -- mŜOD child
A few nouns ending with-f form plurals with-ves
Table.4.6.4. English plurals( f -->ves)
SG PL loaf loaves wolf wolves thief thieves leaf leaves shief shieves
Some nouns have two similar forms:
Table.4.6.5.English plural of similar forms
SG PL brother brothers/brethren
48 appendix appendices/-- formula formulas/formulae focus focuses/foci Some nouns are used only in the singular:
Table.4.7.0.English words used only in singular forms
SG PL news news music music
Table.4.7.1.Others are used only in plural:
SG PL scissors scissors
troussers troussers jeans jeans thanks thanks cattle cattle
I remember only one word in Dinka which behaves in this way and that is "5 @G "7 -
The eight categories that have been established have been observed to exhibit Morphophonemic changes
49 These changes were discussed in chapter 3. The rules for these changes are here codified to assist the reader to understand the differences in form between the singular and plural.
4.6.1. Codified morphophonemic rules:
1. CVC=> CVVC (short vowel => long vowel)
2. CVVC <= CVC ( long vowel <= short vowel)
3. CVC => CVC Breathy ( Non- Breathy vowel =>Breathy vowel)
4. Palatalization (CIJC<3M<R J
5. Labiolization (CUJC<3M<R JP
6. Tone => Reversing tone
7. word => Differing word
8. Lowering Vowel
L-.-8-=!L-.-8-=! # #
-! " " <7 ! 5!!
8- " '7 ! 5!!
6 # 5!! D #
!! '7 ! -
50 -" " =>% + +'7 ! 5!!-
L- M " *! ! 5 " " '7 !
5!!' # >' -
&-M "1% ! 5 " "%#)'7 ! 5!!
' # >' -
.-M "17 " 5!!-
S-" " 7#5! !+-
-!7 "'7 ! -
6 + ( ) "! 5!! +5 ! #
! +5 55 " # " 7 #
!!+ ;"! !"" -
4.6.3. Possessive and Quantified Nouns
In English Nouns that express ownership are spelled in a speciall way, singular and plural. Example English would spell :
1. The girl 's skates were new.
2. We saw the boy's kite in the tree.
51 3. Sandra' s pony won a blue ribbon.
4. Apostrophes are used in spelling the possessive forms of
nouns. Singular possessive nouns end in –'s. The English
Plural is also spelled as follows:
5. The men's hostel is there.
6. Eagles' eyes are very strong.
7. Keys's ring is small.
It has been also observed that nouns are affected by possessive pronouns in the same way like when they are followed by quantifier, one. The system is that most of the nouns under go the same processes of vowel change that occurs in plural forms of the eight group of nouns. This change includes palatalization, labiolization, vowel lowering and nasalization of some final consonants and final vowels. One special character of possessive nouns and nouns quantified by one is the nasalization which is very systematic.
The final consonants and final vowels which are nasalized by possessor and quantifier as you see from the above illustrations are as follows:
52 bith. th->nh, bi×ID Ař ?Œ×IDOśF DŒN JIřNKřǨM dit. t->n, AŒ×I Ař AŒ×IOśF DŒN JIř?ŒMA HJ@ @@->ny, muÓIT Ař HPÓITOśF DřM JIřDPN?ǨIA ADÓåF FF->»» ADŘ» Ař ADŘ»OśF DŒN JIřCPI GŒřK KKK H H GŒ×H Ař GŒ×HOśF DŒN JIřOJICPř AÓP PPP I I I AǨI Ař AǨIOśF DŒN JIřDřŒM MŒŘŒ ŒŒŒŒ I I MŒŘI Ař MŒŘIOśF DŒN JIř?JǨO DZÓCǨ Ǩ Ǩ IDZÓCǨI Ař DZÓCI ǨIOśF DŒN JIř?ǨF Hence, the rule is the same for possessive and for quantified nouns. The possessed and quantified nouns are proceeded by the possessor and quantifier, resulting change of vowels and nasalizations.
4.6.4. Summary
.The eight categories has been observed to have morphonemical changes which can be converted into rules.
The rules for these changes are here codified to assist the reader to understand the differences in form between the singular and plural. Similarly, nouns can be classified according to these changes. The possessive and quantified nouns have been dealt with showing similar processes.
The short vowel Singular Nouns have long vowel Plural Nouns.
The long vowel Singular Nouns have Short vowel Plural Nouns.
The Non- Breathy vowel Nouns have Breathy vowel Plural Nouns.
53 Palatalized Nouns are raised to front vowel Nouns and vice-versa.
The Labialised Nouns are raised to back vowel Nouns and vice- versa. The Tone words have reversing tone Nouns words. The
Word Nouns have Differing word Nouns forms. The Lowering
Vowel = ' I %#)'7 !7 -
On the other hand the Noun Classifications: Lengthening of
Vowel to form plural Nouns. Shortening of vowel to form plural
Nouns. These are most common method of pluralization and contains all the vowels. Changing of Non-breathy to Breathy vowel to form plural Nouns.
M "*! ! 5 " " '7 ! 5!!
= ' # >' -M "1% ! 5 " "%#)
'7 ! 5!! = ' # >' - M "
17 " 5!! = - " "
=7 #5! !+-!7 "'7 != -
Possessive and Quantified Nouns: In English Nouns that express ownership are spelled in a especial way, singular and plural.
While in Dinka the possessed and quantified nouns are proceeded by the possessor and quantifier, resulting change is in vowels and nasalizations of certain final sounds.
54 6 + ( ) "! 5!! 5 '
H ! # ! 5 - 6
5 ( ) % " ! +5
!"" -
55 CHAPTER FIVE
Summary and Conclusions
5.0. Introduction
This chapter provides a summary of the study and overview of the findings of the study. Pedagogical implications and recommendations for further research are suggested and conclusions are made
5.1.0. Summary of the study
This study is an attempt to investigate the Dinka Noun System,
Singular/Plural, Possessive and Quantified Nouns. Morphology is not an easy linguistic part. It needs some skills for interpretation of meanings of words. The process of interpreting Morphemes is important as giving correct meaning of a word. To investigate this process, the researcher has used Dinka vocabulary as a way of understanding what goes on in the mind of native speakers.
The study focuses on the use of Nouns in Singular/Plural and
Possessive and Quantified ones.(Jack Richards) encourages the study of the relationship between the acquisition and learning processes of mother tongue and second language. He suggests that there is always language transfer or interference of rules
56 from mother tongue to/with the second language being learned.
The more similar two languages are the less difficulty the learner gets and the more different two languages are the more difficulties the learner gets. Carl James also advocates the importance for teachers to be equipped of this information in order to guide teaching or learning in the right direction. The study aimed to examine how much is the gap between Dinka and
English Nouns Morphology that create "Error analysis" for Dinka learner of English. Whether the learner of English makes errors due to Morphological differences or else.
The vocabulary analysis: the data was gathered from Nilotic phonology workshop material (wordlist 1991). This wordlist was adopted from SIL (Summer Institute of linguistics) used by Dr.
Leoma Gilley, University of Khartoum 2004.
From these wordlists only 40 nouns have been taken for analysis of singular -plural and in possessive and quantitative analysis.
In the identification of different types of systems resulting from
Singular and Plural, eight categories have been established.
57 On the other hand the vocabulary was drawn from the same list to be investigated for possessive and quantifier cases. Useful results were achieved.
5.2.0. Overview of the findings
The eight categories has been observed to have morphophonemic changes which can be converted into rules.
Morphophonemic changes are codified to assist the reader to understand the differences between the singular and plural.
Similarly, nouns can be classified according to these changes.
The possessive and quantified nouns have been dealt with showing similar processes. Codified morphophonemic rules: short vowel => long vowel, long vowel <= short vowel, Non- Breathy vowel =>Breathy vowel Palatalized=> high front vowel, high front vowel => palatalized vowel, Labialized vowel=>high back vowel, high back vowel=>labialized vowel Tone => Reversing tone, Word
=> Differing word and Lowering Vowel +5 5# -
= ! # 9! " " <7 ! 5!!
" '7 ! 5!!-6 #
*!! D # !! '7 ! -" "
=>% + + '7 ! 5!!- M "
58 *! ! 5 " " '7 ! 5!!' # >
' - M " 1% ! 5 " " %#) '7 !
5!! ' # >' - M " 17 "
5!!- " " 7#5! !+-17 "
'7 ! -
Possessive and Quantified Nouns: In English Nouns that express ownership are spelled in a especial way relating singular and plural and their structure. While in Dinka the possessed and quantified nouns are spelled differently proceeded by the possessor and quantifier, resulting change is in vowels and nasalizations of certain final sounds.
6 + ( ) "! 5!! 5 '
H ! # ! 5 - 6
5 ( ) % " ! +5
!"" -
5.3.0. Pedagogical implications
The use of Singular/Plural and possessive and Quantified Noun
System have provided some insight into the Morphological process of both Dinka and English language. It indicates how one
59 decides for the meaning of a morpheme and this skill is important for a teacher planning for an effective instructional programme.
The analysis made has revealed the areas of possible difficulties that a Dinka learner of English may face. In such a case the difficult areas can be focused in the planning of strategic lessons.
The findings has identified different types of morphological systems including kinds of languages. Thus, Students can be easily guided using these directives.
5.4.0. Recommendations for further research
This study investigated the Dinka Nouns Morphology on
Singular/Plural and Possessive and Quantified nouns only.
Therefore, there is still much room for further research in this area so that a more reliable picture is obtained. The Researcher would like to stress on this area for the purpose of teaching that attention to be paid to the study of Dinka Morphology in general.
Linguists for the sake of development must do total research because without their scientific research teachers will not be in a position to design any material for learning.
5.5.0. Conclusions
The identification of Noun systems in Dinka language is still a problem that needs consideration for future research. Although
60 some strategies such as singular/plural and possessive and quantitative nouns have been used to elicit them, yet fixed rules are not very clear due to the fact that Dinka noun systems of vowels is very complex and this invites more researches to be made so that a proper picture is made.
The results from this study suggest that both the Singular/Plural and Possessive/Quantitative nouns have used the inflectional process all through eight categories. Evidence from the study indicates that lowering is common in both singular/plural and possessive/quantitative nouns, especially with the high front and back vowels(i and u). The characterization of
Possessive/Quantitative nouns is the nasalization of
(k,c,p,t,th,i,u,) in ending words. With Singular/Plural, the vast majority of nouns indicates differences in length plus other vowel quality and word forms.
The findings of this study further illustrate that there is right and left going of rules, in other words opposite processes of similar forms. For instance, in length, lowering, the vowels behave oppositely in indicating the differences. This can be also treated as strategy for establishing permanent rules.
61 The major problem the researcher has faced in this investigation is the limitation of data for tone from Dinka sources but native- speaker's knowledge did help in producing adequate and relevance examples.
The methodological framework used in these study could serve as a guideline for further research into the Dinka noun systems.
However, there is still much work that needs to be done in this area of morphology, because more insights into the morphological process would enable the language teachers to understand the morphological difficulties of Dinka and English as well and be in a better position to help the learners.
62 REFERENCES
Albert, B. J. (1998) Morphology and syntax, Summer Institute of
linguistics, Califord.
Daly, J. and Bickford A. 1994) A course in Basic grammar
analysis, Summer Institute of linguistics, California.
Duerkson, J. (1994 ) "llable initial "h" in Dinka in occasional
papers in the study of Sudanese Languages", N0. 6.
Summer Institute of linguistics, Sudan.
Duerkson, J.(1994) Phonetic Rules, Summer Institute of
linguistics Sudan.
Elson, B.and Velona P.(1983) Beginning Morphology and
syntax, Summer Institute of linguistics Sana
Ana California
Gordon, J. (2000) loomsbury grammar guide Soho Square,
London.
Gruyter, M. (1993) the Phonology of Tone, Berlin, New York
Hartmann, R.R.K. and Gregory James, (1998), Dictionary of
lexicography, Routledge, London and
New York
James, N. W. (1983) Language 6., Laidlaw Brothers, U. S. A.
63 Jon, A. (1982) Murle Grammar, occasional papers in the study of
Sudanese languages, Summer Institute of linguistics,
Sudan
John, T. B and Samuel H. G. (1980) Introduction to Phonemic
Analysis,
Kenstovicz, M. (1994) Phonology in generative grammar,
Blackwell, Massachusetts, USA
Longacre, R. E. (1976) An anatomy of speech Notions, the
Peter De Ridder Press, University of Texas at
Arlington.
Malou, J. (1997) An Explanation of Dinka Orthography, Summer
Institute of linguistics, Sudan.
Malou, J. (1988) Dinka Vowel system, Summer Institute of
linguistics, Sudan.
Mathews, P.H. (1971) inflectional morphology, Cambridge
University Press, U.K.
Mathews P.H. (1991) Morphology, Cambridge University
Press, U.K
64 Muhamad, I.A.(2000) Noun Morphology of the Daju language,
thesis, University of Khartoum.
Nebel, P.A.(1936) Dinka Dictionary, Verona, Sudan.
Nebel, P. A. (1947), E.S.C. J. Dinka Grammar, Verona, Sudan.
Nebel, P.A. (1948) Dinka grammar, Verona, Sudan.
Norman, C. S.( 1971) An introduction to English grammar,
University of Iow, Chicago
Pace, W.(1997-1998) An Introduction to Grammatical Analysis,
part one, Pan- Africa University
Peter, R. (2000) English Phonetics and Phonology, Cambridge
University Press London.
Richards, J. (1980), Error Analysis, perspectives on second
language Acquisition, Longman group limited London.
Scott, A. R. (1995) Nominal Morphology in Tennet , Summer
Institute of linguistics, Sudan.
Sraith, N. and Deirdre W, (1979) modern Linguistics, (p.125),
Great Britain.
Stefanie, J. Robert and P. Tracey L. Weldon (1994), Language
files, The Ohio state University.
65 Thomas, P.E. (1997) describing morphosyntax, a guide for field
linguists, Cambridge University Press, U.K
Torber, A.(1999 ) the phonemic system of Agaar Dinka. Journal
of African languages and Linguistics ( 9: 1-17), Aalborg
University.
Tucker, A.N. and Bryan, M.A. (1966) the Non-Bantu Languages
of North Eastern Africa, Oxford University press
Britain.
66