Fire today ManagementVolume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000

FIREIRE MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIPEADERSHIP

United States Department of Agriculture Forest Service Through the Flames © Paco Young, 1999. Artwork courtesy of the artist and art print publisher Mill Pond Press, Venice, FL. For additional infor­ mation, please call 1-800-237-2233.

Fire Management Today is published by the Forest Service of the U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC. The Secretary of Agriculture has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business required by law of this Department.

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Dan Glickman, Secretary April J. Baily U.S. Department of Agriculture General Manager

Mike Dombeck, Chief Robert H. “Hutch” Brown, Ph.D. Forest Service Editor

José Cruz, Director Fire and Aviation Management

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Disclaimer: The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this publication is for the information and convenience of the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are responsible for the technical accuracy of the material presented in Fire Management Today. Fire notes Management Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000

On the Cover: CONTENTS The Mann Gulch Fire: They Did Not Die in Vain...... 4 Mike Dombeck

A Race That Couldn’t Be Won ...... 8 Richard C. Rothermel and Hutch Brown

Where Are We Taking Wildland Fire Management? ... 10 Interview With José Cruz

Paco Young’s painting Through Fire Management Leadership in the 21st Century ..... 17 the Flames (detail—the full Tom L. Thompson painting is reproduced on the opposite page) commemorates Florida’s “Firestorm ’98.” From Twenty Myths About Wildland Fire History ...... 23 June 1 to July 22, 1998, 2,282 fires Stephen W. Barrett burned 499,487 acres (202,142 ha) in Florida, destroying or damag­ How To Build a Fire Exclusion Map ...... 26 ing 337 homes, 33 businesses, and Stephen W. Barrett and John C. Ingebretson more than 86 vehicles. In an example of fire management leadership, the Florida Division of Winema Hotshots Train on Oregon’s Coast ...... 31 Forestry joined the USDA Forest Dave Beck Service, supported by the Florida Division of Emergency Manage­ ment and the Federal Emergency From the Classroom to the Courtroom: Management Agency, in a unified Investigator Trainees Get a Taste of Reality ...... 33 area command to battle the Rod Nichols blazes. More than 10,000 fire­ fighters were mobilized and Twelve Smokey Awards Presented for 1998 ...... 36 130,000 people were evacuated from their homes, preventing any Doris Nance loss of life. Wildland Fire Terminology Update ...... 41 The FIRE 21 symbol (shown below and on the Hutch Brown cover) stands for the safe and effective use of wildland fire, now and in the 21st century. Its shape represents the fire triangle (oxygen, heat, and fuel). The three outer red triangles represent the basic functions of wildland fire organi­ SHORT FEATURES zations (planning, operations, and aviation management), and the three critical aspects of wildland fire management (prevention, The Ten Standard Firefighting Orders ...... 7 suppression, and prescription). The black interior represents land affected by fire; the emerging green points symbolize the growth, New Software for Fire Cache Tracking ...... 39 restoration, and sustainability associated with Tom French fire-adapted ecosystems. The flame represents fire itself as an ever-present force in nature. For more information on FIRE 21 and the science, research, and innovative thinking behind it, Forest Service Video Highlights the Need contact Mike Apicello, National Interagency Fire for Prescribed Fire ...... 40 Center, 208-387-5460. Karl Perry

Websites on Fire...... 40

Guidelines for Contributors...... 47

Firefighter and public safety is our first priority. THE MANN GULCH FIRE: THEY DID NOT DIE IN VAIN *

Mike Dombeck

he Mann Gulch Fire on August 5, 1949, left a profound mark The lessons they taught us at Mann Gulch T on the history of our Nation will be with us for as long as people fight fires. and on the community of wildland firefighting. Commemorating this historic and tragic event gives us Since its inception in 1905, the jumpers who parachuted onto time to reflect on firefighting— Forest Service has aggressively remote fires, containing the fires and to recognize how the Mann fought fire. However, early efforts until ground reinforcements Gulch Fire dramatically changed were limited by rudimentary arrived. Even today, as we seek to the firefighting profession. technology, inaccessible terrain, reintroduce fire into many areas and lack of trained personnel. By based on our deeper understanding A Proud Tradition 1940, the agency had a profes­ of the role of fire in promoting The USDA Forest Service and other sional firefighting organization ecosystem health, the lessons of natural resource agencies are and an elite corps of smoke- Mann Gulch loom large. proud to employ some of the brightest and most experienced firefighting professionals as our leaders in the fire organization. Mike Dombeck, These leaders have worked their Chief of the USDA Forest Service, way up the firefighting ladder addressing an through years of experience. They audience in Helena, have dug line, jumped from MT, during the 50th-anniversary airplanes into remote areas to commemoration of handle initial attack, and planned the Mann Gulch and conducted prescribed burns to Fire. Photo: USDA accomplish important natural Forest Service, Helena National resource objectives. Every year, Forest, Helena, MT, thousands of men and women 1999. commit their energy and time to fighting wildland fires on firelines across the Nation. The equipment, safety measures, and understand­ ing of wildland fire behavior that buffers these firefighters from potential disasters can be traced back to lessons learned from tragedies such as the Mann Gulch Fire.

Mike Dombeck is the Chief of the USDA Forest Service.

* This article is based on remarks made by USDA Forest Service Chief Mike Dombeck in Helena, MT, on August 5, 1999, the 50th anniversary of the Mann Gulch Fire.

4 Fire Management Today We must honor those who perished A Stunning Tragedy in Mann Gulch by continuing to stress The Mann Gulch Fire severely the importance of safety, communication, shook the confidence of the firefighting profession. Thirteen and strict adherence to the firefighters died in Mann Gulch Ten Standard Firefighting Orders. (on what is today the Gates of the Mountains Wilderness, Helena National Forest, MT) when they were overtaken by a wildland fire during a blowup on a dry, grassy mountain slope. Twelve were * MANN GULCH FIRE COMMEMORATED smokejumpers. Never before had the Forest Service’s elite smoke- On August 5, 1949, 13 wildland Montana Governor Marc jumper force incurred such a loss firefighters died in Mann Gulch Racicot and USDA Forest of life. It’s true that some 85 people on the Helena National Forest, Service Chief Mike Dombeck. died in 1910, when huge fires MT, when a fast-moving fire The ceremony ended with the swept across the northern Rockies; swept over them. On the 50th unveiling of a commemorative but that was before the advent of a anniversary of the Mann Gulch bronze statue. seasoned wildland firefighting Fire, relatives and friends of • Artistic and educational trib­ organization and smokejumpers. those who perished, along with utes. After the commemorative Later fires, along with airplane many others, gathered to honor ceremony, the Wilbur Rehmann crashes and other accidents, would the fallen firefighters. Com­ Jazz Quartet performed the incrementally take their toll in memorative events included: musical debut of the Mann firefighter lives. But it was the Gulch Suite,** followed by Mann Gulch Fire that sounded a • A wreath-laying ceremony. exhibits and a demonstration by warning bell within the Forest On August 4, several dozen the National Smokejumper Service, teaching us that even an people hiked into Mann Gulch Association and special show­ effective firefighting force such as to lay wreaths at the markers ings of Firefight: Stories From the smokejumpers was no match where each of the 13 fire­ the Frontlines, a Learning for the unpredictable fury of a fighters died. They were met Channel film. In the evening, wildfire. by a Missoula smokejumper the Artisan Dance Theatre who had just completed a presented “Out of the Ashes,” a Lessons Learned ceremonial jump near the dance tribute to the Mann At Mann Gulch, we learned that head of Mann Gulch. Gulch firefighters. On August 7, more precautions and safety • A commemorative ceremony. the Mann Gulch firefighters measures were necessary. Subse­ On August 5, the Mann Gulch were again saluted in the quent investigations pointed to our Fire was remembered in an Summer Symphony, a musical desperate need to improve our outdoor ceremony in Helena, event involving 155 musicians understanding of fire behavior so MT. Bob Sallee, the only living from 7 city orchestras before an we could anticipate and predict survivor of the incident, gave audience of thousands. future blowups. We also needed the keynote address; others better firefighter instruction, who made remarks included ** The Mann Gulch Suite is available on CD through safety practices, and personal the Holter Museum of Art, 12 East Lawrence, Helena, MT 59601, tel. 406-442-6400. Proceeds from sales protective equipment. benefit the Artist–Forest–Community program. For * Based on reports in the Helena Independent more information, contact Amy Teegarden, Helena Record, 5–6 August 1999. National Forest, 2880 Skyway Drive, Helena, MT Two California fire disasters 59601, tel. 406-449-5201 ext. 243. claimed further lives in the 1950’s—15 died on the 1953 Rattlesnake Fire in 1953 on the Mendocino National Forest, and 11 died on the Inaja Fire in 1956 on the Cleveland National Forest.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 5 Mann Gulch, site of a wildland fire blowup that cost the lives of 13 firefighters in 1949. The firefighters were cut off from reaching the Missouri River (foreground) when flying embers from a fire burning on the southern canyon crest (upper right background) ignited dense thickets here at the narrow mouth of the gulch. The firefighters fled back up the gulch, but were soon overtaken by the rapidly moving fire. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Helena National Forest, Helena, MT, 1990.

Following the Mann Gulch Fire “Fight fire aggressively, but provide ters coated with reflective metal, and the subsequent tragedies in for safety first.” allowing them to survive in California, Richard E. McArdle, the burned-over areas. Forest Service Chief at the time, The world-renowned Forest Service organized a 1957 task force to Intermountain Fire Sciences The Mann Gulch study fires and “recommend action Laboratory in Missoula, MT, was Legacy to reduce the chances of men be­ created in the wake of the Mann ing killed by burning while fight­ Gulch Fire. Its focus is research The lessons learned from the Mann ing fire.” The task force reviewed into fire behavior and developing Gulch Fire have profoundly 16 fires that had occurred between safer firefighter gear and equip­ affected us all. We must never 1937 and 1956. Its findings be­ ment. Fire behavior specialists are forget the ultimate sacrifice made came the basis for the well-known now standard members of all fire by the 13 firefighters who died in Ten Standard Fire-fighting Orders incident command teams. Fire­ Mann Gulch. We must honor them still followed today. fighters come to the battleline by continuing to stress the impor­ equipped with fire-resistant tance of safety, communication, One of the orders was based on a clothing, hardhats, and fire shel­ and strict adherence to the Ten key lesson learned at Mann Gulch: Standard Firefighting Orders. * This is one of the early Ten Standard Firefighting These 13 young men did not die in “Know what your fire is doing at Orders. In the 1980’s, the orders were reformulated to all times—observe personally, use help firefighters remember them. Today, each order vain—the lessons they taught us begins with one of the letters in the term “FIRE are still with us today. ■ scouts.”* Another key order is: ORDERS.”

6 Fire Management Today “Many smokejumper foremen have told me that since the Mann Gulch tragedy they don’t make a move on a fire without first asking the question, ‘If I go there, where can I escape with my crew if the thing blows up?’ And if they don’t like the answer, they don’t go.” –Norman Maclean, Young Men and Fire, 1992

THE TEN STANDARD FIREFIGHTING ORDERS

1. Fight fire aggressively, but provide for safety first.

2. Initiate all action based on current and expected fire conditions.

3. Recognize current weather conditions and obtain forecasts.

Wreath layers sitting beside the markers for one of the 13 victims of the 1949 Mann Gulch 4. Ensure that instructions are Fire. In 1950, concrete crosses were erected at the spots in Mann Gulch where each firefighter died. In 1997, the deteriorating crosses were supplemented by engraved stone given and understood. monuments. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Helena National Forest, Helena, MT, 1999. 5. Obtain current information on fire status.

6. Remain in communication with crew members, your supervisor, and adjoining forces.

7. Determine safety zones and escape routes.

8. Establish lookouts in potentially hazardous situations.

9. Retain control at all times.

10. Stay alert, keep calm, think Representatives of the 555th Parachute Infantry Battalion, the “Triple Nickles,” standing clearly, act decisively. with a bronze statue dedicated to the 13 firefighters who perished in the 1949 Mann Gulch Fire. The statue, a representation of the smokejumper gear worn by most of the Mann Gulch firefighters, will be on permanent display at the Meriwether Picnic Area on the Helena National Forest, MT. The Triple Nickles were on hand to honor their fellow smoke- jumpers. During World War II, they jumped onto fires to counter the threat from balloon- delivered Japanese firebombs. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Helena National Forest, Helena, MT, 1999.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 7 A RACE THAT COULDN’T BE WON* Richard C. Rothermel and Hutch Brown

t was 4 p.m. on August 5, 1949. Prevailing Conditions Fire Behavior A USDA Forest Service crew of Weather. The day was hot; tem­ Under the prevailing conditions, I15 smokejumpers had just peratures in Mann Gulch possibly the fire’s behavior in Mann completed a jump onto a small exceeded 97 °F (36 °C). Around Gulch can be calculated with fire in Mann Gulch, part of a 3:30 p.m., the wind increased and reasonable certainty. The spot roadless area in western Montana shifted direction; by 5:30 p.m., it fires first encountered by the that is now the Gates of the was blowing up Mann Gulch firefighters were spreading at the Mountains Wilderness. The fire toward the crew at speeds of up to slow rate of about 20 feet per was burning on the canyon crest 40 miles per hour (64 km/h). minute (6 m/min). However, across Mann Gulch, nearly a mile Perhaps due to firewhirls or thick surface fuels at the mouth (1.6 km) away. Although the downdrafts from local cumulus of the gulch soon sent intense firefighters were downwind from cells, firebrands were carried from flames into the canopy. Within the fire, it didn’t look ominous; the canyon crest into the mouth of minutes, the wind-driven crown the day was ending, and at least Mann Gulch. By 5:45 p.m., the fire was spreading at the much one smokejumper thought that firefighters found that spot fires faster rate of 80 to 120 feet per cooling temperatures were 150 to 200 yards (140–180 m) minute (24–36 m/min). As the laying the fire down for the ahead of them were blocking fire chased the firefighters up night. further progress down the gulch. the gulch, it reached grassier fuels where the trees thinned By 5 p.m., the crew had gathered Terrain. With the way to the out, increasing its rate of spread its gear. Joined by a Forest Missouri River cut off, the to 170 to 280 feet per minute Service fire guard who had been firefighters turned around and (52–85 m/min). Even farther up singlehandedly fighting the fire, headed back up the gulch. They the gulch, where the thinning the smokejumpers moved down were in a rock-strewn canyon with timber finally gave way to the gulch. The crew planned to treacherous footing. To one side, grassland, midflame windspeeds reach the mouth of Mann Gulch across the gulch, was the canyon might have reached 20 miles per on the Missouri River, about 2 crest with the main fire. To the hour (32 km/h), pushing the miles (3.2 km) away, then move other side, the slope steepened to fire’s rate of spread as high as around the canyon crest to the 76 percent and was topped by a 750 feet per minute (230 m/ upwind side of the fire for initial perpendicular rimrock 6 to 12 feet min)—much faster than the attack. (1.8–3.6 m) high. Although broken firefighters could run uphill over in places by narrow crevices, the broken terrain. In the flashy By 6 p.m., barely an hour later, rimrock posed a formidable fuels, flame lengths might have 13 of the 16 firefighters lay dead obstacle to anyone trying to cross reached 40 feet (12 m), with or dying. What went wrong? to safety on the far side of the flame temperatures ranging ridge. from 1,500 to 1,800 °F (815– Dick Rothermel is a retired research 980 °C). The high flame tem­ physical scientist for the USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Fire Sciences Fuels. Vegetation in Mann Gulch peratures proved lethal, prima­ Laboratory, Missoula, MT; and Hutch ranged from mature ponderosa rily due to respiratory damage. Brown is the editor of Fire Management pine with a thick Douglas-fir Today. understory at the canyon mouth to Human Factors * This article summarizes an incident analysis by grasses and shrubs farther up the Lost Communications. Al­ Richard C. Rothermel under the title, Mann Gulch canyon. Fuels were tinder dry and Fire: A Race That Couldn’t Be Won (Gen. Tech. Rep. though the jump had gone INT–299; USDA Forest Service, Intermountain highly flammable; dry fuel mois­ Research Station; 1993). To obtain the full analysis, smoothly, heavy turbulence had contact Publications—Ogden Service Center, Rocky ture values reached as low as 3 to forced the pilot to climb before Mountain Research Station, USDA Forest Service, 3.5 percent. 324 25th Street, Ogden, UT 84401, 801-625-5437 dropping the cargo. The crew’s (tel.), 801-625-5129 (fax), pubs/rmrs_ogden@fs. fed.us (e-mail). gear was scattered and its only

8 Fire Management Today View of the Mann Gulch drainage from near its head. In 1949, a wildland fire blowup cost the lives of 13 firefighters not far from this spot. Twenty years later, when this photo was taken, signs of severe fire damage were still evident. Photo: Courtesy of National Agricultural Library, Special Collections, Forest Service Photograph Collection, Beltsville, MD (Philip G. Schlamp, 1969; 519698).

radio was broken, causing the stopped to ignite an escape fire in slope. The third firefighter turned crew to lose touch with the the grass, with the main fire only away from the fissure and perished outside world. 30 seconds behind. Although the in the main fire below the rimrock. escape fire saved the foreman’s life, The fourth, although caught by the Tactics and Training. Instead of the other firefighters failed to main fire, made it over the rim heading straight uphill for the understand his purpose and only to die the next day of his rimrock while the fire was still ignored or couldn’t hear his burns. moving slowly, the firefighters entreaties to lie down with him retreated up the gulch while inside the black. Eleven of the Lessons Learned angling uphill toward the rim. At remaining crew continued racing Deeply shocked by the Mann Gulch first, their retreat showed little ahead of the main fire at a slight tragedy and subsequent firefighter urgency—one firefighter even uphill angle; all were caught by the fatalities in California, the Forest stopped to take photos. However, fire within 3 to 4 minutes after the Service initiated reforms to pre­ after 450 yards (410 m), with the foreman lit his escape fire. Ten vent future disasters. Thanks to fire gaining ground and now died almost immediately and the improved training, equipment, and only a minute behind, the fore­ 11th on the following day. safety techniques, another tragedy man ordered the crew to drop all was averted on August 29, 1985, heavy gear. At this point, the In the lee of a convection current during the Butte Fire on the crew probably broke up as the caused by the main fire, the escape Salmon National Forest, ID. firefighters began running as fast fire was unaffected by wind and Seventy-three firefighters were as they could. But the faster the therefore spread at an almost 90­ entrapped for up to 2 hours by a crew moved up the gulch, the degree angle to the path of the severe crown fire. By calmly lighter and flashier the fuels main fire, directly toward the moving to preestablished safety became, the stronger the wind rimrock. Four firefighters followed zones and deploying their fire blew at ground level, and the its course, perhaps thinking that it shelters, all 73 firefighters escaped faster the fire spread. would deflect the main fire. Two of serious injury. In part, they owe them found a fissure in the rim- their lives to the lessons learned Realizing that the crew was in a rock and climbed through to the from the Mann Gulch Fire. ■ race it couldn’t win, the foreman safety of a rock slide on the far

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 9 WHERE ARE WE TAKING WILDLAND FIRE MANAGEMENT?

Interview With José Cruz

Editor’s note: As we enter the 21st century, wildland fire managers I think we’ll be utilizing fire a lot more face challenges ranging from fuel than we have in the past in order to buildups and degraded ecosystems bring our ecosystems back into balance. on our Nation’s wildlands to protecting lives and property in the wildland–urban interface duce fire for the long-term health sheds, promoting forest health, (W–UI). How will we meet these of our ecosystems. improving the forest road system, challenges? For an answer, we and providing high-quality recre­ interviewed José Cruz, who in ation opportunities. How does 1998 became the Director of the FIRE 21 FIRE 21 specifically contribute to USDA Forest Service’s Fire and FMT: That sounds a lot like what the natural resources agenda? Aviation Management (F&AM). the FIRE 21 program calls for. Director Cruz is one of the Could you describe your vision for Cruz: FIRE 21 calls for integrating Nation’s foremost leaders in the FIRE 21 and how you see it fire into land management plan­ wildland fire community. developing in the 21st century? ning, which in turn affects each part of the natural resources Fire Management Today (FMT): Cruz: I think that FIRE 21 incor­ agenda—watersheds, sustainable Your career began in the early porates efforts that are timeless in forestry, forest roads, and recre­ 1960’s, when fire exclusion was terms of what we need to accom­ ation. If we make sure that fire is still practiced. How has wildland plish in wildland fire management. integrated into land management fire management changed over the It fits well into the Forest Service’s planning, we will help to realize years? natural resources agenda and the course to the future that we’ve laid everything articulated by the Chief in the natural resources agenda. Cruz: I think we have come to out for fire management. Essen­ For example, we’re going to use recognize that fire benefits many tially, as I see it, we’re going to fire to help bring ecosystems back ecosystems. Without regular fire, follow the course we’ve established into balance. Balanced ecosystems we build up fuels to the point through FIRE 21 to ensure public will support healthier watersheds, where we can’t really cope with the and firefighter safety and to inte­ which in turn will improve water- situation when we do have fires. I grate fire into land management flows for plants and wildlife, water think we’ll be utilizing fire a lot planning. FIRE 21 will help us quality for people downstream, more than we have in the past in actually become activists—activists and recreation opportunities for order to bring our ecosystems back in helping the Forest Service reach visitors to the national forests. So into balance. But fire is not going the desired future condition for the reintroducing fire into our ecosys­ to do the job alone. It’s got to be national forests. By using wildland tems through FIRE 21 is actually used together with other types of fire in conjunction with our own an essential part of the natural vegetation treatments, because the fire management expertise, we will resources agenda. stands in many places are so thick maintain landscapes that we can that if we burn we’ll kill every­ protect. And if we can’t protect our thing. So it’s important that we use landscapes, then we all lose. Fuels Management a combination of treatments to get FMT: One of the biggest chal­ to the point where we can reintro- FMT: You mentioned the natural lenges facing F&AM is declining resources agenda laid out by Forest forest health and the growing José Cruz is the Director of Fire and Service Chief Mike Dombeck. The potential for large, destructive Aviation Management, USDA Forest agenda has four focal areas— fires. The Forest Service has stated Service, Washington Office, Washington, protecting the Nation’s water­ DC.

10 Fire Management Today that it intends to increase the level rior, for mapping fire risk to of fuels treatment to more than 3 determine the extent of the forest million acres (1.2 million ha) per health problem. And we haven’t year by 2005. A report by the stopped there. Shortly after the General Accounting Office (GAO) GAO report came out, we put indicates that the problem may be together an interdisciplinary team bigger than initially thought. led by Lyle Laverty, the Regional What is the Forest Service doing to Forester for the Rocky Mountain prepare a comprehensive and Region, and cochaired by Jerry coordinated strategy to address Williams, the F&AM Director for fuel management concerns? the Northern Region, to develop a comprehensive strategy for ad­ Cruz: We’re already working on dressing the fuels management the fuels management problem. problem. We’re hoping to have a Since 1995, we have almost tripled draft strategy formulated in the our fuels treatments, from around first half of December 1999 and 500,000 acres (200,000 ha) to more then present it to Congress, just as José Cruz, Director of Fire and Aviation than 1.3 million acres (530,000 ha) we promised we would. Management for the USDA Forest Service, per year. F&AM is also developing a Washington Office, Washington, DC. process, in collaboration with FMT: With more and more people Photo: Karl Perry, USDA Forest Service, Forest Service fire researchers and moving into areas adjacent to our Washington Office, Washington, DC, 1999. the U.S. Department of the Inte­ Nation’s wildlands, fuel buildups

JOSÉ CRUZ: A WILDLAND FIRE LEADER FOR THE 21ST CENTURY

Since its inception in 1915 as the National Forest in Del Rosa, CA. Francisco, CA. In January 1998, Division of Fire Control, the After obtaining a bachelor’s degree he was appointed Deputy Re­ USDA Forest Service’s Fire and from Humboldt State University in gional Forester for State and Aviation Management (F&AM) Arcata, CA, Cruz joined the Forest Private Forestry in the Pacific has led the Nation in wildland Service full-time. From 1966 to Southwest Region. In October fire management. Today, F&AM 1987, he acquired a wealth of 1998, Cruz accepted his current has some of the largest and most experience in recreation, timber position in the Washington Office complex programs in the Forest management, and wildland fire as Director of F&AM. Service. As Director of F&AM, management on six different José Cruz plays a central role in forests in the Pacific Southwest Throughout his career, Director the wildland fire community. and Pacific Northwest Regions. Cruz has won many awards for superior performance and merit. Like many other Forest Service In 1987, Cruz began his rise He is a longstanding member of leaders, Director Cruz gravitated through the agency ranks when he the Society of American Forest­ to the agency through a passion was named deputy forest super­ ers. Deeply committed to con­ for the outdoors. Raised in rural visor on the Deschutes National serving our wildland heritage, southern California, Cruz Forest in Bend, OR. After 3 years, Cruz is dedicated to working with learned to cherish the region’s he was promoted to forest supervi­ Federal and State partners to richly diverse ecosystems, from sor. In 1995, following 1-1/2 years restore the natural role of fire in the coastal ranges to the interior as Deputy Director of Timber wildland ecosystems, to integrate deserts. While in college, Cruz Management in the Forest the role of fire into land manage­ spent his summers fighting fires Service’s Washington Office, ment planning, and—above all— with the Del Rosa Hotshots from Washington, DC, Cruz became to maximize public and fire­ their base on the San Bernardino Director of F&AM for the Pacific fighter safety. ■ Southwest Region in San

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 11 in or near the W–UI are a growing FIRE 21 will help the Forest Service reach the concern. What is F&AM doing to desired future condition for our national forests by address the problem? using fire management expertise to meet land Cruz: In the last few years, we’ve management objectives. placed priority on treating land adjacent to the W–UI, partly through prescribed burning. FMT: Some people oppose pre­ simply tell the public that this is Fighting fire along the W–UI is scribed burning for fear that a always a possibility, however really the most expensive part of prescribed fire might escape and remote. Of course, in terms of the our operation, and treating fuels burn adjacent property. How do risk that homeowners face, a lot there allows us to get in and put we address such fears? depends on what we do in prepar­ the fires out a lot more easily than ing for a prescribed burn—or, for if we don’t do the prescribed burn­ Cruz: I think we need to be honest that matter, for any fire. For ing and other treatments. As a with the public. Prescribed burn­ example, if homeowners have result, when we do have fires, the ing is not without risk, because already thinned around their overall costs are lower and the weather forecasts are not infallible. homes and otherwise made their damages to adjacent property are If unexpectedly severe fire weather properties firesafe, it greatly fewer. We also encourage people in occurs during a prescribed fire, it reduces the risk they face. the W–UI, through the Firewise might cause it to burn outside the Program (see sidebar) and other designated area. But if we carefully Workforce Issues programs, to treat fuels around follow a well-designed plan for a FMT: As Director of F&AM, what their residences so that they can be prescribed burn, usually the only is your most important goal for more defensible should we have a thing that can go wrong is the the Nation’s wildland firefighters? fire. weather. We need to be honest and Cruz: My most important goal, I would say, is that we fight fires safely. During my tenure, I don’t ABOUT THE FIREWISE PROGRAM want people getting hurt. There’s really nothing out there that we The Firewise Program is de­ • Interactive features, such as protect, except for the lives of signed to help people who live testing one’s “firewise IQ”; other people, that requires us to or vacation in fire-prone parts of • Materials for classroom use; and risk our lives. If we work by the the wildland–urban interface • Links to other wildland fire rules, we should be okay. So it’s (W–UI) to reduce the risk of fire resources. important that our firefighters be loss to themselves, their fami­ properly trained so that we can lies, and their neighbors. The Firewise Program is sponsored fight fire safely. Through mailings and a Web­ by the USDA Forest Service; USDI site, the program provides Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of FMT: Many issues facing the extensive fire protection infor­ Land Management, National Park Forest Service will affect the way mation, including: Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife the agency does business in the Service; National Association of future—for example, an aging • Publications and videos for State Foresters; and National Fire workforce and uncertain budgets. ordering or downloading; Protection Association. For more How is F&AM preparing to meet • A forum for exchanging information, see the program’s such challenges? information; Website at . Cruz: There are two things going related to fire protection in on right now: an agencywide the W–UI; strategic workforce planning process directed from our national office, and strategic planning by

12 Fire Management Today Safety comes first—there’s really nothing erators a lot sooner than in previ­ out there that we protect as firefighters, ous years, primarily because Forest Service people just aren’t available. except for the lives of other people, The fire organization is still intact, that requires us to risk our lives. but we’ve lost a lot of the other people in the Forest Service who used to provide support. our regional F&AM directors to budgets developing over the next help determine what direction our few years? FMT: Are cooperators filling the fire organization will take in the gap? future. At both levels, one of the Cruz: You know, fire has really key things we’ll be examining is fared better than a lot of other Cruz: We are indeed getting a lot the workforce issue. We’ll be programs in terms of funding. of help from our partners. If any­ asking what our priorities should Each year, we’ve received a nomi­ thing, our cooperators are con­ be in terms of our future activities, nal increase in overall funding. In cerned that we’re not providing and we’ve already identified fuels fuels management in particular, enough of our own people to fight management as a central priority. we’ve had a substantial increase— our own fires. But we have very Certainly, replacing our aging from $8 million to $70 million in good working relationships with workforce will emerge as another just a few years. So the fire budget our partners. We have a lot of top priority. has really done pretty well. What agreements that help us get our has hurt us is not so much a job done, so overall we’re doing FMT: What is the Forest Service declining budget as the loss of very well. doing to build its firefighter Forest Service people in other workforce? parts of the organization who used FMT: So you think fire prepared­ to be available to help us fight ness will be pretty well covered in Cruz: We have an apprenticeship fires. At one time, we had brush coming years in terms of staffing program that just this year became disposal crews, recreation crews, and funding? national. It’s being managed for us timber stand improvement by Ray Quintanar, the F&AM Di­ crews—all of those are gone now. Cruz: One of the things our re­ rector for the Pacific Southwest So we’ve had to rely on our coop­ gional F&AM directors did this Region. We’re training 50 to 100 people per year to come into the Federal fire program. We’ve had very good success with the pro­ gram, and all of the Forest Service regions are now putting people into it. The big problem we’ve had with the program is that the grad­ uates are so good that a lot of other agencies are picking them up. So the Forest Service is losing a lot of highly qualified people after they go through the program. But that benefits the Nation’s fire service as a whole, so we’re just going to plug more people into the program as long as it proves so beneficial.

Budget Priorities Redding Hotshots on a 1990 fire on the Wenatchee National Forest, WA. The Forest FMT: Let’s turn to the budget Service’s Fire and Aviation Management has a California-based national training program to help build the Nation’s firefighter workforce. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Washington issue. How do you see F&AM Office, Washington, DC, 1990.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 13 year is to decide what our number The number one priority for our fire organization one priority is for our fire organi­ will be to maintain our initial-attack capability, the zation. What we said is that we really need to maintain our initial- most important and successful part of our attack capability as our number organization in keeping fires small. one priority. So if we get reduc­ tions in funding, we will make sure that our initial-attack force does not suffer—it’s the most important and successful part of our organi­ zation in keeping fires small. And if there’s additional money, it will probably go into our initial-attack organization. Aviation FMT: Aviation is one of the largest cost centers for F&AM but also one of its most versatile tools for wild- land fire management. What ma­ jor challenges does the aviation program face?

Cruz: I think that keeping aviation resources equivalent to what we have now, given rising equipment prices and budget constraints, will be a major challenge for us in the years ahead. We’ll probably have to look at new equipment to replace some of the older equipment that will soon wear out or for which we can’t find replacement parts. I see the use of type 1 helicopters in­ creasing. They are very effective at providing quick turnaround with water or retardant, giving us more flexibility in targeting specific areas on a fire. Of course, they’re basically a tool we use to supple­ ment retardant drops by our large airtankers, which we’ll continue to need. The single-engine airtankers used extensively by some States are very effective in certain situations. In fact, we use them as a part of An S–64 type 1 helicopter refilling a bucket for a water drop on a wildland fire. Aerial our cooperative ventures with the resources are some of the Forest Service’s most versatile tools for wildland fire suppres­ States. sion. Photo: Bob Nichols, U.S. Department of Agriculture, Washington, DC, 1994.

14 Fire Management Today The use of type 1 helicopters we have a NASF representative will increase to give us a quicker turnaround participating in our national wild- land fire review. And we have other with water or retardant on fires. activities going on where we’ve invited NASF to participate and comment on how we operate. So I FMT: The 1990 National Shared Cooperative Fire believe the relationship is very Forces Task Force Report recom­ Management good and will stay that way for mended undertaking a number of FMT: F&AM has a history of many years to come. The other national studies. Two of them, the strong cooperation with the State thing that’s really important is that Aerial Delivered Firefighter Study Foresters. How effective is the we’ve been able to give more (ADFFS) and Tactical Aerial partnership today? Do you see any money through the Cooperative Resource Management Study signs of change in that relation­ Fire Protection Program to help (TARMS), are nearing completion. ship over the next decade or so? the State Foresters achieve their How effective have these studies goals. For example, our funding for been in light of some of the budget Cruz: You know, that relationship the Volunteers in Fire Prevention constraints affecting F&AM? is a great relationship. One of the program doubled from $2 million things I’ve tried to do this year— to $4 million. Cruz: Most of the national shared during my first year here as Direc­ forces studies we do are fine tor of F&AM—is to get out to all FMT: As you know, Smokey Bear studies, but they’re not always the regions and visit as many State has been accused of being “too integrated with the rest of the Foresters as possible to discuss good at his job,” of allowing fuel organization. In other words, if it’s things we do that affect them. I’ve buildups to become a major threat going to cost more to field more had a lot of good conversations to our wildland resources. Does aircraft, then what are we going to with the State Foresters. I also Smokey still have a role to play? give up if our budget doesn’t participate on the National Asso­ increase? We made a decision to ciation of State Foresters (NASF) Cruz: Smokey is alive and well and finish the ADFFS, and its recom­ Fire Committee. We’ve invited plays a very substantial role in mendations were recently pre­ NASF to participate in some of the conveying messages of fire preven­ sented to the F&AM directors. We reviews we’re doing—for example, tion to kids. He needs to stay with have a management options team looking at what we can implement from that study to help us do a better job overall. The same thing applies to TARMS—we have a team looking at that study, too. The first thing I asked when that study came out is, “What part of the aviation program are you going to give up in order to implement this part of the aviation program?” I think we need to examine options and make decisions in an inte­ grated way instead of concen­ trating on just one part of the organization.

Smokey Bear posing with a young friend on the Dorr Skeels Recreation Area, Kootenai National Forest, MT. Smokey will continue delivering his fire prevention message, especially to children. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC, 1992.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 15 Smokey Bear will continue to play a substantial role in conveying the message of wildland fire prevention to children. us. In terms of the exclusion of fire prevention program nationwide to strategic workplan for interna­ from certain management areas, see what we need to do to beef it tional fire assistance. Right now, those were management decisions up. Typically, prevention is the first Mexico is our highest priority. that Smokey had nothing to do to go whenever you get budget Following the disastrous 1998 with. As I see it, Smokey has done cuts. But now that this analysis has wildland fire season in Mexico,** his job and will continue to do his showed the cost-effectiveness of we worked with the U.S. Depart­ job to help us get our job done. fire prevention, we’ll need to look ment of the Interior and fire and carefully to see if we don’t need to emergency officials from Mexico to FMT: What about the role of keep more of that part of our provide assistance in developing wildland fire prevention in organization. fire training and leadership general? courses for Mexico’s wildland fire International managers. Cruz: Our fire prevention program Cooperation has proven very effective, especially FMT: One of the least well-known FMT: Do you see F&AM’s interna­ in times of severe fire weather. In F&AM programs is international tional cooperation expanding in fact, a recent article in Fire Man­ fire assistance. You receive many the next decade or so? agement Today* showed without requests each year from all over question how our fire prevention/ the world to provide technical Cruz: Yes, I do. I think it’s a education teams more than pay assistance in assessing fire poten­ growing program. It’s just a matter their own way in reducing the tial and to assist countries in of how much funding we can get to potential for catastrophic wildland developing fire management support it. Certainly, the wildland fire. In Texas, for example, fires programs. How do you decide fire expertise that we have in the were soaring in number, but when which assistance requests to Forest Service is in great demand a fire prevention team came in, the support? all over the world. numbers plummeted. It’s just fantastic, and everyone is on the Cruz: A lot of requests for interna­ FMT: One last question: What is bandwagon now: Whenever you tional fire assistance come through the one thing you would want all have severe fire weather, the thing other agencies and organizations Forest Service employees to know to do is to bring in teams to help that do international work, such as about you and your role in F&AM get the message out to the public. the U.S. Agency for International as Director? It cuts down all kinds of human- Development and the World Bank. caused fires, because people are They seek our expertise and pay for Cruz: That I’ve been in their shoes, more aware of what’s going on— our services. We provide some of that I understand their concerns, and it pays for itself. So I think the funding, but most of it comes and that whatever we do, we’re ■ we’re going to have to look at our from them. We also work through going to do it safely. the Forest Service’s own Interna­ ** For a discussion of wildland fire in Mexico, * See Judith K. Kissinger, “Interagency Teams Prevent including the 1998 fire season, see Dante Arturo Fires From Alaska to Florida.” (Fire Management tional Forestry programs. In Rodríguez-Trejo, “A Look at Wildland Fires in Mexico.” Notes 59(4): 13–17). addition, F&AM has its own (Fire Management Notes 59(3): 15–23).

16 Fire Management Today FIRE MANAGEMENT LEADERSHIP IN THE 21ST CENTURY *

Tom L. Thompson

ore than 40 years ago, I was enticed into forestry by a We lead by our attitude, by our responses MNational Geographic article to authority, by the words we speak, (Kenney 1956) with fascinating and by the example we set. images of smokejumpers, fire towers, firefighters, a tote goat (a motorized scooter for hauling 3. The expectations that an ac­ building our fire management supplies), and Smokey Bear. How countable fire management leadership. So do the people who simple wildland fire management leader must meet. work on the fireline and who de­ seemed back then! pend upon our leadership deci­ sions and support. Good leadership Today, the issues we face are so Building Leadership is also vital to the many millions of complex that they are impossible As individuals, resource managers, taxpayers, water users, wildland– to circumscribe with a few images and members of groups who are urban interface residents, and and themes. Differences between trying to work together better, visitors to the forests, refuges, regions and, to some extent, we all understand the need for among our various agencies—with their different missions and The Mescalero perspectives—render our task all Hotshots from New the more difficult. And yet, as Mexico preparing to wildland fire managers, we share a fight the 1994 Star common responsibility for working Gulch Fire on the Boise National together. That’s why we come Forest, ID. Collabora­ together in places such as the tion across agencies National Advanced Resource and regions is the common responsibil­ Training Center (NARTC) in ity of fire manage­ Marana, AZ, to strengthen our ment leaders. Photo: leadership in wildland fire manage­ USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, ment. Washington, DC. In this article, I address three issues critical to wildland fire managers:

1. The need for strong fire man­ agement leadership; 2. The key components of fire management leadership; and

Tom Thompson is the Deputy Regional Forester, Rocky Mountain Region, USDA Forest Service, Lakewood, CO.

* This article is based on the author’s opening com­ ments at the fire management leadership training session on March 7–12, 1999, at the National Advanced Resource Training Center, Marana, AZ.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 17 parks, and other public wildlands Today, in one way or another, across our Nation. Indeed, never fire figures into everything we do before has wildland fire manage- ment been so important in the as land management agencies. national scheme. Never before have so many been aware of, or affected by, our resource manage­ Over the past decade, we’ve begun The past decade has also shown ment decisions. Hardly a day goes to see the consequences of failing our limitations and vulnerability in by without a media report on the to work with fire as an important dealing with wildland fire, a lesson issues that we face in wildland fire management tool. Most of us in we must never forget. Safety must management. wildland resource management be our highest priority and our believe that we’re at a major primary obligation as leaders in Perhaps never before have we seen turning point, although it remains wildland fire management. In view so much interest in what is hap­ to be seen whether we will be of recent efforts to reform our pening on our public lands. In permitted—or even able—to fully policy, training, and oversight, we recent years, the focus on forest turn in the needed direction. are hopefully moving toward a new health, on financial and budgetary Hopeful signs include a growing awareness of the importance of fire issues, and on a host of associated national emphasis on budgetary safety. legislative and political concerns concerns and on finding ways to has drawn unprecedented congres­ protect “acres at risk.” Fortunately, Our desire for a science-based sional attention and involvement the principle of managing fire for resource management also tests by the administration. Our publics resource benefits now seems to be our leadership. A glance at history are voicing their concerns at the understood and to some extent can help us understand what has local, regional, and national level supported. Implications include and hasn’t changed. To illustrate, I far more effectively than ever closely linking our fire manage­ refer to Gifford Pinchot, the first before. The scientific and profes­ ment plans with our land use Chief of the USDA Forest Service, sional journals are full of discus­ plans, wilderness plans, recreation who published an article in Na­ sions about the dilemmas we face plans, watershed plans, forest tional Geographic more than 100 today in wildland fire manage­ health plans, and other resource years ago under the title “The ment. management plans. Relation of Forests and Forest

More than ever, we can see how wildland fire management con­ nects the various disciplines and program areas we work with. Fire is no longer just a functional piece of what we do—a backcountry concern far removed from anyone who really cares, or perhaps a summer affair for fire departments to deal with. Today, in one way or another, fire figures into every­ thing we do as land management agencies. No longer can we afford for our fire programs, budgets, and organizations to be entities unto themselves. Fire has become the essence of much of our existence as land management agencies. Site of a May 1995 prescribed fire for turkey brood habitat on the George Washington and Jefferson National Forests in Virginia. Land management agencies are increasingly managing fire for resource benefits. Photo: Steven Q. Croy, USDA Forest Service, George Washington and Jefferson National Forests, Roanoke, VA, 1995.

18 Fire Management Today We are only now relearning the need from the Black Hills in South to have a sound land management policy on Dakota, the Priest River in Idaho, and the Olympic Peninsula in a thorough understanding of fire’s ecological role. western Washington. He addressed many of the same issues we still face. Despite vast advances in Fires” (Pinchot 1899). In his information and science over the GIFFORD PINCHOT article (see the excerpt in the side­ past 100 years, we seem to have bar), Pinchot regrets the “meager” more questions than ever. Today, ON THE ROLE OF contemporary understanding of the problem is often not the WILDLAND FIRE “what might be called the creative science, but rather the policies, the action of forest fires” in establish­ politics, and—yes—the leadership. […] The study of forest fires ing and maintaining wildland Albert Einstein once said, “Perfec­ as modifiers of the composi­ ecosystems. “For only through a tion of means and confusion of tion and mode of life of the knowledge of this relation and goals seems, in my opinion, to forest is as yet in its earliest through the insight which such characterize our age.” We have lots stages. Remarkably little knowledge brings,” he observed, of science and the capability to do attention, in view of the “can there be gained a clear and almost anything, but we are importance of the subject, full conception of how and why impeded by a confusion of goals. has hitherto been accorded to fires do harm and how best they it. A few observers who have may be prevented or extinguished.” In the past 5 years, a series of lived much with the forest, reviews and reports have pin­ such as John Muir of Califor­ Pinchot’s insight reflects some­ pointed weaknesses in the organi­ nia, have grouped fire with thing we are only now relearn- zational environment for wildland temperature and moisture as ing—the need to base a sound fire management, including one of the great factors which wildland fire management policy shrinking workforces, fewer skills, govern the distribution and on a thorough understanding of and experience concentrated in character of forest growth; fire’s ecological role. In his article, fewer people. As our experienced but so little has been said or Pinchot provided a number of people leave, the fire-related written upon the subject that examples documented with photos experience and interest among the the opinion of each man seems to have been reached independently and upon the single basis of personal observation. […] It is unfor­ tunate that our acquaintance with what might almost be called the creative action of forest fires should be so meager, for only through a knowledge of this relation and through the insight which such knowledge brings can there be gained a clear and full conception of how and why fires do harm, and how best they may be pre­ vented or extinguished. […] –Gifford Pinchot, “The Relation of Forests Hand crew preparing for initial attack in the Interior West. At a time of shrinking workforces, our leadership must encourage the general workforce to become trained, and Forest Fires,” 1899 qualified, and available to support wildland fire management. Photo: Ravi Miro Fry, USDA Forest Service, Boise National Forest, Boise, ID.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 19 remaining employees from all of • Better recognition of good COMMON our agencies continues to decline. leaders and help for those who With fewer red-carded employees, need it. CHARACTERISTICS we are having growing difficulty OF GOOD LEADERS finding overhead and even The one consistent recommenda­ firefighters in July or August. Our tion made in recent reviews is that Kouzes and Posner (1993) line officers have less experience we should strengthen the abilities identify a number of behav­ and interest in fire. They lack a and skills of our line officers and iors associated with leader­ commitment to fire and are not leaders through formal training, ship. According to their comfortable with, or experienced experience, and—where neces­ followers, good leaders: in, safety leadership. Other priori­ sary—direct oversight. ties drive a lot of their work. • Supported me, Moreover, they are unprepared or Components of • Had the courage to do the inadequately trained to provide Fire Management right thing, effective direction that reflects the Leadership • Challenged me, long-term integrated-stewardship Leadership is an interesting word. • Developed and acted as a view of where we are headed. Unit Bennis and Nanus (1997) describe mentor to others, managers emphasize other func­ it as the “capacity to translate • Listened, tional programs ahead of fire. Line intention into reality and sustain • Celebrated good work, officers who do poorly face few it.” A lot has been written about • Followed through on adverse consequences, and those leadership, although too often we commitments, who do well enjoy few rewards. In use the word without thinking. • Trusted me, a nutshell, our leadership is not Each of us should take a few • Empowered me, providing strong enough direction moments to consider the impor­ • Made time for people, or commitment to encourage the tance of leadership and what it • Shared a vision, general workforce to become means to us. We should try to • Opened doors, trained, qualified, and available to identify our biggest challenges as • Overcame personal hard­ support wildland fire management. leaders, acknowledging our ship, strengths and weaknesses. • Admitted mistakes, Our areas of weakness indicate • Advised others, where we should concentrate To lead, you must understand the • Solved problems creatively, much of our leadership energy. In basics of your program, including and brief, we want: the issues and roles that it entails. • Taught well. At NARTC, the leadership course is • Adequate support for wildland designed to provide this basic kind Credible leaders, according to fire activities; of information for the wildland fire Kouzes and Posner, have • Careful attention to safety; program, offering everything a people under them who: • A workforce that understands the leader needs to know in order to connections among wildland fire, meet basic leadership responsibili­ • Are proud to tell others fire-related jobs, good science, ties in wildland fire management. they are part of the organi­ and ecosystem stewardship; zation, • Line officers who understand But there’s more to leadership • Feel a strong sense of team their role and responsibilities, than just the basics. As Roy Lessin spirit, with regard to both safety and (1998) writes, “Leadership is not a • See their own personal cost-effective fire programs; job title, it is a characteristic of values as consistent with • Top management that holds line life. We lead by our attitude, by our those of the organization, officers accountable; responses to authority, by the • Feel attached and commit­ • Managers with the skills, experi­ words we speak, and by the ex­ ted to the organization, and ence, and qualifications neces­ ample we set. With a vision for the • Have a sense of ownership sary to get the job done; and future and a heart for people, for the organization.

20 Fire Management Today You, through your commitment and leadership, • Understand the program, will guide the people in our organizations • Know what you believe and stand for, to use and to manage wildland fire • Carefully reflect on how best to as part of our natural systems. lead, • Take the time to lead, and • Believe that you can meet the leaders can motivate and inspire Richard Swenson (1992) describes challenges of leadership. others to action. A leader is some­ how modern pressures can devour one who others want to follow, a the “margin” we need to build Today, more than ever, we expect good leader is someone who is leadership. “If you are homeless, people throughout our organiza­ worth following.” we direct you to a shelter,” writes tions to meet much of the leader­ Swenson. “If you are penniless, we ship challenge. I call that “leading In Savvy Sayin’s (Alstad 1986), offer you food stamps. If you are from where you are at.” Certainly, there’s a quote I like to remember: breathless, we connect oxygen. But there is much to be done, espe­ “If you’re out ahead of the herd, it if you are marginless, we give you cially in today’s world, and we all pays to look back occasionally to yet one more thing to do….Margin­ share a responsibility for getting it see if they’re still coming.” I think less is the baby crying and the done. But leadership is based on that says a lot about leadership. If phone ringing at the same time, good relationships; if, in our busy you look back and nobody’s com­ and Margin is grandma taking the workaday lives, we forget the ing, you’re probably not doing the baby for the afternoon….Margin­ importance of building and main­ job. Leadership means being out less is the disease of the 1990’s and taining relationships, we will fail to ahead, but it also means that Margin is the cure.” make long-term, sustainable people will follow. Ultimately, that achievements. As leaders, we must is the real test of a leader— Especially in coming years, we will set the example. Albert Schweitzer whether or not people will choose need extra margin in wildland fire once said, “Example is not the to follow. management. As leaders, we must main thing in influencing others, make sure that we do not deprive it’s the only thing.” What are some of the most com­ ourselves and others of the margin mon characteristics of good we need to perform effectively. Leadership leaders? In their highly commend­ Unless we find time to devote to Expectations able book Credibility, Kouzes and leading, we will be consumed by What is expected of you today as a Posner (1993) tell how leaders gain other things that momentarily leader in wildland fire manage­ and lose credibility and why people seem more important. Leaders in ment? Obtaining a certificate from demand it (see sidebar). Leader­ wildland fire management need to a leadership training course at ship, according to Kouzes and be engaged year round; it is not NARTC is only a start. It’s up to Posner, is “not a position, not a enough just to show up for the you and other leaders across the skill, but a relationship.” Leaders prescribed burn or to interface country—whether as agency are admired by others; they are with the type 1 team. Take time all administrators, local unit manag­ valued, motivated, enthusiastic, year long to build relationships, to ers, staff leaders, or line officers— challenged, inspired, capable, let your people know you care to lead our agencies and our supported, powerful, respected, about them and appreciate what departments in the years ahead. and proud. Great leaders put they are doing. And don’t forget to You, by your example, will ensure principles ahead of politics, look­ recognize their achievements. As that safety is the first priority on ing out for the interests of others Tom Peters (1985) puts it, “Cel­ every project and on every fire, rather than their own self-interest. ebrate what you want to see more every time. You, through your A crucial point to remember is that of.” commitment and leadership, will leadership takes time. As busy as guide the people in our organiza­ our everyday work keeps us, it’s Perhaps the most important lead­ tions to use and to manage wild- easy to forget to take the necessary ership principles are the most land fire as part of our natural time to lead. In his book Margin, basic:

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 21 WHAT IS EXPECTED OF YOU AS A FIRE systems. You and all of us, at every level of leadership, must work MANAGEMENT LEADER? together to implement the plans, actions, and policies outlined in At every level of leadership, we must all work together to implement the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire the policies adopted in the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire Management Management Policy and Program Policy and Program Review. As a fire management leader, it’s up to you Review. to guide, encourage, support, and help the people in our fire organiza­ tions to use and to manage fire by: It won’t happen without your leadership—without your energy, • Encouraging others to step forward and get involved, commitment, time, and attention. • Asking the tough questions, But with your leadership, it can • Getting involved and being visible yourself, and will happen. Are you ready to • Understanding your role and responsibilities, help your organization promote a • Knowing what’s happening, and new generation of fire that influ­ • Seeing the big picture. ences landscapes and affects a broad range of people in a positive You can help others see fire as an important management tool and as way? Are you ready to build the part of the ecological framework of our natural systems by: needed public support? Are you ready to listen, learn, and lead, • Working to ensure that others see fire as an integral part of ensuring that there are leaders everyone’s business; behind you in the decades to • Helping fire people see the fire program as part of everyone else’s come? Most importantly, are you business and not as a separate, independent program; ready to ensure that safety remains • Including consideration of fire in ongoing planning processes; our first priority? Leading our • Helping our publics, through your involvement and encouragement, wildland fire management into the to understand the role of fire; and next millennium is ultimately up • Communicating the role of wildland fire management on our public to you. lands. ITERATURE ITED Most importantly, it’s up to you, by your example and leadership, to L C Alstad, K. 1986. Savvy sayin’s. Tucson, AZ: make safety our first priority on every fire, at every opportunity, every Ken Alstad Co. 165 p. time. Bennis, W.; Nanus, B. 1997. Leaders: Strategies for taking charge. New York, NY: HarperBusiness. 235 p. Kenney, N.T. 1956. Our green treasury, the national forests. National Geographic. 110(9): 287–324. Kouzes, J.M.; Posner, B.Z. 1993. Credibil­ ity: How leaders gain and lose it, why people demand it. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass. 332 p. Lessin, R. 1998. Wisdom for the workplace. Bloomington, MN: Garborg’s Inc. 95 p. Peters, T.J.; Austin, N. 1985. A passion for excellence. New York, NY: Random House. 437 p. Pinchot, G. 1899. The relation of forests and forest fires. National Geographic. 10(10): 393–403. Swenson, R.A. 1992. Margin: How to create the emotional, physical, financial and time reserves you need. Colorado Springs, CO: NavPress, 1992. ■

A crew boss discussing plans with his crew on the 1985 Schoolhouse Fire, Pisgah National Forest, NC. Fire management leadership is based on good relationships. Photo: USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC, 1985.

22 Fire Management Today TWENTY MYTHS ABOUT WILDLAND FIRE HISTORY*

Stephen W. Barrett

ver the past 20 years, I have studied fire history in every Wildland fire severities have often increased Oforest type in the northern beyond the historical range of variability, Rocky Mountains. Despite an ever- causing both incremental and sudden loss growing wealth of knowledge on the subject, foresters and the of old growth. public alike often hold deep-seated misconceptions about wildland fire history. Shown below in the style also occurred every 20 to 40 years short duration and tended to made famous by television’s David in moist stands of ponderosa pine, remain local events. Letterman—that is, in ascending western larch, and Douglas-fir. order of importance—are 20 of the Before 1900, unhindered fires most insidious myths about wild- Myth 18. A 15-year mean fire could easily burn for months, land fire history. Some pertain interval derived from a ponderosa ending far from their points of specifically to the northern pine stand is highly accurate. origin. Rockies, others to the Western United States as a whole. A brief The estimate is likely too conserva- Myth 14. Because many wildland discussion follows each. tive, because light surface fires fires have occurred during this often fail to scar trees. century, western forests must still Myth 20. In lodgepole pine, stand- be natural. replacing fires average every 150 Myth 17. The terms “stand­ years. replacing fire” and “crown fire” are Many fires have indeed occurred in synonymous. some areas, including “prescribed Actually, fire regimes in lodgepole natural fires”** in parks and wilder- pine show some of the widest Although crown fires are indeed ness. But fire frequency has never- variation in any forest type. His­ stand-replacing fires, not all stand­ theless declined in many areas. As torical fire regimes in lodgepole replacing fires are crown fires. a result, wildland fire sizes and pine ranged from low-severity fires Severe surface fires can destroy a severities are occurring outside the averaging every 25 years (for stand without ever entering the historical range of variability. example, in Montana’s Bitterroot canopy. Valley) to high-severity fires every Myth 13. Recent fires burning in a few centuries (for example, after Myth 16. “Fuel buildup” refers to “mosaic” pattern must have been more than 300 years in Yellow­ downed woody material. natural. stone National Park). This myth is widespread in the It’s true that not all modern fires Myth 19. In ponderosa pine, general public. Fuel includes not have been “crown fires.” But that nonlethal fires averaged every 10 only downed woody material, but misses the point. Fire severities years before 1900. also living plants—often as ladder have often increased beyond the fuels. And plenty of such fuels historical range of variability, This rule of thumb is too simplis­ accumulated during the fire exclu­ causing both incremental and tic. On dry sites, nonlethal under- sion era. sudden loss of old growth, in burns certainly occurred every 5 to addition to other unnatural habitat 15 years. But mixed-severity fires Myth 15. Historically, most fires changes. in the Rocky Mountains were of Steve Barrett is a consulting fire ecologist Myth 12. Because many dry in Kalispell, MT. ponderosa pine stands are still relatively open (that is, lightly * This article is based on a presentation the author has made to USDA Forest Service managers and line ** The term “prescribed natural fire” has been replaced officers. by the term “wildland fire use.”

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 23 stocked), they’re still in the Not all stand-replacing fires are crown fires— nonlethal fire regime. severe surface fires can destroy a stand Fuel buildups can be deceiving. without ever entering the canopy. Marked increases in litter and duff at the bases of old trees can promote lethal surface fires, Spring fires certainly were histori­ to activities associated with extin­ uncommon before 1900. cally less common than late-season guishing fires, which became burns. But a fire is natural when­ highly effective in the Western Myth 11. American Indian fires ever fuels are receptive to fire and United States only after about couldn’t possibly have affected ignition occurs. 1940. But fire exclusion predates much land, because tribal popula­ fire suppression by a half century tions were low and ignitions were Myth 8. Lightning alone is enough or more. In many parts of the probably rare and accidental. to restore fire’s natural role in West, fire exclusion began with the wilderness areas. cessation of traditional Indian Although tribal populations were burning in the late 1800’s, followed indeed relatively low (especially If all lightning fires were allowed by heavy livestock grazing, agricul­ after depopulation through intro­ to burn unhindered, they would ture, and other settlement activi­ duced diseases), just a few people largely restore a natural fire fre­ ties. Many areas have thus experi­ can cause a lot of burned acreage. quency. But fire severity is another enced more than a century of In fact, American Indians com­ matter entirely. Long-term fire effective fire exclusion. monly and often skillfully used fire exclusion has built up fuels in for many purposes, such as im­ many wilderness areas to the point Myth 5. Fire exclusion really proving wildlife habitat, influenc­ where fire severity is beyond the hasn’t been very effective or very ing game movements, enhancing historical range of variability. Such long term. browse for horses, stimulating fires can radically alter ecosystems plant growth for food and medi­ for centuries. Still, to protect Actually, fire exclusion has quite a cine, facilitating hunting and human lives and infrastructure, long history in many locales, gathering, clearing trails and managers often can’t allow free- especially where grazing has campsites, communicating across ranging fires, even in wilderness. occurred. Studies in southwestern long distances, and waging war. In Montana, for example, have many mountain valleys and on the Myth 7. On nonwilderness lands, documented a 90-percent reduc­ plains, Indian fires were apparently prescribed fire alone can restore tion in annual burned area since as important as lightning fires— forests. the late 1800’s. Least affected are perhaps even more so—in shaping forests under a long-interval, and maintaining ecosystems. In many locales, thanks to past stand-replacing fire regime, about management practices, the “horse 20 percent of the forests in the Myth 10. Human-caused fires in is already out of the barn”—greatly northern Rockies. wilderness aren’t natural. increased tree densities are pro­ moting more severe fires. Thus, Myth 4. Fire ecologists are like That’s a belief rooted in modern logging and prescribed fire will Chicken Little, warning of impend­ philosophy but without a basis in likely both be necessary to restore ing holocausts such as the Great historical or ecological reality. a semblance of past stand struc­ 1910 Burn. American Indians didn’t hesitate to tures. burn whenever and wherever it Professionals are simply pointing suited their needs. As a result, Myth 6. The terms “fire exclusion” out the indisputable truth that many ecosystems evolved with and “fire suppression” are synony­ many fires in recent decades have frequent human-caused fires. mous. increased in size and severity relative to their historical range of Myth 9. Spring burning isn’t The term “fire suppression” is variability. That might be alarm­ natural. narrower than the term “fire ing, but it’s not the same as saying exclusion.” Fire suppression refers that catastrophic crown fires are coming.

24 Fire Management Today Long before European settlement, unhindered fires could burn for months and end far from their points of origin.

Myth 3. Fire history studies are irrelevant vignettes, because the timespan of 300 to 500 years recorded in tree rings is far too short to be meaningful.

Actually, 300 to 500 years of fire history, especially if assembled from many locales, are sufficient because most forests have a lifespan of 500 years or less. Moreover, I would argue that the relatively recent past is much more relevant to wildland managers today than data from inherently vague and scarce paleoecology studies (such as on bogs).

Myth 2. Presettlement fire regimes are irrelevant, because climate and fire patterns are always changing.

Despite climatic shifts over the past five centuries, most fire regimes have remained relatively stable. Moreover, the climate between 1500 and 1900 included every variation we’re likely to see in the foreseeable future.

Myth 1. There’s no need to keep studying fire history, because we’ve already got enough data.

Despite numerous attempts to classify fire regimes (such as in the Interior Columbia Basin Ecosys­ tem Management Project), we’ve only just begun to understand historical and current fire regimes. A surface fire in an open stand of ponderosa pine. Because light surface fires often fail to And there’s simply no substitute scar trees, the 15-year fire interval widely attributed to dry ponderosa pine forest is for local information, particularly sometimes too conservative. Photo: Paul S. Fieldhouse, USDA Forest Service, Missoula when documenting a possible Smokejumper Base, Missoula, MT. history of fire exclusion in a given area. ■

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 25 HOW TO BUILD A FIRE EXCLUSION MAP

Stephen W. Barrett and John C. Ingebretson

ire ecologists often use stand origin maps in interpreting fire Managers can use fire exclusion maps F history (Heinselman 1973; to assess fire hazard risk, identify potential insect Tande 1979; Romme 1982; Barrett and disease outbreaks, and pinpoint old growth et al. 1991; Barrett 1994). Such maps reveal stand structures, stand and fire regimes at risk. and landscape fire patterns, the presence of old growth, and other key information. However, manag­ 3. Calculating a fire exclusion from coarse-filter models. We ers often find stand origin maps factor. found three historical fire regimes too detailed or abstract for easy (fig. 2): use. Documenting Historical Fire Regimes. Determining historical • Nonlethal. On 11 percent of the In 1997, during a study on the fire regimes is fundamental to area, at low elevations on dry Flathead National Forest in north­ interpreting fire history (Agee sites dominated by grasses, western Montana (Barrett 1998), 1993). Our study area (fig. 1) shrubs, and scattered ponderosa we sought to develop a more user- covered 6,000 acres (2,500 ha) next pine (Pinus ponderosa), nonle­ friendly product. Rather than to Flathead Lake, a high-value thal fires averaged about every mapping stand origins, we devel­ recreation corridor with a bur­ 20 years during the presettle­ oped a map integrating two fire geoning wildland–urban interface. ment era. frequency variables: mean fire Because of the area’s importance, • Mixed-severity (MS) I. On 38 interval (MFI) and years since last we decided to sample fire history percent of the area, in warm- fire (Romme 1980). The goal was (Arno and Sneck 1977; Barrett and moist stands dominated by to portray the effects of fire exclu­ Arno 1988) rather than extrapolate ponderosa pine, western larch sion at the stand and landscape scales, which is potentially more useful than merely labeling stand origins. The fire exclusion map is also easier, faster, and less expen­ sive to develop than intensive modeling based on statistical analysis (Brown et al. 1994). The Mapping Process Building a fire exclusion map requires three steps:

1. Documenting historical fire regimes, 2. Mapping the most recent fires, and

Steve Barrett is a consulting research forester in Kalispell, MT; and John Ingebretson is a fuels specialist for the USDA Forest Service, Flathead National Figure 1—Fire history study area, next to Flathead Lake on the Flathead National Forest Forest, Swan Lake Ranger District, in northwestern Montana. Bigfork, MT.

26 Fire Management Today The fire exclusion map is easier, faster, and less (Larix occidentalis), and Dou­ expensive to develop than intensive modeling glas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), mixed-severity fires averaged based on statistical analysis. about every 30 years. • MS II. On 51 percent of the area, in cool-moist stands dominated by western larch, lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta), and Douglas- fir, mixed-severity fires averaged about every 80 years, burning more severely than in the warm- moist stands.

If site-specific sampling is not feasible (for example, due to funding constraints), fire regimes can sometimes be modeled. Al­ though such modeling is more error prone, classifications such as “fire groups” (Davis et al. 1980; Fischer and Clayton 1983; Crane and Fischer 1986; Bradley et al. 1992a; Bradley et al. 1992b; Smith and Fischer 1997; Morgan et al. 1998) can be used to estimate MFI’s and fire severities. Whether sampling or modeling, the map­ maker should use a geographic information system to extrapolate the area of the historical fire regimes, based on major environ­ mental parameters such as poten­ tial vegetation groups (see, for example, Barrett and Arno 1991; Quigley et al. 1996).

Mapping the Most Recent Fires. The next step is to determine the number of years since the last fire. Ranger districts often have fire atlas maps showing the approxi­ mate boundaries of fires that oc­ curred after 1900. If there are no Figure 2—Fire regimes and plots in the study area. Nonlethal = high-frequency, low- severity fires on dry sites dominated by ponderosa pine; Mixed Severity (MS) I = such data or if no fires occurred moderate- to high-frequency and low- to moderate-severity fires on warm-moist sites during the past century, then the dominated by ponderosa pine, western larch, and Douglas-fir; MS II = moderate- to low- area must be sampled—that is, fire frequency and moderate- to high-severity fires on cool-moist sites dominated by western larch, lodgepole pine, and Douglas-fir. scars and seral age classes must be used to estimate the years of the most recent fires (Arno and Sneck 1977; Barrett and Arno 1988).

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 27 Sample plot density must be based on the complexity of the forest mosaic. Comparatively few plots are needed in areas prone to large, high-severity fires, because the fire boundaries are often readily visible on aerial photographs. Higher plot densities are needed in terrain prone to nonlethal and mixed- severity fires, because such burn­ ing produces complex forest mosaics.

In our study area, we sampled 50 plots at well-dispersed locations (fig. 2). The fire atlas revealed just one fire since 1900 (in 1920); plot data showed that most stands had not burned since sometime be­ tween 1805 and 1893. We used the plot data together with aerial photographs to map approximate fire perimeters (fig. 3). For burns that occurred within a relatively short timeframe (for example, from 1908 to 1920), we grouped the stands together. Such grouping is acceptable because higher resolution mapping would not yield correspondingly better information for planning.

After grouping, we derived seven fire periods for the entire study area (two single years and five multiyear intervals representing grouped stands—see figure 3). For Figure 3—Years since last fire. Where burns occurred within a few years of each other, stands are grouped (for example, 1867–93). Number of years since the last fire is calcu­ grouped stands, we calculated the lated from 1997, the year of the study. For intervals (for example, 1867–93), years since midpoint within the interval of fire last fire is calculated from the interval midpoint. years (for example, the midpoint in the interval 1893–1920 is 1914). Based on the two single fire years, the five interval midpoints, and the year of the study (1997), we deter­ since the last fire (fig. 3) to pro­ study area have not burned since mined the number of years since duce a “fire exclusion factor” for sometime between 1867 and 1893. the last fire for each part of the each stand (fig. 4). The fire exclu­ If we calculate the interval mid­ study area. sion factor is derived by dividing point as 1880, the number of years the number of years since the last from the last fire to the year of the Calculating the Fire Exclusion fire by the MFI for the fire regime. 1997 study is 117. The fire exclu­ Factor. The final step in producing sion factor varies according to the a fire exclusion map is to overlay For example, most stands in the fire regimes (fig. 2) with the years middle to southern portion of our

28 Fire Management Today fire regime and corresponding MFI:

• Nonlethal (MFI = 20 years)— The fire exclusion factor is 5.9 (117 ÷ 20). • MS I (MFI = 30 years)—The fire exclusion factor is 3.9 (117 ÷ 30). • MS II (MFI = 80 years)— The fire exclusion factor is 1.5 (117 ÷ 80).

Thus, the fire interval is nearly six times longer than the historical mean for dry-site ponderosa pine stands (nonlethal fire regime) and about four times longer for moist- site ponderosa pine stands (MS I regime). Clearly, both fire regimes have been heavily affected by fire exclusion, because the current fire interval is well beyond the histori­ cal range of variation (HRV).

Adjacent western larch–lodgepole pine stands in the MS II regime, with a fire interval less than twice the historical mean, have been somewhat less affected. Although the current fire interval is still within the HRV for the MS II fire regime, the hazard of wildland fire remains quite high for those pro­ ductive stands. Overall, the north­ ern portion of the study area has been less heavily affected by fire exclusion than the southern Figure 4—Fire exclusion factors for fire regimes. For efficiency, fire exclusion factors are portion (fig. 4). grouped: 0–1 = no change from historical mean fire interval (MFI); 2–3 = two to three times historical MFI; 4–6 = four to six times historical MFI. For mapping efficiency, we grouped the fire exclusion factors evaluated in an ecological context. (such as shrubs and small trees) into three classes (fig. 4): For instance, at what point does are inherently heavier in the latter. the current fire interval represent • 0–1 (no change from the histori­ a serious departure from HRV? And Strengths and cal MFI); how well does the map reflect the Weaknesses • 2–3 (two to three times the current fire hazard? Clearly, a fire For fire-dependent ecosystems, the historical MFI); and exclusion factor of 2 (that is, twice fire exclusion map serves as a site- • 4–6 (four to six times the histori­ the historical MFI) for a dry-site specific “road map.” It can help cal MFI). ponderosa pine stand presents less wildland managers locate stands of a hazard than for a productive profoundly affected by fire exclu­ Because such a classification is western larch–lodgepole pine sion versus those still within the arbitrary, the results need to be stand, because ladder fuel buildups HRV. And managers can use fire

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 29 exclusion maps for such purposes During presentations in Montana’s Flathead Valley, as assessing fire hazard risk, our fire exclusion maps and fire scar samples identifying potential insect and disease outbreaks, and pinpointing generated much interest among neighboring old growth and fire regimes at risk. residents in the wildland–urban interface. Fire exclusion mapping is most useful for the nonlethal and mixed- severity fire regimes, because the Arno, S.F.; Sneck, K.M. 1977. A method for Davis, K.M.; Clayton, B.D.; Fischer, W.C. stand replacement regime has determining fire history in coniferous 1980. Fire ecology of Lolo National forests of the Mountain West. Gen. Tech. Forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. been less affected by fire exclusion Rep. INT–42. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest INT–79. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest (Barrett et al. 1991; Agee 1993). Service, Intermountain Forest and Service, Intermountain Forest and Although possible at various scales, Range Experiment Station. 28 p. Range Experiment Station. 77 p. Barrett, S.W. 1994. Fire regimes on Fischer, W.C.; Clayton, B.D. 1983. Fire fire exclusion mapping is likely andesitic mountain terrain in northeast­ ecology of Montana habitat types east of best suited for midscale analyses ern Yellowstone National Park, Wyo­ the Continental Divide. Gen. Tech. Rep. (e.g., on tracts of 5,000 to 50,000 ming. International Journal of Wildland INT–141. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Fire. 4(2): 65–76. Service, Intermountain Forest and acres [2,000–20,000 ha]). Barrett, S.W. 1998. Fire history and fire Range Experiment Station. 83 p. regimes, Flathead Lake East Shore Heinselman, M.L. 1973. Fire in the virgin Fire history data, including fire Analysis Area. Unpublished report on file forests of the Boundary Waters Canoe exclusion maps, are also useful for at the USDA Forest Service, Flathead Area, Minnesota. Quaternary Research. National Forest, Swan Lake Ranger 3: 329–382. public education. During presenta­ District, Bigfork, MT. 15 p. Morgan, P.; Bunting, S.; Black, A.; Merril, tions in the Flathead Valley, our Barrett, S.W.; Arno, S.F. 1988. Increment T; Barrett, S.W. 1998. Fire regimes in maps and fire scar samples gener­ borer methods for determining fire the Interior Columbia River Basin: Past history in coniferous forests. Gen. Tech. and present. In: Close, K.; Bartlette, R.J., ated much interest among neigh­ Rep. INT–244. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest eds. Proceedings of the Interior West boring residents in the wildland– Service, Intermountain Research Fire Council Meeting, International urban interface. Station. 15 p. Association of Wildland Fire: Fire Barrett, S.W.; Arno, S.F. 1991. Classifying Management Under Fire (Adapting to fire regimes and defining their topo­ Change); 1–4 November 1994; Coeur Fire exclusion mapping can range graphic controls in the Selway– d’Alene, WA. Fairfield, WA: Interior Fire from highly precise efforts incor­ Bitterroot Wilderness. In: Proceedings, West Council: 77–82. porating extensive data collection 11th Conference: Fire and Forest Quigley, T. M.; Haynes, R.W.; Graham, R.T., Meteorology; 16–19 April 1991; tech. eds. 1996. Integrated scientific in the field, to office exercises Missoula, MT. Bethesda, MD: Society of assessment for ecosystem management based largely on existing data and American Foresters: 299–307. in the Interior Columbia Basin. Gen. classifications. The mapping Barrett, S.W.; Arno, S.F.; Key, C.H. 1991. Tech. Rep. PNW–382. Portland, OR: Fire regimes of western larch–lodgepole USDA Forest Service, Pacific Northwest process thus contains inherent pine forests in Glacier National Park, Research Station. 303 p. flexibility and is potentially eco­ Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Romme, W.H. 1980. Fire history terminol­ nomical. For optimal results, Research. 21: 1711–1720. ogy: Report of the ad hoc committee. In: Bradley, A.F.; Noste, N.V.; Fischer, W.C. Stokes, M.R.; Dieterich, J.H., tech. however, wildland managers 1992a. Fire ecology of forests and coords. Proceedings of the Fire History should draw on the expertise of woodlands in Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. Workshop; 20–24 October 1980; Tucson, those proficient in sampling and INT–287. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM–81. Fort mapping fire history. For more Service, Intermountain Research Collins, CO: USDA Forest Service, Rocky Station. 128 p. Mountain Forest and Range Experiment information, contact Steve Barrett Bradley, A.F.; Fischer, W.C.; Noste, N.V. Station: 135–137. at 995 Ranch Lane, Kalispell, MT 1992b. Fire ecology of the forest habitat Romme, W.H. 1982. Fire and landscape 59901, 406-756-9547 (phone), types of eastern Idaho and western diversity in subalpine forests of Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–290. Yellowstone National Park. Ecological [email protected] (e-mail). Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Monographs. 52(2): 199–221. Intermountain Research Station. 92 p. Smith, J.K.; Fischer, W.C. 1997. Fire Literature Cited Brown, J.K.; Arno, S.F.; Barrett, S.W.; ecology of the forest habitat types of Menakis, J.P. 1994. Comparing the northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT– Agee, J.K. 1993. Fire ecology of the Pacific prescribed natural fire program with 363. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Northwest forests. Washington, DC: presettlement fires in the Selway– Intermountain Research Station. 142 p. Island Press. 493 p. Bitterroot Wilderness. International Tande, G.F. 1979. Fire history and vegeta­ Journal of Wildland Fire. 4(3): 157–168. tion patterns of coniferous forests in Crane, M.F.; Fischer, W.C. 1986. Fire Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian ecology of the forest habitat types of Journal of Botany. 57: 1912–1931. ■ central Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT–218. Ogden, UT: USDA Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 86 p.

30 Fire Management Today WINEMA HOTSHOTS TRAIN ON OREGON’S COAST

Dave Beck

he Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area (ODNRA) The Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area Tcovers 31,566 acres (12,775 ha) offers facilities for fire crew training on the Siuslaw National Forest in an ideal oceanside setting. along central Oregon’s Pacific coast. The area is renowned for its spectacular beaches and lush crew—than an area where the Vista Project. Several phone temperate rainforest. It’s a world abundant rainfall creates dense conversations later, we had worked away from the high-desert town of stands of 400 trees per acre grow­ out the details for a first-ever Klamath Falls, OR, on the arid ing at the astonishing rate of up to training event. eastern slopes of the Cascade 1-1/4 inches (3.2 cm) in diameter Mountains, where the Winema per year? Hotshots are based. Partnership in Action The Winema Hotshots arrived in For our part, we were very inter­ So what do the Winema Hotshots June 1998 for a week of intensive ested in recruiting a well-trained, and the ODNRA have in common? work. They cut slash in the morn­ physically able team to work on For the second consecutive year, ings and spent the afternoons our vegetation management fire managers from both units have power-hiking the dunes, running projects, some of which have been combined efforts to create an ideal the beaches, and doing team- delayed due to inadequate funding. training situation for the high- building exercises, with classroom The 10-acre (4-ha) South Jetty desert hotshots in a coastal­ studies at night. In the fall of 1998, Vista Project, near Florence, OR, rainforest setting. As a result, both thanks to site preparation by the seemed particularly suitable, parties have achieved important Winema crew, we were able to integrating the goals of several goals. achieve our management goals by ODNRA departments: broadcast burning the project area Mutual Interests using crews from the ODNRA, the • Recreation was interested in Siuslaw National Forest’s Mapleton In the spring of 1998, Winema restoring the scenic views in an and Waldport Ranger Districts, Hotshot Supervisor Randy Lehman area that had been overgrown by Siuslaw Valley Fire and Rescue, was looking for a suitable site for a trees and brush; and the Oregon Department of team-building and training trip for • Resources was fighting to con­ Forestry. his crew. When he contacted me trol the Portuguese broom, a here at the ODNRA, my immediate nonnative plant that was becom­ I was not surprised to hear from response was, “Have I got a deal for ing established in the area; and Supervisor Lehman again in 1999. you!” Not only do we have unlim­ • Fire Management needed to We agreed that the 1998 project ited sand for rigorous physical reduce the hazardous fuels had been a terrific success. We set conditioning, but we also maintain adjacent to the main access road goals, worked out logistics, and a 20-person bunkhouse with full for the ODNRA, where several brought the Winema Hotshots to kitchen facilities and a classroom. fires had ignited during the the beach again! This time, we And what better place for chain previous 5 years. designated 6 acres (2.4 ha) at saw certification—a fire training Umpqua Beach, near Winchester requirement for the Winema We offered to provide housing and Bay, OR, as the worksite. Fuel to pay for part of the Winema types were similar to those on the Dave Beck is the fire manager for the crew’s daily expenses in exchange USDA Forest Service, Oregon Dunes South Jetty Vista Project the National Recreation Area, Siuslaw for saw work on the South Jetty previous year, but this time the National Forest, Reedsport, OR.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 31 The hotshots cut slash in the mornings; spent the afternoons power-hiking the dunes, running the beaches, and doing team-building exercises; and had classroom studies at night.

Winema crew worked in a gor­ of home, the Winema crew could the Winema crew again in the year geous setting just a few hundred concentrate on training in a 2000. Now, if we could just interest feet from the Pacific Ocean. beautiful location. In return, the a few more crews in this type of 20 highly disciplined, competent preseason training, we might Mutual Benefits workers made a real contribution someday actually complete all of to ODNRA project work—often a our vegetation management Providing this opportunity was a low priority for seasonal fire crews. projects on the ODNRA! For more win–win proposition. The Winema information, contact Dave Beck, Hotshots visited the 1998 project The ODNRA might have started an Fire Manager, Oregon Dunes site to see the results of their work. annual event. After reviewing National Recreation Area, USDA They also got another chance to overall project success with Forest Service, Siuslaw National train in an environment with fuels Winema Hotshot Supervisors Forest, 855 Highway 101, and other conditions very different Lehman and Neil Austin, I Reedsport, OR 97467, tel. 541-271­ from those in the Klamath Falls wouldn’t be surprised to hear from 6082, fax 541-271-6019. ■ area. Away from the interruptions

The Winema Hotshots, based in Klamath Falls, OR, pose during training on the Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area (ODNRA), Siuslaw National Forest, OR. In exchange for working on the ODNRA’s backlogged vegetation management projects, the high-desert hotshots were able to train in an ideal environment on the Pacific coast. Photo: Dave Beck, USDA Forest Service, Oregon Dunes National Recreation Area, Siuslaw National Forest, Reedsport, OR, 1999.

32 Fire Management Today FROM THE CLASSROOM TO THE COURTROOM: INVESTIGATOR TRAINEES GET A TASTE OF REALITY

Rod Nichols

rom the classroom to the courtroom, 37 trainees learned Trainees dealt with authentic fire investigation F wildland fire investigation cases, including actual incidents in Oregon. methods in an intensive, weeklong course held on July 12–16, 1999, in Roseburg, OR. Far from a dry sources, including cigarettes, hydrocarbon residues by Kent and lecture series, the training pro­ matches, and a bottle rocket. his canine colleagues are admis­ gram immersed the students in the sible in court. scientific procedures and legal The students then put their processes employed by professional classroom training into action, Becoming an effective fire investi­ investigators. “What we’re trying collecting and preserving evidence, gator calls not only for acquiring to do is give them a taste of real­ determining the fire’s point of knowledge and honing scientific ity,” said Pete Norkeveck, the chief origin, and obtaining statements skills, but also for radical changes of investigation for the Oregon from “witnesses” recruited by the in thinking. “We have a motto: Department of Forestry. instructors. Although the trainees ‘Open your eyes and shut off your received guidance during the brain,’” remarked Chief Norkeveck. Authentic Cases exercises, they had to work The point is to temporarily inacti­ To maintain authenticity, the through the investigative process vate the mind’s tendency to teaching cadre based the course on their own. “We try to expose rationalize external stimuli—a content on existing case studies, them to all the different variations mechanism that keeps us psycho­ including two large incidents—the they’ll encounter out there,” logically right with the world but Wheeler Point Fire in 1996, which explained Chief Norkeveck, “but we impedes the discovery process of burned 21,980 acres (8,896 ha) don’t give them the answers.” forensic investigation. near Fossil, OR; and the Rowena Fire in 1998, which consumed The training cadre provided hands- Courtroom Simulation 2,208 acres (893 ha) in the Colum­ on experience with digital cameras Chief Norkeveck described the bia Gorge near The Dalles, OR. For and other sophisticated techno­ course content as “80 percent each case, the students learned the logical aids. But a demonstration science, 20 percent procedure,” the basic facts, then traveled to the fire of canine investigative prowess left latter a reference in part to the scene to collect evidence and clues. perhaps the strongest impression. courtroom simulation conducted To build student confidence, the Kent, a Labrador retriever, and his at the end of the course. On hand trainers prepared small plots of handler Maurice Austin, both from to grill the trainees as they pre­ ground for the first field experi­ the Arson/Explosives Section of the sented their findings to the faux ence. Personnel from the Douglas Oregon State Police (OSP), per­ judge and jury were lawyers from Forest Protective Association formed fire accelerant detections the Jackson County District (DFPA) in southern Oregon cleared on the staged fire scenes. “A dog Attorney’s office and the Oregon firelines around the plots to keep like this can detect hydrocarbon Department of Justice. They played the fires separate, then set them accelerants such as gasoline and their role as counsel for the ablaze with a variety of ignition kerosene with 100 times greater defense with zeal, probing the accuracy than any device,” ob­ evidence and findings of the served Chief Norkeveck. And when investigators for flaws. Stressful Rod Nichols is a public information officer a certified detection dog speaks, and at times traumatic, the court­ for the Oregon Department of Forestry, judges listen: The discoveries of Salem, OR. room exercise was designed to take

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 33 the students successfully through Although the trainees received guidance, the crucial final step of an arson they had to work through the investigative case: explaining the sequence of events to a jury. “Wildland fire process on their own. investigators statistically have less courtroom experience than police officers,” Chief Norkeveck noted, “so we do our best to create a realistic scenario for them.” A Collaborative Effort The course is offered on an as- needed basis every few years, whenever the cooperating wildland fire management agencies in Oregon establish a common need to train new fire investigators. Sanctioned as a certified training course by the Pacific Northwest Wildfire Coordinating Group and the Oregon Department of Public Safety Standards and Training, the 1999 course took a year to set up. The teaching cadre comprised Trainees posing during an interagency course on wildland ‘fire investigation methods held attorneys from the Oregon Depart­ on July 12–16, 1999, in Roseburg, OR. Photo: Oregon Department of Forestry, Salem, OR, ment of Justice Civil Enforcement 1999. Division and the Jackson County District Attorney’s office, a forensic expert from California, officers from the OSP’s Arson/Explosives Section, and senior investigators from the Oregon Department of Forestry.

DFPA personnel handled the extensive logistics. The Cow Creek Tribe volunteered its tribal offices for the classroom sessions. Course participants included OSP detec­ tives, a USDA Forest Service law enforcement officer, a deputy fire marshal from the Oregon State Fire Marshal’s office, and DFPA and Oregon Department of Forestry foresters, along with several Idaho Bureau of Lands personnel who Trainees searching a burned plot for clues to the origin of the fire. Photo: Oregon Depart­ have fire investigative responsibili­ ment of Forestry, Salem, OR, 1999. ties in their State.

34 Fire Management Today The courtroom simulation took fire investigator Commenting on the class’s diverse trainees through the crucial final step of explaining representation, Chief Norkeveck voiced a theme stated repeatedly the sequence of events to a jury. during the week. “The days of single investigator cases are gone,” he declared. “It’s beyond the power of an individual investigator to do the job. We simply have to assist and communicate across agency and jurisdictional lines.” For more information on Oregon’s fire investigation program, contact Rod Nichols, Oregon Department of Forestry, 2600 State Street, Salem, OR 97310, 503-945-7425 (phone), [email protected] (e-mail). ■

Burnt matches (with a pencil for scale)—a clue to the origin of a fire investigated by trainees. Photo: Oregon Department of Forestry, Salem, OR, 1999.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 35 TWELVE SMOKEY AWARDS PRESENTED FOR 1998

Doris Nance

he Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention (CFFP) Program The Smokey Awards honor sustained, T presented 12 Smokey Bear outstanding contributions to wildland Awards to honor sustained, out­ fire prevention. standing contributions to wildland fire prevention in 1998. Awardees received Smokey Bear statuettes, Interstate Forest Fire Protection Interagency Fire Prevention including four Silver Smokeys and Compact (MAIFFPC). She helped Committee, California State Fire eight Bronze Smokeys. All the develop an Internet homepage for Marshal’s Public Education Advi­ awards recognize sustained wild- the MAIFFPC; provided leadership sory Committee, CalTrans Public land fire prevention activities over and resources necessary to revise Advisory Committee on Highway at least 2 years, the use of creative the brochure Wildfire is the Landscaping, and Public Utilities techniques for communicating the Enemy of Your Forest Home; Subcommittee on Public Educa­ wildland fire prevention message, updated the video On the Fire Line tion. He is currently working with and efforts beyond the scope of to include a specific message for the State Fire Marshal’s staff to each recipient’s job. The awards each MAIFFPC member State; and expand the role of public educa­ were presented at various ceremo­ facilitated MAIFFPC adoption of tion, and he is also developing a nies throughout the Nation by the Smokey’s Volunteers in Prevention procedure to integrate CDF’s VIP USDA Forest Service, the National (VIP) program, which provides program with the Project Learning Association of State Foresters, and basic training for volunteers. She Tree Environmental Education The Advertising Council. has served on the National Wildfire program. He is the CFFP liaison Coordinating Group’s Wildland for the CDF with the Forest Silver Smokey Bear Fire Education Working Team for Service. Awards the last 3 years and is currently its The Silver Smokey Bear Award is chair. She is also the statewide fire Jimmye Turner, an ignition presented for contributions to prevention coordinator for the specialist for the Forest Service in wildland fire prevention in re­ Maryland DNR. Walla Walla, WA, plays an impor­ gional or multistate areas for at tant role in wildland fire preven­ least 2 years. For 1998, Silver Bruce Turbeville, a public educa­ tion programs in the State of Smokeys went to Maureen Brooks, tion officer for the California Washington. He has coordinated Bruce Turbeville, Jimmye L. Department of Forestry and Fire many special wildland fire preven­ Turner, and the Wildfire Preven­ Protection (CDF) in Sacramento, tion programs for the Forest tion Working Team. CA, coordinates the Department’s Service. He also represents the statewide fire prevention education Forest Service in an interagency Maureen Brooks, an information program and provides technical wildland fire prevention group and education specialist for the assistance and staff direction to known as the Blue Mountain Fire Maryland Department of Natural CDF’s field personnel for all Prevention Council. In addition to Resources (DNR) in Annapolis, departmental fire prevention his many local special programs, MD, has been instrumental in the public education programs. He he has participated in a number of success of numerous programs and created and spearheaded numerous regional and national wildland fire projects under the Middle Atlantic fire prevention education pro­ prevention efforts. grams, including the award- winning and nationally recognized The Wildfire Prevention Working Doris Nance is a program analyst for the Fire Safe Inside and Out program. Team includes the State Foresters USDA Forest Service, Washington Office, Washington, DC. He is a member of the California from Indiana, Illinois, Iowa, and

36 Fire Management Today Missouri, and the Forest Service’s Florida statute. His efforts have local schoolteachers in addressing Area Director of State and Private fostered fire prevention through San Jacinto’s severe problems with Forestry in Radnor, PA. The team’s prescribed burning in the wild­ wildland fires started by juveniles, purpose is to enhance the protec­ land–urban interface areas of the who ignite 40 percent of the fires tion of human life, real property, Palm Coast. in the area. The Learn Not To Burn and natural resources on lands program has been a model for under protective authority by the Gary Lacox, an assistant depart­ other areas in California. member agencies. Although the ment head for the Texas Forest member States take different Service in Lufkin, TX, designed M.C. Axe and the Firecrew is a approaches to wildland fire man­ and implemented a proactive fire group of active-duty firefighters agement, all are strongly commit­ prevention program in 1997 to from the Fishers Fire Department ted to fire prevention education. address increasing fire incidence in Fishers, IN, that has been They have signed a cooperative and risk. When Texas began its fire teaching fire safety to thousands of agreement known as the Big Rivers season in May 1998, he expanded children throughout central Forest Fire Management Compact. membership on the prevention Indiana. The group uses a wildly team and ordered a national energetic blend of music, video, Bronze Smokey Bear cooperative wildland fire preven­ and comedy to get across its fire Awards tion/education team to augment prevention messages. With charac­ The Bronze Smokey Bear Award is ongoing State prevention activi­ ters such as “M.C. Axe,” “Doc,” presented for outstanding contri­ ties. Under his leadership, the team “Cap,” and “Sparky the Firedog,” butions to local or statewide designed a Fourth of July cam­ the group appeals to large audi­ wildland fire prevention efforts for paign called “Don’t Blow It on the ences of schoolchildren in ways 2 years or more. The 1998 award 4th,” which highlighted the hazard that have been heralded as unique winners are the California Fire of fireworks. Hunting-safety and effective by teachers and Safe Council, Ray Durham, Gary posters, handouts, and license parents alike. Lacox, Kimberli Lanier, M.C. Axe covers were developed and distrib­ and the Fire Crew, Paul F. uted by sporting goods outlets. Paul F. Sebasovich is the State Sebasovich, Dr. and Mrs. Edwin Videos starring such celebrities as Forester for the Pennsylvania Smith, and Doug Voltolina. former President George Bush and Department of Conservation and retired baseball pitcher Nolan Ryan Natural Resources, Bureau of The California Fire Safe Council, were produced to call attention to Forestry, in Harrisburg, PA. He based in Sacramento, CA, devel­ the fire situation. Defensible-space developed and implemented the oped a Fire Safe Community demonstration projects were Wardens Helping in Prevention Action Kit for use by local commu­ implemented near Austin, TX, in (WHIP) program, which encour­ nities in developing firesafe coun­ several neighborhoods that were at ages volunteer fire wardens to cils. Through the kits, almost 50 great risk of catastrophic wildland participate in presenting fire local firesafe councils have been fire. This effort produced addi­ prevention programs to audiences formed throughout California to tional printed material and eventu­ of all ages. He is a member of the help communities take action to ally led to the establishment of the Pennsylvania Fire Prevention reduce fire hazards and prevent Bastrop County Fire Prevention Action Team, which designs wildland fire. Society, made up mostly of con­ training courses for the WHIP cerned citizens. program and annually develops a Ray Durham, a forest area supervi­ statewide fire prevention theme sor for the Florida Division of Kimberli Lanier, a fire prevention and related handouts. Together Forestry in Tallahassee, FL, man­ specialist for CDF and the River­ with several retired and current ages wildland fire suppression side County Fire Department in Bureau of Forestry employees, he efforts in Flagler County and the Perris, CA, was instrumental in organized Smokey’s 50th birthday northern portion of Volusia County securing a nationally sponsored celebration in Pennsylvania and is (between Jacksonville and “Learn Not To Burn” grant for the exploring the idea of a museum Daytona, FL). He has led a pre­ area served by San Jacinto Fire dedicated to preserving the State’s scribed fire program mandated for Station. She chose the location wildland fire prevention and the wildland–urban interface by a after soliciting support from 10 suppression history. He also

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 37 Drawing from a 1956 calendar warning against careless fire use by campers. For more than 55 years, Smokey Bear has symbolized outstanding contribu­ tions to wildland fire prevention nationwide. Photo: Courtesy of National Agricultural Library, Special Collections, Forest Service Photograph Collection, Beltsville, MD.

established a team with members presentations, they wear T-shirts initiated for numerous agencies from various State agencies and showing the famous photograph of involved in prescribed burning. His private concerns to develop a Dr. Smith in his office bandaging dedication to the wildland fire booklet explaining prevention and the burned cub’s paw. Their dedi­ prevention program goes well suppression methodologies to cation to fire prevention and the beyond his job as a suppression communities in the wildland– joy they take in telling Smokey’s manager. urban interface. story to children represent an outstanding volunteer effort. Nominations Dr. and Mrs. Edwin Smith of Nominations for Smokey Bear Pueblo, CO, play an active role in Doug Voltolina has served for 22 Awards are due each year in the local wildland fire prevention. A years as the district manager of the fall. Anyone wishing to submit a retired veterinarian, Dr. Smith Myaakka River District, Florida nomination should complete a treated a burned bear cub rescued Division of Forestry, Tallahassee, nomination form and attach after the 1950 Capitan Gap Fire on FL. The district comprises Char­ supporting materials, such as news the Lincoln National Forest, NM. lotte, DeSoto, Hardee, Manatee, clippings and photographs. Nomi­ The cub went on to gain fame as and Sarasota Counties. Over the nation forms and instructions, “the living symbol of Smokey years, Mr. Voltolina has succeeded including the due date, are avail­ Bear.” Over the past 4 years, Dr. in changing public opinion regard­ able from Forest Service regional and Mrs. Smith have regularly ing the benefits of prescribed fire coordinators. The completed forms visited area grade schools to tell as a prevention tool. He made sure and supporting documentation the story of Smokey Bear and prescribed fire activities were should be submitted to those reinforce Smokey’s fire prevention covered by both newspaper and coordinators. For more informa­ message. They speak from a television, and he initiated a door- tion, contact Dianne Daley unique perspective, relating their to-door campaign to alert the Laursen, National Symbols story with an enthusiasm that neighbors to coming prescribed Operation Manager, c/o MN DNR belies the passing of so many fires and to the associated smoke. Forestry, 500 Lafayette Rd., decades since the burned cub was Another key accomplishment is St. Paul, MN 55155-4044, found. When making school the training and cooperation he tel. 651-296-6006. ■

38 Fire Management Today NEW SOFTWARE FOR FIRE CACHE TRACKING Tom French

Editor’s note: The fire cache tracking system described here will ensure accountability during development of the Interagency Cache Business System (ICBS), the inventory system for the National Interagency Support Caches approved by the National Wildfire Coordinat­ ing Group. The ICBS will tie together all levels of the cache support system and will connect to the Resource Ordering Status System. Users at the forest level will enter ordering information once, with orders processed as received at the regional and national levels. The ICBS will likely become available at the local level within the next 2 years. The tracking system described here will no longer be needed.

fter years of research, fire back in. Items are checked out, as cache tracker to preload both the personnel on the Payette appropriate, to a fire name, fire team’s preorder and the initial A National Forest, McCall, ID, number, department number, order for supplies, equipment, decided to help develop a fire person, or project name. The crew, overhead, and aircraft onto a inventory software program. program will generate usage laptop computer to better manage Working with a local software reports and inventory costs for all incident resources when the team company (Orchid Software, Inc.),* fires, departments, persons, or arrives on the fire. Other applica­ we identified the types of fire projects used. The program can tions include: supplies and apparatus we could also tell you which inventory items track and manage while keeping are below minimum or above • Tracking supplies and apparatus the price of the software under maximum stocking levels. for local fire departments, $400. The result is the Fire Cache emergency medical services, Inventory and Property Manage­ The program allows you to track incident management teams, and ment Software, or “cache tracker” maintenance for, and generate wildland–urban interface protec­ for short. The cache tracker is reports on, all of your property tion plans; covered by a site license authoriz­ items, including fire apparatus, • Keeping records on local build­ ing the purchaser to use it on chain saws, pumps, vehicles, ings, such as their numbers, multiple computers after a single buildings, radios, self-contained addresses, types of construction, purchase. breathing apparatus, and ambu­ defensibility, owner names and lance equipment. Items are logged phone numbers, and locations The Program in by NFES number, serial number, (including directions for getting The cache tracker has the 1999 fire property number, unit of issue, there); supply catalog for the National Fire description, and General Services • Updating information for key Equipment System (NFES) pre­ Administration number. All of local contacts, such as property loaded. This makes adding your these headings can be changed and managers, fleet managers, and supply inventory a breeze. moved around, allowing you to facility managers; and tailor the program to fit your • Performing any other function The software is designed to run on specific cache or operation. with inventory accountability. an IBM-compatible PC under Windows 95, 98, or NT. The cache Applications Readers can download the cache tracker uses a local data base to With today’s increased accountabil­ tracker from the Internet for a 30­ store the inventory and associated ity regulations for both expendable day trial period or for purchase at transactions. You can check items and property items, and with the . out of your inventory and right documentation now required for For more information, contact fire apparatus, a system like the Tom French, USDA Forest Service, Tom French is the manager of the fire cache tracker should be used. The Payette National Forest Ware­ cache for the USDA Forest Service, Payette software is designed to manage house, Box 1026, 1000 Mission National Forest, McCall, ID. agency and interagency fire cache Street, McCall, ID 83638, 208-634­ 0429 (phone), tfrench/r4_payette@ * The use of trade, firm, or corporation names in this inventories at the regional, forest, publication is for the information and convenience of and district levels. fs.fed.us (e-mail); or Orchid the reader. Such use does not constitute an official endorsement of any product or service by the U.S. Software, Inc., at 208-634-6090 Department of Agriculture. Individual authors are A supply unit leader for an incident (phone) or sales@orchidsoftware. responsible for the technical accuracy of the material ■ presented in Fire Management Today. management team can use the com (e-mail).

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 39 FOREST SERVICE VIDEO HIGHLIGHTS THE NEED FOR PRESCRIBED FIRE

Karl Perry

ince the early 20th century, That’s where the video Prescribed structure, low-intensity fire helps heavy fuel loads have built up Fire: Maintaining the Balance to restore watershed functions for S on many of our Nation’s comes in. Featuring USDA Forest healthier forests, better recreation wildlands, partly due to past fire Service Chief Mike Dombeck, the opportunities, and more plentiful exclusion practices. Today, we face 10-minute video introduces water supplies. unnaturally severe fire hazards on nonspecialists to the nature of wildlands ranging from Florida to prescribed fire and the reasons for Prescribed Fire: Maintaining the Alaska. Prescribed fire is our most its use. The video follows Chief Balance helps nonspecialist agency effective tool for treating the fuels, Dombeck while he tours a pre­ staff understand the importance of reducing the hazards, and restor­ scribed burn on the Mark Twain prescribed fire as a land manage­ ing nature’s balance. But a suc­ National Forest, MO. Key players ment tool. It is designed to inspire cessful prescribed fire program, in the burn, including the forest line officers to provide the leader­ especially in or near areas where supervisor, the burn boss, and a ship needed to build public support people live, will require building wildlife biologist, explain the for prescribed fire programs. For a public understanding and support. careful arrangements made for copy of the video, contact Karl operational safety and success, Perry, USDA Forest Service, Office then show the desirable outcomes, of Communication, 14th and Karl Perry, who coproduced Prescribed including reduced fuel loads and Independence Avenue, SW., P.O. Fire: Maintaining the Balance, is a visual information specialist for the USDA Forest enhanced wildlife habitat. The Box 96090, Washington, DC Service, Office of Communication, video concludes by tying fire use to 20090-6090, 202-205-0963 (voice), Washington Office, Washington, DC. the Forest Service’s natural re­ 202-205-0885 (fax), kperry/ source agenda: By improving soil [email protected] (e-mail). ■

WEBSITES ON FIRE*

Fight Fire With Fire to learn how to protect themselves obtain detailed information on Living up to its reputation as a and their homes from the threat of fire’s role in nature and leader in prescribed fire use, wildfires,” the page provides useful Florida’s prescribed fire policy. Florida has created a Webpage links to State, Federal, and other Professionals can find Florida’s for prescribed fire education. sites on fire safety, fire ecology, and prescribed fire training sched­ The page was funded with a wildland and prescribed fire use. ule; in-depth guidance on grant from the Florida Envi­ Found at Drought Index; and various sion. Intended “for Floridians informative studies, including a Florida’s Prescribed detailed analysis of prescribed fire use for fuels management * Occasionally, Fire Management Today briefly Burning Issues describes Websites brought to our attention by The Forest Protection Bureau of and a report on utilizing public the wildland fire community. Readers should not surveys to facilitate prescribed construe the description of these sites as in any the Florida Division of Forestry way exhaustive or as an official endorsement by fire use in the wildland–urban the USDA Forest Service. To have a Website maintains a Website devoted to described, contact the editor, Hutch Brown, at issues related to prescribed fire. interface. 4814 North 3rd Street, Arlington, VA 22203, tel. Found at

40 Fire Management Today WILDLAND FIRE TERMINOLOGY UPDATE

Hutch Brown

uccessful organizations have one thing in common: good, Using standard terminology S clear communication. Wild- improves communication for a safer, land fire management organiza­ better wildland fire organization. tions in particular depend on clear communication for operational safety and effectiveness. There’s no time on a fireline, for example, to work out terminological differ­ USEFUL WILDLAND FIRE GLOSSARIES ences between regions or agencies. Interagency wildland fire manage­ Every wildland fire professional should stay abreast of changes in wildland ment works best when collabora­ fire terminology. Current terminology standards in the United States tors share a common terminology. include: • Glossary of the June 1997 definitions by the National Wildfire Coordinat­ Today, the wildland fire commu­ ing Group (NWCG) and the August 1998 fire use terms by the National nity in the United States has a Interagency Fire Center (NIFC); 30 terms. common terminology through the [Reprinted below in this issue of Fire Management Today.] National Wildfire Coordinating • Glossary of Wildland Fire Terminology, published in November 1996 by Group (NWCG). But even a shared the NWCG; ca. 2,000 terms. terminology is subject to change in [Available for a nominal fee from NIFC, ATTN: Great Basin Cache Supply ways that can be confusing. To Office, 3833 S. Development Avenue, Boise, ID 83705, fax 208-387-5573/ help wildland fire professionals 5548; specify NFES order number 1832 and give shipping address and stay abreast of the latest develop­ billing address, including requisition or purchase order number (or, ments in wildland fire terminology, alternately, Visa/MasterCard information). Also posted on the Internet in this article takes stock of recent PDF format at .] changes. Where did our current terminology come from? And what Other useful references include: glossaries should wildland fire professionals be using today? • Glossary of Wildland Fire Management Terms Used in the United States, published in July 1990 by the Society of American Foresters (SAF 90–05); An Emerging ca. 1,900 terms, including many terms used under the obsolete Large Fire Terminology Standard Organization. [Available for a fee from the Society of American Foresters, 5400 Lack of a common terminology Grosvenor Lane, Bethesda, MD 20814, tel. 301-897-8720; and by Internet long impeded interagency collabo­ at http://www.safnet.org>.] ration in wildland firefighting. In • Glossary of Forest Fire Management Terms, published in 1999 by the the 1960’s, for example, when a fire Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre; ca. 750 terms, plus English– boss (now known as an incident French and French–English lexica. commander) requested a “tanker,” [Available for a fee from the Canadian Interagency Forest Fire Centre, it might arrive at a fire “on wheels 210–301 Weston Street, Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada R3E 3H4, tel. 204­ or with wings,” as one source put 784-2030, fax 204-956-2398; and by Internet at .] it (QCWT 1981). The NWCG was • Wildland Fire Management Terminology, published in 1986 by the United formed in 1976 partly to address Nations Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO Forestry Paper 70, ISBN the need for a standard wildland 92–5–002420–7); ca. 1,500 terms in English, French, German, Italian, fire terminology. and Spanish. [Under revision by the Global Fire Monitoring Center (GFMC) in Freiburg, Germany; for more information, see the GFMC Website at Hutch Brown is the editor of Fire Manage­ .] ment Today, Arlington, VA.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 41 Until 1980, the NWCG supported As policy evolves and new technologies emerge, the Large Fire Organization (LFO) wildland fire terminology is subject for interagency collaboration on project fires. As early as 1971, the to constant change. Society of American Foresters (SAF) published a glossary, titled Terminology of Forest Science, Technology, Practice and Prod­ In 1980, after comparing (IOSWT 1996). Published in 1996, ucts, that contained standard FIRESCOPE to the LFO, the the NWCG’s Glossary of Wildland terms associated with fire control NWCG adopted the National Fire Terminology, with about 2,000 and the LFO. Fire Management Interagency Incident Management entries, is now the standard Today* supplemented the 1971 System (NIIMS). The new system reference for wildland fire profes­ SAF glossary with an article incorporated the ICS, including sionals in the United States. (Deeming and Wade 1974) propos­ one of its foremost accomplish­ ing terms for fire use in support of ments—a common terminology. Recent Terminology suppression, such as “counter In 1983, Fire Management Today Changes firing” (using fire to manipulate published an early list of ICS terms Since publication of the 1996 the behavior of an approaching formally adopted by the NWCG NWCG glossary, wildland fire fire) and “burning out” (using fire under NIIMS (Editor 1983). terminology has undergone to widen control lines or to reduce important changes. Today, the unburned fuels). In addition to As more and more agencies NWCG glossary increasingly such operational terms still in use embraced the ICS, the LFO be­ requires supplementation. In today, LFO terms such as “line came obsolete. In 1990, to help particular, it does not contain boss” and “air tanker boss” (now ease the transition from the LFO many terms needed for wildland “operations section chief” and “air to the ICS, the SAF published its and prescribed fire use, a crucial tanker coordinator,” respectively) Glossary of Wildland Fire part of today’s wildland fire man­ gained widespread currency in the Management Terms Used in the agement. Federal agencies. United States (McPherson et al.1990). With about 1,900 entries In the 1980’s and 1990’s, fuel But State and local firefighting (including ICS as well as LFO buildups caused by past fire organizations were slow to adopt terms), the glossary remains a control practices produced un­ the LFO (Newell et al. 1982). In the useful reference for wildland fire naturally severe wildland fires, early 1970’s, after disastrous professionals, particularly for texts especially in the West (Pyne 1997). wildland fires in southern Califor­ that employ older terms. Partly to address the fuels prob­ nia, Congress appropriated funds lem, the 1995 Federal Wildland for a project known as Firefighting Despite its usefulness, the SAF Fire Management Policy and Resources of Southern California glossary did not meet all ICS Program Review concluded that Organized for Potential Emergen­ needs. In 1994, the NWCG’s “wildland fire will be used to cies (FIRESCOPE). Working Training Working Team published protect, maintain, and enhance together through FIRESCOPE, a glossary of 134 terms used in the resources and, as nearly as pos­ Federal, State, and local agencies ICS National Training Curriculum sible, be allowed to function in its in California developed the Inci­ (TWT 1994). The ICS Glossary natural ecological role” (USDI/ dent Command System (ICS) for became the definitive reference for USDA 1995). In June 1997, in interagency collaboration in many ICS terms, but its brevity accordance with the new policy, coping with a wide range of limited its usefulness. In 1995, the the NWCG reviewed and revised its emergencies, from small incidents NWCG’s Incident Operations definitions of “wildfire,” “wildland to project fires (Whitson 1982). Standards Working Team, sup­ fire,” and other terms (NWCG ported by the National Fire and 1998). For example, the new Aviation Training Support Group definitions restricted use of the at the National Interagency Fire term “wildfire,” which has strong * Fire Management Today appeared under the names Center (NIFC) in Boise, ID, com­ negative connotations (see Fire Management from 1973 to 1975 and Fire pleted a comprehensive glossary Management Notes from 1976 to 1999. sidebar).

42 Fire Management Today The National Interagency Incident Management “WILDFIRE”—A System was specifically designed to address the TAINTED TERM need for a standard wildland fire terminology in the United States. The term “wildfire” has long been associated in the English language with violence and destruction unrelated to actual wildland fires, according to the Oxford English Dictionary (Simpson and Weiner 1989). In a thousand years of references dating to A.D. 1000, “wildfire” in its various spellings (“wyldefyr,” “wilde-fur,” etc.) has signified:

• A furious or destructive fire, sometimes breathed by dragons; • Earthquakes and volcanic eruptions; • A compound of inflammable substances used in warfare to burn soldiers, towns, and ships; • Various inflammatory erup­ tive diseases; • Rage and other passions unleashed against others; and • Harm to others in curses such as, “Wilde-fire and Brimstone eat thee!”

Such violent connotations help to explain the fear and loathing often associated with the term “wildfire” in our culture. By contrast, the term “wildland fire” is relatively neutral, partly because it is comparatively new and therefore untainted by centuries of fearful connota­ tions. At a time when wildland and prescribed fire use is increasingly vital for preserving and restoring the health of our Safe and effective operations on wildland fires, such as this water drop from a helicopter- Nation’s wildlands, the term borne bucket on the 1994 Soupy Ridge Fire on Montana’s Flathead National Forest, depend on good communication using a shared wildland fire terminology. Photo: Paul S. “wildland fire” seems generally Fieldhouse, USDA Forest Service, Missoula Smokejumper Base, Missoula, MT, 1994. more suitable for use by wild- land fire professionals than the tainted term “wildfire.”

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 43 In August 1998, the new NWCG article; and Dave Bunnell, the WILDLAND FIRE definitions appeared in a reference Forest Service’s national fire use guide (NIFC 1998) for implement­ program manager, NIFC, Boise, ID, MANAGEMENT ing the 1995 Federal Wildland Fire for reviewing the manuscript. TERMINOLOGY Management Policy and Program Review. Adopted as USDA Forest Literature Cited Reprinted below (lightly edited) in alphabetical order are: Service policy in June 1999, the Deeming, J.E.; Wade, D.D. 1974. A Wildland and Prescribed Fire clarification: Wildfire suppression • Terminology adopted in June Management Policy Implementa­ terminology. Fire Management. 35(3): 10–11. 1997 by the National Wildfire tion Procedures Reference Guide Editor. 1983. The National Interagency Coordinating Group (NWCG) (or Implementation Guide, for Incident Management System—A (including obsolete terms, each short) supplements the NWCG glossary of terms. Fire Management Notes. 44(2): 17–22. denoted by a symbol); and definitions with a list of practical IOSWT (Incident Operations Standards • Definitions for fire use in the terms for wildland and prescribed Working Team, National Wildfire August 1998 Wildland and fire use. For reader convenience, Coordinating Group). 1996. Glossary of Prescribed Fire Management the 1997 NWCG definitions and wildland fire terminology. PMS 205; Policy Implementation Proce­ NFES 1832. Boise, ID: National dures Reference Guide. the 1998 fire use terms are re­ Interagency Fire Center. 147 p. printed following this article. McPherson, G.R.; Wade, D.D.; Phillips, C.B. 1990. Glossary of wildland fire manage­ Each NWCG term is denoted by ment terms used in the United States. As policy evolves and new tech­ an asterisk (*). Terms in italics SAF 90–05. Tucson, AZ: University of are cross-referenced below. nologies emerge, wildland fire Arizona Press. 138 p. terminology—like any other living Newell, M.; Whitson, J.; Russ, F. 1982. The National Interagency Incident Manage­ Appropriate management language—is subject to constant ment System. Fire Management Notes. response.* Specific actions taken change. With the ongoing imple­ 43(4): 8–9. in response to a wildland fire to mentation of the 1995 Federal NIFC (National Interagency Fire Center). implement protection and fire Wildland Fire Management Policy 1998. Wildland and prescribed fire use objectives. management policy: Implementation and Program Review, future procedures reference guide. Boise, ID: terminology revisions are likely. NIFC. 81 p. Confinement. Confinement is the The Implementation Guide pub­ NWCG (National Wildfire Coordinating strategy employed in appropriate Group). 1998. Wildland fire manage­ lished by NIFC is designed to be management responses where a ment terminology. Wildfire News and fire perimeter is managed by a updated annually to accommodate Notes. 12(1): 8. needed changes in both direction Pyne, S.J. 1997. America’s fires: Manage­ combination of direct and indirect actions and use of and terminology. For a copy of the ment on wildlands and forests. Durham, NC: Forest History Society. 54 p. natural topographic features, guide, contact Dave Bunnell, QCWT (Qualification and Certification fuel, and weather factors. National Fire Use Program Man­ Working Team, National Wildfire ager, USDA Forest Service, Na­ Coordinating Group). 1981. National Interagency Fire Qualification System. Confine/contain/control.* tional Interagency Fire Center, Fire Management Notes. 42(1): 15–16. These terms, when used in the 3833 S. Development Avenue, Simpson, J.A.; Weiner, E.S.C. (compilers). context of wildland fire suppres­ Boise, ID 83705-5354, 208-387­ 1989. The Oxford English dictionary. sion strategies, are confusing Vol. 20. Oxford: Clarendon Press. because they also have tactical 5218 (voice), 208-387-5398 (fax), TWT (Training Working Team, National dbunnell/[email protected] (e­ Wildfire Coordinating Group). 1994. ICS meanings. Containment and mail). glossary. PMS 202; NFES 2432. Boise, control will continue to be used ID: National Interagency Fire Center. to represent the status of a fire 17 p. for reporting purposes (e.g., “a Acknowledgments USDI (U.S. Department of the Interior); controlled fire,” date of control, USDA. 1995. Federal wildland fire The author wishes to thank April management: Policy and program date of containment, etc.) but not Baily, the general manager of Fire review. Final report. Washington, DC: to represent a type of manage­ Management Today, and Billy Jack U.S. Departments of Agriculture and the ment strategy. Terry, a fire prevention officer for Interior. 45 p. Whitson, J. 1982. What is this thing called Escaped fire situation the Forest Service, Washington NIIMS? Fire Management Notes. 43(1): Office, Washington, DC, for their 9–11. ■ analysis.* This obsolete term is help and advice in preparing this replaced by the term wildland fire situation analysis.

44 Fire Management Today Expected weather conditions. Fire management plan (FMP).* A Initial attack.* An aggressive Weather conditions that are strategic plan that defines a program wildland fire suppression action common, likely, or highly probable to manage wildland fires and pre­ consistent with firefighter and public based on current and expected scribed fires and documents the safety and values to be protected. trends compared to historical wildland fire management program in weather records. Expected weather the approved land use plan. The FMP Management action points. Geo­ conditions are the most probable is supplemented by operational plans, graphic points on the ground or weather conditions for a given such as preparedness plans, pre­ specific points in time where an location and time. These conditions planned dispatch plans, prescribed fire escalation or alteration of manage­ are used in making fire behavior plans, and prevention plans. ment actions is warranted. These forecasts for different scenarios (one points are defined and the manage­ necessary scenario involves fire Fire management unit (FMU). Any ment actions to be taken are clearly behavior prediction under expected land management area definable by described in an approved wildland weather conditions). objectives, topographic features, fire implementation plan or pre­ access, values to be protected, political scribed fire plan. Timely implemen­ Experienced severe weather boundaries, fuel types, major fire tation of the actions when the fire conditions. Weather conditions that regimes, or other factors that set it reaches the action point is generally occur infrequently but have been apart from management characteris­ critical to successful accomplish­ experienced in the fire site area tics of an adjacent unit. Each FMU is ment of the objectives. during the period of weather delineated in a fire management plan. records. For example, rare-event FMU’s may have dominant manage­ Management-ignited prescribed weather conditions that signifi­ ment objectives and preselected fire.* This obsolete term is replaced cantly influence fires might have strategies assigned to accomplish by the term prescribed fire. occurred only once, but their record these objectives. can be used to establish a baseline Maximum manageable area (MMA). for a worst-case scenario. Experi­ Fire use. The combination of wildland The firm limits of management enced severe weather conditions are fire use and prescribed fire application capability to accommodate the the most severe conditions that can to meet resource objectives. social, political, and resource be expected. These conditions are impacts of a wildland fire. Once used in making fire behavior Holding actions. Planned actions established as part of an approved forecasts for different scenarios (one required to achieve wildland and plan, the general impact area is fixed necessary scenario involves fire prescribed fire management objec­ and not subject to change. MMA’s behavior prediction under experi­ tives. These actions have specific can be developed as part of the fire enced severe weather conditions). implementation timeframes for fire management plan and described as a use actions but can have less sensitive fire management area (FMA). MMA’s Fire management area (FMA). A implementation demands for wildland can also be developed as part of the subgeographic area within a fire fire suppression actions. For wildland planning and implementation of management unit that represents a fires managed for resource benefits, a management actions after a fire has predefined ultimate acceptable maximum manageable area (MMA) ignited. If MMA’s are developed after management area for a fire man­ might not be totally naturally defen­ ignition, they are defined during aged for resource benefits. This sible. Specific holding actions are stage III of the wildland fire imple­ predefined area can constitute a developed to preclude fire from mentation plan. If a fire occurs in a maximum manageable area (MMA) exceeding the MMA. For prescribed preplanned MMA or FMA and the and is useful for units with light fires, holding actions are developed to local unit determines that the fuel types conducive to very rapid restrict the fire inside the planned preplanned area is not the best fire spread rates. Predefining an burn unit. For wildland fire suppres­ alternative under the present FMA prevents delay in defining an sion actions, holding actions may be conditions, a new MMA can be MMA after ignition; permits implemented to prevent the fire from developed during stage III. The stage preplanning for the fire area; crossing containment boundaries. III MMA then becomes the firm facilitates identification of threats to Holding actions may be implemented limits of the fire and is fixed. life, property, resources, and as firelines are established to limit the boundaries; and allows identifica­ spread of fire. tion of initial actions.

Volume 60 • No. 2 • Spring 2000 45 Mitigation actions. On-the-ground Prescribed natural fire.* This Wildland fire management program. activities that will serve to increase obsolete term no longer represents a The full range of activities and the defensibility of the maximum type of fire and has no further use functions necessary for planning, manageable area; check, direct, or except in historical descriptions. This preparedness, emergency suppres­ delay the spread of fire; and mini­ term is replaced by the term wildland sion operations, and emergency mize threats to life, property, and fire use (for example, a lightning fire rehabilitation of wildland fires and resources. Mitigation actions may might be designated for wildland fire prescribed fire operations, including include mechanical and physical use). nonactivity fuels management to nonfire tasks, specific fire applica­ reduce risks to public safety and to tions, and limited suppression Prescription.* Measurable criteria restore and sustain ecosystem actions. Mitigation actions will be that define conditions under which a health. used to construct firelines, reduce prescribed fire may be ignited, guide excessive fuel concentrations, re­ selection of appropriate management Wildland fire situation analysis duce vertical fuel continuity, create responses, and indicate other required (WFSA).* A decisionmaking process fuel breaks or barriers around actions. Prescription criteria may that evaluates alternative manage­ critical or sensitive sites or re­ include safety, economic, public ment strategies against selected sources, create blacklines through health, environmental, geographic, safety, environmental, social, eco­ controlled burnouts, and limit fire administrative, social, or legal consid­ nomic, political, and resource spread and behavior. erations. management objectives.

Preparedness.* Activities that lead Presuppression.* This obsolete Wildland fire suppression. An to a safe, efficient, and cost-effective term is replaced by the term prepared­ appropriate management response fire management program in ness to match policy and appropria­ to wildland fire that results in support of land and resource tion language. curtailment of fire spread and management objectives through eliminates all identified threats from appropriate planning and coordina­ Trigger points. Synonym for manage­ the particular fire. All wildland fire tion. This term replaces the obsolete ment action points. suppression activities provide for term presuppression. firefighter and public safety as the Wildfire.* An unwanted wildland fire. highest consideration, but minimize Prescribed fire.* Any fire ignited by loss of resource values, economic management actions to meet Wildland fire.* Any nonstructural fire, expenditures, and/or the use of specific objectives. A written, other than prescribed fire, that occurs critical firefighting resources. approved prescribed fire plan must in the wildland. exist, and National Environmental Wildland fire use. The management Policy Act requirements must be Wildland fire implementation plan of naturally ignited wildland fires to met, prior to ignition. This term (WFIP). A progressively developed accomplish specific prestated replaces the obsolete term manage­ assessment and operational manage­ resource management objectives in ment-ignited prescribed fire. ment plan that documents the analysis predefined geographic areas outlined and selection of strategies and de­ in fire management plans. Opera­ Prescribed fire plan. A plan required scribes the appropriate management tional management is described in for each fire application ignited by response for a wildland fire being the wildland fire implementation managers. The prescribed fire plan managed for resource benefits. A full plan. Wildland fire use is not to be must be prepared by qualified per­ WFIP consists of three stages. Differ­ confused with fire use, which is a sonnel and approved by the appro­ ent levels of completion may occur for broader term encompassing more priate agency administrator prior to differing management strategies (i.e., than just wildland fire. Wildland fire implementation. Each plan will fol­ fires managed for resource benefits use replaces the obsolete term low specific agency direction and will have two to three stages of the prescribed natural fire (for example, must include critical elements de­ WFIP completed, whereas some fires a lightning fire might be designated scribed in agency manuals. Formats that receive a suppression response for wildland fire use). for plan development vary among might have only a portion of stage I agencies, although content is the completed). same.

46 Fire Management Today GUIDELINES FOR CONTRIBUTORS

Editorial Policy should submit a camera-ready logo for their figure and photo captions labeled in the same Fire Management Today (FMT) is an interna­ agency, institution, or organization. way as the corresponding material (figure 1, 2, tional quarterly magazine for the wildland fire 3; photograph A, B, C; etc.). Captions should community. FMT welcomes unsolicited manu­ Style. Authors are responsible for using make photos and illustrations understandable scripts from readers on any subject related to wildland fire terminology that conforms to the without reading the text. For photos, indicate fire management. Because space is a consider­ latest standards set by the National Wildfire the “top” and include the name and affiliation of ation, long manuscripts might be abridged by Coordinating Group under the National Inter- the photographer and the year the photo was the editor, subject to approval by the author; agency Incident Management System. FMT uses taken. FMT does print short pieces of interest to the spelling, capitalization, hyphenation, and readers. other styles recommended in the United States Electronic Files. Please label all disks carefully Government Printing Office Style Manual. with name(s) of file(s) and system(s) used. If the Submission Guidelines Authors should use the U.S. system of weight manuscript is word-processed, please submit a Submit manuscripts to either the general and measure, with equivalent values in the 3-1/2 inch, IBM-compatible disk together with manager or the editor at: metric system. Try to keep titles concise and the paper copy (see above) as an electronic file descriptive; subheadings and bulleted material in one of these formats: WordPerfect 5.1 for USDA Forest Service are useful and help readability. As a general rule DOS; WordPerfect 7.0 or earlier for Windows 95; Attn: April J. Baily, F&AM Staff of clear writing, use the active voice (e.g., write, Microsoft Word 6.0 or earlier for Windows 95; P.O. Box 96090 “Fire managers know…” and not, “It is Rich Text format; or ASCII. Digital photos may Washington, DC 20090-6090 known…”). Provide spellouts for all abbrevia­ be submitted but must be at least 300 dpi and tel. 202-205-0891, fax 202-205-1272 tions. Consult recent issues (on the World Wide accompanied by a high-resolution (preferably Internet e-mail: abaily/[email protected] Web at ) for placement of the author’s control during the printing process. Do not Hutch Brown, Editor name, title, agency affiliation, and location, as embed illustrations (such as maps, charts, and Fire Management Today well as for style of paragraph headings and graphs) in the electronic file for the manuscript. 4814 North 3rd Street references. Instead, submit each illustration at 1,200 dpi in Arlington, VA 22203 a separate file using a standard interchange tel. 703-525-5951, fax 703-525-0162 Tables. Tables should be typed, with titles and format such as EPS, TIFF, or JPEG (EPS format e-mail: [email protected] column headings capitalized as shown in recent is preferable, 256K colors), accompanied by a issues; tables should be understandable without high-resolution (preferably laser) printout. For If you have questions about a submission, please reading the text. Include tables at the end of the charts and graphs, include the data needed to contact the editor, Hutch Brown. manuscript. reconstruct them.

Paper Copy. Type or word-process the manu­ Photos and Illustrations. Figures, illustrations, Release Authorization. Non-Federal Govern­ script on white paper (double-spaced) on one overhead transparencies (originals are prefer­ ment authors must sign a release to allow their side. Include the complete name(s), title(s), able), and clear photographs (color slides or work to be in the public domain and on the affiliation(s), and address(es) of the author(s), as glossy color prints are preferable) are often World Wide Web. In addition, all photos and well as telephone and fax numbers and e-mail essential to the understanding of articles. illustrations require a written release by the information. If the same or a similar manuscript Clearly label all photos and illustrations (figure photographer or illustrator. The author, photo, is being submitted elsewhere, include that 1, 2, 3, etc.; photograph A, B, C, etc.). At the end and illustration release forms are available from information also. Authors who are affiliated of the manuscript, include clear, thorough General Manager April Baily.

CONTRIBUTORS WANTED

We need your fire-related articles and photographs for Fire Management Today! Feature articles should be up to about 2,000 words in length. We also need short items of up to 200 words. Subjects of articles published in Fire Management Today include: Aviation Firefighting experiences Communication Incident management Cooperation Information management (including systems) Ecosystem management Personnel Education Planning (including budgeting) Equipment and technology Preparedness Fire behavior Prevention Fire ecology Safety Fire effects Suppression Fire history Training Fire use (including prescribed fire) Weather Fuels management Wildland–urban interface To help prepare your submission, see “Guidelines for Contributors” in this issue.

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