Guidance Fires in buildings
Developed and maintained by the NFCC Contents
Introduction ...... 5 Legislation ...... 6 Responsibility of fire and rescue services ...... 6 Hazard - Inaccurate situational awareness: Fires in buildings ...... 6 Control measure - Situational awareness: Fires in buildings ...... 7 Control measure - Scene survey: Fires in buildings ...... 10 Hazard - Restricted access and egress: Fires in buildings ...... 13 Control measure - Gain access/entry ...... 13 Control measure - Gain and maintain access and egress for sites with security features ...... 15 Control measure - Evacuation and shelter ...... 16 Control measure - Safe access and egress: Fires in buildings ...... 22 Control measure - Bridgehead ...... 24 Hazard - Firespread breaching a compartment ...... 25 Control measure - Maintain fire compartmentation ...... 26 Control measure - Monitor effectiveness of fire compartmentation ...... 28 Hazard - Undetected firespread ...... 29 Control measure - Identify and investigate fire in concealed spaces ...... 31 Control measure - Access concealed areas ...... 33 Hazard - External Firespread ...... 34 Control measure - Co-ordinate internal and external activity ...... 36 Control measure - Monitor for external firespread ...... 37 Control measure - External fire protection ...... 39 Hazard - Failure or inappropriate operation of fixed installations ...... 40 Control measure - Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) ...... 42 Control measure - Operate or alter fixed installations ...... 45 Control measure - Implement firefighting contingency arrangements ...... 46 Control measure - Tactical planning - Damage control ...... 48 Control measure - Respiratory protective equipment (RPE) ...... 49 Hazard - Partial or structural collapse: Fires in buildings ...... 51 Control measure - Identify the presence of lightweight or fragile building features ...... 53 Control measure - Identify appropriate access and egress points ...... 54 Control measure - Assess the building for signs of collapse ...... 55 Control measure - Cordon control: Unstable structures ...... 58 Control measure - Take preventative action: Unstable structure ...... 59
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 2 of 139 Hazard - Impact of fire or firefighting on structural elements or structural frames ...... 60 Control measure - Identify and consider the impact of fire or firefighting on structural elements or frames ...... 61 Hazard - Impact of fire or firefighting on structural materials ...... 65 Control measure - Identify and consider the impact of fire or firefighting on structural materials ...... 66 Hazard - Fires in roofs ...... 69 Control measure - Appropriate speed and weight of intervention ...... 70 Control measure - Firebreaks and fuel breaks ...... 72 Control measure - Cutting away ...... 73 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in roofs ...... 74 Hazard - Fires in thatched roofs ...... 75 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Thatched roof fires ...... 75 Control measure - Firebreaks and fuel breaks ...... 77 Control measure - Damage control – Thatch fires ...... 78 Control measure - Tactical planning - Damage control ...... 79 Hazard - Fires in chimneys ...... 80 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in chimneys ...... 81 Control measure - Cutting away ...... 82 Control measure - Controlled burning ...... 83 Hazard - Cables ...... 86 Control measure - Locate and avoid cables ...... 88 Control measure - Extrication of personnel from cable entanglement ...... 89 Hazard - Hoarding ...... 90 Control measure - Identify hoarding properties ...... 91 Control measure - Remove materials ...... 92 Hazard - Fires in tall buildings ...... 92 Control measure - Situational awareness: Fires in tall buildings ...... 96 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in tall buildings ...... 99 Hazard - Fires in basements ...... 103 Control measure - Safe access and egress: Fires in buildings ...... 104 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in basements ...... 106 Hazard - Fires in tunnels ...... 107 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fire in tunnel ...... 109 Control measure - Ventilation systems ...... 110 Hazard - Fires in buildings with a mezzanine, gallery or raised storage areas ...... 111 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Mezzanine, gallery or raised storage area
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 3 of 139 ...... 112 Hazard - Fires in buildings with a cellular layout ...... 113 Control measure - Safe access and egress: Fires in buildings ...... 113 Control measure - Assess compartmentation ...... 115 Hazard - Fires in buildings with an open-plan layout ...... 117 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in building with an open plan layout ...... 117 Hazard - Fires in atriums ...... 118 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in atriums ...... 118 Hazard - Fires in heritage buildings ...... 119 Control measure - Situational awareness: Heritage buildings ...... 121 Hazard - Fires in auditoriums and stadiums ...... 122 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in auditoriums and stadiums ...... 123 Hazard - Fires in buildings with complex fire engineering ...... 124 Control measure - Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) ...... 125 Control measure - Emergency response plans ...... 128 Control measure - Responsible person: Fires in buildings ...... 130 Control measure - Situational awareness: Fires in buildings ...... 131 Control measure - Implement firefighting contingency arrangements ...... 134 Control measure - Use integral communications ...... 136 Bibliography ...... 137 Further reading ...... 139
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 4 of 139 Introduction
This section of National Operational Guidance identifies the hazards and control measures that should be considered when writing policies for dealing with fires in buildings. For the purposes of this guidance buildings are defined as "permanent surface or sub-surface structures that are partially or wholly covered”.
It contains information relating to various types of building design and construction materials. It also describes how building facilities and systems can impact on fire and rescue service intervention. The guidance recognises and reflects findings from significant incidents in the UK,
This guidance is underpinned by information from the Building Research Establishment (BRE) making it easier for the user to find their way through the guidance without an overload of technical information. The BRE supplementary information, which is referred to throughout the guidance, includes information on:
Building design Construction materials Fire protection Facilities for firefighters Occupancy of the building
The guidance presumes that buildings comply with relevant regulations. However, some buildings may have been altered or changed since their original construction, such as a change of use, extensions or conversions. These changes may have been unregulated and could have an impact on the incident. For example, the structure or compartments may have been breached due to modifications to the original construction, compromising the fire separation within the building.
Depending on the nature and scale of the operational incident, a variety of significant hazards may be encountered. Where appropriate, other sections of National Operational Guidance should be referred to.
Guidance for fires in the built environment is supported by National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting, as it includes:
Fire loading Compartment firefighting Firefighting media and techniques Fire and thermal radiation
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 5 of 139 Flashover, backdraught and fire gas ignition Ventilation Smoke and fire gases Preventable damage
Legislation
A summary of the legislative framework addressing fire safety in buildings can be found in the BRE supplementary information.
Responsibility of fire and rescue services
Fire and rescue services are responsible, under legislation and regulations, for developing policies and procedures and to provide information, instruction, training and supervision to their personnel about foreseeable hazards and the control measures used to reduce the risks arising from those hazards.
This guidance sets out to provide fire and rescue services with sufficient knowledge about the potential hazards their personnel could encounter when attending transport incidents. Fire and rescue services should ensure their policies, procedures and training cover all of the hazards and control measures contained within this guidance.
Hazard - Inaccurate situational awareness: Fires in buildings
Hazard Knowledge
This section contains generic control measures that should be applied when gaining situational awareness at any building fire, whatever its size or complexity.
A lack of understanding of building design, occupancy types and engineered solutions may result in an inappropriate response to the incident.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 6 of 139 It may not be possible to identify all hazards from an external scene survey, leading to a lack of situational awareness. Factors that may not be identified until an internal inspection is carried out include:
Areas of the building that cannot be observed such as basements or loft conversions Communication dead zones Unauthorised occupants Illegal activities, including: Damage to firefighting facilities or fire engineering solutions The cultivation and production of illegal drugs Tampering with utilities and meters Booby traps Fire setting, which may involve multiple seats of fire Unregulated storage of hazardous materials including fireworks, fuel or ordnance If it is suspected that a building is being used for illegal activities, personnel should consider the measures that may have been taken to protect the property. Booby traps may be set to protect a property and its contents, and can include: The removal of floorboards The use of sharp or hazardous objects to protect entry points Wiring of handles and other metal objects to electricity supplies, see hazard Illegal activity involving electricity for more information Security measures may mean people within the property are unable to escape and make it more difficult for personnel to enter or leave the property safely
Control measure - Situational awareness: Fires in buildings
Control measure knowledge
Understanding a building's design and construction,its performance in a fire and it's occupancy will help personnel to carry out appropriate and informed risk assessments.
To carry out an appropriate informed risk assessment of a fire in a building, personnel should have an appropriate understanding of:
Building design Construction materials The effects of fire and firefighting on a building
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 7 of 139 Building use Occupancy types
The following sources of information should help to inform situational awareness throughout the incident:
Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) this should indicate the location of: Specified access points Building fire control room Building systems Emergency response plans, including event plans Building plans including: Fire safety plans Floor plans Site plans Evacuation strategies Premises information box Building systems, including: Fire alarm systems Security systems Closed-circuit television (CCTV) Integral communication systems Signage Premises information plates External surveys of the building Observations from thermal imaging
Information from:
Fire control rooms Responsible person Occupants External safety officers Personnel operating inside the building Other agencies
Building plans
When developing a tactical plan, information contained in building plans should be considered. Plans may be available from:
Fire control rooms
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 8 of 139 Mobile data terminals The responsible person The site office Premises information boxes
Building systems
Buildings may have systems that can assist the fire and rescue service in obtaining information about the nature of an incident.
These systems could identify the initial location and time of any actuations and may indicate subsequent firespread. In some premises there will be a building fire control room that monitors the building’s systems.
Some buildings will have slave control or repeater panels, which could be helpful for gathering information, but may not have all of the functionality of a main control panel.
Other systems, including heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and suppression systems, may provide relevant information.
Engineered solutions
Information on the presence and status of complex fire engineering and associated fixed installations may be available from the responsible person, the building’s fire control room or from SSRI.
Fire engineered solutions can be complex, and as each building could have bespoke systems, it may be necessary to seek information from a responsible person, a competent person, such as fire safety officer, or from SSRI to assist incident commanders when evaluating the effect of fire engineered solutions.
See hazard Buildings with complex fire engineering for more information.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
During fire safety inspections, gather information about fixed installations and building systems installed and ensure they function appropriately
Record information regarding building design, construction materials and occupancy type in SSRI
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 9 of 139 Gather information regarding any changes to buildings between fire safety inspections, including any change of use or occupancy
Ensure information about building systems is recorded in SSRI
Record contact details of the responsible person, where appropriate
Establish information sharing arrangements regarding unauthorised habitation or use of buildings
Provide personnel with information that has been gathered during fire safety inspections
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Access information that will inform situational awareness at fires in buildings
Liaise with the responsible person to gather information about the fire in the building and any actions taken
Liaise with the responsible person to identify the fire strategy and evacuation routes
Document any relevant verbal information that is received
Check accuracy of plans with the responsible person
Use any available plans of the building to inform tactical decision making
Consider the building’s design, construction materials and occupancy type
Check building systems such as fire alarm or security systems and CCTV
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 10 of 139 Control measure - Scene survey: Fires in buildings
Control measure knowledge
A comprehensive scene survey may include:
Visual indications en route and on arrival A survey of the exterior of the building A survey of the location reported as being involved in the fire Observations from thermal imaging Detailed inspection of areas of interest Accessing concealed areas Surveying adjoining buildings Aerial assessment
In addition to the that should be gathered at all incidents when carrying out a scene survey, information that may be relevant to a fire in a building includes:
The location of people in the building The location and condition of the fire including signs of: External firespread Fire breaching a compartment The condition of the building The location and status of access and egress routes The location and status of evacuation routes and refuges The number and location of open windows, or windows that have lost their glazing The presence of external cladding The presence of fixed installations including: Firefighting shaft Fire mains – including wet or dry risers Hose reels Firefighting lift Sprinklers and drenchers Gas suppression systems Signs of fire or smoke around the building, or in adjacent buildings The presence of renewable energy systems, such as photovoltaic panels
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 11 of 139 Signs of occupancy
When assessing whether the building is currently occupied, personnel should consider:
Information from fire control rooms, responsible persons and witnesses Time of day and occupancy type Signs of occupation, such as: Lights, movement or noise within the property The presence of vehicles associated with the property Lower floor windows that have been left open
When identifying occupancy, the presence of unauthorised occupants should be considered. Signs of unauthorised habitation may include:
Forced entry Illegal activity involving electricity
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider making arrangements with organisations that can assist with carrying out scene surveys, including the National Police Air Service (NPAS), Police Scotland Air Support Unit (PSASU), Police Service of Northern Ireland Air Support Unit (PSNI ASU) or unmanned aircraft systems (drones)
Ensure information about firefighting facilities is recorded in SSRI and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Ensure that a scene survey is carried out at the earliest opportunity at building fires
Consider the occupancy, use and contents of the property involved
Identify the location of basements, chimneys, voids, ducting, cavities and concealed areas
Consider the construction type, size, age and maintained condition of the building.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 12 of 139 Consider adjacent buildings that may be affected when carrying out a scene survey
Consider any signs of unauthorised habitation when carrying out a scene survey
Identify the presence of fixed installations
Identify any fire engineered solution and assess effectiveness against intended purpose
Ensure regular scene surveys of the building are carried out based on a risk assessment of the incident
Hazard - Restricted access and egress: Fires in buildings
Hazard Knowledge
Gaining access to the location of a fire in large, complex or secure buildings due to travel distance or security measures, may significantly delay firefighting operations. This delay may contribute to, or result in, increased fire development. Security measures in premises, such as places of lawful detention or banks, may also restrict access, resulting in delay. Domestic properties may also have security doors fitted, either to prevent access to the property or internally within the property as a safety or security measure.
Buildings with basements, or windowless areas, can have restricted access and may only contain a single point of access. Size, construction and internal layout can mean that incident ground communications may also be challenging.
Buildings up to 18m high, or more than three storeys, will have increased vertical travel distances. Firefighting lifts are unlikely to be provided, however buildings with a large footprint (more than 900m2) may be provided with a firefighting shaft.
Control measure - Gain access/entry
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 13 of 139 Control measure knowledge
Fire and rescue services are afforded the power to enter premises or a place, by force if necessary, or break into a vehicle without the consent of its owner or occupier. These actions are authorised where a fire has broken out, a road traffic collision or an emergency of another kind has occurred.
Gaining access or entry by force will invariably result in some degree of damage to property; to limit damage, personnel should consider different types of forcible entry methods. Fire and rescue services use many different types of forcible entry tools, ranging from basic cutting, prying and striking tools to sophisticated mechanical and hydraulic equipment.
A key factor for incident commanders to consider when undertaking forcible entry to any premises or site is the need to secure the premises after operations have ended. Although the security of premises is not the legal responsibility of the fire and rescue service, the incident commander should take all reasonably practicable steps to ensure that the site is left in a safe condition. Before making an entry to any premises, crews should be mindful of noting any points that may indicate evidence of criminal activity.
For further information, see: Fire and Rescues Services Act 2004 (or equivalent devolved legislation)
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Provide crews with training to enable the gaining of access and entry to premises or places with minimal damage
Tactical actions
Incident commanders must:
Ensure compliance with the powers of entry granted by the Fire and Rescue Services Act and devolved equivalent
Incident commanders may:
Enter premises or a place, by force if necessary, without the consent of the owner or occupier of the premises: if they reasonably believe an emergency to have occurred if they reasonably believe a fire to have broken out or to be about to break out for the purpose of extinguishing or preventing the fire or protecting life or property
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 14 of 139 NB Does not apply to Crown property (including ministry of defence) and diplomatic or consular premises NB The Master of the ship (or delegated officer) of a merchant vessel must give permission to board Move or break into a vehicle without the consent of its owner
Incident commanders should:
Select the safest and simplest method of gaining entry
Gain access to premises causing minimal damage considering the urgency of the situation
Consider a range of means of accessing incident including the use of specialist vehicles Consider carefully removing metal security screens considering weight and fixing methods
Control measure - Gain and maintain access and egress for sites with security features
Control measure knowledge
The fire and rescue service may be able to gain access via codes or keys for sites with security features. The responsible person, or a security company, should be contacted to assist with gaining access.
If it is not possible to deactivate the security feature, it may be necessary to make a forcible entry. The type of building construction, possible entry points and the security features present should be assessed. This will assist with selecting the most appropriate equipment and techniques for the situation, which can save time and prevent unnecessary damage.
For further information about forcible entry see National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting.
Having gained access to sites that have security features, it may be necessary to disable security features, or position personnel to ensure access and egress routes are not compromised.
Security smoke (sometimes called security fog or smoke screen) is thermally generated white smoke specifically used as a security measure. Security smoke machines may use glycol or glycerine mixed with distilled water to produce a dense white fog that obscures vision.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 15 of 139 Where there are armed guards, fire and rescue service activity will be carried out under escort and in accordance with pre-determined arrangements.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that information about security features, and who to contact for information or assistance, is included in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI)
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify security features that may compromise safe access to and egress from the scene of operations
Be aware of security systems and devices which could potentially isolate personnel in risk areas
Attempt to contact the responsible person or security company to obtain information about security features and gain access Obtain keys or key codes to gain access to secure areas, if appropriate Consider overriding security features, using equipment or positioning personnel to maintain access and egress
Consider alternative access and egress points using ladders or aerial appliances
Consider using forcible entry if security features cannot be disabled - see National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting
Consider cutting roller shutters to gain access, remembering that some shutters may retract once cut Consider seeking assistance for dealing with guard dogs from specialist animal handlers Ensure fire and rescue service personnel are aware of escorting arrangements where armed guards are present Consider using ventilation and wearing respiratory protective equipment (RPE) if the building is fitted with a security smoke system
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 16 of 139 Control measure - Evacuation and shelter
Control measure knowledge
‘Evacuation’ is the immediate and urgent movement of people away from a threatened or existing hazard. The response of people to emergencies can vary from inaction to panic; a key factor in maintaining control and order when conducting evacuation is communication.
The need to evacuate or shelter people could be due to:
An act of terrorism The actual or threatened release of hazardous substances Fire An unstable or collapsed structure The risk of explosion Severe weather, including widespread flooding Environmental contamination Transport incidents
When producing Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and developing incident plans, the evacuation or shelter of large numbers of people should be considered. Planning should be carried out with statutory resilience forums who may be able to mobilise resources to assist during the emergency phase of an incident.
Personnel at the incident and in the fire control room should develop a joint understanding of risk when determining if there is a need for evacuation, shelter in place or ‘stay put’. To achieve this effectively, robust communications should be established and maintained throughout the incident. For further information see: Have a communications strategy.
The decision to evacuate, and the size of the area to be evacuated, should be based on a joint understanding of risk which is agreed by the Strategic Co-ordinating Group (SCG). As a decision to evacuate is likely to affect multiple agencies, they should all be consulted if possible. If this is not possible, all agencies involved should be informed as quickly as possible.
The police are normally the lead agency for evacuation, and are likely to make a decision to evacuate in consultation with the local authorities. However, the police can only recommend evacuation and have no power to force responsible adults to leave their homes, with the exception of evacuation of the inner cordon for a terrorist incident.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 17 of 139 In any decision about whether or not to evacuate, the overriding priority should be the safety of the public and emergency responders. It is possible that evacuating people to the open may put them at greater risk; buildings may provide protection against some types of risks and the public may be safer seeking shelter in a suitable building.
Unless they are provided with specific instructions, people are likely to follow the most obvious or familiar egress route; this could result in a stampede, evacuating towards the hazard, or result in people being trampled.
Evacuation time comprises the time taken for individuals to move towards an exit, plus the time taken before movement is initiated – the time taken to recognise there is a danger and to decide on the most appropriate course of action. Communication and sharing of information should aim to enhance the effectiveness of evacuation. For further information see Warn, inform and advise people.
For further information, see the Cabinet Office publication, Understanding Crowd Behaviours: Supporting Evidence
Once implemented the evacuation plan should be regularly reviewed, to take into account:
The development of the incident Changes in weather conditions Information gathered from emergency responders and the public The effectiveness or impact of the evacuation
Fires in buildings
Taller or larger buildings are likely to have scalable evacuation plans, with some occupants remaining in relatively safe areas of the building during firefighting operations.
To prevent access, egress and escape routes becoming compromised, compartmentation and suitable routes for firefighting teams should be identified and secured at the earliest opportunity. Building signage should not be relied on for suitable access and egress routes.
Access and egress routes should be suitably and sufficiently protected by:
Using personnel with appropriate firefighting media Making use of the building’s fixed installations Maintaining the structure and integrity of fire-protected areas
The primary objective of an evacuation strategy is to ensure that in the event of a fire, the occupants of a building can reach a place of ultimate safety outside the building. The evacuation procedures are an essential part of the overall fire strategy. There are two basic categories of
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 18 of 139 evacuation procedure:
Total evacuation
Total evacuation of the occupants to a place of ultimate safety, by either simultaneous or phased procedures:
Simultaneous evacuation
The default approach, where it is unreasonable to expect the occupants to remain in the building for a prolonged time when there is a fire
Phased evacuation
A common approach adopted in high-rise premises where the storeys are separated by fire resisting construction, or in certain atrium buildings The first people to be evacuated are all those on the storey most immediately affected by the fire, and those on other storeys with impaired ability to evacuate, unless their personal emergency evacuation plan (PEEP) has determined otherwise The remaining storeys are then evacuated, usually two storeys at a time, at phased intervals
Progressive evacuation
Progressive evacuation of the occupants, initially to a place of relative safety within the building where they can remain or, if necessary, complete the evacuation to ultimate safety as part of a managed system. There are two categories of progressive evacuation:
Progressive horizontal evacuation The process of evacuating people into an adjoining fire compartment on the same level, from which they can later evacuate to a place of ultimate safety Zoned evacuation A common approach adopted in large retail developments, where an operational loss could be created by evacuating a large building for a relatively small fire A zoned evacuation is achieved by moving the occupants away from the affected zone to an adjacent zone; for example, in a shopping centre where the occupants would be moved to the adjacent smoke control zone while the fire-affected zone was brought under control
Occupant evacuation or escape strategies
Occupant evacuation or escape strategies will vary; the responsible person should be able to provide information about them. Some buildings have a policy to simultaneously evacuate when hearing an alarm, others maintain a ‘stay put’ or ‘defend in place’ policy and some adopt a vertical
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 19 of 139 phased approach.
The ‘stay put’ policy, as detailed in the Local Government Association’s Fire safety in purpose-built blocks of flats may be considered appropriate, based on the levels of fire resistance for compartment walls and floors. The use of occupant evacuation or escape strategies that are based on ‘stay put’ or ‘defend in place’ policies should be kept under review throughout the incident.
When determining the evacuation strategy the following factors should be considered and reviewed to maintain the safety of occupants:
That there is a clear passageway to all evacuation routes The risks to the occupants exiting along firefighting access routes Exposure to potential hazards Whether any occupants require assistance to evacuate If the evacuation routes are clearly marked, and are as short and direct as possible Whether there are enough exits and routes available for all people to evacuate If emergency doors open easily in the direction of evacuation Whether there is emergency lighting provided where needed If training has taken place about using the evacuation routes Whether a safe assembly point has been designated and communicated
Evacuation of medical facilities
Medical facilities are likely to contain patients, visitors and staff. These people will have varying levels of familiarity with their surroundings and the evacuation procedures. It is also likely that some people will be impaired by physical or mental disabilities.
Fire and rescue service personnel may be able to provide assistance to evacuate non-ambulant patients.
Medical facilities may have more than one evacuation strategy. This may include simultaneous evacuation, where people immediately go to a designated assembly point, ‘horizontal phased’ or ‘vertical phased’ evacuation.
Methods of horizontal phased evacuation are particularly useful when dealing with seriously ill or infirm people, who may require life support equipment, medical gases or strict environmental conditions for their wellbeing.
Hazardous materials
The aim should be to reduce the impact of a hazardous material on members of the public not originally involved in the incident, but who could potentially become involved as the material moves from the incident. This may be achieved by implementing an evacuation or shelter in place plan.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 20 of 139 An assessment about which course of action is correct for protecting the public should be made by a hazardous materials adviser (HMA), and provided to the incident commander. For further information about the information that will influence this assessment see:
Hazardous materials - Assess impact of release or spill
Hazardous materials – Safe and controlled approach: Hazardous materials
For information regarding contaminated casualties, see Hazardous materials - Controlled evacuation of contaminated casualties.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Liaise and consult with developers, owners, occupiers and responsible persons of buildings, to provide expert safety advice and to develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the associated hazards and actions to take to confirm the occupier’s evacuation policy or strategy
Ensure that personnel have access to pre-determined evacuation plans for buildings or locations that have them
Develop and test emergency plans and support arrangements for evacuating large numbers of affected people, in conjunction with statutory resilience forums and partner agencies
Participate in pre-planning and exercises for evacuating medical facilities Provide on-scene mapping facilities to enable risk areas to be identified and actions to be planned and documented
Consider liaising with partner agencies who have air monitoring capabilities, public communication responsibilities and specialist knowledge on issues relating to public health
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 21 of 139 Determine whether people should be advised to evacuate, shelter in place or 'stay put'
Establish communication arrangements to allow information to be gathered from and passed to fire control rooms
Identify the most appropriate evacuation plan and record rationale for decision
Ascertain the availability of pre-arranged evacuation strategies and policies
When evacuation is necessary, identify the number of people affected and develop a plan
Consider occupants that need assistance to evacuate (e.g. disabilities, medical needs, refuge areas) Establish a safe evacuation point and consider safe egress routes and refuge points
Assess the suitability of the location for people to shelter in place
Review the use and effectiveness of evacuation, shelter in place or 'stay put' plans throughout the incident, to ensure they remain valid
Consider the impact of the incident on the local community and consider a shelter in place strategy
Ascertain the likely impact of people on emergency responders
Make contact with the relevant authorities for advice on evacuation arrangements and progress
Control measure - Safe access and egress: Fires in buildings
Control measure knowledge
To prevent access, egress and escape routes becoming compromised, compartmentation and
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 22 of 139 suitable routes for firefighting teams should be identified and secured at the earliest opportunity. Building signage intended for occupants should not be relied upon for suitable access and egress routes.
Access and egress routes should be suitably and sufficiently protected by:
Using personnel with appropriate firefighting equipment Making use of the building’s fixed installations Maintaining the structure and integrity of fire protected areas Routes should be kept clear of fire and rescue service equipment, where possible, to avoid delaying evacuation.
Upon arrival evacuation is likely to be in place. Consideration should be given to the possibility of a prolonged period of evacuation which may result in fire and rescue service personnel commencing operations while building occupants are still evacuating. The possibility of scalable evacuation plans must also be considered with some occupants remaining in relatively safe areas of the building during firefighting operations
Buildings may have a fire strategy, which will include designated evacuation routes. It may be appropriate to designate separate routes for:
Access and egress of firefighting personnel Emergency evacuation of occupants
See National Operational Guidance: Operations - Evacuation and shelter
Emergency lighting may be installed to ensure that escape routes are illuminated. However, it should not be relied on for fire and rescue service activity; illumination levels and its operating time may not be sufficient.
Lifts, including firefighting lifts, may be used as part of the building evacuation policy. For further information about evacuation refer to National Operational Guidance: Operations
The use of ladders, aerial appliances and firefighting lifts for access and egress can help to reduce travel distances to the scene of operations.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about access and egress routes, the location and type of firefighting lifts, refuge points, protected zones and designated evacuation routes is recorded in Site-Specific
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 23 of 139 Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Ensure access and egress routes are protected and not compromised by firefighting activity
Identify firefighting shafts as a primary means of access for firefighting and staging internal operations
Establish and maintain control of firefighting lifts during incidents considering impact on evacuation
Consider designating separate routes for access, egress and emergency evacuation
Control measure - Bridgehead
Control measure knowledge
Fire protection features are provided to assist firefighters and should be considered when deciding on an appropriate location for a bridgehead. A firefighting shaft is a protected enclosure provided for attending firefighters, containing a firefighting stair and firefighting lobby. If a lift is provided, this may or may not be a firefighting lift.
Considerations for the location of a bridgehead include:
The potential for an escalation of the incident Safe air environment necessary to start up BA Crew safety and welfare Availability of water supplies Effective fire ground communications, for example, BA wearers and incident commander The level of supervision and support necessary The distance from the initial point of access to the BA entry control point (ECP)
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 24 of 139 See National Operational Guidance Foundation for Incident Command, for further information on bridgeheads.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that information about potential bridgehead locations is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Determine a suitable location for the bridgehead considering fire protection, water supplies and fire spread
Consider establishing a staging area for resources at a suitable location
Transport adequate resources to the bridgehead location based on service procedure and training Identify firefighting shafts, firefighting lobbies and other elements of fire protection when determining the suitable location for the bridgehead
Hazard - Firespread breaching a compartment
Hazard Knowledge
Fire compartmentation is achieved with fire-resisting construction, aimed at preventing or delaying the spread of fire and smoke from one space in a building to another. Occasionally this includes limiting external firespread from the building.
Dividing spaces into cells or compartments or separating the buildings by walls and floors constructed as compartment walls and compartment floors, can restrict firespread within buildings. Factors like the occupancy of the building, fire loading, height to its top storey and the presence of sprinkler systems can affect the level of compartmentation. These factors are used to determine evacuation plans in the event of a fire.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 25 of 139 Sub-standard installation or a poor state of repair will reduce the effectiveness of fire compartmentation. Penetrations that are not fire stopped, defects, or a lack of maintenance can lead to the early failure of compartmentation.[BH1]
Compartmentation is particularly relevant in residential buildings as the occupants of a house need to be reasonably protected from a fire in an adjoining house – walls separating one house from another need to be compartment walls. The same applies to flats and maisonettes.
Fire doors are installed at strategic locations in a building, where passage through a line of fire- resisting construction is required. Not all doors in a building are fire doors, but general purpose doors may have some inherent fire resisting properties.
Inappropriate alterations to external compartment doors, for example, changing front doors for aesthetic or security purposes, may allow firespread to breach compartmentation faster than expected.[BH2]
Where there are not enough fire-resisting elements, such as doors or separation that are not designed to provide a level of fire protection, firespread may breach the compartment.
Factors that may lead to firespread breaching a compartment include:
Retrofitted cabling or pipework with ineffective fire stopping Failure of devices such as collars or dampers that are designed to stop the spread of smoke or fire passing through pipework Features of the building that may allow for the spread of smoke or fire between compartments, including: Dumbwaiters Lift shafts Mechanical ventilation ductwork, which may contain a build-up of combustible material Natural ventilation in roofs, which may draw fire into roof spaces Severity of fire within the compartment Duration of fire development Failure of compartmental elements, such as uPVC door and window frames Interference with integral fire safety provisions, for example wedged open fire doors Firefighting tactics Actions of occupants, for example leaving doors open when evacuating
Control measure - Maintain fire compartmentation
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 26 of 139 Control measure knowledge
The state of compartmentation in the building should be investigated and consideration given to its protection if it has not been breached by firespread. Building plans, Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and the responsible person may provide information on the standard of fire compartmentation. An understanding of the elements of construction, occupancy types and building use may assist when identifying the expected level of compartmentation.
During an incident, closing doors or leaving unopened doors closed may prevent the unnecessary spread of smoke, fire gases and subsequent damage. This action should be balanced against the need to maintain access, egress, tactical ventilation and evacuation.
The positioning of hose lines could compromise lobby area compartmentation, resulting in smoke spread into the firefighting shaft.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about compartmentation is included in SSRI
Make information about buildings where compartmentation is absent or ineffective available to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Assess building areas and means of compartmentation, by referring to SSRI or building plans
Liaise with the responsible person for advice on areas of compartmentation
Consider the original use of the building and whether this has changed, especially if this has involved internal layouts being altered
Identify the areas of compartmentation involved in fire
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 27 of 139 Investigate for indications of early failure of compartmentation elements and assess requirements for firefighting media and resources
Be aware of features of the building that may allow for spread of fire or smoke
Consider building design and construction, including the presence of domestic chimneys
Establish where fire stopping materials are present in the construction
Maintain the integrity of compartmentation as far as possible when carrying out firefighting operations
Consider maintaining fire door integrity until firefighting media and resources are ready to commence firefighting operations
Consider the opening and closing of doors as part of the firefighting tactics
Consider the positioning of hose lines
Anticipate early failure of general (non-fire) doors
Consider using appropriate and effective firefighting media as a compartment boundary coolant
Consider seeking the advice of a fire safety officer to obtain information or intelligence on the building’s fire safety measures and standards
Control measure - Monitor effectiveness of fire compartmentation
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 28 of 139 Control measure knowledge
Concealed spaces, such as wall cavities, or openings that have been made in walls or ceilings to accommodate retrofitted services, will need to be surveyed to check that there is effective fire stopping, such as cavity barriers, in place.
Compartmental elements that may fail due to the duration of a fire, such as unplasticized polyvinyl chloride (uPVC) door or window frames, should be monitored for their integrity.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider providing equipment that could assist personnel in detecting fires in roofs
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Ensure all areas above, below and adjacent to the fire compartment are checked for potential firespread
Position personnel to provide information about, or deal with, any compartment breach
Consider using thermal imaging to detect firespread breaching a compartment
Consider whether a breach of the fire compartment could spread fire to another room, floor, area or other building and evaluate the possible hazards
Monitor for failure of compartmental elements
Look for signs of smoke, fire or fire gases coming from other parts of building unaffected by fire
Consider seeking specialist advice from a fire safety officer or local authority building inspector about the structural integrity of the building
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 29 of 139 Hazard - Undetected firespread
Hazard Knowledge
Concealed spaces in a building's construction may provide a route for fire to develop and spread undetected.
Fire and smoke may spread to other areas of the building, possibly at some distance away from the seat of the fire.
Firespread in building voids and cavities may advance through openings to other parts of the building, including internal or external walls, and roofs.
Concealed spaces include:
External wall cavities False or suspended ceilings Between modules in a modular construction Roof spaces Chimneys and flues Utility ducting Space under floors Space behind cladding Within sandwich panels Within structural insulated panels (SIPs)
It may be difficult to identify the structural elements and materials of the building if they are hidden behind facades and cladding.
Combustible insulation used in wall cavities and insulated panels can contribute to undetected firespread. Fire involving the combustible core of sandwich panels and structural insulated panels (SIPs) may result in elements of the panel failing, potentially leading to partial or structural collapse. Combustible sandwich panels may cause dense, corrosive and toxic smoke. It is important to consider that a single building may feature more than one type of sandwich panel.[BH1]
Debris may fall when concealed spaces are accessed. Concealed spaces may contain hazardous materials such as asbestos.
Window frames constructed from timber or steel will usually resist firespread into the wall cavity if they have been fitted correctly. However, aluminium and unplasticized chloride (uPVC) frames
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 30 of 139 require specific cavity closers to prevent firespread into the wall cavity. Fire may spread into wall cavities via incorrectly fitted, or damaged, door or window frames.
Building modifications could provide concealed spaces, for example:
Construction or removal of partition walls Addition or removal of doors Installation of electrical or mechanical machinery or systems Retro-fitting of façade assemblies and cladding
Ventilation can increase the speed of development of undetected firespread. See hazard Uncontrolled ventilation for more information.
Control measure - Identify and investigate fire in concealed spaces
Control measure knowledge
Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) or building plans may provide information on building design and construction materials and may identify concealed spaces. Early investigation of concealed spaces may reduce the risk of firespread in the concealed space and to other areas of the structure.
In the absence of SSRI and building plans, the owner, occupant or responsible person of the building may be able to provide information about concealed spaces and the access to them.
Fire detection systems, or alarms activating away from the initial zones, may provide information about the location of firespread.
The use of thermal imaging cameras (TIC) may help to determine the location and spread of fire. They may provide useful information but should be used with caution as temperatures may be masked by certain types of material, such as insulated panels or glass. For further information about the use of TICs see Thermal imaging and scanning.
Other means of identification may include looking for signs of smoke or heat damage to compartment boundaries, including ceilings. Signs of damage or smoke may be more obvious at breaks or joins in walls or ceilings, such as corners of the room or where fittings have been added.
Electrical fittings, including sockets or switches, may provide signs such as blackening around the area of firespread within a wall cavity. Damage to panels, from fire or other causes, may indicate
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 31 of 139 the type of insulation used in their construction, allowing the risks associated with the particular type of panel to be assessed.
Indicators of firespread include smoke or heat coming from:
Building ducting or heating systems Ventilation or air conditioning outlets Ventilation bricks Soffits
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Make information about concealed spaces, identified during fire inspections, available to relevant personnel
Ensure information about concealed areas in buildings is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Consider providing equipment that could assist personnel in identifying and investigating fire in concealed spaces
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Gather information from SSRI, building plans, owners, occupants or the responsible person about the location of concealed spaces and the access to them
Consider the potential for concealed spaces based on the type of construction, materials used and building modifications
Gather information from fire detection systems or alarm systems
Investigate sources of heat or smoke, including smoke that is remote from the seat of the fire
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 32 of 139 Establish the location and integrity of fire protected areas of construction
Consider using thermal imaging cameras to identify fire in concealed spaces
Search for firespread in concealed spaces
Gather information regarding the construction of external cladding assemblies and fire stopping, where firespread is identified or suspected
Control measure - Access concealed areas
Control measure knowledge
Accessing concealed spaces is carried out to:
Identify potential breaches to cavities or adjoining cavities Assist with checking for hot spots that may reignite
A thorough check of concealed spaces, internally and externally, should be carried out before exposing the fire. The most appropriate method should be used for accessing concealed spaces, and there should be appropriate and sufficient firefighting media available. It may be necessary to cut away elements of the structure to locate the fire or enable adequate extinguishing media to be applied, for more information see Cutting away.
Inspection covers, or doors may provide access to concealed spaces. Lifting floorboards or ceiling tiles and opening access hatches may allow access to areas under floors or above ceiling areas.
Accessing concealed spaces should take into account the potential impacts on ventilation, structural integrity and utility supplies.
Ventilation
Creating an opening to a concealed space, compartment or building may impact on ventilation. Natural or mechanical ventilation can have a considerable effect and may intensify the speed of firespread through a concealed space. Sources of ventilation in buildings (including inlets, pathways and outlets) should be identified, evaluated and monitored to establish the potential effects on fire
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 33 of 139 development. For further information about the effects of ventilation, see hazard Uncontrolled ventilation.
Structural integrity
Techniques such as cutting away or removing areas of brickwork to expose wall cavities may be required but can have an impact on structural integrity. This activity may require specialist teams and equipment.
Utility supplies
To avoid the risk of electrocution or damaging pipework, isolate utilities before accessing concealed spaces. The impact of isolating utilities should be considered; for example, isolating utilities may impact on fixed installations. For further information about isolation of utilities, see Utilities and fuel.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider providing equipment that could assist personnel in identifying and investigating fire in concealed spaces
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider the impact of ventilation when accessing concealed spaces
Consider the impact on structural stability before accessing concealed spaces
Consider isolating utility supplies before accessing concealed spaces
Use appropriate methods when accessing concealed spaces, which may require specialist teams and equipment
Ensure availability of appropriate and sufficient firefighting media when accessing concealed spaces
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 34 of 139 Hazard - External Firespread
Hazard Knowledge
External firespread may develop if the fire breaches the external envelope of the building. This may be a result of external window glazing or wall panels failing, or via open windows. External firespread may compromise compartments above or below the fire floor, irrespective of the materials used in construction. External firespread may also occur between adjacent compartments on the fire floor.
External firespread may also occur if there is a fire in an outside source such as refuse or vehicles or spread from an adjacent building.
External firespread under a building canopy may build up and retain sufficient heat to impact on nearby structures.
External firespread may interact with façade assemblies, including cladding systems. When assessing the extent of external firespread the complete cladding system, including fire barriers, should be considered. Once affected, from either an internal or external source, the cladding system may contribute to external firespread.
Fire may spread along the external surface of cladding; the materials used will affect the rate of firespread.
Cavities may exist as part of a cladding system or facade assembly. Cavities may also be created by damage, delamination or movement. Fire may spread within cavities, with flames becoming elongated due to the restricted space. The flame length may increase regardless of the materials used in construction, resulting in rapid, hidden firespread if appropriate fire barriers are not present.
The type of external cladding system used above 18m on buildings is regulated. This includes a restriction on the surface spread of flame, typically Class 0. There are also regulations on the materials used within the façade assembly, including insulation and any other filler material.
However, only the cladding used above 18m in height must comply with the regulations for buildings of this height, which may lead to the use of different cladding materials within the same building.
Dependant on the materials used, there is the potential for undetected firespread within the
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 35 of 139 cladding system; this can lead to a second seat of fire if the fire spreads up a cavity and breaks out higher up the building. Although there are regulations in place relating to the materials used on buildings above 18m, fire spread within the cladding system may still occur. If the cladding system is contributing to fire propagation, then the fire may affect multiple storeys simultaneously making firefighting more difficult. Typically, buildings are not designed to support severe fires on multiple floors. Fire spread of this nature may have detrimental impact on the existing evacuation strategy.
Effects of external firespread – photograph courtesy of the Building Research Establishment
There is the potential for fixings to fail during a fire. Falling debris from cladding systems, photovoltaic systems, glass or other building materials may present a hazard to people outside of the building, (see partial or structural collapse) or cause fire to spread to floors below or structures adjacent to the original or primary seat of fire.
Thin, flat or curved, building components, for example, glass that is used for glazing or structural purposes, may travel or float (also known as planing) a significant distance from the building. Poorly fitted window frames may lose integrity due to their exposure to fire or heat.
Green roofs and walls can be a source of fuel for a fire, allowing external firespread. Green wall frames or modules may be hazardous if they detach and fall.
Weather conditions, such as wind strength and direction, may impact on external firespread. For further information about fire phenomena, including the Coandă effect, and its impact on external firespread, see hazard Uncontrolled ventilation
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 36 of 139 Control measure - Co-ordinate internal and external activity
Control measure knowledge
To limit firespread or prevent deterioration of internal conditions, it may be necessary to direct external hose lines or monitors into compartments. It is essential that any external activity does not compromise the safety of personnel operating inside the building. Internal and external activities should be assessed for risk and strictly co-ordinated.
Communication with internal and external firefighting personnel is essential to ensure activities are co-ordinated, in order to avoid compromising the safety of personnel and internal operations.
Strategic actions
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Use effective means of communication for co-ordinating internal and external activity
Ensure internal and external firefighting personnel are aware of all firefighting activities being carried out
Control measure - Monitor for external firespread
Control measure knowledge
Evaluating the likelihood and impact of external firespread requires an appropriate understanding
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 37 of 139 of the building design, construction materials and status of the fire. Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) may be available to indicate construction materials and compartmentation of a particular building
When monitoring for external firespread, assess and review:
The location of people in the building Safe access, egress and evacuation routes The cordon distance required to take into account falling or floating building components Breaches in windows or external wall panels The number and location of open windows, or windows that have lost their glazing External firespread that may have compromised the structural elements or compartmentation of the building Indications that the building has external cladding Fire spreading through openings to walls and roofs Signs of fire in surrounding areas or adjacent buildings The impact to floor levels directly above or below the involved fire compartment Sources of renewable energy, such as photovoltaic panels; these may not be visible from outside the building or may be disguised as roof tiles
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider making arrangements with organisations that can assist with monitoring for external firespread, including the National Police Air Service (NPAS), Police Scotland Air Support Unit (PS ASU), Police Service of Northern Ireland Air Support Unit (PSNI ASU) or unmanned aircraft systems (drones)
Make information about buildings with materials that may contribute to external firespread available to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Monitor for external firespread to assist in the development of tactical plans
Establish a cordon taking into account falling or floating (planing) building components
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 38 of 139 Carry out regular external surveys of the building; the frequency should be based on the nature and severity of the fire and firespread
Consider the potential for undetected firespread
Investigate for fire spreading out of, or into, the building through openings in walls and roofs
Consider the impact of failure of fixings
Consider the use of thermal imaging cameras
Consider using internal or external resources to assist in identification of fire development and external firespread, taking any limitations of their use into account
Control measure - External fire protection
Control measure knowledge
To limit firespread or prevent deterioration of internal conditions, external firefighting tactics and various types of firefighting media may be necessary. The resources required to provide external protection and any impact on safety should be assessed before proceeding. For further information, see Fires and firefighting.
It may be necessary to remove potential external fire loading to limit external firespread, for example, creating firebreaks in thatched roofs or green roofs and walls.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Evaluate different types of firefighting media and firefighting tactics to establish what is appropriate for providing external protection for a building
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 39 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Provide early protection of external boundaries to prevent firespread, flame extension and thermal radiation
Consider removing external fire loading, including vegetation
Position safety jets to protect firefighting teams and maintain safe access and egress Consider the compatibility of firefighting media and the potential effects of internal and external firefighting operations
Position firefighting media to cover building apertures
Consider the use of aerial appliances to provide external fire protection
Consider using fixed, aerial appliance mounted and firefighting monitors
Consider using external fixed firefighting installations (e.g. curtain wall drencher systems to protect the building)
Consider using water spray for suppression of external firespread
Consider using compressed air foam as a fire break or for suppression of external firespread
Hazard - Failure or inappropriate operation of fixed installations
Hazard Knowledge
Personnel should assume that fixed installations are functioning correctly. If there are indications that fixed installations have failed or are not operating correctly the risk assessment should be adjusted. Fixed installations are designed to perform a specific function and for a range of purposes including:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 40 of 139 Protecting lives Protecting escape routes Firefighting and fire suppression Smoke control and ventilation Building protection Environmental protection
Systems may already be operating before the fire and rescue service arrives, or they may not be functioning because of poor maintenance, or defective design or installation. If systems are not operating correctly, or if the fire has exceeded its predicted size resulting in the systems being ineffective, the incident may be more hazardous or arduous.
In large or complex buildings, fixed installations such as sprinkler systems may be operating, and may be able to suppress and contain a fire within a compartment while access is gained to the location of the fire and firefighting can commence.
Firefighting tactics may influence the effectiveness of any fixed installations, such as the efficiency of smoke control following gas cooling techniques.
See National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting for information on firefighting tactics. Fixed installations may include:
Fixed communication systems Fire detection systems Sprinkler systems Smoke control systems including: Mechanical smoke control Pressurisation systems Smoke curtains Car park ventilation systems Other fixed installations including: Ventilation systems Foam Steam Drenchers Water mist Dry powder Reduced oxygen environment (redox) Gaseous (such as carbon dioxide systems)
Some fixed installation systems can present their own hazards – for further information refer to the Building Research Establishment supplementary information. Many types of systems can produce
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 41 of 139 large volumes of water when activated; this may cause damage to the building, its contents or the environment.
The operation of foam fixed installations may obscure vision when trying to ensure that the building fire has been extinguished. The foam may trap heat; when it is removed, the fire could reignite. Steam systems are rare and generally operate in an airtight environment; activation of the system may be harmful to people in the vicinity. Valves for steam systems, commonly located outside the protected compartment, should be closed off before committing fire and rescue service personnel to the activation area.
Water mist systems can produce large amounts of steam due to the interaction of the water droplets with the heat from the fire.
Dry powder suppression may be toxic or contain irritants; in an environment where moisture is present the powder can turn into an acidic solution.
Due to the low concentration of oxygen, fire and rescue service personnel should avoid working in a reduced oxygen environment without respiratory protective equipment (RPE). This also applies where there is a carbon dioxide system, which may be automatically activated. If the reduced oxygen environment is breached, allowing oxygen in, the fire can grow.
Gaseous systems which use halon alternatives may produce large quantities of corrosive gas, aerosol and liquid as a result of their reaction with the fire. These substances can damage fire and rescue service equipment.
Control measure - Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI)
Control measure knowledge
Fire and rescue authorities must make arrangements to obtain necessary information for the purposes of:
Extinguishing fires and protecting lives and properties from fires in its area (relevant fire and rescue service legislation for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) Rescuing and protecting people from harm at road traffic collisions in its area (relevant fire and rescue service legislation for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland)
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 42 of 139 Dealing with any other emergency function other than fires and road traffic collisions in its area (relevant fire and rescue service legislation for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland)
UK legislation sets the requirement for site-specific assessment. Collating and disseminating SSRI involves a number of tasks:
Selecting premises to be inspected Assessing the nature and magnitude of the risk Considering a proportionate response Recording significant findings Making sure information is available in a useable form
A site-specific assessment takes account of current legislation on inspection information and includes information on preplanning firefighting tactics.
Tunnels and underground structures
The planned operational response to underground incidents should be sufficient to allow relevant safe systems of work to be implemented.
During any construction process, it will be necessary to review the Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and emergency response plans so that any changes that will affect the existing risk information and guidance can be reflected throughout the project.
Pre-planning should be carried out jointly with other responder agencies that have knowledge of the environment, including volunteer rescue and leisure groups.
Hazardous materials and environmental protection
Fire and rescue services should assess the hazards and risks in their area relating to hazardous materials. This may be site-specific, for example, a factory using acid baths, or it may be generic, for example the local road network carrying hazardous materials.
The plans should also include information on pollution, prevention and control where a risk to the environment is identified at an incident. Although each nature conservation site will have its own environmental damage risks which can be captured with individual operational risk plans, a set of generic action plans will also help to identify generic environmental protection action to be taken in the early stages of an incident. See Section 2.6.5, Environmental Protection Handbook.
In addition to general site-specific information, the following should be considered:
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) Manufacture and Storage of Explosives Regulations (MSER), enforcement notices, prohibition
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 43 of 139 notices etc.) Notification and Marking of Sites (NAMOS) inspections and information British Agrochemicals Safety Inspection Scheme (BASIS) inspections and pre-plans The asbestos register Significant Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) assessments Control of Major Accident Hazards (COMAH) plans and information CBRN(E) site-specific plans
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop criteria for the identification of sites requiring Site-Specific Risk Information
Support the generic information identified for foreseeable risks, which may include a programme to produce Site-Specific Risk Information - the following steps should be taken in achieving this:
Identify local sites and their risks Gain local specialist advice from partner agencies and other organisations Consider including salvage and/or disaster plans Ensure that familiarisation visits and exercises involving such premises or sites are carried out Produce suitable templates to record and capture the relevant information Establish a delivery method to present the information in a clear and timely manner Schedule reviews and audits for the validity and accuracy of such information Embed a quality assurance programme Ensure information is made available to operational personnel to help successfully plan for and resolve operational incidents Identify specific operational knowledge, skills and understanding, which may need to be incorporated into local training plans Develop mutual understandings with building developers, owners and occupiers on the exchange of information about alterations to any parts of a building which may have effect on firefighting operations. Ensure communication systems are in place to inform relevant personnel, stakeholders and partner agencies. Develop systems and processes to embed a culture of risk information gathering, recording and communication. Consider the requirement for the provision of specific equipment and training in relation to buildings identified as specific risks within the area of the service.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 44 of 139 Collate and maintain risk information regarding hazardous materials sites within their area or neighbouring fire and rescue service areas where it is foreseeable that their personnel may be required to respond to hazardous materials incidents Include environmental risk information within operational risk plans
Consider introducing operational risk information plans with environmental risk notes for sites of nature conservation that are more susceptible to environmental damage. Where appropriate these plans should include:
Environmentally safe areas for deployments and movements of fire service resources Identification of areas that are susceptible to physical environmental damage
Ensure inaccuracies in risk information are resolved and systems updated post incident
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Access any operational or site specific risk information (SSRI) and confirm accuracy
Ensure differences in information are resolved and systems updated following the closure of an incident
Control measure - Operate or alter fixed installations
Control measure knowledge
Incident ground operations should include steps to ensure that no adjustments are made to fixed installations during the incident without authority of the fire and rescue service. It is essential to assess the situation before altering the state of the fixed installation; if the situation is under control or is improving, the status of the fixed installation should be balanced against the risk of causing preventable damage.
Fixed installations should only be altered or switched off under direct instruction from the incident commander. They should first be satisfied that this will not increase the severity of the fire,
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 45 of 139 compromise the safety of building occupants or worsen conditions for firefighters. See National Operational Guidance: Foundation for Incident Command for more information on risk assessment and recording decisions.
Local familiarisation to confirm the location of fixed installations, supplies and control systems is recommended.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about the location and type of control systems for fixed installations in buildings is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the associated hazards and actions to take, enabling Incident Commanders to give authority to operate or alter fixed installations within buildings
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider requesting specialist advice before attempting to alter or disable any fixed installation
Ensure all operational activities and personnel are considered before changing the operation of any fixed installation
Consider the impact that failure or change in operations of fixed installations might have on fire spread
Ensure all personnel are informed of any intended tactics regarding the fixed installation systems
Maintain the integrity of a reduced oxygen or carbon dioxide environment where these are successfully controlling fire development
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 46 of 139 Control measure - Implement firefighting contingency arrangements
Control measure knowledge
As the failure of fixed installations can have serious consequences, suitable contingency plans should be developed. These plans should determine good practice and alternative actions in the event of failure or inappropriate operation.
Contingency arrangements may include:
Checking the structural integrity and protecting firefighting shafts and fire protected zones The use of aerial appliances to provide a temporary fire main The use of firefighting lifts or, in their absence, the use of stairs, ladders or aerial appliances The use of equipment to supplement, enhance or replace a building’s fixed communication system A survey of the building and gathering regular information updates from emergency responders, to determine the severity of fire and extent of firespread Using hose lines as temporary rising mains Supplementing water supplies to sprinkler, foam, steam, drencher and water mist systems Providing external firefighting equipment to surround the fire A means to provide ventilation of fire gases
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that information about contingency firefighting arrangements is recorded in Site- Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the associated hazards and actions to take to ensure that contingency plans are effectively considered and implemented where necessary
As part of a Site-Specific Risk Information process, consult and liaise with developers, building owners, occupiers and responsible persons of specifically identified buildings, on contingency planning arrangements for fire emergencies
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 47 of 139 Where required and appropriate, share information with partner agencies
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Implement contingency arrangements to account for the failure of fixed installations to protect firefighting personnel and members of the public
Consider the potential for unseen or unintended spread of smoke and fire where systems are not adequately designed or maintained
Control measure - Tactical planning - Damage control
Control measure knowledge
At premises without salvage or disaster plans, or where these plans are not available, incident commanders should develop a damage control plan.
Damage control can be categorised into three phases of operations:
Phase 1 includes work undertaken at the same time as firefighting. This is usually the most important phase if significant damage is to be prevented. Phase 2 is aimed at mitigating the damage that has already occurred and preventing further deterioration Phase 3 deals with preventing subsequent damage or losses including removing and temporarily storing items
Incident commanders are expected to consider each phase of operations when formulating the damage control plan and ensure that it is fully integrated with the overall incident plan.
There is no clear demarcation between each phase of operations. They will overlap as the incident progresses and consideration should be given to prioritising damage control, working away from the area of highest risk outwards to other areas. This may be across floors and could include adjoining property.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 48 of 139 The effectiveness of damage control activities is directly proportionate to the following:
The speed and skill with which they are carried out. Incident commanders should aim to resource and implement damage control plans at the earliest opportunity. The implementation of safe systems of work. All staff involved in damage control should be aware of the hazards, should be fully briefed on how conditions may change and appreciate how their work fits in with the overall plan to resolve the incident. Effective communication. Incident commanders should be aware of the actions of damage control crews and these crews should be aware of the impact of their actions on the successful resolution of the overall incident.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical planning arrangements that incident commanders can adopt to limit damage during any fire incident Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken when implementing a damage control strategy
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Implement a damage control plan where no on-site pre-planning is available Consider implementing a functional damage control sector at complex, large incidents
Consider the need for damage control and salvage operations
Control measure - Respiratory protective equipment (RPE)
Control measure knowledge
Respiratory protective equipment (RPE) is a particular type of personal protective equipment designed to protect the wearer from breathing in harmful substances, or from oxygen-deficient atmospheres, when other controls are either not possible or insufficient on their own.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 49 of 139 The two main types of RPE are respirators and breathing apparatus (BA):
Respirators are filtering devices that remove contaminants from the air being breathed in; non-powered respirators rely on the wearer breathing to draw air through the filter Breathing apparatus (BA) requires a supply of breathing-quality air from an independent source such as an air cylinder
Where RPE is used, it must be able to provide adequate protection for individual wearers. RPE cannot protect the wearer if it leaks. A major cause of leaks is poor fit; tight-fitting face pieces need to fit the wearer’s face to be effective.
Maintenance is a requirement for all RPE, except for disposable (single use) RPE, and should be carried out by properly trained personnel. Thorough maintenance, examination and tests should be carried out at regular intervals in accordance with the manufacturer’s instructions.
Face fit testing
Face fit testing is a method of checking that a tight-fitting facepiece matches the wearer’s facial features and seals adequately to their face. A fit test should be carried out as part of the initial selection of the RPE and it is good practice to ensure repeat fit testing is carried out on a regular basis.
See: Regulation 7, The Control of Substances Hazardous to Health Regulations 2002 (as amended)
See: HSG53, Respiratory protective equipment at work, 4th Ed. HSE (2013)
Breathing apparatus
Breathing apparatus (BA) enables firefighters to breathe safely in otherwise irrespirable atmospheres. The use of BA as a control measures is likely to be applied as part of the incident plan for any incident involving
Smoke and fire gases, Specified risks for confined space Hazardous materials including: Asphyxiants Dusts Toxic, flammable and explosive substances
The Foundation for Breathing Apparatus guidance outlines procedures that should be adopted at operational incidents involving the deployment of BA. These procedures allow efficient, effective and safe working practices to be adopted at incidents of all sizes and type where an irrespirable atmosphere presents a hazard to personnel.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 50 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services must:
Provide employees with suitable RPE that fits the wearer correctly and adequately controls identified risks
Ensure that personal RPE worn simultaneously is compatible and does not negatively impact other safety measures
Fire and rescue services should:
Specify the type of RPE required for hazards identified through risk assessment and communicate to personnel
Have policies, procedures and guidance for all personnel on the safe use and management of respiratory protective equipment at incidents
Provide suitable information, instruction and training to all personnel who may be required to wear respiratory protective equipment
Have suitable arrangements for the provision, testing and maintenance of respiratory protective equipment
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Ensure that all personnel wear the type of RPE identified by service risk assessments, procedures and training
Implement BA entry control procedures appropriate to the level of risk identified
Hazard - Partial or structural collapse: Fires in
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 51 of 139 buildings
Hazard Knowledge
In a fire elements of building construction may distort or fail at different temperatures and speeds, depending on how the various construction materials have been used or combined. This can mean varying stages and severity of collapse.
Lightweight or fragile building features may collapse, including non-structural elements; such as conservatories, felt covered roofs, glazing and false chimneys.
False chimneys do not form part of the structural fabric of the building and may only be supported by roof timbers. False chimney may be made of glass-reinforced plastic (GRP) or in some cases, especially in conservation areas, they may be constructed from heavy masonry.
If the roof has a false chimney and the supporting roofing timbers or lightweight trusses are damaged by fire or collapse, the false chimney may fall through the roof joists or off the roof to the ground.
Elements of structure, floors, walls, ceilings, ancillary items, fixtures and fittings can partially collapse. Partial collapse can follow on from the collapse of lightweight or decorative features.
Partial collapse may expose structural elements to fire and heat which, if not controlled, will increase the potential for structural collapse.
Structural collapse of building - photograph courtesy of the Building Research Establishment
Structural fire resistance should maintain the stability of a structure for a period, during which evacuation and firefighting can be carried out. However, missing or damaged fire protection may lead to premature structural failure.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 52 of 139 Firefighting activity may have an adverse effect on the structural stability of a building. Damage can occur to structural fire protection during firefighting activities; rapid heating and then cooling by firefighting water can result in a loss of strength in the structural elements.
The load increases if firefighting water is being held within the structure, which may result in collapse.
Cutting structural elements during firefighting operations, for example to carry out ventilation, can also have an impact on the structural stability of a building.
Control measure - Identify the presence of lightweight or fragile building features
Control measure knowledge
False chimneys
As false chimneys are difficult to recognise, investigation is required to determine whether they are a structural or decorative feature of the building. Information can be gathered from:
Examining a similar building Speaking with residents There being an absence of an internal chimney stack
False chimneys are not suitable as an anchor for working at height as they may not be able to support any additional weight.
Glazing
Non-structural glazing can be used as a non-load bearing wall, or as an external architectural feature façade.
It may be necessary to identify alternative access routes to avoid areas of glazing that have been affected by heat. If there is a height hazard and the glazing has failed, personnel should implement working at height procedures at nearby internal locations.
Ladders should not be pitched onto external glazing; alternative means of access may have to be used, such as aerial appliances.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 53 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider providing suitable equipment to prevent personnel from using lightweight or fragile building features as anchors or means of access
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify the presence of a false chimney
Avoid using false chimneys to physically support any firefighting activity
Identify the presence of non-structural glazing
Avoid pitching ladders onto non-structural glazing
Control measure - Identify appropriate access and egress points
Control measure knowledge
In a building that may partially or structurally collapse, the location of access and egress points should take into account:
The location of the fire The impact of the fire on structural elements Any construction materials that have been or may be affected by fire, heat or rapid cooling The potential impact of collapse The travel distance to the scene of operations
To avoid the area involved in collapse, it may be necessary to establish additional access and egress
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 54 of 139 points or methods, such as using ladders or windows, and to ensure they are protected.
It may be necessary to identify suitable points of egress that can be used for emergency evacuation or tactical withdrawal.
There may be protected zones in the building, which help to limit fire and smoke damage. During an incident, it may be appropriate for personnel to identify and use these protected zones.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about access and egress routes, the location and type of firefighting lifts, refuge points, protected zones and designated evacuation routes is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider the potential for collapse when determining the location of access and egress points
Consider the travel distances within the building to the scene of operations
Consider identifying additional points of egress that can be used for emergency evacuation or tactical withdrawal
Identify and use protected zones in the building
Control measure - Assess the building for signs of collapse
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 55 of 139 Control measure knowledge
An appropriate understanding of building design and construction materials and the size, severity and effects of the fire and firefighting activities, both internally and externally, will help identify and assess signs of partial or structural collapse.
Factors that may affect the structural integrity of a building include:
The age, design and condition of the building Structural materials and construction methods Unusual designs such as air-supported structures Existence of fire protection – active and passive Substandard or unregulated construction or modification Fire loading to structural elements Fire conditions on arrival; size, severity, location and number of fire-breached compartments Backdraught, flashover or explosions Engineered timber and connections, such as truss joists and nail plates Applied load increase as a result of fire water loading Cutting structural elements for firefighting operations Severe weather conditions, such as flooding, heavy snow or high winds
Potential signs of collapse may include the following:
Cracks in walls Sagging floors or floors deflecting from wall Displaced columns Cracking or dropping arches Bulging walls Buckling columns or beams Water or smoke that pushes through what appears to be a solid masonry wall Unusual noises coming from the building structure
For more information see hazards:
Impact of fire or firefighting on structural elements or structural frames Impact of fire or firefighting on structural materials
Preventative action can minimise the potential impact of a fire on the inherent structural stability of a building. This may include cutting away and opening up to expose concealed areas, in order to inspect structural elements and check if they have been affected by fire.
Specialist advice may be required from local authority building control teams, structural engineers
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 56 of 139 or urban search and rescue tactical advisers.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about buildings that may be vulnerable to structural collapse is recorded and communicated to relevant personnel
Make arrangements with other agencies to establish the type and level of response they can provide if specialist advice is required
Ensure personnel are aware of the specialist advice available
Gather relevant information and intelligence about previous fire-related incidents in buildings and make it available to personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Assess and continuously monitor the building for signs of collapse
Consider appointing safety officers to monitor the building for signs of collapse
Consider cutting away and opening up to expose concealed areas in order to inspect the integrity of structural elements
Consider the effects of the fire’s duration and intensity and firefighting activity on structural elements or structural frames
Consider the effects of the fire’s duration and intensity and firefighting activity on structural materials
Refer to information and intelligence about previous fire-related incidents in the building
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 57 of 139 Consider requesting specialist advice when assessing the structural integrity of the building
Review the tactical plan and communicate changes following identification of partial or structural collapse
Control measure - Cordon control: Unstable structures
Control measure knowledge
The hazard area for an unstable structure that may undergo partial or structural collapse needs to take into account:
Construction materials The height and type of the structure Severe weather conditions, such as flooding, heavy snow or high winds The potential for damage to surrounding structures and infrastructure
In the UK, a portal or rigid frame construction is designed for inward collapse – in a fully developed fire a basic single storey structure may be expected to collapse within 30 minutes. Portal frame structures are generally designed so that they collapse within their own footprint.
Cordons may need to consider the potential collapse of scaffolding and tower cranes. On a construction site they could collapse outside the existing hoarding or site boundary. For further information see the hazard: Scaffolding.
Glass (glazing) or other flat panels falling from height may travel (plane) significant distances from a structure, particularly in windy conditions.
Specialist advice may be required from local authority building control teams, structural engineers or urban search and rescue tactical advisers.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 58 of 139 Make arrangements with other agencies to establish the type and level of response they can provide if specialist advice is required
Ensure personnel are aware of the specialist advice available
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Evaluate and monitor the potential footprint of collapse and debris
Consider seeking specialist advice when defining the hazard area for a potential collapse
Control measure - Take preventative action: Unstable structure
Control measure knowledge
Any intervention to prevent partial or structural collapse should be carefully considered as part of an appropriate risk assessment, particularly before commencing internal firefighting operations. Collapse can occur suddenly and without warning. Intervention in the early stages of fire development may prevent the incident from escalating or be necessary to save life.
Specialist advice may be required from local authority building control teams, structural engineers or urban search and rescue tactical advisers.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Make arrangements with other agencies to establish the type and level of response they can provide if specialist advice is required
Ensure personnel are aware of the specialist advice available
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 59 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider early intervention to prevent escalation of the incident
Consider the structural stability of the building before deploying personnel for internal firefighting
Consider applying water sprays to structural elements, temporary supports and scaffolding
Hazard - Impact of fire or firefighting on structural elements or structural frames
Hazard Knowledge
Structural elements and structural frames may be affected by fire, or by firefighting. For knowledge about this hazard, refer to the sections in the BRE supplementary information about structural elements and structural frames.
Structural elements will have varying behaviours when their integrity is affected by fire, including:
Air-supported structures are prone to early collapse if fire burns through the membrane, resulting in a drop of air pressure Arches may fail rapidly, depending on their construction method and materials Beams may fail, resulting in collapse of the load they are supporting Columns are load bearing and failure is likely to result in the collapse of other structural elements, including other columns Connections may fail prematurely during heating or cooling, with failures leading to partial or structural collapse being more likely during cooling Floors involved in fire should be investigated for stability; their collapse can lead to collapse of other structural elements Load bearing walls involved in fire should be investigated for structural integrity; modern walls may be built around timber frames and if fire has penetrated the cladding a more serious failure may occur due to undetected firespread Lintel failure may lead to localised collapse of walls above an opening, or entire walls if the
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 60 of 139 lintel is over a large opening Trusses may fail if involved in fire, singularly or as a whole system, leading to collapse of lightweight or fragile building features, or even to load bearing walls
Structural frames and their behaviour in fire include:
Temporary or demountable structures that have the potential for rapid structural failure Masonry integrity that is dependent on the quality of workmanship; failure of masonry can impact on the structural element it forms, such as arches, beams and columns. This is also affected by mortar quality and integrity; it can crumble in later stages of fire, or after fire, impacting on the integrity of masonry or blockwork. Individual modules, which are usually robust and should have undergone quality control and testing (including fire testing) as a completed unit. Weaknesses in a modular structure are usually found in how they are joined to other modules. Portal or rigid frame buildings that have the potential for rapid structural failure, with inward collapse Steel frames that will lose strength and stiffness at relatively low temperatures (over 550°C) in relation to compartment fire development, causing deformation and possible collapse Timber frames that may be difficult to identify as they are not usually exposed; there may be hidden firespread behind the outer skin of the building. Without fire protection, timber frame buildings under construction present a high risk of rapid firespread and early collapse.
Control measure - Identify and consider the impact of fire or firefighting on structural elements or frames
Control measure knowledge
Understanding the impact of fire or firefighting, and the signs of collapse, on the various types of structural elements and structural frames should assist in dealing with fires in buildings.
Risk assessments should consider the effects of the fire’s duration and intensity and of firefighting activity on structural elements or structural frames. Incident commanders should consider the tactical actions shown in the tables below.
Structural element Tactical actions
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 61 of 139 • Due to the potential for collapse, consider the use of defensive Air supported structure firefighting techniques
• Consider the impact of fire (duration and intensity) or firefighting actions (use of jets) on the integrity of arches Arches • Consider the age and condition of arches • Consider the potential effects of arch failure on the structure • Monitor for signs of cracking, spalling or potential failure of arches
• Consider the potential effects of beam failure on the structure • Monitor for signs of deflections or distortions in floors, indicating potential failure of beams Beams • Be aware that smoke may conceal signs of deflection or potential failure of beams • Consider water cooling of affected beams to prevent collapse, having considered the properties of the structural materials used
• Consider the potential effects of column failure on the structure • Monitor for signs of cracking, spalling or potential failure of Columns columns • Consider water cooling of affected columns to prevent collapse, having considered the properties of the structural materials used
• Consideration should be given to the type (for example, modern or historic) and condition of connections • Consider the potential effects of connection failure on the Connections structure • Monitor for signs of connection failure • Consider water cooling of connections to prevent collapse
• Consider the type and condition of floors involved in fire • Consider the potential effects that collapse of floors may have on Floors other parts of the structure • Investigate floors involved in fire for stability and undetected firespread
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 62 of 139 • Consider the condition of the walls involved Load bearing walls • Investigate walls involved in fire for structural integrity • Consider the potential of secondary collapse
• Consider the potential for localised or secondary collapse Lintels • Consider using alternative access routes to avoid potentially weakened lintels
• Consider the type and condition of trusses, particularly if they have been involved in fire Trusses • Consider the potential for localised or secondary collapse • Consider the potential effects of trusses supporting decorative features, such as false chimneys and renewable energy systems
Structural frame Tactical actions
Demountable • Due to the potential for rapid structural failure, consider the use of structures defensive firefighting techniques
• Consider the age, condition and build quality of masonry • Consider the potential for and impact of collapse, which can Masonry happen in the later stages of a fire or after the fire has been extinguished
Modules • Monitor all adjacent compartments for firespread
• Due to the potential for rapid structural failure, consider the use of Portal or rigid frame defensive firefighting techniques
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 63 of 139 • Due to the potential for collapse, consider the use of defensive firefighting techniques • Identify whether steel has been protected from the effects of fire by cladding, and if so assess the condition of the cladding Steel frame • Assess what temperature the steel has been subjected to and for how long • Monitor adjacent compartments or structures for conducted heat transfer
• Consider the presence of timber framed construction in new buildings • Due to rapid firespread and the potential for early collapse in timber framed buildings under construction, consider the use of defensive firefighting techniques Timber frame • Consider the presence of concealed spaces and the potential for undetected firespread • Consider the age and condition of the timber • Consider the effects of the fire’s duration and intensity on the timber
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that appropriate information, where available, about structural elements and structural frames is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Gather information about structural elements and structural frames
Consider the impact of the fire or firefighting on structural elements and structural frames
Consider using thermal imaging cameras to assess temperatures of the structural elements
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 64 of 139 or structural frames
Consider seeking advice from a structural engineer
Use appropriate firefighting techniques, included in the tables in the control measure knowledge, based on the type of structural element or structural frame
Hazard - Impact of fire or firefighting on structural materials
Hazard Knowledge
For information about this hazard, refer to the section in the BRE supplementary information about structural materials.
Structural materials and their behaviour in fire include:
Blockwork, which can undergo thermal bowing, leading to structural collapse; it may also be porous, resulting in the spread of products of combustion to other parts of a building Cast iron that can become brittle and fail with little or no warning; sudden cooling can cause cracking due to thermal shock, resulting in structural failure Cellular steel beams that are constructed using welding, which can be weakened by fire; there may also be localised failure of columns within cellular steel beams Cold-rolled steel, which s lightweight and usually no more than 3mm thick; if used for load bearing it is likely to be encased within some form of passive fire protection to protect it from the effects of fire The type of concrete, which may be difficult to identify; high-strength concrete may be prone to spalling, prestressed concrete may collapse without warning and any collapse has the potential to be explosive in nature Engineered timber that is prone to rapid failure once its fire protection is breached; it is usually hidden behind passive fire protection Historic timber, which may be decorative and non-load bearing, with construction methods often predating building regulations; if exposed to the elements historic timber may be more susceptible to fire Hot-rolled steel, which is used for larger building components; it loses strength and deforms at high temperatures, can transfer heat through thermal conduction (adding to the effects of
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 65 of 139 firespread), and unseen damage may lead to structural collapse elsewhere in the building Stone structures that can collapse due to severe fire and natural stone and can be affected by thermal shock, particularly when subjected to firefighting jets; this could result in large sections of stone falling (Note that it may be difficult to differentiate between natural stone and cast stone; the latter behaves in a similar way to concrete in fires) Fire can spread through structural glass by thermal radiation, even if not directly involved in the fire; structural glass can crack or shatter as a result of thermal shock Structural insulated panels (SIPs) that may lose their structural integrity when the foam insulation melts; a breach of fire protection can allow for undetected firespread and the release of fire gases Structural timber composites (STCs), which are generally designed to a specific fire resistance time; beyond this time they will lose their structural integrity Traditional or lightweight timber that has little inherent fire resistance and can become compromised when its fire protection is breached; this can result in concealed firespread
Control measure - Identify and consider the impact of fire or firefighting on structural materials
Control measure knowledge
Understanding the impact of fire or firefighting on the various types of structural materials should assist when dealing with fires in buildings.
Firefighting techniques should be based on the type of structural material. For example, cooling may be carried out by using sprays to reduce the temperature of the structure. However, the use of this technique should be exercised with caution, as rapid cooling could weaken the structure. Incident commanders should consider the tactical actions shown in the tables below.
Structural material Tactical actions
• Consider the potential for collapse Blockwork • Investigate adjoining compartments for the spread of products of combustion
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 66 of 139 • Consider the potential for collapse • Consider the weight of falling cast iron elements Cast iron • Avoid rapid cooling of cast iron due to thermal shock • Monitor adjacent compartments or structures for conducted heat transfer
• Consider the potential for collapse, but do not attempt to predict the mode of failure as this requires an in-depth knowledge of structural engineering • Consider the effects of the fire's duration and intensity on cellular Cellular steel steel that has been exposed to heat • Monitor adjacent compartments or structures for conducted heat transfer • Consider cooling affected cellular steel to prevent collapse
• Be aware that failure of cold rolled steel may occur quickly and Cold rolled steel suddenly
• Consider the prompt use of ventilation due to the thermal capacity of concrete Concrete • Monitor for signs of spalling; this may be an early indicator of collapse
• Consider the effects of the fire’s duration and intensity on the Engineered timber engineered timber • Seek advice on fire engineered strategies
• Consider the condition of the timber in historic buildings Historic timber • Consider the effects of historic building materials used as insulation between floors
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 67 of 139 • Due to the potential for early collapse, consider the use of defensive firefighting techniques • Identify whether steel has been protected from the effects of fire by cladding, and if so assess the condition of the cladding Hot rolled steel • Assess what temperature the steel has been subjected to and for how long • Monitor adjacent compartments or structures for conducted heat transfer
• Monitor for signs of spalling; this may be an early indicator of collapse • Prevent direct application of firefighting jets onto heated areas of Stone structural stone • Consider applying the tactical actions for concrete in case the material is cast stone rather than natural stone
• Be aware that large sections of structural glass may fall (or plane) a considerable distance from the building • Identify alternative access and egress routes to avoid areas of Structural glass glazing affected by fire • Avoid rapid cooling of structural glass due to thermal shock • Consider working at height procedures if personnel are working inside the building near to where glazing has failed
• Due to rapid and intense heat and smoke and the potential for Structural insulated collapse, consider the use of defensive firefighting techniques panels (SIPs) • Monitor for rapid firespread that could lead to flashover in the early stages of a fire
• Monitor STCs involved in fire for unexpected behaviour or signs of Structural timber collapse composites (STCs) • Assess what temperature the STCs have been subjected to and for how long
• Consider the potential for rapid undetected firespread Traditional or • Investigate any potential firespread; cutting away of cladding or lightweight timber coverings may be required
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 68 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure any available information about structural materials is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Gather information about structural materials
Consider the effects of the fire’s duration and intensity and firefighting activity on structural materials
Consider using thermal imaging cameras to assess temperatures of the structural material
Consider seeking advice from a structural engineer
Use appropriate firefighting techniques, included in the table in the control measure knowledge, based on the type of structural material
Hazard - Fires in roofs
Hazard Knowledge
A roof is not classed as an element of structure and may collapse during the early stages of a fire, depending on its design, especially if the fire is in the top storey of a building or within the structure itself. The design, size, type and materials used for construction can vary extensively.
The materials used in the construction of roofs and those used in their covering can be flammable. As a roof is not classed as an element of structure, the fire safety requirements for roofs are far less than for habitable storeys. The materials and cavities within roof spaces can cause fire to spread
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 69 of 139 rapidly and extensively. A lack of compartmentation between properties (e.g. terraces) can also allow for extensive spread of fire to neighbouring residencies. Some roofs may have the presence of decorative features such as false chimneys and have the potential for failure in a fire.
Certain designed roofs may form a habitable space and incorporate features such as roof lights or dormer windows. Such features can act as means of access & egress for the fire and rescue service, as well as a means of ventilation. Cavities are often created within habitable roof spaces between the ceiling and wall construction and the ridge and wall plates respectively with limited access for firefighters. In the case of uninhabited roofs, small hatches often provide the internal access for the roof space.
As roofs are designed to protect from the elements of weather, this also presents difficulties in fighting fire from the outside, this intervention may have limited affect and therefore early consideration should be given to internal firefighting tactics.
Where internal access is not easily achievable, then consideration should be given to the use of working at height procedures and / or aerial appliances for creating external access to scene of fire.
Control measure - Appropriate speed and weight of intervention
Control measure knowledge
Committing crews to offensive operations requires the adoption of a safe system of work that reduces the risks to firefighters to a level as low as is reasonably practicable. If an incident commander has insufficient personnel present to introduce such a system of work, they may have to adopt defensive tactics until further resources arrive, or until they are reasonably certain that further resources will arrive imminently.
Rescue operations must be the subject of a dynamic risk assessment, balancing the benefits in terms of saveable life against the risk to firefighters.
See National Operational Guidance: Incident Command
Where signs and symptoms suggest the likelihood of a backdraught, consideration should be given to employing defensive firefighting tactics until further resources, or special equipment such as cutting extinguisher or positive pressure ventilation, can be brought to the incident. Incident
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 70 of 139 commanders must ensure they have considered the likely outcome of ventilating a compartment before opening it up for firefighting.
Incident commanders must assess the growth stage of the fire when deciding to commit crews to offensive operations. If rapid intervention with a sufficient application rate of firefighting media can be made, a flashover may be forestalled. However, compartment size, the presence of fire and fire gas spread in voids, fire loading and poor application rates may make this tactic untenable.
At high-rise fires or wildfires, fire may be wind-driven. The effect of high wind speeds on a fire may prevent rapid intervention and, particularly in the case of high-rise fires, require incident commanders to adopt specific tactics to prevent uncontrolled firespread and injury to firefighters. These tactics are likely to require a large number of resources be assembled before committing to offensive firefighting.
When fighting fires in the open, the incident commander should deploy firefighters with due regard for the likely effect of topographical features on firespread. Although wind direction and the presence or absence of vegetation are the key factors in firespread, other features may produce unexpected changes in fire behaviour leading to crews being overtaken. Fires tend to spread more quickly uphill, due to preheating of fuel, and more slowly downhill. Underlying root structures and soil types may cause fire to spread unseen, and the relative moisture content of different types of vegetation may produce unexpected patterns of firespread.
See National Operational Guidance: Wildfires
See National Operational Guidance: Incident command - Command decision-making
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards and actions to be taken when considering the appropriate speed of intervention
Consider and implement National Operational Guidance: Incident command
Ensure all incident commanders receive information, instruction and training in command decision making
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 71 of 139 Consider the appropriate speed of intervention to limit fire development
Protect surrounding environment and infrastructure from thermal radiation and fire spread
Control measure - Firebreaks and fuel breaks
Control measure knowledge
A firebreak can be implemented to present an obstacle to the spread of fire; this tactic can be useful in waste, roof (particularly thatch) and wildfires. If a firebreak is to be effective, it should be a sufficient distance from the fire to ensure that the break can be completed before the fire reaches that point. A firebreak can be complemented by using extinguishing media to further resist the spread of fire in a particular direction.
A fuel break is an existing, planned change or discontinuity in fuel that will reduce the likelihood of combustion, fire intensity and/or the rate of firespread.
In preventing firespread, the position of separating walls and other firebreaks that could help with checking the spread of fire should be considered. In modern buildings with fire-resisting floors, horizontal fire travel is more usual, while in older buildings the spread of fire tends to be in a more vertical direction.
See also: National Operational Guidance: Wildfire
See National Operational Guidance: Environmental protection
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken when implementing a firebreak system Consult and liaise with relevant people and/or agencies to obtain advice and support on firebreak information in identified areas of land and specific buildings Produce site specific risk information (SSRI) on appropriate firebreaks
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 72 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider creating a firebreak to prevent firespread, considering the time required to implement
Monitor the effectiveness of any firebreak and communicate any breach to all personnel
Assess the fuel type, weather conditions, resources and time required to create an effective firebreak
Consider separating burning material from the fire using heavy plant and extinguishing it
Control measure - Cutting away
Control measure knowledge
During firefighting and salvage operations, crews may need to cut away elements of a structure, removing surface coverings such as flooring, skirting, roofing members and partitions to ensure that all hot spots have been exposed and the fire has been fully extinguished.
Various techniques and methods of cutting away may be required to assist in locating a fire. For example, at chimney/hearth fires, in voids or between floors may require significant cutting away actions to locate the fire and enable adequate extinguishing media to be applied.
Crews involved in cutting away should be aware of the type of building involved and the construction methods likely to be encountered. Cutting away even small areas may have an impact on the entire structure and care should be taken to ensure that the wider structure remains safe at all times. This can be particularly relevant in timber-framed structures where one element weakened through fire or fire and rescue service intervention could have a detrimental effect on the entire building's strength. Incident commanders should ensure that nominated safety officers and/or specialist advice are used where appropriate.
Crews should try to ensure that, as far as practicable, cutting away any parts of a structure or property is done in the most effective manner, minimising property damage and allowing easy repair.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 73 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken when considering cutting away coverings and structures to locate fires and firespread Develop local arrangements to ensure that during operational incidents relevant building structural integrity is assessed by suitably qualified individuals
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Undertake cutting away to locate and extinguish fire, considering the risk of weakening structure
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in roofs
Control measure knowledge
Consideration should be given to investigate adjoining roofs for potential undetected firespread and the use of thermal image cameras should be considered. Caution should be exercised because of the likelihood of roof collapse due to the effect of fire on the structure of the roof or the increased load imposed by the volume of firefighting media.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider providing equipment that could assist personnel in detecting fires in roofs
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 74 of 139 Gain access to the roof space and investigate any adjoining roof space for firespread
Consider the potential for failure of the roof structure due to weakening or volume of water
Hazard - Fires in thatched roofs
Hazard Knowledge
Thatched roofs are constructed from dry vegetation, usually long straw, combed wheat or water reed. The materials are tightly bundled together and attached using spurges, strips of split timber or reed. To prevent loss of materials this can be covered in a fine mesh.
Removing long straw thatch is costly and difficult, so a process of spar coating is used. Original layers are left in place and built upon with newer materials. Although wire mesh should be removed during spar coating it may be left in place and all other fixings will remain. This layering process can mean older thatches are over 2m in depth and older thatching material can contain harmful mould spores. Consider the use of RPE to prevent inspiration of mould spores, even when not working in a smoke-filled area.
Thatches built or replaced recently should be built with fire resisting building board (FRBB) to protect roof timbers. This provides a minimum of 30 minutes’ fire protection and should remain in place to prevent firespread to roof timbers. Older thatches may be open boarded, which may allow internal firefighting actions.
Fixings are often combustible, and their Integrity will be affected by fire. Failure of support can lead to large sections of thatch to fall from the roof. The density and depth can mean that thatch weighs more than 34kg per square metre. Personnel should not work beneath burnt or burning sections; consider the use of cordons.
Wire mesh covering the thatch will conduct electricity and heat. Rusted and torn mesh can cause cuts and infection.
The ridge of a thatched roof is created using bundled organic material which may burn, and sections of the thatch may collapse as fixings are burnt. This may prohibit the use of roof ladders at thatch fires.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 75 of 139 Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Thatched roof fires
Control measure knowledge
Thatched roofs are designed to repel water, making traditional firefighting tactics ineffective. Consider creating firebreaks and using water sprays to protect unaffected sections and removing affected sections. The use of specialist firefighting equipment such as compressed air foam system (CAFS) or cutting extinguisher may assist in controlling thatch fires.
When creating fire breaks in thatch the speed of spread and the time taken to create a break should be considered. Any break should be made from the ridge down the full thickness of the thatch and should be wide enough to reduce the risk of firespread caused by hot embers. Consider dampening the edges of any break made.
Sparge pipes may be present in thatched roofs. Sparge pipes are small metal tubes similar to an irrigation system that allows water to be delivered as a fine mist across the thatch.
Firespread may not be visible and may occur within thatch layers. Consider using specialist equipment such as, thermal imaging or heat probes to detect extent of firespread.
Fires in thatched roofs are often caused by chimney stacks. Stacks may not cool for some time and may continue to cause combustion. Due to the depth and thickness of thatch this may not be obvious. Use thermal imaging to help identify the source of fire. Consider exposing or creating a trench around the chimney stack.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Identify known heritage risks in their area with thatched roofs and create appropriate plans to resolve incidents
Provide suitable equipment and training to resolve fires in thatched roofs
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 76 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify if wire mesh could become live due to contact with electricity
Identify if roof is close boarded or over fire resisting boarding (e.g. Dorset Model)
Identify if sparge pipes fitted to premises and factor into incident plan
Consider requesting or using lances to penetrate thatch
Control measure - Firebreaks and fuel breaks
Control measure knowledge
A firebreak can be implemented to present an obstacle to the spread of fire; this tactic can be useful in waste, roof (particularly thatch) and wildfires. If a firebreak is to be effective, it should be a sufficient distance from the fire to ensure that the break can be completed before the fire reaches that point. A firebreak can be complemented by using extinguishing media to further resist the spread of fire in a particular direction.
A fuel break is an existing, planned change or discontinuity in fuel that will reduce the likelihood of combustion, fire intensity and/or the rate of firespread.
In preventing firespread, the position of separating walls and other firebreaks that could help with checking the spread of fire should be considered. In modern buildings with fire-resisting floors, horizontal fire travel is more usual, while in older buildings the spread of fire tends to be in a more vertical direction.
See also: National Operational Guidance: Wildfire
See National Operational Guidance: Environmental protection
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 77 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken when implementing a firebreak system Consult and liaise with relevant people and/or agencies to obtain advice and support on firebreak information in identified areas of land and specific buildings Produce site specific risk information (SSRI) on appropriate firebreaks
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider creating a firebreak to prevent firespread, considering the time required to implement
Monitor the effectiveness of any firebreak and communicate any breach to all personnel
Assess the fuel type, weather conditions, resources and time required to create an effective firebreak
Consider separating burning material from the fire using heavy plant and extinguishing it
Control measure - Damage control – Thatch fires
Control measure knowledge
The risk of internal collapse of materials is increased at fires involving thatched roofs. The likelihood of damage caused by firefighting tactics is also increase at thatched properties. Salvage of materials should be prioritised, and possessions should be removed completely from any affected area and not left in position and covered.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Identify known heritage risks in their area with thatched roofs and create appropriate plans
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 78 of 139 to assist in salvage at incidents
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Implement a damage control plan where no on-site pre-planning is available
Consider implementing a functional damage control sector at complex, large incidents
Control measure - Tactical planning - Damage control
Control measure knowledge
At premises without salvage or disaster plans, or where these plans are not available, incident commanders should develop a damage control plan.
Damage control can be categorised into three phases of operations:
Phase 1 includes work undertaken at the same time as firefighting. This is usually the most important phase if significant damage is to be prevented. Phase 2 is aimed at mitigating the damage that has already occurred and preventing further deterioration Phase 3 deals with preventing subsequent damage or losses including removing and temporarily storing items
Incident commanders are expected to consider each phase of operations when formulating the damage control plan and ensure that it is fully integrated with the overall incident plan.
There is no clear demarcation between each phase of operations. They will overlap as the incident progresses and consideration should be given to prioritising damage control, working away from the area of highest risk outwards to other areas. This may be across floors and could include adjoining property.
The effectiveness of damage control activities is directly proportionate to the following:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 79 of 139 The speed and skill with which they are carried out. Incident commanders should aim to resource and implement damage control plans at the earliest opportunity. The implementation of safe systems of work. All staff involved in damage control should be aware of the hazards, should be fully briefed on how conditions may change and appreciate how their work fits in with the overall plan to resolve the incident. Effective communication. Incident commanders should be aware of the actions of damage control crews and these crews should be aware of the impact of their actions on the successful resolution of the overall incident.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical planning arrangements that incident commanders can adopt to limit damage during any fire incident Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken when implementing a damage control strategy
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Implement a damage control plan where no on-site pre-planning is available Consider implementing a functional damage control sector at complex, large incidents
Consider the need for damage control and salvage operations
Hazard - Fires in chimneys
Hazard Knowledge
Whilst chimneys are purpose built elements of a structure designed to handle the removal of hot fire gases from within a structure there are many occasions where this system fails either due to poor maintenance, deterioration due to age or from new heating systems being built into pre- existing chimneys which are not fit for purpose.
Chimneys in older properties may not meet the required standard and beams or supports may intrude into the chimney. Chimneys may service several hearths, splitting over floors or across levels. This can allow fire or smoke to spread across levels unchecked. Poor states of repair or
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 80 of 139 damage to a chimney may cause the structure to become unsound and allow products of combustion to escape. Fire service intervention should consider any planned actions and their potential effect on the chimney.
Rapid changes in temperature from the fire and from the cooling effects of water applied to the chimney may cause material to spall away or in the case of chimney pots, to break up with explosive effect, with the potential to cause injury to personnel working nearby or below.
The term ‘Blow Back’ is used to describe the high velocity steam escaping from the chimney which may cause significant injury to any personnel within the vicinity.
Domestic back boilers may also be a risk as any overheating caused by an uncontrolled chimney fire coupled with insufficient ventilation may cause the boiler to explode, possibly weakening the structure of the building and producing flying debris.
Access to a chimney fire can be particularly challenging both internally and externally.
See National Operational Guidance: Subsurface, height, structures and confined spaces
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in chimneys
Control measure knowledge
Consideration should be given to identifying the path of the stack from the source of the fire to the final vent point using thermal imaging equipment. The need for safe working at height should also be assessed by the incident commander at the earliest opportunity.
Extinguishing the fire either by applying small quantities of water to the fire within the hearth or by the direct application of water to the fire contained within the chimney itself from the pot or from intermediate points such as Register Plates.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that all personnel receive information and training on the hazards associated with fires in chimneys
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 81 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify the path of any chimney stack involved and best method of attack of the fire using thermal imaging equipment where available
Consider the possibility of hidden firespread through chimney stacks
Consider the presence of back boilers when dealing with chimney fires which present an explosion risk
Consider the impact of applying extinguishing media to heated structures which may cause damage or generate large quantities of steam
Control measure - Cutting away
Control measure knowledge
During firefighting and salvage operations, crews may need to cut away elements of a structure, removing surface coverings such as flooring, skirting, roofing members and partitions to ensure that all hot spots have been exposed and the fire has been fully extinguished.
Various techniques and methods of cutting away may be required to assist in locating a fire. For example, at chimney/hearth fires, in voids or between floors may require significant cutting away actions to locate the fire and enable adequate extinguishing media to be applied.
Crews involved in cutting away should be aware of the type of building involved and the construction methods likely to be encountered. Cutting away even small areas may have an impact on the entire structure and care should be taken to ensure that the wider structure remains safe at all times. This can be particularly relevant in timber-framed structures where one element weakened through fire or fire and rescue service intervention could have a detrimental effect on the entire building's strength. Incident commanders should ensure that nominated safety officers and/or specialist advice are used where appropriate.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 82 of 139 Crews should try to ensure that, as far as practicable, cutting away any parts of a structure or property is done in the most effective manner, minimising property damage and allowing easy repair.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken when considering cutting away coverings and structures to locate fires and firespread Develop local arrangements to ensure that during operational incidents relevant building structural integrity is assessed by suitably qualified individuals
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Undertake cutting away to locate and extinguish fire, considering the risk of weakening structure
Control measure - Controlled burning
Control measure knowledge
Controlled burning is a defensive operational tactic to prohibit or restrict the use of extinguishing media on fires to allow the combustion process to continue uninhibited. UK law does not require fire and rescue services to extinguish fires. A controlled burning strategy may warrant consideration in certain circumstances, including protecting the environment, where the benefit from offensive firefighting does not outweigh the risks, or where available resources and media are insufficient to successfully resolve the incident.
This operational strategy can be employed to limit damage to the environment when it is not possible to contain polluted fire water, as it can minimise the risk to public drinking water supplies from fire water runoff. It may also benefit air quality through improved combustion and dispersion of airborne pollutants. It can be employed in conjunction with firebreaks as a firefighting technique when responding to fires in areas such as moorlands or heathlands.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 83 of 139 It is essential to understand that this strategy may have adverse effects, such as hazardous gaseous by-products to form or increase. The balance of potential water and airborne impacts is one of the factors that should be taken into account before implementing the strategy. See Section 3.7, Environmental Protection Handbook.
Controlled burn considered Controlled burn likely to be inappropriate
Life or health is not at risk or a controlled Life or health is at immediate risk or a burn will reduce risk to people controlled burn will increase risk to people
There is a high chance of extinguishing the fire There is little chance of extinguishing the fire with minimal health or environmental impacts
Fighting the fire with other techniques could The fire is likely to spread widely or to high- cause a significant risk to firefighters hazard areas
Property is beyond salvage Important or valuable buildings are involved
Fire conditions, weather conditions and/or the Fire conditions, weather conditions and/or the local landscape are appropriate for local landscape are inappropriate minimising air quality impacts
Drainage from the site leads to an area of low Fire water run-off could damage an area of environmental sensitivity or fire water is not high environmental sensitivity or value polluting
Fire water run-off could affect drinking water Fire water can be contained on-site or off-site sources or sewage treatment works
Incident commanders will decide whether to allow a controlled burn. Wherever possible, they should take specialist advice from hazardous materials advisers (HMA), environment agency staff, owners/occupiers and public health bodies. The decision should be communicated as appropriate, including to the public via the media if necessary.
A controlled burn strategy may be considered at any time during an incident. At incidents where it is expected that the fire will burn for some time it may be appropriate to use both controlled burn and extinguishing tactics. For example, using a controlled burn in the initial stages of an intense fire may result in lower concentrations and better dispersion of pollutants because of the high combustion temperatures as well as reduced run-off.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 84 of 139 The technique of introducing an accelerated control burn, which may include the use of fire service positive pressure ventilation fans (PPV), can help to increase temperature and therefore decrease the combustion time.
However, with both controlled burn and an accelerated controlled burn, as the fire dies back and begins to smoulder, the pollutant levels in the smoke plume may increase, resulting in reduced dispersion of pollutants and lowering of the smoke plume and contents in the atmosphere. At this point an extinguish strategy could be used. Such a strategy would also give more time for fire water containment measures to be put in place.
Controlled burn strategies may apply to industrial or commercial premises processing or storing polluting substances but can also be useful to limit the effects of fires involving:
Agricultural premises, for example barns or BASIS (Registration) Ltd stores Transport by road, rail, air or sea or hazardous and/or environmentally damaging materials in significant quantities
For sites falling under the Control of Major Accident Hazard Regulations 1999 (COMAH), The Environmental Permitting (England and Wales) Regulations 2010 and other relevant environmental legislation, fire and rescue services should liaise with site occupiers and environment agencies to establish situations where considering a controlled burn may be required as part of:
An industry protection scheme such as the BASIS (Registration) Ltd scheme for agrochemical stores An incident response plan at a site regulated by environment agencies An environmental management system or as part of the risk management plan as an agreed environmentally best option
Certain buildings have a particularly high value, not just in rebuilding costs but also because of their architectural, cultural, historical or strategic significance. Although it is unlikely that a building of this type would be used to store significant quantities of hazardous or polluting substances, the health and environmental benefits of a controlled burn must be weighed against the value of the building when they do.
The decision to adopt a controlled burn strategy should be made following consultation with relevant agencies, for example:
Environmental agencies Nature conservation bodies Public health organisations Local authority Highway agencies
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 85 of 139 See also: National Operational Guidance: Environmental protection
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the hazards that may be encountered and the actions to be taken for controlled burning Ensure that a controlled burn strategy takes into account both the event and post-event phase of an incident Make appropriate arrangements for mitigating pollution and informing the relevant environmental agency and, where necessary, the local population. Liaise with the appropriate agencies to establish air and water monitoring arrangements, both on and off site where necessary Identify pre-determined sites where a controlled burn strategy may be appropriate
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider a controlled burn strategy and communicate this to personnel and relevant authorities
Hazard - Cables
Hazard Knowledge
Cables maypresent hazards including:
Electrocution Entanglement Hazardous products of combustion
Cabling may become unsecured for two main reasons:
Heat, potentially due to fire Partial or structural collapse of a building
Cabling, including electrical and data cables, is used extensively in buildings; some cabling relies on
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 86 of 139 surface mounted conduit and trunking.
Electrical upgrades and retrofitted electrical sockets, light fittings, security or fire alarms and data cables means that lightweight cable fixings may be present in older buildings. Cabling may be concealed above suspended ceilings, with little or no fixing; those suspended ceilings may distort or fail at relatively low temperatures.
Plastic conduit or trunking that is surface mounted on ceilings and walls will fail at relatively low temperatures of around 100oC. Aluminium trunking may also fail due to heat.
If a suspended ceiling, conduit or trunking fails, cables may be released, potentially at some distance from the seat of fire. As a result, cables may present a risk of entanglement or electrocution to personnel.
From 1 January 2016, regulations require that all new wiring systems use metal, rather than plastic, to support cables in escape routes, to prevent their premature collapse in a fire. Electrical installations fitted before changes to the regulations, or that do not conform to the regulations, may still present a hazard.
Cables dislodged from suspended ceiling fixings following a fire in compartment – photograph courtesy of Brian Massie
Most cables are sheathed or protected with polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE) or thermoplastic polyurethane (TPU). In a fire, these plastics release dioxins, hydrogen cyanide and hydrogen chloride. See National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting – Smoke and fire
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 87 of 139 gases.
Control measure - Locate and avoid cables
Control measure knowledge
Lightweight conduit, trunking and cable fixings may be located by inspecting other compartments in the building, or similar nearby properties.
Thermal imaging cameras (TIC) may assist in identifying internal fixings that have been subjected to heat, either from processes within the building or through exposure to fire. A thermal imaging camera may prove invaluable in poor visibility.
Access and egress routes should consider the potential hazards of cables. Routes should either avoid cables, or it may be necessary to release or secure cables and their fixings.
Confirmation that the electricity supply has been isolated should be provided by a competent person prior to electrical cables being released or secured.
Specialist equipment, such as anti-entanglement covers or straps, may minimise the risk of personnel becoming entangled. Cable cutters can assist personnel to carry out a self-release in the event of entanglement.
For information about isolating the electricity supply see Utilities and fuel – Isolate utility or fuel supply to the premises.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider providing specialist equipment for personnel working in environments where there may be cables
Have arrangements for thermal imaging equipment to be made available at incidents
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 88 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Assess the likelihood that cables and fixings will fail increasing the risk of entanglement
Consider using thermal imaging cameras to locate cable-related hazards
Consider using routes that avoid cables where there is a risk of entanglement or electricity
Consider securing or carrying out a a controlled release of cables
Control measure - Extrication of personnel from cable entanglement
Control measure knowledge
Procedures for extrication from cable entanglement should be put in place prior to committing personnel to an environment where cables may present a hazard.
If personnel become entangled in cables and are unable to move, they should remain still and be cut free. Electrical cables should be isolated if possible. Once isolated, or if the cables are not electrical, cable cutters may be used.
Personnel should consider attempting self-release techniques, especially if electrical cables cannot be isolated. One method is to find an area close to a wall where cables are still attached, and move slowly while attempting to release the cables.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider providing rated insulated cutters for cutting electrical cables
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 89 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Brief personnel about the presence of cables prior to entering hazard area
Ensure that cable cutting equipment is available at incidents where cables may cause entanglement
Establish appropriate emergency arrangements for releasing personnel from cable entanglement
Implement appropriate emergency arrangements for releasing personnel from cable entanglement
Hazard - Hoarding
Hazard Knowledge
Hoarding involves the acquisition of, and failure to discard, a large quantity of possessions. The accumulation of flammable material in a building can be hazardous to firefighters. Extreme cases can cause homes to become difficult to enter and make movement hazardous. The large quantity of flammable materials present will impede egress, accelerate firespread, create extreme temperatures and large volumes of smoke, making working within the property difficult.
High stacks of flammable materials can collapse because of fire or due to firefighting actions, harming or trapping responding personnel. The weight of materials can lead to floor or building collapse, especially when combined with water from firefighting activities.
Hoarders often deliberately block off secondary exits and create labyrinths from a single entry. Internal doors can be removed to accommodate materials.
Hoard materials can include animal, human waste and food which encourages the spread of disease and infestation or may themselves be hazardous. Some individuals hoard animals which represent a risk to responding personnel.
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Deep seated or smouldering fires can continue to burn or spread to areas initially unaffected without being detected. Compartments within a property may be inaccessible, which can impede progress and prevent access to utility isolation points.
Compulsive hoarding is a disorder, often linked to some form of personal tragedy. Symptoms can include emotional attachment to their hoard, social isolation and shame. Hoarders may be unable or unwilling to leave their property, unwilling to contact emergency services or allow them into their property and can be resistant to removal of items. When talking to someone who is hoarding, attempt to match the language they use for their “hoard”. Attempted entry into or removal of materials from a property may cause an emotional reaction.
See also National Occupational Guidance: Fires and firefighting - Flashover and Backdraught
See also National Operational Guidance: Operations - People.
Control measure - Identify hoarding properties
Control measure knowledge
Signs that hoarding may be occurring in a property include, visible piles of material in windows or windows obscured by materials, neglect of household maintenance. Hoarded materials may be present in a garden, shed or nearby cars. However, some hoarders are careful to ensure no external signs of their hoard are visible. If it has been identified that hoarding may be occurring in a property fire and rescue services should share available information with responders where appropriate
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Establish means of identifying properties where hoarding is taking place and share with partner agencies
Establish mechanisms to share information on vulnerable people
Ensure that all relevant incident information is relayed to the incident commander
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 91 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider signs of hoarding and available premises information when carrying out a scene assessment
Control measure - Remove materials
Control measure knowledge
Removing materials from properties may be necessary to gain access, protect egress and ensure a fire has been extinguished. Large volumes of materials may cause external areas to become cluttered and materials could be considered biohazards and require appropriate disposal.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Have arrangements with other responder agencies to respond to incidents involving properties where hoarding is identified
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider removing stored material where hoarding is identified to reduce fire load and improve access
Hazard - Fires in tall buildings
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 92 of 139 Hazard Knowledge
The definition of tall buildings used in regulations varies by location. However, fire and rescue services, and other agencies, may adopt different terms for tall buildings based on their risk management planning and local procedure.
Common terms used to categorise tall buildings include:
Medium-rise buildings - sometimes referred to as buildings over 18m, or buildings with 5 storeys or more High-rise buildings – sometimes referred to as buildings over 30m, or buildings with 8 storeys or more Supertall buildings – any building over 300m
Tall buildings may be residential, commercial or mixed use. The use of the building and its occupancy type will affect the evacuation strategy.
External firefighting or rescue operations may not be possible because of the height, position or design of floors. Appliances, ladders, lines and hose will be of limited use externally on the upper storeys of tall buildings. Therefore, additional firefighting facilities should be provided within the building. For more information on facilities for firefighters in tall buildings see:
Supplementary information: Greater than 18m and less than 30m Supplementary information: Greater than 30m
Although hazards present at tall buildings are not unique, the risk or consequences of hazards may be increased due to physical and logistical restrictions. These enhanced hazards can be separated into the following categories.
Inaccurate situational awareness
The position of the fire floor may be difficult to identify externally. Floors may be labelled or referred to differently in each building. The accuracy of floor counts or assessment of building heights may be affected if the ground level varies around the building. The design or layout of the building may give a false indication of the number of storeys.
Unusual floor layouts, such as mezzanines or scissor flats, may make identification of access points harder, and may increase travel distances.
It may not be possible to gain accurate situational awareness using only the information available from ground level. For example, weather conditions at height may be different from the conditions at ground level. Key information, such as the effectiveness of compartmentation and internal conditions, may not be visible from the ground.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 93 of 139 The information received from the fire control room, building occupants, or other sources, may contradict an incident commander’s situational awareness.
The ‘stack effect’ may cause smoke to travel in an unexpected manner, indicating a fire floor below the actual origin of the fire. See hazard Uncontrolled ventilation for more information.
Due to the distances involved, and attenuation caused by the structure, there may be communication dead zones that prevent radio transmissions being sent or received.
Uncontrolled ventilation
The weather conditions, especially those at height, should be taken into account when considering potential fire development and spread. The speed of wind generally increases with the height of the building and the lack of shelter from surrounding properties. This, along with the design of the building and its surroundings, may affect fire development and ventilation, sometimes in an unpredicted way.
The ability to control or mitigate ventilation may also be affected by:
Building management systems, such as heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) The behaviour of people The need to access the affected floor, breaching protected staircases and creating ventilation pathways Windows that are sealed or designed to restrict the size of opening Windows or external wall panels failing
See hazard, Uncontrolled ventilation for more information.
Fire engineering solutions
Tall buildings may have fire engineering solutions designed to increase the available evacuation time or suppress fire development. Personnel may be unfamiliar with fire engineering solutions, which can be affected by operational activity. See hazard Fires in buildings with complex fire engineering.
External firefighting and firespread
External firefighting may be limited for tall buildings as it may not be possible to direct firefighting media to the seat of the fire if at height, or because of cladding or façade assemblies. For information see hazard External firespread.
People
The building's use and occupancy type will affect its evacuation strategy. In residential premises a
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 94 of 139 ‘stay put’ policy, as detailed in the Local Government Association’s Fire safety in purpose-built blocks of flats may be considered appropriate, based on the levels of fire resistance for compartment walls and floors.
The use of occupant evacuation or escape strategies that are based on ‘stay put’ or ‘defend in place’ policies should be kept under review throughout the incident. Commercial properties may also implement 'stay put' or similar strategies depending upon the occupancy type.
Identifying the evacuation strategy and establishing if it is being followed is important when determining operational plans. Personnel should be aware that the evacuation strategy may not be being followed and all available sources of information should be used to identify whether evacuation has occurred and to what extent.
Evacuation of the building may be affected by:
The evacuation strategy Occupancy type Travel distance Development of the incident Restricted evacuation routes
This may result in people still being inside the building when the fire and rescue service arrives. For more information, see Hazard People.
Insufficient media to extinguish or control the fire
The potential misuse of firefighting facilities may make them unsuitable for use. See hazard Failure or inappropriate use of fixed installations. This can include firefighting lifts, rising mains and ventilation systems.
Rising mains and other firefighting facilities may have been tampered with, damaged, or poorly maintained. Firefighting facilities may not be present in older buildings.
Pressure at the branch will be reduced as height increases. The condition of a rising main will also affect the available pressure and flow rate. Where a single rising main is being used to supply multiple jets, opening branches will reduce the working pressure of other jets. The jets attached to the rising main at the highest point will be most affected.
Delayed resources
Long travel distances for personnel, restricted access, congestion and the presence of people
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 95 of 139 evacuating the building, particularly where only a single staircase is available for use, may delay the arrival of necessary resources.
Physiological stress
Increased travel distances and arduous conditions will affect the physiological conditions of personnel, particularly those carrying equipment, including breathing apparatus (BA) sets. This may mean personnel cannot be deployed immediately after reaching a staging area or bridgehead. This should be considered when developing tactical plans. See hazard, Physiological stress for further information.
Limited space in protected areas
Limited space in protected areas will affect operations by:
Restricting access and egress Reducing space for staging areas Requiring staging areas to be positioned further away, increasing travel distances
The reduction of space available to lay out hose, and the requirement to change direction or traverse floors, may cause kinking of hose or reduce available pressures, even when working from fixed installations.
Internal navigation
Due to the restricted space or lack of ventilation, smoke and fire gases are more likely to reduce visibility throughout a compartment, corridors and shafts.
Working in restricted spaces and reduced visibility may increase the risk of cable entanglement. See hazard Cables.
Due to the complexity and size of some tall buildings, co-ordinating searches may be difficult. For further information, see hazard Lack of co-ordinated search.
Control measure - Situational awareness: Fires in tall buildings
Control measure knowledge
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 96 of 139 Identifying the fire floor
The correct location of the fire and the floor or level involved should be accurately identified in order to establish sectorisation, the bridgehead, and the staging area. See Foundation for incident command - Organisation of an incident. Fixed installations, such as fire alarm panels and closed- circuit television (CCTV) may assist in the identification of a fire floor.
External observation
External safety officers positioned on affected faces of the buildings will provide information on the development of the incident, including hazards such as external firespread, that can be used to update incident commanders and personnel within the hazard area. See control measure Incident ground safety management for more information.
Fixed installations
Automatic ventilation systems and other fire engineered solutions may be operating upon arrival or could activate as the incident develops. The triggers that will activate systems, and the potential impact of those systems, should be considered when developing a tactical plan. See Fires in buildings with complex fire engineering for more information.
Ventilation
The effects of uncontrolled ventilation, fire engineered solutions and operational activities should be identified and considered when developing and updating tactical plans and used to inform any change of evacuation plan. For more information see control measures:
Evacuation Consider employing a ventilation strategy
Information gathering
Sources of information when developing and updating tactical plans, search plans and evacuation plans include:
Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) Building plans Floor layouts Closed-circuit television (CCTV) Fire control rooms: Fire survival guidance being given to callers Information received from callers Credible witnesses
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Site-Specific Risk Information Building plans Have a clearly defined area of operations
Communications
Arrangements that allow communications between personnel working internally and externally, to allow effective sharing of risk information, should be established. This information should be used to update tactical plans and to provide information on hazards to personnel within the hazard area in a timely fashion.
Fixed site and portable repeaters may assist when working in buildings with communication dead zones.
As the incident develops, personnel at the incident and in the fire control room should develop a joint understanding of risk. To achieve this effectively, robust communications should be established and maintained throughout the incident.
For further information see Incident command – Have a communications strategy
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Gather and make available SSRI on tall buildings
Make building plans and information on fire engineered solutions in tall buildings available to personnel
Ensure information regarding tall buildings where communications may be impaired is included in SSRI, and establish alternative arrangements
Provide personnel with a means of accessing survival guidance on the incident ground
Ensure a mechanism is in place to inform and update incident commanders of survival guidance that is or will be issued to callers
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Incident commanders should:
Consider positioning safety officers externally to observe fire development, smoke and falling debris
Gather information from all available sources at fires in tall buildings including fixed installations and CCTV
Establish communication arrangements to allow information to be passed between external and internal sectors at tall buildings
Establish communication arrangements to allow information to be gathered from and passed to fire control rooms
Consider positioning safety officers externally to observe fire development, smoke and falling debris
Consider the effects of uncontrolled ventilation on fires at height when developing tactical plans
Consider fire survival guidance offered to callers by fire control room, when developing tactical plans at fires involving tall buildings
Consider establishing a functional role to co-ordinate credible sources of information on the location of casualties, to be used when developing tactical plans at fires involving tall buildings
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in tall buildings
Control measure knowledge
Firefighting facilities
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 99 of 139 Buildings at a height over 18m may be provided with additional provisions to assist firefighting such as firefighting shafts, firefighting lifts and protected staircases, although this may not be the case in older buildings. Wet rising mains should also be installed in modern buildings over 50m in height.
The use of these facilities may assist personnel to deliver an appropriate speed and weight of intervention. Up-to-date information on the condition of firefighting facilities should be accessed where available. Where fixed installations are not functioning correctly, alternative methods should be considered. See Implement firefighting contingency arrangements for more information.
Other agencies and the responsible person may be able to provide information about the condition of firefighting facilities, such as dry risers, access arrangements and water supplies.
Resources
The time taken to reach a staging area or bridgehead and the physiological stress of personnel should be considered when requesting resources. Additional time and resources may be required to implement safe systems of work for operations at elevated levels. For more information see Task rotation.
Integrity of escape routes
The effects of breaching compartmentation on ventilation and smoke travel, as well as the obstructions caused by hose and other equipment, may need to be considered particularly in tall buildings with a single staircase.
The integrity of escape routes should be considered if it is necessary to evacuate the building. This may mean that personnel need to be assigned to protect specific routes; if this is a priority other operational activity may need to be delayed.
Access, egress and evacuation
Due to limited access and egress, and constraints of resources, particularly in tall buildings with a single staircase, it may be necessary to prioritise intervention or evacuation of a building in line with the evacuation strategy. Depending on the development of the incident it may be necessary to implement an alternative evacuation plan if the building evacuation strategy is no longer appropriate.
Where multiple staircases are available, it may be appropriate to designate operational and evacuation staircases and control the flow of people who are evacuating to reduce congestion. This information should be shared with all personnel at the incident and any fire control room involved in call handling, to inform the fire survival guidance being given to callers. For more information, see Evacuation.
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Doors and vents may open or close automatically as part of fire engineered solutions; the building management systems and fire engineered solutions should be considered prior to opening or closing doors or vents. Fire and rescue services may have access to specialists that can interpret and assess the effects of fire engineered solutions.
Firefighting media
When firefighting internally, it is important that water supplies are maintained; any action that reduces pressure or supply may affect the safety of personnel inside the building. The effect of drawing water from a supply that is being used to supply internal firefighting media to fight the fire externally should be considered. Where possible, alternative sources of water should be identified and accessed. For further information, see Water and extinguishing media management and planning.
Search co-ordination
When multiple compartments or floors in a tall building require searching, it is important that the search is effectively co-ordinated. This should be ongoing and consider the information obtained from:
Fire control rooms, including the fire survival guidance being given to callers Personnel debriefs External observations Credible witnesses
It may be appropriate to share information about ongoing search activity with fire control rooms, so that fire survival guidance can be amended if necessary.
Effective search patterns and a clearly defined search area are necessary to ensure the search activity is co-ordinated. Assistance may need to be prioritised for vulnerable people who require assistance to evacuate.
For further information see:
Breathing apparatus: Search and rescue procedures Have a clearly defined area of operations
To effectively co-ordinate searches, sectorisation of tall buildings will need to consider external and internal sectors. For more information, see Sectorisation.
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Fire and rescue services should:
Establish arrangements to allow the sharing of information between agencies and responsible persons that may affect operational activity at tall buildings
Work with the responsible person to identify, record and share information regarding access to tall buildings and provide means of access, such as fobs, keys and codes where appropriate
Identify competent people to supply information on the effectiveness of fire engineered solutions, and make them available to operational personnel
Record and make available information regarding available water supplies on SSRI, including alternative supplies and relevant information such as hydrants that draw from the same ring main
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider the use of firefighting facilities in tall buildings
Consider the impact on personnel of moving equipment in tall buildings when requesting resources
Consider the integrity of escape routes when planning operational activity for fires in tall buildings
Consider the potential development of the incident when prioritising operational activity or evacuation
Consider designating staircases for specific purposes at tall buildings, and inform personnel and the fire control rooms about their use
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 102 of 139 Consider the limitations of water supplies at fires in tall buildings
Co-ordinate searches of tall buildings
Hazard - Fires in basements
Hazard Knowledge
Any floor that is more than 1.2m below ground level may be classed as a basement. Basements are also defined as areas requiring an upward means of escape.
A shallow basement can be described as having its lowest floor not more than 10m below the normal firefighting access level.
A deep basement can be described as having its lowest floor more than 10m below the firefighting access level.
Basements may not be clearly visible to the fire and rescue service on arrival. The access route from outside the building or from within the building may not be clear and there may be a lack of natural light. Access routes may also be the smoke egress route.
Fires in buildings with basements present a range of logistical and physical challenges. Incidents within these buildings can present an extremely hazardous environment for firefighters.
Incidents, especially in deep basements, may be constrained by the finite capacity of personnel and equipment. Additional time and resources may be required to implement safe systems of work for operations at below ground levels.
Sectorisation for fires in buildings with basements may require special consideration – refer to the National Operational Guidance: Foundation for incident command for further information about sectorisation including the use of lobby sectors.
Fire behaviour in basements is unpredictable and they may behave in a similar way to highly insulated buildings; the highly insulated space may allow for more intense and rapid fire growth.
There is likely to be a lack of ventilation within the basement, however some ventilation may be
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 103 of 139 provided by means of pavement lights and doors. There is a risk of rapid fire development or backdraft during opening of such vents during firefighting operations.
When accessing a fire compartment from above, responders may be required to descend through hot fire gases. This ‘heat layer’ will usually be the hottest section of a compartment fire and may increase internal body temperature of responders, affect the integrity of firefighting lines and damage PPE.
Because vision may be obscured and thermal imaging may be ineffective, it will not always be possible to identify the depth of the hot fire gas layer.
The additional exposure to heat may increase or expedite the effects of physiological stress. See, National Operational Guidance- Operations: Physiological stress
Shallow basements
Where there is, a basement consisting of more than one storey, only the storey directly below the ground floor is required to be of fire resisting construction
Access may be limited, although there may be external access routes into the basement horizontally, in addition to vertical access inside the building.
Deep basements
It is likely that each basement level will be separated by a line of fire-resisting construction up to and including separation from the ground level storey.
Considerations are similar as those for shallow basements; however, there may be firefighting facilities present such as:
Firefighting shaft containing wet falling mains Foam inlets Firefighting lifts and firefighting stairs to provide access to every basement level Firefighting shafts with a pressure differential system Natural or mechanical ventilation shafts
Control measure - Safe access and egress: Fires
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 104 of 139 in buildings
Control measure knowledge
To prevent access, egress and escape routes becoming compromised, compartmentation and suitable routes for firefighting teams should be identified and secured at the earliest opportunity. Building signage intended for occupants should not be relied upon for suitable access and egress routes.
Access and egress routes should be suitably and sufficiently protected by:
Using personnel with appropriate firefighting equipment Making use of the building’s fixed installations Maintaining the structure and integrity of fire protected areas Routes should be kept clear of fire and rescue service equipment, where possible, to avoid delaying evacuation.
Upon arrival evacuation is likely to be in place. Consideration should be given to the possibility of a prolonged period of evacuation which may result in fire and rescue service personnel commencing operations while building occupants are still evacuating. The possibility of scalable evacuation plans must also be considered with some occupants remaining in relatively safe areas of the building during firefighting operations
Buildings may have a fire strategy, which will include designated evacuation routes. It may be appropriate to designate separate routes for:
Access and egress of firefighting personnel Emergency evacuation of occupants
See National Operational Guidance: Operations - Evacuation and shelter
Emergency lighting may be installed to ensure that escape routes are illuminated. However, it should not be relied on for fire and rescue service activity; illumination levels and its operating time may not be sufficient.
Lifts, including firefighting lifts, may be used as part of the building evacuation policy. For further information about evacuation refer to National Operational Guidance: Operations
The use of ladders, aerial appliances and firefighting lifts for access and egress can help to reduce travel distances to the scene of operations.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 105 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about access and egress routes, the location and type of firefighting lifts, refuge points, protected zones and designated evacuation routes is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Ensure access and egress routes are protected and not compromised by firefighting activity
Identify firefighting shafts as a primary means of access for firefighting and staging internal operations
Establish and maintain control of firefighting lifts during incidents considering impact on evacuation
Consider designating separate routes for access, egress and emergency evacuation
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in basements
Control measure knowledge
Understanding the type of basement, size, number of storeys and the firefighting facilities present is critical when dealing with fires in basements. Given the unpredictable nature of fires in basements, pre-planning and familiarisation for buildings with basements may prove beneficial.
Some buildings may extend below ground underneath access roads; this should be considered when deciding where to locate fire and rescue service appliances.
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Fire and rescue services should:
Consider pre-planning and familiarisation for buildings with basements taller than 10m
Ensure information about basements is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Have procedures for dealing with fires in basements
Ensure crews are trained in basement procedures
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify all suitable access points to basement for appropriate intervention
Identify suitable firefighting shafts, for deep basements only, from which to commence operations
Identify location of pavement lights and incorporate into basement fire ventilation strategy
Use basement firefighting techniques according to service procedures and training
Hazard - Fires in tunnels
Hazard Knowledge
A tunnel is a passageway which may be above or below ground however is completely enclosed except for openings at its exits commonly at each end of the tunnel.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 107 of 139 Tunnels should be expected to behave in a similar way to basements. There is likely to be limited access to the tunnel and means of access is likely to be the same as the smoke egress route. Smoke movement from a fire is often considered as part of the initial tunnel design. In some cases there will be shafts to the surface at intervals along the tunnel length, allowing smoke to escape. Often fixed ventilation systems will be provided to supply fresh air for people and vehicles, and these too can take smoke out of the tunnel. See National Operational Guidance: Subsurface, height, structure and confined spaces – Uncontrolled ventilation: Underground structures.
There is likely to be a lack of natural ventilation within the tunnel and the tunnel can be considered a highly insulated space. These two aspects work together to compound the effects of fire within the tunnel environment as the highly insulated confined nature of a tunnel means heat is not lost to the atmosphere but tends to remain in the location of the fire. Fire development may be affected by the lack of inflowing oxygen within the smoke-filled tunnel.
The often-curved nature of a tunnel ceiling means that smoke spread along its length will be far more rapid than an equivalent fire within a compartment. The smoke layer height is also likely to be reduced compared to that within a compartment fire of the same magnitude. For a typical small compartment fire, the hot gases and smoke will rise to the ceiling and spread over the roof, gradually filling the compartment. In a tunnel, the ceiling space is, at least initially, far too large to be filled by the smoke.
Left to itself, the smoke and hot gases will spread along the tunnel roof in both directions. Longitudinal ventilation can control the flow of smoke, pushing it all in one direction. If the ventilation air flow is too slow, the hot smoke and gases can push upstream against the main air flow, a phenomenon known as ‘back-layering’. This upstream hot layer will stop traveling once it has cooled down sufficiently for the force of the ventilation air to overcome the buoyant forces remaining in the cooled gases.
Downstream, the hot gases and smoke will travel long distances at roof level, with the layer dropping as it cools. If it cools to the ambient temperature, the gases and smoke will drop to floor level causing a smoke plug.
If the air supply to the fire is coming from the same end as the one from which the hot gases and smoke are escaping, this smoke plug will be drawn back into the tunnel along with the fresh air supply, eventually smoke-logging the tunnel if the production of smoke is maintained.
Human behaviour
People involved in an incident in a tunnel or an underground structure may behave in an unexpected or unpredictable manner. This can affect firefighting and rescue operations as the occupants may have remained within the tunnel rather than evacuating.
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Inherent risks
Access routes are likely to be the same as the smoke egress route. Lack of ventilation or lack of natural light. Radiant heat intensified Tunnels are highly insulated spaces allowing the possibility for more rapid-fire growth. Increased risk of structural damage and spalling Excessive travel distances may be encountered limiting the working duration of firefighters
See National Operational Guidance: Subsurface, height, structures and confined spaces
See National Operational Guidance: Tunnel foundation
Further reading: Beard, A and Carvel, R. Handbook of Tunnel Fire Safety (Geotechnical and Environmental), 2011
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fire in tunnel
Control measure knowledge
A fire within a tunnel may contain a wide variety of vehicles including cars and trains, hazardous and structural materials which will be directly contributing to its growth and development.
The complex interactions between these sources of fuel may not be fully understood in the early stages of an incident and caution should be taken as to the firefighting methods and extinguishing media used.
The extent of a fire and its likely development will also be acutely influenced by what is involved, such as materials, substances or processes. Ascertaining information about the type of fuel and the amount of material present – the fire loading – along with how long a fire has been burning, should therefore always be considered by the incident commander and personnel before deciding on the appropriate intervention and whether to adopt an offensive or defensive approach.
An assessment of the fire loading will help an incident commander to predict the likely extent and
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Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Identify known tunnel risks in their area and create appropriate plans to resolve incidents
Provide suitable equipment and training to resolve fires in tunnels
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify travel distance to scene; identify suitable access and egress points through adjacent tunnel if available
Identify type of tunnel and associated hazards (rail, road or communications tunnels)
Identify any firefighting shafts, from which to commence operations
Control measure - Ventilation systems
Control measure knowledge
Ventilation systems may assist in the control of the incident environment. Crews should be aware of the type, location, and operation of the control systems.
At incidents involving fire or hazardous materials, ventilation systems should not be turned off or reconfigured until a risk assessment has been made and the full consequences of these actions to the public, firefighters and any fire development are known.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 110 of 139 The design and topography of the infrastructure should be considered, including:
The position of any ventilation outlets, where the products of the incident may affect those on the surface or remote from the incident The direction of any mechanical forced ventilation so that safe areas for members of the public and operational bridgeheads can be established Any 'piston' effect or other uncontrolled air movement
In most circumstances emergency ventilation and evacuation procedures will be implemented before the arrival of the fire and rescue service, or other responders, either automatically or by the infrastructure manager
The positioning of air inlets outside the infrastructure should be identified to ensure that exhaust gases are not entering the ventilation system. Incident commanders should also consider the effect that the incident may have on the occupants, wider community and environment, such as the effects of any ventilation system exhaust carrying contaminates into the community.
If reasonably practicable the infrastructure manager should be advised of the intended tactical plan. It must be made clear that there should be no changes to any automatic ventilation or fire control systems settings, for the duration of the incident or until the incident commander requests such a change.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Include details of ventilation systems in risk information for underground structures and infrastructure
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Establish control over the operation of subsurface ventilation systems
Hazard - Fires in buildings with a mezzanine, gallery or raised storage areas
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 111 of 139 Hazard Knowledge
Mezzanine floors should be compartmented from the lower storey and have a separate means of escape independent to any on the lower storey. A gallery should normally be treated as an additional storey in a building. Mezzanines and galleries may also be used for storage, resulting in a higher level of fire loading.
Raised storage areas may be defined as raised platforms, like mezzanines. However, they will not provide a separate means of escape from those provided on the floor below and they may not be compartmented from the floor below.
Raised storage areas are likely to have minimal provisions for fire resistance and may be susceptible to early collapse, particularly if high fire loads have been stored beneath the raised storage area.
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Mezzanine, gallery or raised storage area
Control measure knowledge
A building that appears to only be on the ground floor from the outside may contain a mezzanine, gallery or raised storage areas; this information should be gathered from available sources.
Storage systems may be prone to collapse if affected by fire or firefighting activity, resulting in falling debris or stock.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about mezzanines, galleries or raised storage areas is recorded in Site- Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 112 of 139 Identify any fire or smoke control systems which may be installed to protect a mezzanine or raised gallery
Consider the effects of fire or firefighting on mezzanine and raised storage systems
Hazard - Fires in buildings with a cellular layout
Hazard Knowledge
A cellular room arrangement is the division of an area of a building into separate rooms, which are normally served by common corridors. Older office buildings and educational facilities are examples of this kind of structure. Buildings can contain both open plan and cellular sections.
The presence of dividing walls and rooms with more than one entrance can increase the complexity of fire and rescue operations and travel distances may be taller than expected due to the building’s internal layout.
It may be difficult to differentiate between walls that are load-bearing or fire-resisting and those which only divide space between different rooms. However, the dividing walls may help to contain a fire to a smaller area. Walls constructed using glazing systems may affect the use of thermal imaging.
Partition walls may not continue above a false ceiling to the floor above, which may allow undetected firespread in ceiling cavities between rooms.
Control measure - Safe access and egress: Fires in buildings
Control measure knowledge
To prevent access, egress and escape routes becoming compromised, compartmentation and suitable routes for firefighting teams should be identified and secured at the earliest opportunity. Building signage intended for occupants should not be relied upon for suitable access and egress
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Access and egress routes should be suitably and sufficiently protected by:
Using personnel with appropriate firefighting equipment Making use of the building’s fixed installations Maintaining the structure and integrity of fire protected areas Routes should be kept clear of fire and rescue service equipment, where possible, to avoid delaying evacuation.
Upon arrival evacuation is likely to be in place. Consideration should be given to the possibility of a prolonged period of evacuation which may result in fire and rescue service personnel commencing operations while building occupants are still evacuating. The possibility of scalable evacuation plans must also be considered with some occupants remaining in relatively safe areas of the building during firefighting operations
Buildings may have a fire strategy, which will include designated evacuation routes. It may be appropriate to designate separate routes for:
Access and egress of firefighting personnel Emergency evacuation of occupants
See National Operational Guidance: Operations - Evacuation and shelter
Emergency lighting may be installed to ensure that escape routes are illuminated. However, it should not be relied on for fire and rescue service activity; illumination levels and its operating time may not be sufficient.
Lifts, including firefighting lifts, may be used as part of the building evacuation policy. For further information about evacuation refer to National Operational Guidance: Operations
The use of ladders, aerial appliances and firefighting lifts for access and egress can help to reduce travel distances to the scene of operations.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about access and egress routes, the location and type of firefighting lifts, refuge points, protected zones and designated evacuation routes is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 114 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Ensure access and egress routes are protected and not compromised by firefighting activity
Identify firefighting shafts as a primary means of access for firefighting and staging internal operations
Establish and maintain control of firefighting lifts during incidents considering impact on evacuation
Consider designating separate routes for access, egress and emergency evacuation
Control measure - Assess compartmentation
Control measure knowledge
Fire compartmentation is designed to prevent or delay the spread of fire and smoke from one space in a building to another. Occasionally this includes limiting external firespread from the building.
For further information see Building Research Establishment supplementary information
Dividing spaces into cells or compartments or constructing compartment walls and floors can restrict firespread within buildings. Factors like the occupancy or population of the building, fire loading, height to its top storey and the presence of sprinkler systems can affect the level of compartmentation. Together these factors help to determine evacuation needs in a fire.
Compartmentation is particularly relevant in residential buildings as the occupants of a house need to be reasonably protected from a fire in an adjoining house – walls separating one residence from another should be compartment walls. Breaches in compartmentation, shared roof voids and air bricks may allow the spread of fire or smoke. Adjacent, rooms and properties should be inspected prior to concluding an incident.
See National Operational Guidance: Operations - Closing an incident too early
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Fire doors are installed at strategic locations in a building, where passage through a line of fire resisting construction is required. Not all doors in a building are fire doors, but general-purpose doors may carry some inherent fire resisting properties
The effectiveness of fire compartmentation relies on the quality of installation and a good state of repair. Penetrations that are not fire stopped, defects or a lack of maintenance can cause premature failure of compartmentation. There may have been inappropriate alterations to compartmentation by occupants, for example the removal of internal doors or changing of external doors for aesthetic reasons. Consider examining the condition of compartmentation using areas damaged by fire or by cutting away. The state of compartmentation in the building should be investigated.
During an incident, closing doors or leaving unopened doors closed will prevent the unnecessary spread of smoke, fire gases and subsequent damage. This action should be balanced against the need to maintain access, egress and tactical ventilation.
The positioning of hose lines could compromise compartmentation including lobby areas, resulting in smoke spread into unaffected areas and protected firefighting shafts.
See National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about concealed spaces in buildings is recorded in SSRI and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Assess the status of compartmentation, fire doors, means of escape and protected shafts
Consider the impact of access routes, firefighting lines and actions on compartmentation
Consider the effects of fire and firefighting on adjacent properties and compartments
Check areas above, below and adjacent to the fire compartment for potential fire spread
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 116 of 139 Consider whether a breach of the compartment would spread fire to another room, floor, area or building
Hazard - Fires in buildings with an open-plan layout
Hazard Knowledge
A building with an open-plan layout may contain a large fire load within the space due to its use. The layout may also allow for more widespread and rapid fire development and smoke spread than a space which is sub-divided into rooms.
Cellular rooms within an open-plan layout are likely to be separated from the larger space only by lightweight partition walls.
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in building with an open plan layout
Control measure knowledge
Floor plan information should provide details on the current use of the open-plan layout. Firefighting activity should consider the potential for extensive and rapid fire and smoke spread.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure generic information about open-plan layouts is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
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Incident commanders should:
Consider protecting adjacent areas and floors above and below any fire in an open-plan layout
Hazard - Fires in atriums
Hazard Knowledge
Atriums provide a passage by which smoke, and the products of combustion, may pass up through a building and affect multiple floors. Fire protection, such as smoke control and suppression systems, may be installed in an atrium to either mitigate the risk of this occurring, or to allow the spread of smoke and products of combustion in a controlled manner.
Controls on the fuel loading within atrium spaces may also be imposed to limit the potential size of fire in these areas.
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in atriums
Control measure knowledge
Smoke may travel via the atrium to the floors unaffected by fire; escape routes on those floors may need to be protected. Water applied at high levels within an atrium during firefighting operations may run down the open void within the building, resulting in flooding at the base of the atrium.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about atriums, including any fixed ventilation systems, is recorded in Site-
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Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Identify whether any atriums pass through non-compartmented floors
Consider protecting areas adjoining an atrium from fire and smoke spread
Hazard - Fires in heritage buildings
Hazard Knowledge
Heritage buildings present unique hazards, having been built in a period with no fire safety regulations using traditional materials and construction methods. Utilities and associated protection measures are unlikely to meet current standards. Wiring may have deteriorated, and circuits can have no isolation point or isolation may not control all circuits. Heritage buildings that are open to the public or have had recent alterations may have been modified to more closely meet current regulations.
During a building’s lifetime, it may have been altered or extended, using different materials and methods which can cause the structure to behave in unexpected ways. In older properties, internal studded walls may support part of the weight of the property.
It is common for heritage buildings to have mezzanine floors, basements, tunnels and attics.
Heritage buildings or their contents may be of economic or cultural importance. English Heritage, National Trust, Historic Environment Scotland, Historic Buildings and Monuments (Northern Ireland) or Cadw (Wales) should be informed of fires in listed or culturally significant buildings.
See also National Operational Guidance: Fires and firefighting – Consider salvage.
Firespread
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 119 of 139 The materials and design of heritage buildings can increase the expected rate of fire growth and spread. Firespread may travel in hidden voids, behind facades and in cavities to unexpected sections of the building. Vaults and ducts can cause unchecked firespread underfoot.
Lack of compartmentation can cause fires to spread to additional rooms. Firespread may also occur between properties where shared roof spaces or voids exist.
Build-up of flammable materials in voids or oil impregnated timbers in industrial heritage buildings can encourage firespread.
Heritage buildings may be in close proximity allowing the spread of fire between buildings.
Fixed installations
Retrofitting of fixed installations and sections built or altered after the introduction of regulations may have installations appropriate for the period but many heritage buildings will not have fixed installations such as dry risers or sprinklers.
Where fixed installations have been fitted do not assume that they are constructed to modern standards, dry risers may not cover every floor or may be limited to the highest point of the building.
Non-compliant materials
Materials used in construction, period furnishings and wall coverings are more likely to be flammable. Flammable insulation, build-up of paint and unconventional substrates such as lath and plaster or wooden panelling may encourage fire development and allow hidden firespread.
Depending on age, cast iron, stone or heritage timber will have been used in construction. Consider the age of the property and Site-Specific Risk Information to identify construction materials.
Glass in heritage buildings is unlikely to be heat treated or laminated and is more likely to melt or shatter when subjected to heat; window frames may form part of structural integrity of walls. Failure of glass or window frames will affect the rate of collapse, fire development and present a hazard when falling from height. Doors may not have intumescent seals and could allow spread of smoke.
Asbestos may be present, see National Operational Guidance: Hazardous materials
Staircases
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 120 of 139 Prior to the introduction of building regulations, there was little control over the construction of staircases. Height and depth of tread, available head clearance and width, and structural integrity of staircases may vary, making travel on staircases hazardous. Levels of protection are unlikely to meet the standards required for firefighting shafts. This should be considered when positioning bridgeheads.
Access
Narrow streets, gated or arched entrances and unconventional paving materials may affect positioning of appliances. Bridges may have weight restrictions that affect route to incident. Available water sources may be limited consider the availability of alternative water supplies such as lakes or ponds.
Unconventional layouts
Layouts of buildings may be complicated, with hidden access points and sections of the property that have been blocked off or obscured. Expect extended travel distances and variation in ceiling heights.
Some buildings may have servants’ floors that are not accessible by all staircases and have floor heights that vary with no external windows; this may make identification of additional floors difficult.
Chimneys in heritage properties may not meet the required standard and beams or supports may intrude into the chimney. Chimneys may service several hearths, splitting over floors or across levels. This can allow fire or smoke to spread across levels unchecked.
Control measure - Situational awareness: Heritage buildings
Control measure knowledge
Heritage properties may include objects or elements of structure of high value or cultural significance. Site specific risk information and salvage plans may provide information that will assist incident commanders prioritise tactical actions. See National Operational Guidance Fires and firefighting Preventable Damage.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 121 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Should provide Site-Specific risk information on known heritage risks
Should consider contacting the relevant heritage body if fire involving buildings of cultural significance
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider age of building construction materials and style of construction
Consider available salvage plans for heritage properties
Hazard - Fires in auditoriums and stadiums
Hazard Knowledge
Auditoriums
The layout of a building containing an auditorium may be complex and may contain high fire loads from equipment and other items associated with the performance. An auditorium is likely to contain overhead hazards such as lighting, projectors, speakers, scenery and other equipment. There may also be fireworks stored in the building.
See National Operational Guidance: Industry for further information.
Backstage areas may include concealed and confined spaces, and security features that may delay firefighting activity. Upper viewing areas may be hazardous due to steep access staircases and low balcony protection.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 122 of 139 Hazards associated with atriums may also be present in an auditorium that occupies more than one floor of a building.
Stadiums
The internal layout of a stadium, particularly one consisting of many adjoining structures, may be complex and may contain high fire loads from plastic or foam sports training equipment, or from equipment associated with a musical performance.
There may be temporary structures, including seating stands and stages. The type of seating may affect potential fire development.
Access to non-public areas may have security features, delaying fire and rescue service operations. A stadium may also be designed to give limited access between certain areas, for example to separate supporters of opposing sports teams.
Upper viewing areas may be hazardous due to steep access staircases and low balcony protection.
Control measure - Appropriate intervention: Fires in auditoriums and stadiums
Control measure knowledge
Auditoriums or stadiums may have features such as a building fire control room, which may have closed-circuit television (CCTV) available.
Stage areas may be particularly hazardous due to suspended equipment such as ropes, pulleys and machinery.
Smoke may travel to areas unaffected by fire; escape routes in those areas may need to be protected. In open stadiums, the wind may behave unexpectedly due the effects of the stadium’s design.
Due to the potential size of an auditorium, it may be necessary to select alternative access and egress points to reduce travel distances for fire and rescue service personnel.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 123 of 139 Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure information about auditoriums or stadiums is recorded in Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Exercise caution when operating in auditorium stage areas due to overhead hazards
Identify if a fire curtain has been or could be deployed to separate the stage area
Hazard - Fires in buildings with complex fire engineering
Hazard Knowledge
Buildings with complex fire engineering solutions rely on pre-planning by local fire and rescue services to identify systems and establish site-specific plans and procedures. Complex fire egineering may only intend to provide life safety protection for the buildings occupants; structural collapse may present a risk to firefighters.
Complex fire engineering has been identified as a specific issue that needs to be considered in this guidance as a wide variety of approaches are permitted. These varied approaches mean that buildings may behave in a range of ways during the course of a fire - most are consistent with the behaviour of a 'traditional' or 'regulated' building, but some may behave significantly differently. It may not be immediately apparent to attending fire and rescue service personnel what the fire engineering strategy is for a building.
For example, a building incorporating an innovative smoke control system may be capable of forcing smoke to move in directions that are not expected by attending firefighters. Equally, firefighting attack that makes heavy use of gas cooling may have an adverse effect by reducing the
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Fire engineering is defined by the Institution of Fire Engineers as:
"… The application of scientific and engineering principles, rules [codes], and expert judgment, based on an understanding of the phenomena and effects of fire and of the reaction and behaviour of people to fire, to protect people, property and the environment from the destructive effects of fire."
Approved Document B ( England and Wales), Technical Handbooks (Scotland) or Technical Booklets (Northern Ireland) contain information about the measures that can be taken for fire engineering.
Fire safety engineering uses calculations and quantitative data on numerous topics including:
Ignition Fire growth Compartment fire behaviour Production of smoke and toxic gases Structural response Fire detection Fire suppression Human behaviour Firefighting
The responsible person must ensure that facilities provided for fire and rescue service personnel are maintained effectively and make information about their operation available.
Fire and rescue service personnel should consider the following when attending buildings with fire engineering solutions:
There may be extended travel distances to the scene of operations which may outweigh the facilities provided for the benefit of firefighters
Compartments are likely to be large There will be a specific access location for fire and rescue service personnel Fire engineering systems are interdependent – if one element fails it is likely to affect other elements If the size of the fire exceeds the prediction, the engineered solution may not control smoke travel and fire development Some firefighting activities may have a detrimental effect on fire engineering systems
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 125 of 139 Control measure - Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI)
Control measure knowledge
Fire and rescue authorities must make arrangements to obtain necessary information for the purposes of:
Extinguishing fires and protecting lives and properties from fires in its area (relevant fire and rescue service legislation for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) Rescuing and protecting people from harm at road traffic collisions in its area (relevant fire and rescue service legislation for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland) Dealing with any other emergency function other than fires and road traffic collisions in its area (relevant fire and rescue service legislation for England, Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland)
UK legislation sets the requirement for site-specific assessment. Collating and disseminating SSRI involves a number of tasks:
Selecting premises to be inspected Assessing the nature and magnitude of the risk Considering a proportionate response Recording significant findings Making sure information is available in a useable form
A site-specific assessment takes account of current legislation on inspection information and includes information on preplanning firefighting tactics.
Tunnels and underground structures
The planned operational response to underground incidents should be sufficient to allow relevant safe systems of work to be implemented.
During any construction process, it will be necessary to review the Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and emergency response plans so that any changes that will affect the existing risk information and guidance can be reflected throughout the project.
Pre-planning should be carried out jointly with other responder agencies that have knowledge of the environment, including volunteer rescue and leisure groups.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 126 of 139 Hazardous materials and environmental protection
Fire and rescue services should assess the hazards and risks in their area relating to hazardous materials. This may be site-specific, for example, a factory using acid baths, or it may be generic, for example the local road network carrying hazardous materials.
The plans should also include information on pollution, prevention and control where a risk to the environment is identified at an incident. Although each nature conservation site will have its own environmental damage risks which can be captured with individual operational risk plans, a set of generic action plans will also help to identify generic environmental protection action to be taken in the early stages of an incident. See Section 2.6.5, Environmental Protection Handbook.
In addition to general site-specific information, the following should be considered:
Dangerous Substances and Explosive Atmospheres Regulations (DSEAR) Manufacture and Storage of Explosives Regulations (MSER), enforcement notices, prohibition notices etc.) Notification and Marking of Sites (NAMOS) inspections and information British Agrochemicals Safety Inspection Scheme (BASIS) inspections and pre-plans The asbestos register Significant Control of Substances Hazardous to Health (COSHH) assessments Control of Major Accident Hazards (COMAH) plans and information CBRN(E) site-specific plans
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Develop criteria for the identification of sites requiring Site-Specific Risk Information
Support the generic information identified for foreseeable risks, which may include a programme to produce Site-Specific Risk Information - the following steps should be taken in achieving this:
Identify local sites and their risks Gain local specialist advice from partner agencies and other organisations Consider including salvage and/or disaster plans Ensure that familiarisation visits and exercises involving such premises or sites are carried out Produce suitable templates to record and capture the relevant information Establish a delivery method to present the information in a clear and timely manner
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 127 of 139 Schedule reviews and audits for the validity and accuracy of such information Embed a quality assurance programme Ensure information is made available to operational personnel to help successfully plan for and resolve operational incidents Identify specific operational knowledge, skills and understanding, which may need to be incorporated into local training plans Develop mutual understandings with building developers, owners and occupiers on the exchange of information about alterations to any parts of a building which may have effect on firefighting operations. Ensure communication systems are in place to inform relevant personnel, stakeholders and partner agencies. Develop systems and processes to embed a culture of risk information gathering, recording and communication. Consider the requirement for the provision of specific equipment and training in relation to buildings identified as specific risks within the area of the service. Collate and maintain risk information regarding hazardous materials sites within their area or neighbouring fire and rescue service areas where it is foreseeable that their personnel may be required to respond to hazardous materials incidents Include environmental risk information within operational risk plans
Consider introducing operational risk information plans with environmental risk notes for sites of nature conservation that are more susceptible to environmental damage. Where appropriate these plans should include:
Environmentally safe areas for deployments and movements of fire service resources Identification of areas that are susceptible to physical environmental damage
Ensure inaccuracies in risk information are resolved and systems updated post incident
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Access any operational or site specific risk information (SSRI) and confirm accuracy
Ensure differences in information are resolved and systems updated following the closure of an incident
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 128 of 139 Control measure - Emergency response plans
Control measure knowledge
The Civil Contingencies Act (CCA) places a responsibility on Category 1 responders to produce and have in place emergency plans, which may include procedures for determining whether an emergency has occurred.
There is a generic national framework for managing emergency response and recovery, irrespective of the size, nature and cause of an emergency. It also identifies the various tiers of single and multi- agency management, defining the relationship between them and a common framework within which individual agencies can develop their own plans and procedures.
For further information see Emergency Response and Recovery Guidance (England and Wales), Responding to Emergencies in Scotland and Emergency Planning, Northern Ireland Fire and Rescue Service
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Consider the roles and responsibilities of the fire and rescue service at emergency incidents when developing emergency plans
Ensure that emergency plans are produced. Plans should be developed in consideration of the following:
Anticipation - horizon scanning for risks and potential emergencies Preparedness - a clear understanding of roles and responsibilities and how they fit into the wider, multi-agency picture Subsidiarity - managing operations and making decisions at the lowest appropriate level Direction - establishing a clear and unambiguous strategic aim and objectives Information - information management and appropriate preparatory measures being in place to build situational awareness and the development of a Common Recognised Information Picture (CRIP) Integration - multi-agency involvement, roles and prominence Co-operation - inclusive decision making processes, openness and mutual trust
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 129 of 139 Continuity - using established experience, expertise, resources and relationships to manage and respond to emergencies in the usual way
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Access any available emergency response plan and implement appropriate predetermined actions
Control measure - Responsible person: Fires in buildings
Control measure knowledge
Pre-planning, with the assistance of the responsible person, should be carried out to identify the types of fixed installations installed. However, if this has not been done, it will be necessary to liaise with the responsible person at the time of the incident to gather relevant information.
Information that the responsible person may be able to provide include:
Fire protection features and their status The occupancy of the building Fire and evacuation strategies The use and contents of the building
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
ARCHIVED - Ensure information about fixed installations in buildings is recorded in Site- Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 130 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Question the responsible person, other responders and witnesses to understand incident factors and history
Liaise with the responsible person to identify the fire strategy and evacuation routes
Control measure - Situational awareness: Fires in buildings
Control measure knowledge
Understanding a building's design and construction,its performance in a fire and it's occupancy will help personnel to carry out appropriate and informed risk assessments.
To carry out an appropriate informed risk assessment of a fire in a building, personnel should have an appropriate understanding of:
Building design Construction materials The effects of fire and firefighting on a building Building use Occupancy types
The following sources of information should help to inform situational awareness throughout the incident:
Site-Specific Risk Information (SSRI) this should indicate the location of: Specified access points Building fire control room Building systems Emergency response plans, including event plans Building plans including: Fire safety plans Floor plans
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 131 of 139 Site plans Evacuation strategies Premises information box Building systems, including: Fire alarm systems Security systems Closed-circuit television (CCTV) Integral communication systems Signage Premises information plates External surveys of the building Observations from thermal imaging
Information from:
Fire control rooms Responsible person Occupants External safety officers Personnel operating inside the building Other agencies
Building plans
When developing a tactical plan, information contained in building plans should be considered. Plans may be available from:
Fire control rooms Mobile data terminals The responsible person The site office Premises information boxes
Building systems
Buildings may have systems that can assist the fire and rescue service in obtaining information about the nature of an incident.
These systems could identify the initial location and time of any actuations and may indicate subsequent firespread. In some premises there will be a building fire control room that monitors the building’s systems.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 132 of 139 Some buildings will have slave control or repeater panels, which could be helpful for gathering information, but may not have all of the functionality of a main control panel.
Other systems, including heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC) and suppression systems, may provide relevant information.
Engineered solutions
Information on the presence and status of complex fire engineering and associated fixed installations may be available from the responsible person, the building’s fire control room or from SSRI.
Fire engineered solutions can be complex, and as each building could have bespoke systems, it may be necessary to seek information from a responsible person, a competent person, such as fire safety officer, or from SSRI to assist incident commanders when evaluating the effect of fire engineered solutions.
See hazard Buildings with complex fire engineering for more information.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
During fire safety inspections, gather information about fixed installations and building systems installed and ensure they function appropriately
Record information regarding building design, construction materials and occupancy type in SSRI
Gather information regarding any changes to buildings between fire safety inspections, including any change of use or occupancy
Ensure information about building systems is recorded in SSRI
Record contact details of the responsible person, where appropriate
Establish information sharing arrangements regarding unauthorised habitation or use of buildings
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 133 of 139 Provide personnel with information that has been gathered during fire safety inspections
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Access information that will inform situational awareness at fires in buildings
Liaise with the responsible person to gather information about the fire in the building and any actions taken
Liaise with the responsible person to identify the fire strategy and evacuation routes
Document any relevant verbal information that is received
Check accuracy of plans with the responsible person
Use any available plans of the building to inform tactical decision making
Consider the building’s design, construction materials and occupancy type
Check building systems such as fire alarm or security systems and CCTV
Control measure - Implement firefighting contingency arrangements
Control measure knowledge
As the failure of fixed installations can have serious consequences, suitable contingency plans should be developed. These plans should determine good practice and alternative actions in the event of failure or inappropriate operation.
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 134 of 139 Contingency arrangements may include:
Checking the structural integrity and protecting firefighting shafts and fire protected zones The use of aerial appliances to provide a temporary fire main The use of firefighting lifts or, in their absence, the use of stairs, ladders or aerial appliances The use of equipment to supplement, enhance or replace a building’s fixed communication system A survey of the building and gathering regular information updates from emergency responders, to determine the severity of fire and extent of firespread Using hose lines as temporary rising mains Supplementing water supplies to sprinkler, foam, steam, drencher and water mist systems Providing external firefighting equipment to surround the fire A means to provide ventilation of fire gases
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that information about contingency firefighting arrangements is recorded in Site- Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Develop tactical guidance and support arrangements for the associated hazards and actions to take to ensure that contingency plans are effectively considered and implemented where necessary
As part of a Site-Specific Risk Information process, consult and liaise with developers, building owners, occupiers and responsible persons of specifically identified buildings, on contingency planning arrangements for fire emergencies
Where required and appropriate, share information with partner agencies
Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Implement contingency arrangements to account for the failure of fixed installations to protect firefighting personnel and members of the public
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 135 of 139 Consider the potential for unseen or unintended spread of smoke and fire where systems are not adequately designed or maintained
Control measure - Use integral communications
Control measure knowledge
In large or complex buildings or underground structures, integral communications may be provided to support firefighters, where standard radio signals may be compromised.
These systems provide a reliable means of communicating from the fire and rescue service access level to all firefighting lobbies. This could be a fixed communication system with fire telephones, that has handsets located at strategic points.
Where fire telephone handsets are provided, they should be located at strategic points. For example, at each building entrance, in firefighting lobbies and in the building’s fire control room, and should be permanently fixed equipment.
Some buildings have a leaky feeder system installed that the fire and rescue service can use. Fixed communication systems can include refuge communications and public announcement systems.
Strategic actions
Fire and rescue services should:
Ensure that information about fixed communication systems and their use is recorded in Site- Specific Risk Information (SSRI) and communicated to relevant personnel
Determine requirements for specialist communication equipment that may be required to supplement the building’s fixed communication systems and the fire and rescue service’s communications equipment
Consult and liaise with developers, owners, occupiers and responsible persons to identify and make use of building integral communications
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 136 of 139 Tactical actions
Incident commanders should:
Consider taking control of fixed communications systems
Establish an effective system of communication considering distances and the working environment
Ensure sensitive information is not broadcast using fixed communication systems
Bibliography
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2012, GRA 2.3 Rescues from lifts and escalator. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2011, GRA 3.1 Fighting fire in Buildings. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2011, GRA 3.2 Fighting fires in high rise building. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2011, GRA 3.3 Fighting fires in chimneys. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 1998, GRA 3.6 Fighting fires using positive pressure ventilation. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2013, GRA 3.8 Fighting fires in public entertainment venue. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2013, GRA 3.9 Fighting fires in places of lawful detention. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2013, GRA 5.1 Electricity.
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2009, GRA 5.8 Flashover, Backdraught and
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 137 of 139 Fire gas ignition. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2010, GRA 5.9 Incidents involving asbestos containing materials. London: HMSO
Department for Communities and Local Government, 2014, Operation guidance: Breathing apparatus. London: HMSO
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section, 1997, Fire Service Manual Volume 2 - Fire Service Operations, Compartment Fires and Ventilation. London: HMSO
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section, 2001, Fire Service Manual Volume 3 - Fire Safety, Engineering. London: HMSO
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section, 2001, Fire Service Manual Volume 3 - Fire Safety, Basic Principles of Building Construction. London: HMSO
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section, 2001, Fire Service Manual Volume 3 - Fire safety, Fire Protection of Buildings. London: HMSO
HM Fire Service Inspectorate Publications Section, 1993, Manual of Firemanship Book 8 - Building Construction and Structural Fire Protection. London: HMSO
Home Office Fire Department, 1988, Manual of Firemanship Book 6b - Practical Firemanship II. London: HMSO
Home Office Fire Department, 1981, Manual of Firemanship Book 11- Practical Firemanship 1. London: HMSO
Department of the Environment, 1996, Design Principles of Fire Safety. London: HMSO
Approved Document B - Fire Safety: Volume 1 -Dwellinghouses
Approved Document B - Fire Safety: Volume 2 - Buildings other than dwellinghouses
British Standard 9999 - Code of Practice for fire safety in the design, management and use of the buildings
Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service, 2013, Shirley Towers Fatal Fire Report. Publisher: Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service
Rule 43 letter from HM Coroner, 2013 - Shirley Towers, Wiseman, K. St. J. H.M. Coroner for the Southampton City and New Forest District.
Report to the Secretary of State by the Chief Fire and Rescue Adviser on the emerging issues arising
This content is only valid at the time of download - 26-09-2021 18:59 138 of 139 from the fatal fire at Lakanal House, Camberwell on 3 July 2009
Hertfordshire Fire and Rescue Service, 2005 - Harrow Court Fatal Fire report
Further reading
The following case studies have been identified for further reading and research purposes. Reports may be available through sources such as the Fire Service College Library.
Leo's Supermarket (Avon Fire and Rescue Service, 1996)
Sun Valley Limited (Hereford and Worcester Fire and Rescue Service, 1993)
Telstar House (London Fire Brigade, 2003)
Rosepark Care Home (Strathclyde Fire and Rescue Service, 2004)
Harrow Court (Hertfordshire Fire and Rescue Service, 2005)
Shirley Towers (Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service, 2010)
Fire and Rescue Service Immediate Bulletin 4/2011
Atherstone on Stour (Warwickshire Fire and Rescue Service, 2007)
Digital Equipment Limited (Hampshire Fire and Rescue Service, 1990)
Gillender Street (London Fire Brigade, 1991)
Blaina (South Wales Fire and Rescue Service, 1996)
Bethnal Green Road (London Fire Brigade, 2004)
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