82
CHAPTER V
ANCIENT TRADB k m MILITARY ROUTES
As already stated the sub-continent of India is a geographical Cul-de-sac, — a geographical feature based on which the trade and military routes of country can broadly be categorised into two viz. the routes approach- ing the country and the one within its boundaries. The approach routes can further be sub-divided according to the medium, as land routes and sea routes.
While studying the land routes approaching India, one need not to take the pain of surveying the entire territory of India, the guardian mountains, a most valua- 4o ble asset in the national defence, come the rescue and reduce the territory worth study to the order of only
1110 km. that is l/5th of the total length of the northern frontier alone. This distance of 1110 km. is the approxi mate direct distance from Karachi on the Arabian sea-coast to the river Kabul in the north, and this is the only distance through which all the routes from other countries lead to India. "There is no historical record, no tradi tion even worthy of attention, which points to the viola tion of the frontiers of India at any point beyond these 83
1110 km. of rugged and difficult hills extending between
Karachi and the Kabul river basin. Between these limits every tide of foreign immigration, every horde of Ifongols or
Turks, every \siatic contribution to the mixed nationali ties of the Indian empire has found its way at one time or another; insomuch that there is hardly a living soul in the plains of the peninsula (apart from the purely abori ginal tribes and the comparatively few whose progenitors arrived by sea) who cannot claim descent from one or other of the former great nationalities of Asia, who passed into
India by these north-western gates. Greeks, Assyrians,
Medes, Chaldeans and Persians, Sk^ths, Turks, Tartars and
Mongals all cpme that way".
In the trans-Indus region there is a narrow pass leading towards the depressions of Chinese-Turkistan. From the early historic period this pass has served as a connec tion between India and the Central Asian Highlands. Irres pective of the difficulties of crossing, this pass can be taken as the Uorth-?/estern Gateway of India. Right from the very early period to the present day it has maintained its importance for trade and military as well. This route has been trodden by so many barbarous tribes of central Asia to enter in India. On this route near Gilgit the bounda ries of Russia, China and Afghanistan unite and enhance the
85
political importance of the route. It was only after the realisation of the importance of this ro'ute that the ftongals "til in 13 century several times attacked Balkh and Bamian, and in 19 century the British always tried their utmost to prevent the Afghans from occupying it and again they always defended it against Russian imperialism and put the foundations of the fortifications of Khyber and A.ttock be side several cantonments in Punjab for that purpose.
Recently during Indo-Pak wars, India was reminded of its importance as she sustained several attacks through this route. In a parallelism with the deserts of Sind and Iran 2 this route leads to the valley of Chitral and Swat rivers .
Between the trijunction of the three boundaries of Russia,
China and India and the junction of the Bashgol river of
Kafiristan with the river of Chitral (Kunar R) two principal passes cross Hindu Kush, beside several of minor importance.
These two are the Boroghel pass (12500 ft. above sea-level) and Dorah pass (14800 ft. above sea-level). From the valley of Chitral, the Dorah pass leads to Ishkashim in Badak- shan^. After which the route leads to China via Wakhan and through the Pamir highlands. Vedic Aryans, Iranian armies of Darius. Alexander and his successor Kushanas, Sakas,
Pahalavas, Hunas, Turkas all adopted this route for their in- roads into India beside other routes of lesser importance .
For last five thousand years very minor changes have taken place in this route. From Kabul to the plains of India this route is
at present represented bj what is called the Khyber-Pass. All the "former invaders of India who based their operations on Kabul (and there have been many of them, from the Greek Alexander to the Turk
Babar) preferred this line of Khyber and invariably prefaced the advance on Delhi by the preliminary subjugation of Bajaor
and Swat v/hich lay on the flanks of their advance^". One may draw a natural inference after seeing on the map of
Afghanistan that between Kabul and Peshawar, the Kabul fki river valley offers ^ best possible line to direct ^
great trade or military operations. But disregarding this inference the ancient route between Kabul and Peshawar does not follow the Kabul river valley to any great extent. Out of 270 km. of military road between the two cities only a total distance of 80 km. is traversed along with the river. Taking its rise from Peshawar, the route leaves the course of the river fsr to the north and forms U- a curfte extending into the mountain districts, occupied by the Mohmands. A few km. west of the little frontier fortress of Jamrud the route passes into Khyber, then the traveller is conducted over an excellent road passing under the shadow of the hill fortress of Ali-Masjid. The route then crosses the small and subsidiary watershed at
Lxindi Kotal (3500 ft. above sea) and then leads to Lundi
Khana from where it drops down to Dakka to merge with a good road continuing upto Kabul. From Dakka to JabaialJSd
there are open plains lying at the foot of the northern slopes of Safed Koh and the road through these plains
touches the river bank here and there but after Jalalabad near the junction of Kabul and Kumar rivers, the road again leaves the Kabul river and traverses along the banks of Surkhab river and enters the historic pass of
Pezwan, From Pezwan the road crosses the mass of hills formed by the lower spurs throvm off from the western abutments of the Safed Koh, to reach on the edge of the
Kabul plains at Butkak. Before reaching Butkak comes the terrible defiles of Jagdalak but an alternative route now traverses the plains above the defiles leading direct- a ly to L<)taband Pass and to Butkak. The road between
Lataband and Butkak runs parallel to the river at no great distance south of it.
Three main routes starting from the Mediterranean sea and leading to Far Bast of the Achaemenian road- system are mentioned in Roman h istory. In the early centuries of the Christian era, these routes were runn ing somewhere parallel to each other and often crossing for the sake of the silk trade between China and the west.
Out of these one route was taking its rise in the north of Black sea and leading to China through the Caspian sea ports and the hill ranges of Central Asia, while the other was from Red sea to the Mediterranian sea. The most important route amongst these was the one in between the two leading to India after crossing Hindukush via
Iraq and Iran. A. branch of it lead to China through the
Pajmir highlands. After reaching Antioch either by sea
or land routes the Roman traders, adopting this route
were coining td the riv er Afrat. After crossing the r iv e r ,
and moving along the right side of the river, they v/ere
either reaching Selukia or through the desert were going iUjlyi to Ctesiphon — the capital of the Pahlavas and^Baghdad. Q'V\ From Baghdad the route taking>eastward turn through the
highlands of Iran via Bahistan was leading to "Skbatana
— the capital of Achaemenian empire. It was approach
ing the sea-parts of the Caspian sea through Tehran.
Keeping Dasii-i-Kabir along it s right and crossing Koh-i-
Kaf. From Caspian-sea-ports the route taking easterly direction was approaching Hacotomphylos — the ancient capital of the Pahlavas. Sven to-day between Masad and
Herat the same route is used. After Shahrud the route taking a westerly course for about 200 km. through the
Dune of Gurgan and avoiding the desert of Kara-Kum, it was crossing through the oasis of A.skabad, and finally lead- ing to Balkh via Tejen and Merjit.
Balkh was a meeting place of the four great tribes of the world viz. the Indians, Chinese, Iranians and the Sakas. Besides it possessed a considerable
strategical importance from the fact it dominate'J*all commu nication between Kunduz (Badakshan) and Kabul, as well as 8!)
those lines of approach which lead southward from the
ferries and crossing of the Oxus at Kilif.
it Balkh the route was getting bifurcated. One
branch was leading to China via Badakshan, Wakhan and
through the valleys of Famir, which was further subdivided I into two branches at Kashgar into northern and southern branches. The second branch of the main route v/as start
ing from the southern gate of Balkh, v/hich lead to India.
After crossing the mountain range of Hindukush and the
river Indus it leads to Takshasila and there merging with
the highway from Takshasila to Pataliputra. The Takshasila-
Pataliputra route was one upto Mathura where it v;as divided
into two branches, one leading to Tamralipti, the sea-port via Pataliputra, while the other one lead to Bharukachha
(Broach) via Ujoain.
The road from Balkh to India is via Patkesar where it joins with the route coming from Samarkand. Then through the deserts of Tashkurgan, it reaches the Khavak pass.
Among the snow-bound fastnesses of the higher peaks of
Kafiritan, the Hindukush loses its flat-backed formation and develops into a double system of parallel ranges, forming two long narrow lateral valleys, which draining from opposite directions to a junction eventually find an outlet through the southernmost ridge to the broken plains
of the Koh-Daman, north of Kabul. These two valleys are
the Panjshir and the Ghorband. The waters of both these 90
rivers unite at Charikar and go as a tribute to Kabul river.
Hence the situation of Charikar becomes most commanding one, as all the passes from Turkistan to the valley of Panjshir and Ghorband can be controlled from this point. The impor- o tant pass in the valley is the Kha^ak pass at the head of the Panjshir river (11650 ft. above sea level). This is one of the oldest pass. In Mahabharata (Mbh. 11.48.12) there A is a mention of the tribe as E0yauya or Kavaravya. Probab- D- ly this is the race gave its name to Khajfak pass, as the tribe inhabited in the Panjshir and Ghorband valleys^.
uok From Khara pass the route traverses along with the highx valley of Panjshir and for crossing Hindukush it takes a turn near the village of Sangburan after which it descend a little and crosses \nderab, Khijan and Dosakh.
A.fter Dosakh it merge with the old route from Bamian to
India at Jebulshiraj.
In between the hill ranges of Kafiristan and Haza rajat and at the southern foot of the Hindukush there is a patch of land richly irrigated by Panjshir and Ghorband riv e rs, in the northexa and Kabulrud and Logar rivers in the south, is already stated while describing the command ing situation of Charikar, that all the routes from Central
Hindukush are opening here and so also the trade between
India and Central Asia was carried out through this plain.
This is the land of Kopisa, and here thsee important high 91
ways were uniting in olden days and even to-day they unite without any change.
The one is the north-east road, by the Panjshir valley and over the Kiavak pass to Anderab or the road described above, which was adopted by Alexander on his march into Bactriana from the territory of the Paropamisadae, by Timur on his invasion of India. The second is the west road, by the Kushan valley, and over the Hindukush pass to
Ghori, also followed by Alexander on his return from Bac- triona as Strabo mentions that Alexander took "over the same mountains another and shorter road", (Geography XV.1.
26) than that by which he had advanced. This route turns round the Hindukush and does not cross it as Alexander is stated to have done. The third road is the south-west road, up the Ghorband Valley and over the Hajiyak pass to
Bamian. It is the easiest and most frequent?c/and taken by 7 Chengiz Khan after his capture of Bamian'^.
As Bamian is situated south of the Hindukush and north of the Koh-i-Baba, there is a meeting place of two routes and two rivers to the east of Bamian. Out of which one route goes through Koh-i-Baba to the high valley of
Helmand river while the other route along with northern bank of Surkhab river reaches Kapisa plains through Ghor band valley. The city of Kapisa was situated at the junc tion of the Panjshir and Ghorband rivers. But somewhere 9t2
a 8^^ century the popularity of this city was surpassed "by that of Kabul, situated on the banks of Logar river.
A.n old route from the city of Kapisa leaving aside the ieep valleys of Panjshir led Nagarhar (Jalalabad) via Lampak. ftarting from Kapisa first it was pointing in an easterly
Lirection, then turning southeast was crossing the united rtream of Panjshir and Ghorband. Crossing Eabul river and tarkhab river after Mandrawar it v/as leading to Jalalabad. a the same plains Kabul was the another starting point for ifferent routes, which almost all traversed along the Kabul tad Ghorband rivers. But the main highway was not along the
[abul stream. It was turning southwards for approaching the ttHaab plains, after leaving the Ghorband valley. One other
■oute was taking its rise at Kabul, leaving aside the deep
'alley of Kabul river and leaving to Nagarhar (Jalalabad). At resent there is one route from Kabul to But-Kak, which unites h e main highway after crossing the defiles of Tang-i-Garu.
Iiother route traversing on the right side towards the east nters Lataband pass and reaches at the bank of Tejin river, irom there passing through the Karakacha pass it meets the tain highway at Jagdalak. ’Vhile the main route taking a right
Ogled turn leads to Seh-Baba north of Tejin and turning south ast crosses the other route of Jagdalak. From there after crossing Surkhab river leaves behind the hilly regions at
Gandamak and traversing to the north-east direction reaches
Ja lalabad.
The road from Balkh to Takshasila is called as
Hemavant Patha in the A.rthasastra of Kautilya and accord- Q ing to an inscription at Sanchi , on this route ©nly the S’ Bhiksu Kachhapgotra preached the tenet^ of Buddhism.
After leaving behind the hilly regions, the Hemavant /'■re-m Patha crosses Indus at A.ttock. By the occurrence of the word Vrindataka in Mahabharata which undoubtedly can be identified with the present Attock and also due to the reference of posting the sentries on this spot, some scholars think that in ancient times also the Hemavanta
Patha was crossing the Indus on Attock. But on the right ’ bank of Indus there was a place Udbhand (Raja Tarangini);
Udakhanda (Hwan-Tsang) identified with present Ohind by UL q M. Vivien de St. Martin; Veyand (Alberuni). The impor tance of the place can be Judged by the fact that it is mentioned as the capital of the Brahman kings of Kabul. It must have been a good crossing point as even to-day it is known as Dar-i-Hindi (Gate of India) in Persian language.
It is the place where Alexander crossed with a bridge of boats and Hwan-Tsang crossed on the back of an elephant.
Even as late as Babar, Indus river was being crossed at 9;
Ohind and Attock was »ade a crossing>in the reign of
Akbar^°.
On historical grounds the Hemavant Patha can he
divided into 3 phases, viz. the route adopted by Alexander
and his successors, to reach Pushkalavati, by Chinese
travellers with Udakhanda as a crossing of Indus and the modern route to Attock,
On the route from Nagarhar (Jalalabad) to Pushka- lavati (Charsadda) first comes Dakka and then keeping
Mohamands (Madhumants of Panini) on the north and Safed
Koh on the south, it reaches Michni. From Michni some minor traces of this ancient route are found on, the south ward turn of the Kabul river, with the help of these traces the Mahapatha can be traced along the left side of the stream to the old confluence of Kabul and Swat rivers which is slightly ahead of the to-days confluence. This is the site of Pushkalavati '— the ancient capital of
Gandhar/a identified with to-days Charsada and SaQargaon^^.
From here the route leads eastwards via Hoti-mardan near
Shahbajgarhi to Und (Ohind). After crossing Indus at
Ohind it enters the Takshasila region where via Hasan-
Abdal it reaches Takshasila proper.
"it has been conjectured, without much proof, that
Pushkalavati may have remained the local metropolis until 95
A .D . 100 or thereabouts, when the opening of the Khyber pass by the Kushans as an arterial route alternative to the Kabul valley may have led to its decline and the •I 12 advancement of Peshawar . In 1st century A..D. Peshawar became the capital and hence it became necessary to join
Peshawar with KapisiL — the summer capital of the Indian
Sakas. The Khyber route as described above from Dakka to the fort of Jamrud and along with the present A.fghano-Pak boundaries leads to Lundi Kotal and Ali-Masjid, from where it concidwig with the ancient route reaches Peshawar.
Beside these main highways there are some routes from Afghanistan to India of course of lesser importance.
To the south of Khyber and separated from it by the Safed
Koh range is the Kurram pass. This takes its rise at
Kohat on India side and traverses the full width of the province of Roh entering Afghanistan at the Peiwar Kotal.
From Kohat the Kurram runs first upwards through the lower Miranzai Valley and then crossing a flat waterpart- ing drops with a continuance of its south westerly trend to the base of the Kurram valley, following the course of the upper Miranzai. The Kurram valley is an open and well populated valley full of ancient sites of tovms, showing fkt it to have been a valuable asset to Afghanistan in^past.
No sooner the head of the valley is approached near Peiwar pass^it thrusts itself into the deep gorges of a mountain valley but before this the route divert5/from the stream 9G
and passes under the upper ridges of Safed Koh. After tra versing these high altitudes the route dips itself down to the Logar valley, and leads north-wards to Kabul. In these upper regions of Safed Koh the route has crossed the
Peiwar pass (9200 above sea level) and Shutar garden pass
(11 9 0 0 ft. above sea le v e l). 'Turning to the western extremities of Safed Koh the route passes over the high level of the Afghan plateau. At the point where the route debouches the Logar plains the two ii^portant Afghan c ities are equidistant and there is no considerable obsta cle in approaching either of them^^.
The next route is afforded by Tochi river valley which is based on the frontier station of Bannu or Mwar- desabad. The Tochi river — an affluent of Kuram river joins the later not very far from their united Junction with the Indus. This river valley, no doubt formed the shortest connecting link between India and the capital of
Afghanistan once centred at G-hazni. It was down this pass according to all local traditions that Mahmud of Ghazni used occasionally to sweep when pultan and gind rather than Peshawar and Punjab were his iaimediate objectives.
Tochi river valley is a fairly wide and cultivated one, with a gradual but not excessive gradient rising towards the comparatively narrow band of stiff and rugged moun tain ridges between the cultivated tracts of Sherannia and 97
the uneven plateau lying eastward and southward of Ghazni. 1/i Strategically the valley is very important one
The h ill ranges of Sulaiman and ’Vaziri are divided by the Gomal river, which afford yet another great open highway, to the Afghan plateau from India. It is the oldest of all trade routes. The river Gomal crosses the
Afghan frontier at Domandi and to the north of this on the upper tributaries of a comparatively small affluent &ste are- stretched the plains of Wana. The plains command the a western slopes of W^ziristan and overlook the upper courses of the Gomal which is confined here in the narrow waterways of a mountain region^^.
In between the two passes of Khavak and Chahardar is one intermediate, called the Kaoshan or Hindukush pass
(I 4 3 OO ft . above sea). Prom Central Asian highlands to
Kabul and then onwards to India, this is the recognised gateway through all ages. This is the pass utilised by c the in rushing hordes of Aryans, Sfyths, Turks and
Wangals Alexander made use of this pass. 3ven the mighty bands of immigrants, who started from north of China to discover a more congenial home in the south, appeared to have passed westwards to the entrance, baffled by the
Hindukush barrier^^. Descending southwards into the territory of Baluchis tan the first road connecting India with outside world is Bolan. A.ccording to some authorities, Mula pass may once have served as a military route when Alexander des patched his general Krateros in command of heavy divisions to make his way to Persia by some line other, than the
Makran coast. But Mula pass was only developed into a re cognised trade route in later days when Gondava became a great trade centre under the rule of the Arabs. As
Krateros passed by O^uetta and Kandahar to the Helmand so it may safely be concluded that the trade route to Qjuetta and Kandahar recognised by the historians must have served the purpose. And this route is through;B©lan pass. Hence
Kalat was ever a dominating position on the routes which connected Siestan with India, through the desert of 17 Kharan ‘ .
The modern city of Kandahar is connected to India by two routes. One is moving eastwards and reaches the
Indus plains near Dera-Ghazikhan and from there to Multan, while the other one in south easterly direction through 18 Balan pass reaches Karachi via Shikarpur . This one is the more frequented route from India to Kandahar and Herat.
As Multan was one of the greatest and most famous cities of Sind, it must have been linked by a direct highway from Kalat and Quetta that is a road to link southern 9!1
Afghanistan -with India. And this route, much straighter
than that followed the Bolon or Nari rivers into the plains,
is found in the Sakki — Sarv/ar at the foot of the hills
opposite Dera-Ghazikhan, represented by the eastern route
from Kandahar above mentioned. A modification of this route
now connects Dera-Ghazikhan with 'Juetta and Peshin^^.
There is no section of the western frontiers of India
so securely guarded against any approach from the west as that
km. of impossible barrier formed by the straight backed
kirthar mountains. (Eoldich T.H.) So moving southwards from
Bolan and IVlula pass there is only one ro u te , one comes across
is through the Makran coast. Tiz was decided as a safe post
by the Arab traders engaged in the coastal trades of Red Sea
and Persian Gulf, long before the Christian era. Owing partly
to the mountain barrier of Kalan and partly to the deep land
ward indentations of the sea, the further trade with the people of the Indus plain was carried out through the land.
The route from Tiz to the ancient city of Debul in the Indus
delta passed by Turbat (near the ancient Kej) and then followed
the Fej valley to a point near its head. Passing by Las Bela
and Uthal it turned the barrier of the Sind frontier hills not
very far from Karachi and debouched into the deltaic plains of
Indus. This is the route adopted by Alexander — the great to ^00
retreat when he led his armies India back to Persia. He
selected the route despite the advice given to him with
the example of the disastrous fate of the army of the far-
famed 4ssynan queen Semiramis, and as a consequence he o n lost 2/5 of his broken force .
On the North-3astern frontier of India, the high
tablelands and river valleys are clothed with dense
jungles. Through these mountains and forests there was
a route connecting Manipur with China. This route was
used for a small trade between the two countries. Bamboos
from south China were coming through this route to Assam
and Central India and were being despatched as far as
Balkh, as attested by the Chinese ambassador Chan-Ki-Yen
in second century B.C. Leaving aside the military impor
tance of it , the route could not prove itself to be a
good trade route ov/ing to the difficulties in crossing.
The chronology of the use of these routes, within
the purview of the present knowledge starts from the in
road of the first immigrants who came to India and it is
this tribe who stands accused for the destruction of the
Indus valley culture — most probably the Aryans. The period of these inroad can be calculated by the period /^ Their oldest literature, which is in a language closely t b 5 5 1 5 ' 101 connected with ancient Persian, Greek and Latin, supplies no certain indication that they still retained the recollec tion of their former home; and we may reasonably conclude, therefore that the invasions, vrtieii brought them into India, took place at a date considerably earlier^^, (C .H .I. Chap. II p. 38). According to some scholars the Indian (\ryan) languages seem to have developed from the langua ges spoken in the regions of southern Russia and the Hu plains to the east/Caspian sea. The regions some where in 3000 B.C., were rarely inhabited by some tribes in whose culture the predominance of the chieftains and warriers was of striking distinction. The only unity among these tribes was the unity of language and some other similar traits. There are some evidences to prove the prevailance of the art of horse riding and also the use of Sanskrit words like Skvartan and Trivartan. In the middle of second mill|.nium B.C. the /Vryan gods Indra, Varuna, Mitra and Nasatya were being worshipped in Asia Minor. And all these traits are similar to that of the Aryans. Rgveda describes the several battles fought by Aryans against the Dasas and also condemns the Dasas. Striking^enough the period of the decline of the Indus culture also coincides with the period assigned to the composition of the Rgveda. It is almost clear as such that the tribe responsible for the destruction of Indms culture miast be the Aryans and 10 the Dasas mentioned in Rgveda must be the Harappans. According to some scholars the Aryans came to India in 1500 B.C. through Sind and Baluchistan but Rgveda men tions the river system of Eastern Afghanistan and Punjab accordingly the route adopted by them should be through North west Frontiers. In the opinion of other authorities Aryans came to India from Bactria, after crossing Hindukush, and probably they adopted two routes. One direct along with the Kubha (Kabul river), through which only the soldier, and other adventurers could have crossed while the other route was from Kapisa to Kandahar wherefrom so many small branch routes lead to Punjab and upto Sindhu river after crossing the valleys of the right hand side tributaries of Kurram and Gomal rivers, as the name of these rivers 21 occur in Rgveda . (X.75) Resent southern most routes along Kabul, Kurram and Gomal rivers reach Mohenjodaro through Balan pass which might be a possible route but the studies of the tribes inhabiting Sind regions show that the Aryans had very rarely used these routes and they mostly came from the north. According to the availability of evidences the routes of Baluchistan it is clear that the route were quite preva#.l^nt in Proto-historic times and also the tribes responsible for the destruction of Indus culture, entered in Sind through this route. Ghosh opines that river valleys of ScunrasoociU and Drishdavati were 103 within the scope of Indus valley culture. I f this be correct then it can very well be inferred that the Aryans entered in Eastern Punjab and Bikaner regions via Sind regions22 The next episode in the chronological study of the routes, with historical certainty is the invasion of India by A.lexander — the great in 32? B.C. 'Although even before that the Indian regions were invaded by the A.chaemenian kings first by Cyrus — the great but the accounts regarding the invasion itself are very scanty leaving aside the route adopted by him. Darius I inva ded the Sind regions but the accounts regarding this in vasion also are not very comprehensive. According to Arrian (Anabasis Y I.24. 2-5) who quote Nearchus the name of the far-famed Assyrian queen Semirainis was mentioned by the Indians while Alexander was planning his backward journey through Gedrosia that "No one had ever before escaped with an army by this route excepting Semiramis on her flight from In d ia ", but on the contrary Fegas- thenes says that "the Indians had never engaged in foreign warfare, nor had they ever been invaded and con quered by a foreign power, except by Hercules and Dionysos and lately by Macdonians” (Strabo-Geography XY 1 .5 pp. 586-687 cas)^^. Heturning to the invasion of Alexander and route adopted by him, after the assassination of Darius — king of Persia by Bessas — one of his kin^sman, Alexander stopped a^ Hekatompylos in his pursuit and waited for his army. On his eastward march he reached Sousia near Meshed in Khorasan. From there he marched to punish Satibarzanesh — the Satrap of Artakoana for his revolt and seeing the capital Artakoana as a meeting place of different routes he founded a city Alexandria in its nighbourhood, which can be identified with present Herat (Mecrindle-India and its invasion by Alexander the Great p .57) or its neighbour hood (Fotichandra — Sarthavaha p.70). Then diverting from the route to Bactria he moved towards Prophthasia in Drangiana (Seistan) to punish Barsaentes — another of u the accomplices in the mxirder of Darias. From Prophthasia he moved along with the lower valley of river Felmand and then ascending the higher valley of the same river he penetrated into A.rchosia and continuing his march reached the foot of Hindukush mountain range which separate Kabul from Bactria and here again in a commanding position, near the village of Charikar he founded yet another Alexandria — called the Alexandria — under Caucasus. He then crossed Hindukush either through the Bamian pass — the western most among the four passes giving access from Koh-Daman to upper Oxus region or ascended through the 105 more direct route through the valley of Panjshir and reached Adrapsa, from where he finally reached Balkh. In the summer of 327 B.C/. he started for his Indian exi^edition and came to Mkaia, recrossing Hindukush and via Alexandria. At Nikaia he ordered Hephaistion and Perdikkas to malce the necessary arrangements to cross the river Indus for reaching to the land of Pusiikalavati , in the meantime he himself with the other division of his army defeated Aspasians, AssaJcenians Gauraians and took Massaga, Ora, Bazira and Aornos, and advan ced to the place regarding which he has instructed Nephaestion to prepare a bridge of boats. The division under Hephaestion and Perdikkas probably adopted the route along the southern bank of Kabul whether through the actual Khyber pass or not. Smith is of the opinion that it was not through the Khyber pass quoting Holdich T.H. in his support while Eoldich himself says that he "undoubtedly followed the main route which .... is sufficieiitly well indicated in these days as the Khyber". (Holdich T.H. The Gates of India p. 9^). According to MeCrindle the bridge in all probabi lity spanned the Indus river near Attock which stands on a steep and lofty part of the left bank about km. below the junction of the Kabul and Indus. But according to General Cunningham the point where Alexander crossed the river Indus is identified at Chind . After that he came to Takshashila where he was honourably received by the king. He then moved towards the river K^^daspes, where IW PorOs was waiting to face the Macdonians with all his army 6l and his arraysalephants. Gene. Cunnin^iam identifies the camp of Alexander at Jalalpur situated on the western bank of the river Hydappas and he came from Takshasila to 25 the place via Dudhial ,\fter defeating PorOs he crossed two more rivers of Punjab i.e. Ghenab and Ravi and advan ced towards the river Beas, but here his eagerness to advance was not supported by h i s army. From here the army returned through the Pataliputra-Takshasila road upto Jhelum and then along the current of Jhelum came to the confluence of Jhel'um and Chenab where Alexander again founded one more Alexandria. After reaching the junction of Chenab and Indus and then along the current of Indus somewhere before P^ttala Alexander ordered one third of his army to go to I'acdonia v ia Kandahar and Seistan , and the fle e t to travel upto the' mouth of Indus and homewards via Persian gulf, v/hile he himself decided to return through the Makran coastal regions, escorting the fleet travell ing in the Arabian sea. Alexander after crossing the Hingal river reached Rambakia identified with the Vairamak of Mahabharata after capturing this place he goes out of the historic pages of India. In second century B.C. according to Strabo (Strabo — 15.1. 8-9) there were three routes leading from Hferat to India. One moving on the right hand side w lead to Ortospen via Balkh and through Hindukush and here the other branches of the route were meeting it.The second route on the southern side of Herat leading tOvi’ards Proph- thasia in Drangiana (Seistan) from there through Eelmand river valley it was reaching the foot of Eindukush. The third route through the mountainous region was coming to Indus. Mitradotus I I in B .C . 128-123 was unable to stop the inroads of the Sakas into Herat but he could succeed in diverting them into Drangiana (Seistan) from where they reached Gandhara and Talishasila along v;ith the Indus river. As mentioned in Kalakacharya Kathanaka the Sakas invaded and captured Uooain from Sind throu^ Saurashtra. In north India Sakas occupied as far as Mathura but in the beginning of the Christian era they were removed not only from India but also from Sind by the Pahlavas. lifter the Saka-Pahlavas north India came under the sway of Kushanas — recognised v/ith the Ta-Yuchi of Chinese historians and TukHaras of the Indian literature. In north-western India the regions .(Ui of Punjab .and Kapisa and^north side of Hindtikush were Y* ruled by the Kushanas. Though the passes of Pamir the Kushana army invaded and captured the Duns of Tarim and hence throughout tfee history, it was the first time that the route from the Ganges to Central Asia was traversing within the limits of one empire only. l O B During the Gupta period, like the early periods the route for central \sia was along with Kabul river via Hidda, Nagarhar and Bamian. From Bamian one route was via Sugh crossing Oxus and^Tashkand from where in a west ward direction through the pass of Tian-Shan it was reach ing Uchturfan. ’.Vhile the other route was far Kashgar via Badakshan through Pamir. The shortest route from India to Kashgar was through the Upper regions of Indus river valley. The route through the valleys of Gilgit and Yashin rivers was leading to Tashkurgan where it was meet ing to the other route for Kashgar. The route from China to India in 7^^ century A .D . was travelled by the Chinese pilgrim Hwan-Tsang. While *coming from Ealkh to India he stayed at Tashkurgan for some time and came to Kapisife., Nagarhar (Jalalabad) , Purushpur (Peshav/ar) and Pushkalavati (Charsada). Crossing the Indus at Udakbhand on the back of an elephant he reached Tasha- sila. Prom Takshasila he visited different places in India and after fourteen years he went back, recrossing the Indus at Udakabhand he reached Lampak and went to B%nnu via Kurram valley. The valleys of Zhob and Gomal rivers were under the political influence of Bannu in his period. From Bannu through the valleys of Ghazni and Tarmak he crossed the boundaries of India and reached Jagud (modern Jaguri) through the route of Kalat-i-Ghazni. Then travelling lO S I through Waziristan and hilly regions of Hazarajat he turned northwards through the passes of Bust-i-Habur and Bokan he reached the Upper valley of Logar. I?rom here his route was meeting to the Herat-Kabul-route at Jalrej or to the Kandahar-Ghazni-Kabul route in plains. From Kapisa through the plains of Pamghan, Khavak pass and along the valley of A.nderab he reached Khost and finally Pamir via Badakshan and tVakhan. The route of Alexanders retreat through Makran was restricted by Mohamad-ibri-Kasim in 712 A.D. for his Sind expeditions. Before him the Arabs under Abd-ar-Raiman raided the country as far as Kabul and the city defended by strong walls was captured but towards the end of the reign of Caliph Yazid (A.D. 683) Kabul revolted. In A.D. 685 again the Muslim army under Abdullah advanced to invade this country, Ratbil I I (king of Zabulistan) did not oppose the advance of the Muhammadans till they penetra ted deep into his country. Then he blocked the mountain paths and passes and forced the Muhammadan General to conclude a treaty. Third time in 695 A.D. the same fate occurred on the General Abaidallah v^ho died of grief for what he had brought upon his men. Then Al-Hajjaj — the governor of Irak tried the operations through sea and sent a force under Budail against Debul. But Jaisimha son of Dahar defeated the Muslim force and Budail was killed in the battle^^. n o Taking all these incidents into consideration and finding that Khyb£r gateway of India was guarded Kabul and Zabul while the Bolan pass route was defended by the brave Jats of Al-Kikan or Kikanan, HajJaj tried the Makran route supported by the forces through sea. The heavy luggage peculiarly the seige material was transported through sea and river Indus onwards upto IJTirun. Both Nirun and Siwistan — the two main strongholds of Sind in the south opened their gates to H!uhammed Chachnama even indicate^some alliance already existed between the leading people of Nirun and the Arabs. Beside this there were the reasons of rivalry between the kings Dah^r and Daharsiah, and also religious differences. Southern Sind was inha bited by Buddhists who fraternized with the fmhamznadans instead of rallying to their king and defending their motherland. And thus f/TuhamDiad Ibn Kasim captured Debul. Nirun, Ishbha,'5iW i‘?aoy^Brahmanabad and Alor, and marched to capture Multan, which was also forced to surrender due to some treason as in case of Brahmanabad. The earliest evidence regarding the sea-tgade is found from the Harappan culture where two figures of boats^engraved one on a seal and the other one on a pottery. According to scholars these boats must have been used in the rivers but Mackay^*^ says that most probably these boats must have been used for sea-trades from the 131 mouth of the Indus to the sea-shores of Baluchistan, in Harappan period^js. Buddhist Jataka stories mention stories regarding the voyage through sea. Traders used to go to Suvarna dvip (Malasia) and Ratnadvip (Simghal or Ceylon). Baveru Jataka mentions the trade between India and Babylon through Arabian sea and the Persian Gulf. Supparaka Jataka gives ^ evidence that Indian sailors knq)w about the Persian Gulf, Agnimal (Red Sea) Dadhimal, Nilavarna, Kusmal, Nalniiil and Balbhamukh, (Mediterranian sea) ; Sankha Jataka also mentions regarding Suvarnadvip. According to Jataka stories the western sea-coast of India had Bharukachha Supparaka, and Sovir as the main sea ports whlie the sea ports of Karayibiya, Gambhir and Seriv were situated at the eastern sea-coast and India had a sufficient meritime trade with countries in Bast and West. Banares (Jataka 4. 15-17), Champa (Jataka 6 . 3 4 ) and Bharukachha (Jataka. 3 . 1 8 8 ) are said to have trade relations with Suvarna Bhumi. According to Supparaka Jataka (Jataka 4. 158-142 Gatha 105 to 1 1 5 ) traders after starting from Bharukachha were going through the seas of Khurmal, Aggimal, Dadimal, Nilkusmal, Nalmal and pQ Balbhamukha^ In the opinion of Ivlr. Jayaswal Khurmal is identified with some portions of Persia that is south east Arab, Aggimal is the sea-coast of krah near A.dan and 112 some portions of Sumaliland. Dadimal is represented by Red sea and Nilkusmal is the portion of Nubia on the north east of Africa, Nalmal is the canal joining Red sea with Mediterranian sea and Balbhamukh is a part of Medi- terranian sea which pessesses a valcano even to-day and if this be correct, the sailors of India in Buddhist period knew about the sea-route from Bharu-Kachha to Mediterra nian sea. But as known from the Greek, Latin and Indian literature of later periods, the Indian sailors were not going beyond the limits set up by the A.ral> traders as the sea-trade between Red-sea and Mediterranian sea was under the control of Arabs. Kautilya in his Arthasasthra mentions regarding a pearl name Alsandaka said to have been imported from Alexandria — a fact indicating the trade relations bet ween India and Babylonia. Beside this Tamralipti pert on the easten coast and Broach on the western one had some trade with Ceylon, Somewhere between 184 B .C . to 16? B.C. the Bactrian Greeks led by Demetrius invaded India. Demetrius accom panied the army upto Takshasila and here he divided it in two parts. One part under>comm-and of his General Menander was instructed to invade northern India while the other division under the command of Appollodotus — a kin^sman of Demetrius followed Alexander's route through 113 the Indus river. According to Tarn^^ he first conquered the coastal provinces where a fleet could help him, probably he went round the Rann of Katch, then possibly a sea-gulf and so southwards, Ptolemy (VII 60) gives a G-reek city Theophila eastward of the Indus delta, and also he figure it on the route from Patala to Ujjain. The foundation of the town may be included in the activities of Appollodotus, as according to some authorities Appollo- dotus was the youngest brother of Demetnus and Theoph;tlla was their mother. Appollodorus says that the kingdoms of Saraostos (Saurashtra) and of Sigardis (unidentified) were captured in this advance. In addition to these Periplus^^ says that ^^ppollodotus ruled Barygaza (Broach) with the occupation of which the he got the great port which could give him good trade communication by sea with the vi’est and also the terminus of the main road running across India Ujoain and Vidisha to Kosambi on the Yamuna and so the Ganges and Pataliputra. Between first centuries before and after christ, ♦ ICalyan was an important sea-port as attested from the inscriptions of Kanheri and Junnar which mention the name of some important traders and craftsmen of Kalyan. But it seems afterwards the importance of Kalyan was reduced because Pt©lemy while enlisting the sea-ports of v/estern coast does not include Kalyan as one of them. According to Ptolemy the western sea-ports are Suppora, Goaris Dounga, Bendas, mouth of the river and Semyla. In this list Dounga has replaced Kalyan but afterwards in 6^^ century A.D. Coamos Indikopleustos mentions Kalyan and adds that it was one among the big market cities of India. As Broach was the biggest port on the western coast during first century A.D. it became the bone of contention between the Sakas and the Satavahanas. Aparanta was first conquered by Nahapan but Gautamiputra Satakarni recovered it back. Again in 2nd century Rudradama took it. Ptolemy has mentioned regarding the battles for Aparanta region. In fact the Nasik region was commanding the passes between Broach and Paithan. In the reign of Pulumavi Yashisthi- putra who is mentioned by Ptolemy as Siri Ptolimaios it was again the part of Satavahana empire. Beside Barygaza (Broach) the following ports are mentioned in Periplus^^. First Suppara, then Kalyan, Semyla (south of Bombay Chaul) , Mandgora (Bankot at the mouth of Savitri river) , Palaepatmae (modern Dabhal) , Melizigara (modem Jayagarh), Tagara (Deogarh), Aurannoboas (Malavan), Sesiorinae, Aegiidii (either Goa or Anjidiv), Canaetas island (lester rocks — the island system in the sea-route of Karwar), Chersonesus (Karwar) and Swet Dwipa, (either Nitran or pigeon island) after than Naura (either Cannanore or Honavar), then Tindis (Ponnani). The famous p«rt of Malabar was Muziris which is identified with Cranganore. Perhaps Nelkinda was near Kottayam in Travan- core at the distance of 50 miles from Muziris in the Pandya Kingdom, After Nelkinda was Bakare which is iden tified with Porakad near Alappi. Then the author of Pariplus turns north eastwards and describes the ports of Paralia (from Gape Comorin to Adam's bridge) and Balita (Varakalle). Then in the Chola Mandalam were Kaveripattanam or Puhar (Kamar of Ptolemy), Poduke (Pondichery) and Sopatma. (Sopattinam of Tamil literature) After that periphus gives a minor description of Masalia or Masulipatanam and Tamluk (Tamraliputi) on the mouth of the Ganges. On the Makran coast Rambacia and Barbarikon were the main ports at the time of Periplus. In the opinion of Sir Foldich "for centuries previous to the Christian era, it is probable that Arabs traded down the coasts of the Red sea and Persian Gulf and foxind their way to Indus by hugging the coast line of the Arabian sea. Thence creeping round the Indian continent they reached Ceylon and Bast Indian Islands". (Holdich-India p.48) In the beginning of 8 century A.D. some of the Arabian ships coming from Ceylon were troubled by the pirates and Dabar the ruler of Sind confessed his weakness in Naval warfare • to the Caliph in controlling the pirates. But this confe ssion brought him troublejt, M Eajjdj the governor of Irak sent an expedition against Sind by way of sea from Oman under Budail. Budail got reinforcement from Muhammad Ibn Harun and marched towards Debul. Dah^r sent his son Jaisimha to protect Debul. A pitched battle ensued which lasted a whole day. 4t the end the Muslim army was routed and Xp f Budail was Hilled-"^ . But as seen already Dahar could not succeed in preventing the A.rab inroads to Sind, as in the next expedition through land but supported by sea communi cations under If’uhammad Ibn Kasim Sind was wholly conquered by Arabs. The routes within India can further be sub-divi ded as the routes traversing northern India (to the north of Vindhya mountains) and the oneJ traversing the south and western India. From Peshwar to the plains of the Ganges, there are two routes. Starting from Peshawar one leads to Luck*r now represented by the present railway line between Saharan- pur and Lucknow. Taking a southward turn upto Lahore this route becomes straight after Vazirabad and before it reaches Jullundar. Owing to its situation on^northe^n side to the other one, it is known as the Northern route. From Lucknow traversing on the northern side of the Ganges it approaches Tirhut and from there via Kotihar and Parvatipur it turns towards A,ssam valley. The southern route branches out at Lahore and leads to Delhi via Raiwind Ferozpur and Bhatinda. At Delhi it crosses the Yamuna river and enters the Doab, and reaches Allahabad along with the right bank of the Ganga. From Allahabad after crossing Yamuna river again it leads to Banares, and along the right hand side of the Ganges it reaches Calcutta either via Bhagalpur or via Patna. Prom Peshawar to Calcutta this route is entirely represented by the present national highway kno’ra as the Grand-Trunk Road. The Peshawar-Parvatipur route (northern route) has so many branch routes on its northern side leading upto the Himalayas. These branches one represented by the Naushara- Durghai, Sialkot-Jammu, Amritsar-Pathankot, Ambala-Simla, Laskar-Dehradun, Barely-Kathgodam, Hazipur-Raksoj, Kqtihar- Jogbani and Gitaldeh — Jayantia branch railway lines. On southern side the branch routes connect both the main routes. Similarly from southern route also branch routes emanate and lead to south. The branch routes traversing the Pimgab and Sind regions are mostly along with the rivers. At Attock two branch routes separating from the main route move along with the river Indus, on its both banks and both are joined liH up at Rohri and Katari by bridges. At Biiatinda the main route again gives rise to a branch route which moves along the stream of Sutlej river. In between Bhatinda and Attock there are five small routes coming out of the main route, which all traverse along with the rivers of Punjab. Buddhist literature describes the route from Mathura to Rajgriha. From Mathura this was leading to Allahabad via Berenga, Sarepya, Samkisa and Kanyakubja. From Pr^^yag after crossing the Ganges it was leading to Banares (Vinaya. 3 . 2 .) On the same route were situated Varana (Bulandshahr) and Alwi (irv/al). Berenga is not so far identified but probably it may be a place somewhere near Bari in Dhalpur d is tr ic t, where at the time of Alberuni a part of the great route was taking its rise. Angguttara Nikaya states that Buddha preached a crowd on the road near Berenga. Sorepya which can be identified with Soron ( Sukrakshetra) a famous pilgrimage centre in Stah district is said to have been connected with Takshasila through a trade route. (Dhammapada-Atth Katha I . 325) Sankisa was at a distance of 30 yojana from Sravasti and is identified with the present village of Sankisa in Farrukhabad distridt. Alvi at a distance of 30 yojana from Sravasti and 10 yojana from Banares on the route for Rajgriha is identified with Arwal. Buddha himself is said to have marched on this route from Sravasti to Keetigiri (Kerakuti district Jaunpur) and then to Rajgriha via Alvi. This Sravasti-Rajgriha route was meeting the main route (southern) at Yaisali. It had Setavya, Kapilvastu, Kusinara, Pava and Bhognagar as the main stoppages according to Paryanvagg. From Yaisali this route was leading towards Rajgriha while the Mahapatha (main route) was leading to Tamralipti via Bhaddiya (Longhyr) Champa (Bhagalpur) , Kajangal (Kak-Jalu-Hajmahal Bihar). The stoppages between Yaisali and Rajgriha were Ambaltika, Nalanda, Kotigram and Nadika and it was crossing t?he Ganges at Patilgram, Kausambi was a big trade centre, busy routes were taking rise here, for Kosal and Magadha. From Banaras along the river it was at a distance of 30 yojana. The Dakshinapatha route via Ivlahismati was passing through Kausambi. Banaras v/as another big commercial city on the route. It was connected with Gandhara and Takshasila on one hand and with Chedi and TJjjain via Kausambi on the other. Horses and Fules used to come to Banares by the route of Sauvir and traders of Uttarpatha were visiting it most frequently. Other route from Banares was for Sravasti via Keetigiri. There were two routes from Berenga to Banares, one passing via Soron was a complicated one, while the other crossing the Ganges at Prayag was a direct one. ;llso there was a route from Banares to TJruval (Gaya). The trade communication from Banares was mostly with boats 121 going to Prayag upto Indraprastiia througli Yamuna. Hamayana mentions the route from Ayodhya to !^estern Punjab (Eamayana 2.7^.11- 15)• The envoys started from Ayodhya to Kekaya country for bringing back Bharata from his maternal uncle's place to Ayodhya. From Ayodhya they first come to Hastinapur after which they saw Varuni pilgrim in the plains of Kurukshetra, and crossed Saraswati river. Afterwards turning to north, they crossed Saradonda river (modem Surhind) and reached the regions of Bhulingas. Al though the city of Bhulingas has not so far been identified their country perhaps lay on the upper courses of the Beas and Sutl^j-^-^. After crossing these rivers they entered in the mountaineous regions of Sivalika, from where they reached the city of Sakala, on the banks of Ajakula river (Modern AJi river) and finally they reached the capital of Keicaya country via Takshasila. The capital of i&kaya country is mentioned as Girivraja which is identified with modern Giriyak^^ near Jalalpur. The Kekaya country is iden- tified with present disti^cts of Shahpur and Jhelum. According to Tarn^^ the Greek army under I£enand$r in 175 B.C. started from Takshasila and captured Sakala and from there as told by Yuga Purana it came to Mathura, Saket and reached pataliputra via Prayag and Banares. The seals depicting the Greek gods :md godesses and figures of Bactrian c.-amel found in the excavations at Rajghat indicate 112 a prolonged stay of the Greek army near Banares. The route adopted by Menander can be represented by to-days Grand- Trunk road except a diversion to Saket. In Gupta period the victorious marches of Samudra Gupta throw some light on these route. He conquered the regions upto western U.P. and then marched towards north eastern Rajasthan to conquer Pushkarana. In eastern India he extended his sway upto Samtata, Dawaka (Dacca) Kamrup and Nepal. In central India starting from Kausambi he conquer- ed the Atvak prince of eastern M.P. During his expedition to Punjab he conquered the Yodheyas of Eastern Punjab and Rajasthan and the Madras of Jullundar and Sialkot. Almost the same routes were retrodden by the victorious armies of his son and successor Ohandragupta Vikramaditya. As seen in the Gupta inscriptions^ he consolidated his powers at Mathura, and afterwards conquered Malwa, Gujarat and Saurashtra. If the Chandra mentioned in Mehrauli pillar inscription is the Gupta king Ohandragupta II then Ohandragupta should have even conquered Balkh. Through the Hemavanta patha his armies marched into Bactria and captured Balkh, as indicated by the proverb that he erected a victory pillar on Visnu- padagiri (Sivalika mountains). But unluckily to the Gupta empire the same routes were adopted in reverse direction by the Hunas in the reign of Ohandragupta's grandson Skand- gupta (458-4-78 A .D .) who came even upto Pataliputra through li.3 A.fter crossing the river Indus at Ohind in the begi nning of 7^^ century the Chinese pilgrim Hwan-Tsang came to Takshasila then moving through the valleys he came to Sinhapura country the capital of which was situated on hills and was a natural fortress. This is identified by Gen. Cunningham at Ketas situated on the north side of the salt range at 16 miles from Pind-Dadan Khan and 18 miles from Chakowal. He then proceeded to Punach and Rajaori (Rajapura). B'rom Rajapura the pilgrim moved south east dom a hill and crossed the Ghenab river to the city of Jayapura and spending a night here he went to Sakara from there via Taki and Tamasa- vana he reached Jullundur and proceeded to Mathura. At Mathura Hwan-a?asang diverts from the main route and adopts a branch route for Thaneswar. The hill range of Satapuda and Vindhya maintains sepa rate North India from the Deccan and far sout|f. Vindhya mountains in addition to is natural beauty is famous for its passes which connect North India with Deccan, sea-ports of Western Coast and famous places of south India. Start ing from the western spurs of this mountain system there are four to five famous routes worth note. The route from Punjab to Gujarat was through Malwa due to the geographical situation of the desert of Marwar and Runn of Kutch. As proved in the case of invasion of Gujarat by Mahmud of Gbazni disastrous more to the invader 114 than to the conquered, the route between Sind and Gujarat v^as the most difficult one and was taken as an ex.ample f i t not to follow by any one except by the great adventurer like him. The other route was the Delhi-Aomer-Ahmedabad route, divid- q ing Rajasthan into two p^rts as it traversed along with and fhJt in the western side of the Aravalli hills. This is ji natural route between Rajasthan and Deccan through Aomei*. In Mughal period Delhi-Ajmer route was via Sarai-Allavardi, Pataudi, Rewari, Kot, Chukesar and Sarasara and from Ajmer there were three different roads for Ahmedabad. One was via Eerta, Sirohi, Pattan and Deisa. Second via Merta, Pali, Bhagwanpur, Jaliore and Pattanwal while the third one was via Jalojie and Haibatpur. The ancient main route for Dakshinapatha as stated earlier, was taking its rise at Mathura and is represented by Mathura-Agra road, passing through Ujjain and the upper regions of Chambal valley it approaches Narmada valley. In betvjeen Zhandwa and Ujjain near the present railway bridge over Narmada, there is a small place Mahe&sr, representing the ancient Mahismati — the first town founded by the Aryans in the "^ransi/indhyan regions. The place is strategically situated to command the natural passes of Gujarighat of Vindhya mountain and Saindhavaghat of Satapuda mountain. After these passes one approaches the Tapti valley near Burhan- pur. From where along th.e Tapti river through Khandesh, one route leads to .Surat after crossing the western Ghat mountain system. This is represented by Bhusawal-Surat railway line. 4c V»hile the other route leads>Berar and>Godavari valley through the upper regions of the river valleys near Poona. One ancient Mahapatha was leading to Mathura from the crvd’ik/-v ffyxj. sea-ports of Broach and Suparaka ;»an taking its rise from the same pflrtjf and leading to Kausambi via Vidisha through the valley of Betwa river, represented by the railway line from Vidisha to Kalpi via Jhansi. A.ccording to Buddhist stories this route was follov/ed by the pupils of Baveri. They started their journey from Alak and came to Pratisthan, Mahismati, UJjain, Gonaddha and Vidisha to reach Kausambi. Tewar (near Jabalpur) was the ancient capital of Chedis and it v;as linked to Prayag by the Bundelkhand route. The valleys of Betwa, Tons and Ken rivers if seen with bird eye view from Pr.ayag, indicate this route. From Prayag if the narrow defiles of Vindhyas near Panna is crossed one can directly reach the water divider of Son and Narmada and hence Jabalpur. After Nagpur it traverse along with the Godavari valley and reaches Andhra Pradesh but due to the dense forests fiU of Bastar and Kaikala hills the importance of the route is much reduced. Beside this there are three other routes diver- IIG ging from Jabalpur. One leads to Chtiattisgarh. while the second one through the Yen Ganga valley goes to Narmada valley. The third one is the main route for Jabalpur along v/ith Narmada valley meets the Vidisha route at Itars|ti and the Uj jain-!,:ahismati route at Khandwa. Most of the routes for south India are along with the river valleys. One takei’its rise at Manmad, moving in south-easterly direction enters in the Godavari valley after crossing .Ijanta and Balaghat hill ranges. Passing through Daulatabad, Aurangabad and Jalna it reaches the Godavari river at Nanded. Then moving along with the current, for some dist:ince it crosses the river Toother main route for south India is from Poona to Kanchi. From Poona taking a south-ward turn avoiding Ahmadnagar branch of Sahyadjri it reaches the plateau of Golkonda. Then moving along with the Bhima, enters in the eastern extremity of Krishna-Tungabhadra doab. Then through the south of Nannamalai it moves along with Pennar river to cross the Eastern Ghats and finally reaches the Eastern Coast. The third route takes its rise in Goa — the southern end of Maharashtra. Moving in Krishna-Tungabhadra doab either it crosses Tungabhadra at Vijayanagar or merges v/ith the Poona-Kanchi route or crosses Tungabhadra at Harihar and enters in Mysore plateau. After which moving along the stream of Kaveri it reach Tanjore-Negapattanam. 1L7 Paithan (Pratisthan) the capital city of Satavaiiana empire and Tagara (Ter) an important city of Dakshinapatha were connected with Broach for trade as seen from Periplus. One route starting from Machhlipattan and other from Venu- konda were meeting at a point south east of Hyderabad. From here this route passing through Ter, Paithan and Daulatabad was reaching Ajanta (Markind) to ascend the western Ghats and for reaching Broach. This was probably the main route of Satavahana empire evidently terminating at Kalyan. ■ 1 ^ 8 References 1. Holdicli T.H. India pp. 26-27 2. Motichandra . . Sarthavaha pp. 2-3 5 . Holdich T.H. . . India pp. 69-70 4 . Motichandra . . Sarthavaha p. 3 5. Holdich T.H. . . India p. 70 6. Motichandra . . Geographical & Econo mical Studies in the Maharashtra p. 86 7. A. Cunningham . . Ancient Geogra phy of India p. 21 8. Marshall . . Sanchi I pp. 291-92 9. A.. Cunningham . . An. Geo. p. 44 10. Motichandra . . Sarthavaha p . 8 ; A. Cunningham — An. Geo.pp.44-49 11. A. Cunningham . . A .S.R . 1865-64 p. 89 12. Sir Mortimer iTheeler - Charsada - A Metropolis of the N.W.F. p-5 15. Holdich T.H. India p. 76-79 14. Ibid p. 79 15. Ibid p. 80-81 16. Ibid p. 86 17. Ibid p. ^9 18. Motichandra . . Sarthavaha p. 5 15- 19. Holdich T.H. • • India p. 50 20. Ibid p. 48 21. C.H.I. Vol. I. p.59 Pouclier 22. Motichanara Sarthavaha p. 37 23. C.H.I. Vol.I . p. 296 24. A. Ounningham . An. Geo. pp. 47-49 25* A. Cunningham . Ibid p. 142 26. Majumdar R.C. . The Arab invasions of India pp. 1 5 , 18 , 19, 32-33 27. Mackay The Indus Valley Civilisation p. 197-198 28. Jayaswal J.B.O.E.A.3. VI p. 19 5 29. Tarn W.W. The Greeks in Bactria & India pp. 147-150 30. Periplus 30 P*3^ (Schoff*s transla tion) 31. Schoff V/.H. Translation of Periplus Suppara — Periplus 52 p.197, Zalyan - 52 p . 19 7 Samyla 53 p . 200, Mandgora 53 p . 201, Palaepatmae 53, P* 201; Melijigara 53 p .201, Aurannobos 53 p .202, Sesierinal 53 p .202, Aegidii 53 p .202, Chersonesus 53 p . 202, Swet Dv.'ipa 53 p . 20 3, JTaura 53, p.203, Tindis 53 P* 203, Muziris 53 p.205, Nelkind 53 p.208, Bakare 5^ P*211, Paralia 53 P*23^, 130 Balita 58 p.23^, Poduke 60 p.242, Sapatma 60 p .242; Masalia 62 p. 252 Tainluk p .249; 255; Ram'bacia 37 p . 163, Barbarikon 38 p .165. 32. Maoumdar R .C. . . The \rab invasions of India p . 32-33 33• Motich.and.ra . . Geo & Eco. Studies in Maharashtra p 99 3^. A. Cunningham . . An Geo. p. 138 35- Tarn W.W. . . The Greeks in Bactria & India p. 133 36. Fleet . . Gupta inscriptions p .2?