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Home , International English, Standard English, World Englishes

Thomas S. C. Farrell and Sonia Martin

To Teach or ? A Balanced Approach to Instruction

nglish has now acquired the the classroom practices of many Eng- title of the world’s leading lish teachers lagging behind “global language” (Crystal learners’ desires or even their needs? To E answer this question, this article out- 2003, 1) because it is used for business, science, and . When use the lines why and how teachers can inform term English, readers may assume that their practice as create a balanced we are referring to a standard of usage approach to instruction that suits their that everyone agrees upon. Readers particular context and students’ needs. may think that we must mean British Standard English Standard English or American Stan- The term Standard English sug- dard English because the English that gests that we all share a similar under- exists in such places as , , the standing of exactly what this means, West Indies, the and Sin- yet it is not easy to define. One reason gapore is not real or standard English. for this is that there is no world- Readers may also think that teachers recognized governing body that dic- of English as a (ESL) tates what should and should not be must be teaching British or American included in such a standard. However, Standard English because that is what McArthur (2003, 442) maintains that their learners want to learn. In fact, Standard English has at “least three the issue is not as straightforward identifying characteristics: 1) It is as we may think; there is neither an easiest to recognize in print because agreed-upon definition of Standard written conventions are similar world- English, nor is there agreement on wide. 2) It is usually used by news what students of ESL need or want to presenters. 3) Its usage relates to the learn. This leads to the following ques- speaker’s social class and .” tion: Has rapid change in the status McArthur (2003, 442) also sug- of English as a global language left gests that Standard English is generally

2 2 0 0 9 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l s h T E a c h i n g F o r u m considered “the most widely accepted, • Teaching Standard English may pro- understood, and perhaps valued within an mote discrimination. Some employers, English speaking country.” We can see that for example, may discriminate against the community decides what is acceptable and speakers of or Irish what is not, what is correct usage and what English by saying, “Oh! don’t speak is not. Yet, for example, a Canadian’s defini- , which we prefer for this tion of what is standard may vary dramati- position.” Given that accent is often cally from that of an Irish person. This lack “an implicit code for race or ethnicity” of a clear, agreed-upon definition of the term (Tollefson 2002, 150), discrimination standard presents a problem for learners and based on accent can even be considered teachers of English, especially when learners a form of racism. say they want to learn Standard English and when their teachers are supposed to instruct World Englishes them in this standard. If Standard English is supposed to be an As teachers of English, we look to the example of only one norm of the English lan- research in the hope of finding answers that guage, then the term World Englishes would be will clarify what this standard is so we can teach the norm that includes all varieties of the lan- it, and what we find is even more confusing. guage. Kachru (1985) categorizes the usage of Teaching Standard English can in fact have English into three concentric circles: the inner negative consequences for the language learn- circle, the outer circle, and the expanding circle. ers (Tollefson 2002) for the following reasons: maintains that the inner circle represents • Standard English is a native-speak- the more traditional bases of English that are er model which may be unattainable used in places like the , the for many second language learners. of America, , , Therefore, it may be unrealistic to use and . The outer circle includes a native-speaker model for language countries which “have gone through extended learners who, by definition, can “never periods of colonization, essentially by the become native-speakers without being users of the inner circle varieties” (Kachru reborn” (Cook 1999, 187). 1985, 12), and includes , , • Insisting on Standard English can and . Unlike the outer circle, the expand- devalue other varieties of English that ing circle does not have the same effects of col- exist around the world. For example, onization as the inner circle; in the expanding so-called non-standard varieties, such as circle, English is used mainly for business and in Singapore (McArthur 2004; international purposes. The expanding circle Qiong 2004), are often considered ille- includes such countries as China, Greece, gitimate because they are believed to Saudi Arabia, and Israel, and represents the be failed attempts at being Standard largest expanding numbers of English speak- English. Anything that is different ers in the world today (Crystal 2003). Con- from a standard is considered inferior. sidering the large population of English speak- By idealizing Standard English, and ers located in various parts of the world, consequently devaluing non-standard Kachru (1985, 14) proposes that English varieties, some and lan- now comprises “a unique cultural pluralism, guage teachers may in effect be actually and a linguistic heterogeneity and diversity.” devaluing their own local varieties of In light of this ever-expanding outermost English. An example in Singlish is the circle of usage, it is conceiv- absence of past tense marking, such as able that the continued use of inner circle “What happen yesterday?” (see Farrell Standard English as the target of instruc- and Tan 2006 for a detailed discussion tion in classrooms worldwide should be re- of teaching Singlish). Singlish does dif- examined and may even be somewhat inap- fer from so-called Standard English in propriate in a global context. As Widdowson some grammatical features and lexical (1994, 381) has pointed out, inner circle items, but can we then say it is inferior Standard English “is not simply a means of because of these differences? communication but the symbolic possession

E n g l i s h T E a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 0 9 3 of a particular community, expressive of its an approach would include three key consid- identity, its conventions, and values.” Many erations (each of which is discussed in more speakers of World Englishes use English detail below): in their own way as an expression of their 1. Teachers need to carefully consider identity and their cultural values because lan- their teaching context (McKay 2002). guage is “a major means (some would say the 2. After choosing their target of instruc- chief means) of showing where we belong, tion based on that context, teachers and of distinguishing one social group from should value their learners’ current another” (Crystal 2003, 22). English usage (El-Sayed 1991). A balanced approach to English language 3. Teachers need to prepare learners for instruction future encounters by exposing them to other varieties of If English usage is taken to be a means of English (Matsuda 2003) and by teach- identity, then the question is: Which variety ing them strategic competence when of English should be taught as a second or interacting with speakers who speak ? One important factor that other varieties of English. makes this decision difficult is that many of the new varieties of English may be mutu- Consider the teaching context ally unintelligible (Smith 1992). Singlish, for The key to following a balanced approach example, is generally regarded as being unin- is “to be culturally sensitive to the diversity of telligible to other English speakers outside of contexts in which English is taught and used” Singapore (McArthur 2004). Some unique (McKay 2002, 128). The variety of English features of Singlish are shown in the following emphasized should be based on the teaching examples (see Farrell and Tan 2008 for more context, the teachers (including their own detailed examples): teaching abilities and style) as well as the learn- • Absence of possessive inflections: “My ers’ educational and cultural needs (McKay mummy friend” 2002). In such a balanced approach, teachers • Use of particles: “Hurry up lah!” may or may not decide (if they have such a • Use of borrowings: “Don’t be so kiasu.” choice) to teach inner circle Standard English. • Inversion for questions with be: “You However, as Petzold (2002, 424) points out, don’t want to go is it?” the “specific variety choice is influenced by fac- • Inversion for questions with can: “Like tors such as the teacher’s own education, atti- that can or not?” tudes toward models, the model’s prestige or Although learning these features of Singlish usefulness, [and] availability of materials and would be an achievable goal for Singaporeans, tests.” For instance, El-Sayed (1991) main- teaching these features may limit the learners’ tains that British Standard English may be an ability to communicate with speakers of Eng- appropriate choice for the target of instruction lish outside Singapore. in some schools in Western Asia, such as the Since teaching local varieties of English Doha English Speaking School (DESS) in (such as Singlish) may be just as problem- Doha, Qatar. This school follows the Brit- atic as teaching inner circle Standard English, ish curriculum and hires teachers with UK- English language teachers may find them- recognized qualifications. Furthermore, due to selves in a quandary as to what type of English a history of British colonization, Qataris value to emphasize to their students. We recognize British Standard English and are exposed to that many English language teachers may not it through British media. They have greater have the luxury of deciding what variety to access to British books and materials, and are emphasize and teach to their students because probably more likely to visit the United King- this may already be mandated by Ministries dom than other English speaking countries. of Education, school boards, and/or school Thus, teaching British Standard English would directors. Nevertheless, we suggest that teach- be the optimal choice for a teacher at DESS. ers can inform their practices about the differ- With so many variables to consider when ent varieties of English that exist and consider choosing the target of instruction, it is impor- a balanced approach to teaching English. Such tant to remember that there is no single correct

4 2 0 0 9 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l i s h T E a c h i n g F o r u m choice for all contexts (Christenson 1992). need to be prepared for future encounters Choosing to teach British Standard English in with speakers of varieties of English that dif- Doha can be just as appropriate as choosing fer from their own (Jenkins 2000, 2006). One to teach China English in Beijing (El-Sayed way to prepare learners is to expose them to 1991; Qiong 2004). The point is for teach- different varieties (Matsuda 2003). Examples ers to choose the model based on context of different English varieties are available on and learners’ needs; as a result, the decision the , radio, television, and in differ- will potentially be different for every teacher ent newspapers from around the world (Cook (Petzold 2002). 1999). For example, on the Internet teachers and learners can access the International Cor- Value learners’ English pus of English (www.ucl.ac.uk/english-usage/ The second important aspect of a balanced ice), which provides samples of many national approach is that, regardless of the English and regional varieties of English. Students variety being taught, teachers should help and teachers can also access World-Newspapers their learners understand that the chosen (www.world-newspapers.com), which pro- variety is just one type of English, and that vides links to English language newspapers the learners’ own English is valuable even from around the world. On the Internet it is though it may differ significantly from what also possible to view English language televi- is presented in class. For example, teachers sion channels from around the world, such as should encourage learners to “refer to idiom- New Delhi Television (www.ndtv.com) from atic expressions of their own language and India, in which the broadcasters speak Indian enrich the communicative of English English. with exotic and poetic elements” (El-Sayed In addition to exposing learners to differ- 1991, 166). Dutch speakers of English for ent varieties of English, teachers should focus instance, might say, “If you need help, just on teaching both strategic and intercultural pull on the bell,” which is a word-for-word competence skills which will help learners translation of a Dutch expression. The so- be able “to adjust their speech in order to called standard English equivalent would be, be intelligible to interlocutors from a wide “If you need anything, just let me know.” range of [] backgrounds, most When the Dutch shopkeeper asks customers of whom are not inner circle native speakers” if they need help finding anything, and the (Jenkins 2006, 174). Strategic competence customers reply no, the shopkeeper would skills help learners negotiate for meaning in say, “Well, if you need anything, just pull a communication breakdown; these skills are on the bell” (even though there is no bell to consciously and explicitly employed. Exam- pull). Although this expression is not one that ples of such skills include slowing the rate of a native speaker of Standard English would speech and articulating clearly (Petzold 2002). use, the message is clear to Dutch speakers, so there is no need to correct the speaker or to Students should be taught strategic skills such provide an alternate English expression within as how to ask the interlocutor to slow down, this context. Rather than being thought of as to repeat, or to wait while the student chooses unsuccessful Standard English speakers, these the appropriate word. For example, teaching learners would be considered successful Eng- students to say: “Could you please repeat that lish language users who make contributions more slowly?” or “Could you please wait a to their speech community (Cook 1999). It moment while I search for the right word?” is likely that this change in perspective would would be very useful. positively affect learners’ ability to acquire the Intercultural competence skills are those target language since it would increase their which help interlocutors overcome sociolin- confidence and desire to communicate in guistic differences (Alptekin 2002; El-Sayed English (Cook 1999). 1991). Learners should be able to talk about the sociocultural norms of their own Prepare learners for intercultural “so that sociocultural convergence can be communication negotiated within the ad-hoc speech com- Since English truly is a global language munity” (El-Sayed 1991, 166). For example, (Crystal 2003), all English language learners Qatari students could be given the opportuni-

E n g l i s h T E a c h i n g F o r u m | N u m b e r 2 2 0 0 9 5 ty to explain why they must greet their fellow the expressions make sense in English, and Muslims in Arabic, no matter what language if an English speaker could understand them is being used in the classroom. Similarly, with no, or little, explanation. The students Dutch students could be given the opportu- could then rate each expression on a scale of nity to explain that being assertive is consid- 1 to 5, with 1 being the easiest to understand ered polite in Dutch . Allowing stu- (requiring no explanation) and 5 being the dents to maintain (and explain) their cultural most difficult to understand (requiring much differences will decrease misunderstandings explanation). The students could then each because it will foster greater tolerance for the pick an expression or two to present to the uniqueness of human cultures. Teaching such class. They should present each expression in meta-pragmatic awareness skills (the specific a sentence in order to show the appropriate skills to be taught would depend on the con- context of use. text) will help prepare learners for the inter- Note: This activity can be adapted for any cultural interactions that are likely to occur number of students from any language back- in the existing global village (Jenkins 2006). ground. Depending on the students’ abilities Sample classroom activities and backgrounds, this activity can be done as a quick warm-up or expanded into a longer We now present two sample activities that period of time. can be used in a balanced approach: interna- tional idiomatic expressions and exposure to Exposure to Englishes Englishes. Because we are aware that contexts Level: High-Intermediate to Advanced will differ, we suggest that teachers adjust Objective: To increase students’ awareness these activities by making lesson plans that and comprehension of different varieties of suit their local context and students’ needs. English. Teachers can also use these ideas to develop other classroom activities. Materials: Computers with Internet access and software that can play media programs International idiomatic expressions such as Windows Media Player. Level: Low-Intermediate to Advanced Warm-up: Elicit discussion about different Objective: To help students identify idiomatic types of English. Ask students if they have expressions in their native language(s) that ever noticed or been exposed to different vari- they can use in English. eties of English. Could they hear a difference? • Sub-objective 1: To build students’ confi- Could they understand the different varieties? dence as they make English their own by What do they think about different varieties? contributing to their speech community. How did the varieties make them feel? • Sub-objective 2: To increase students’ Main Activity: Put students in pairs or small awareness of the different ways English groups. Assign two countries to each group. can be manipulated. Then have students watch news reports from their assigned countries via the Internet. The Materials: Bilingual dictionaries (optional: students can listen to each report several times, poster paper, markers) noting down and pronunciation Main Activity: Ask students to brainstorm and differences between the reports. Students can think of idiomatic expressions in their native listen to two reports on the same topic, such language that they use on a regular basis. To get as a report on a speech by the U.S. president them started, provide some examples in Eng- from the BBC in and a similar report lish such as “Don’t count your chickens before from a news broadcasting system in Australia; they hatch,” and “It costs an arm and a leg.” or students can listen to news reports on two Ask the students to translate their expressions completely different topics. The main point into English and write them down. Then, in is to note in general terms the differences groups or pairs, have students share their Eng- in vocabulary and pronunciation in the two lish versions with their partners. They should reports. Students will then present a brief discuss the meanings of each expression. synopsis of the news reports to the class. They They should also determine whether or not should present the content of the report as

6 2 0 0 9 N u m b e r 2 | E n g l i s h T E a c h i n g F o r u m well as the differences that they found in the Crystal,. D 2003. English as a global language. 2nd varieties of English. ed. : Cambridge University Press. El-Sayed, A. 1991. Towards an international stan- Follow-up Discussion: Ask the students about dard of English in the Arab world: An ethno- their experiences listening to the different sociolinguistic perspective. Indian Journal of varieties of English. Which did they find more Applied Linguistics XVII: 155–67. difficult to understand? If they were speaking Farrell, T. S. C., and S. Tan. 2008. Language policy, language teachers’ beliefs, and classroom prac- to people from that country, what could they tices. Applied Linguistics, 29 (3): 381–403. do or say to help their comprehension? Jenkins, J. 2000. The of English as an international language. Oxford: Oxford Univer- Note: The teacher should find the reports sity Press. before class in order to save time during the –––. 2006. Current perspectives on teaching world lesson. The reports should include interviews Englishes and English as a . of regular people so that students can hear TESOL Quarterly 40 (1): 157–81. common language use of the different variet- Kachru, B. B. 1985. Standards, codification and realism: The English language in ies, not just the reporters’ language use. In the outer circle. In English in the world: Teaching the unlikely event that such reports cannot be and learning the language and literatures, ed. R. found, this activity is still useful as it clearly Quirk and H. G. Widdowson, 11–30. Cam- demonstrates differences between Englishes. bridge: Cambridge University Press. Possible websites to use for this activity are: Matsuda, A. 2003. The ownership of English in Japanese secondary schools. World Englishes 22 • India: www.ndtv.com (4): 483–96. • : www.rte.ie/live/index.html McArthur, T. 2003. The Oxford guide to world Eng- • New Zealand: http://tvnz.co.nz lish. Oxford: Oxford University Press. • Singapore: www.channelnewsasia.com –––. 2004. Singapore, , and the teaching of ‘internationally acceptable English.’ English Conclusion Today 20 (4): 13–19. McKay, S. L. 2002. Teaching English as an inter- This article suggests that English lan- national language. Oxford: Oxford University guage teachers should consider all varieties Press. of English, not just British Standard English Petzold, R. 2002. Toward a pedagogical model for or American Standard English. In order to ELT. World Englishes 21 (3): 422–26. better prepare students for the global world, Qiong, H. X. 2004. Why China English should stand alongside British, American, and the other and to show them that their own English is ‘World Englishes.’ English Today 20 (2): 26–33. valued, teachers can implement a balanced Smith, L. E. 1992. Spread of English and issues of approach that incorporates the teaching and intelligibility. In The other tongue: English across learning context as well as the learners’ values. cultures, ed. B. B. Kachru, 2nd ed. 75–90. Chi- It also helps to prepare learners for future cago: University of Illinois Press. Tollefson, J. W. 2002. Reconsidering “target lan- interactions with speakers of different variet- guage.” Language Research Bulletin 17: 143–52. ies of English. The guidelines to following a Widdowson, H. G. 1994. The ownership of Eng- balanced approach presented in this article lish. TESOL Quarterly 28 (2): 377–89. are not meant to be prescriptive, nor do they claim to be comprehensive; we recognize that not all teachers have a choice about Thomas S. C. Farrell is Professor of which variety of English to emphasize in their Applied Linguistics at Brock University, instruction. However, these guidelines can be Canada. He is series editor for the adapted by all teachers who wish to help their Language Teacher Research series for students prepare for real world interactions. TESOL, USA. His latest book is Reflective Language Teaching: From Research to References Practice.

Alptekin, C. 2002. Towards intercultural commu- Sonia Martin has been teaching English as nicative competence in ELT. ELT Journal 56 a subsequent language for over six years. (1): 57–64. has worked in several parts of Canada, Christenson, T. 1992. Standard English and the EFL classroom. English Today 31:11–15. the Middle East, and . Her current Cook, V. 1999. Going beyond the native-speaker area of interest is English as a Lingua in language teaching. TESOL Quarterly 33 (2): Franca. She has an MA in Applied 185–209. Linguistics from Brock University, Canada.

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