UPDATE January/Februa ty 200 1 School of Natural Resources and Environment Vol. 18 No. 1 THE UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN pages 1-28

2 Opinion Conservation of Biodiversity in a World of Use Kent H. Redford and Brian Richter

3 Note from the Editors: Results of Reader Survey

6 Special Series: Habitat Conservation Planning Where Property Rights and Biodiversity Converge Part I\:The Role of Science Gregory A. Thomas

14 Marine Matters A Review of Marine Major Ecological Disturbances Bruce McKay and Kieran Mulvaney

25 Opinion The Roadless Legacy Ken Rait

News from Zoos

News & Events Opinion Conservation of Biodiversity in a World of Use Kent H. Redford International Program of the Wildlife Conservation Society, 2300 Southern Boulevard, Bronx, NY 10460; KHRedford @ aol.com Brian Richter The Nature Conservancy, 490 Westfield Rd., Charlottesville, VA 22901 ; [email protected]

Over the last decade biodiversity suggested that substituting a com- we believe that some means of mea- conservation has become an objec- patible use for an incompatible one, suring the success of biodiversity tive of international conventions. or helping to perpetuate an exist- conservation efforts is desperately national governments. state agen- ing uge deemed as being compat- needed. In that spirit, we have pro- cies, non-governmental organiza- ible. is a reasonable strategy for posed a heuristic frame~orkfor tions, local communities, school conserving biodiversity. But strong measuring the consequences of hu- clubs, and individuals. Unfortu- uarnings have been issued by con- man use for biodiversity. This nately, while becoming a common servation biologists such as Freese framework builds from a matrix objective, the true meaning of ( 1998): "Human intervention in an presented by Noss (1990) and biodiversity conservation has been ecosystem for commercial pur- draws from a very specific defini- pulled from its roots in the biologi- poses inevitably alters and gen- tion of biodiversity. cal sciences, becoming a political erally simplifies, at some scale. Biodiversity refers to the Izatu- concept with as many meanings as ecosystem structure, compost- rrrl variety and variability among it has advocates. This confusion of tion, and function." living organisms. the ecological meanings can frustrate efforts to We maintain that compatibility complexes in which they naturally mobilize conservation action, be- between human use and occur, and the ways in which they cause successful conservation relies biodiversity conservation cannot be interact with each other and with on clear goals laid out with specific stated in binary terms as a "yes" or the physical environment. and commonly understood defini- "no" condition. All use has conse- Biodiversity has three different tions and assumptions. quences. Different kinds and inten- components: genetic. population/ Of the many confusing con- sities of human use af fect various species, and community/ecosystem. cepts associated with biodiversity aspects or components of Each of these components has com- conservation, few demand greater biodiversity to differing degrees. positional, structural. and func- definition and scrutiny than "con- Further, individual or societal de- tional attributes. Compositiotz re- servation through use," sometimes cisions about the degree of fers to the identity and variety of known as "compatible" or "sustain- biodiversity impact that is deemed elements in each of the biodiversity able" use. At face value these terms "compatible" are value dependent components. Structure refers to the suggest that certain types or levels and should be recognized as such. physical organization or pattern of of human use are ecologically be- In reality. the incidence, the source, the elements. Fzrrzcrion refers to nign, incurring little or no loss of and the effects of many changes are ecological or evolutionary pro- biodiversity. In fact, it was the often unclear, and that lack of clar- cesses acting among the elements. promise that such human use would ity impedes action on both politi- We suggest that the effects of hu- serve as the basis for conservation cal and practical levels. man use or alteration on biodiversity that brought so many different in- Because the interaction be- can be assessed with our framework terest groups to agree on the impor- tween biodiversity and human use by determining how different types tance of biodiversity conservation. results in such complex impacts and and intensities of resource use affect Advocates of compatible use have variable degrees of conservation. (cnltrinued on page 4...)

This editorial is reprinted from Wild Earth (2000), 10:2, 9- 11, with permission. Please consult Consenfation Biology (1999), 13:1246-1256, for an expanded treatment of the analysis and a full list of references.

2 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2000 Endangered Species Note from the Editors UPDATE A forum for information exchange on endangered species issues JanuaryYFebruary 2001 Vol. 18 No. 1

In an effort to learn more about our readers and how to serve you better, we HsbethMcPhee...... ManeingEditor included a survey in our MayIJune 2000 issue (Volume 17 Number 3). Fifty- chase M. Huntley ...... Publication Editor five readers responded-a summary of their responses follows. Jennifer Jacobus MacKay ...... Associate Editor Stephanie Hitztaler...... Editorial Assistant Ryan Tefertiller ...... Editorial Assistant In an effort to cut costs and paper consumption, we are considering of- Leah Thompson...... Research Coordinator fering electronic subscriptions. Fifteen (27 percent) respondents were A1arcOn...... Web Page Terly L. Root ...... Faculty Advisor willing to pay a reduced fee for just an electronic copy of the UPDATE. Most of the respondents (64 percent), however, would prefer to receive a .4dvisorv ~oard Richard Block hard copy as well. Santa Barbara Zoological Gardens Susan Haig In addition to cutting costs, we want to increase the number of subscribers. Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, USGS To do this, we wanted to know where our readers work and how they ini- Oregon State University tially heard of the UPDATE. The majority of you work or volunteer for a Chris Howes conservation organization (45 percent), the government (35 percent), or for Chicago Zoological Society Norman Myers an educational facility (27 percent) or university (22 percent). Ten (18 per- International Consultant in cent) are associated with a zoo, nine (16 percent) with a commercial busi- Environment and Development ness, and seven (13 percent) with a library. (Many people checked multiple Patrick 'IBrien Chevron Ecological Services categories, so these percentages equal more than 100 percent.) Hal Salwasser U.S. Forest Service, Most of our readers initially heard about the UPDATE through a friend or Boone and Crockett Club colleague (29 percent) or their workplace (27 percent). Nineteen percent ~n~mtion~for ~uthors: Re Endangered Species discovered the UPDATE through a journal article reference, and only four UPDAmwelcOmesarticles~editorialcOmments~ and announcementsrelated to species protection. percent of you heard about us at a conference or meeting or on the web. On average, five people per household or business read the UPDATE. Subscription Information: The Endangered Species UPDATE is published six times per year by the School of Natural Resources and Environment Finally, we asked for feedback on aspects of the UPDATE that you particu- at n, university of Michigan. Annual rates are larly like or dislike. In addition to some wonderful compliments, we re- $28forregularsubscrptions,and$23forstudents and senior citizens (add $5 for postage outside the ceived some very helpful suggestions, most revolving around the UPDATE'S send checkor money (payable content. For example, readers want more articles on plant conservation, UnivefiityofMichigan)to: human impacts on threatened and endangered species, conservation policy, Endangered Species UPDATE School of Natural Resources and Environment status of specific species, and regional conservation efforts. The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 48109-1 115 Overall, your comments and responses were incredibly helpful. Thank you. (734)763-3243; fax (734)936-2195 E-mail: [email protected] http://www.umich.edu/-esupdate If you were unable to complete the survey last summer, you will receive a Cover: The Secretary Blenny (Acanthemblemaria copy in your next renewal notice-and we hope you will take the time to maria) calls theatened coral reef habitat home. return it with your subscription renewal. photo used with permission, 02000, Bany Lipmaniwww.barrylipman.com.

The views expressed in the Endangered Species UPDATE do not necessarily reflect those of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service or The University of Michigan.

The Endangered Species UPDATE was made possible in part by the David and Lucile Packard Foundation, Turner Foundation, Boone and Crockett Club, Chevron Corporation, and the U.S. FWS Division of Endangered Species Region 3. P';, @ 15 @*I \%!& LT printed on recycled paper

Vol. 18 No. 1 2000 Endangered Species UPDATE 3 both the components of biodiversity not at all. In those systems in which component has been shown to be and their attributes as defined above. human impacts are more pro- adversely affected by harvesting, be In order to test the application of the nounced. the different biodiversity it fishing. logging. or trophy hunt- framework, we examined conserva- components and attributes are of- ing. The population/species com- tion efforts at two sites where The Na- ten affected. Some of these com- ponent is most commonly under- ture Conservancy has been working: ponents and attributes are more sen- stood to be affected by human uses. the Roanoke River in North Carolina sitive to human use, while others and much work has demonstrated and the Pantanal in Brazil. We then are more robust. For example. ge- this, although subtle effects are of- additionally tested the framework netic effects appear under much ten missed. Of increasing impor- against illustrative examples of hu- lighter regimes of use than do tance is an understanding of how man resource use from the literature. changes in ecosystem function. the community/ecosystem compo- The results of our assessments We found that all consumptive nent has been and is being affected demonstrate that the full range and use affects biodiversity in some at- by human activities. The extent to expression of biodiversity compo- tribute or component, commonly which the different attributes are nents and attributes can be con- affecting not only the target com- affected by use remains a little un- served only in ecological systems ponent but other components as derstood and important topic for that are altered either very little or well. For example. the genetic further research.

TYPES OF USE

Irrigation Hydropower Intensive Grazing in Water Harvesting Wilderness supply Dams2 Coral Historically Diversion5 Nontimber River Resevoirsl Reef Fishing-ngrazed Forests Running7 Forests4 Products6

COMMUNITY 1 ECOSYSTEM W I- 3 m function 0 @ @ @ • • • structure 0 @ @ @ • • • Ea n composition 0 G3 @ @ @ • • a POPULATION 1 I- z SPECIES zW function 0 0 0 @ 62 @ • L? L? s 0 structure o o o a a a a 0 c composition 0 0 0 @ @ @ • ii E GENETIC 2 n P function O O O @ @ @ m structure 0 0 0 @ @ @ • composition 0 O O @ @ @ • 0 not conserved @ part~allyconserved completely conserved Western North America: Rood & Mahoney 1990: Poff et al. 1997. iCal~fornia,U.S.: Harris et al. 1987; Stromberg & Patten 1992. 2Global:Cushman 1985; Moog 1993. Tropical forests: O'Brien & Kinnaird 1996; Peters 1996. 3Global: Roberts 1995; Laikre & Ryrnan 1996 'Global: Tejada-Flores 1978; B.D. Richters, personal obe~ation. Western US.: Belsky & Blurnenthal 1997. Figure 1. Effects of resource use systems on the components and attributes of biodiversity. Reproduced from Redford and Richter 2000.

4 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 The primary points we gained biodiversity for its own sake, in its work to provide critical apriori as- from our analyses are that: entirety and in its component parts, sessments of the biodiversity costs different degrees of human use is a legitimate objective in and of of resource use. Such an approach or alteration result in different itself. Our analysis suggested that would also support working with negative effects on biodiversity; biodiversity in its entirety can be resource harvesters to improve the some components and attributes conserved only in areas of very lim- effectiveness of their harvesting of biodiversity are more sensitive ited or no human use. But the vast methods to ensure that those com- than other components to human majority of both the terrestrial and ponents and attributes that can be use or alteration; and aquatic world have been, and will conserved under their use regimes only extremely limited use or continue to be, vital sources of re- are conserved. This should help to virtually no alteration will protect sources for the human population. achieve a key goal of moving re- all components. We live in a world of use. But we source production systems towards In our daily work we confront the dis- must accept the undeniable fact that more ecologically benign practices. cordance between the view that hu- we cannot fully conserve the It is time for conservation bi- mans can use biodiversity without biodiversity of this planet through ologists to overcome their method- causing any harm, and our experi- compatible or sustainable resource ological differences and the limita- ence, shared by many of our peers, use strategies alone. All compre- tions of their data and unite to pro- that this is not possible. hensive biodiversity conservation vide answers and approaches to one We follow in a long history of strategies must be rooted in large of the major issues confronting hu- those who advocate that all biologi- protected areas in both the terres- mans and the other inhabitants of cal entities and their environments trial and the marine realm. our world-how to sustain the full have intrinsic value independent of The literature we sampled for diversity of life in a world of use. their usefulness to humans. This our analysis is part of an ever-grow- value applies not just to species, or ing body of evidence that pinpoints Literature cited communities, or ecosystems, but to the effects of specific human uses Freese, C. 1998. Wild Species as Com- the complex intertwined web of life on specific components of modities. Washington, DC: Island Press. Noss, R. 1990. Indicators for monitoring that has come to be called biodiversity. By incorporating this biodiversity: A hierarchical approach. biodiversity. In such a value sys- evidence into an analytical frame- Conservation Biology 4: 355-364. tem, the preservation of work, conservation biologists can Letters Question emailed from website visi- is the primary cause of declining cat tion of all the Felidaein North America... is tor to esupdateOumich.edu populations. that the ...balance of life would change. Hi .... I am a Biology student in Belo r only 9% of most species1range is pro- These wild cats eliminate many common Horizonte- Brazil. I need to do some tected. pests such as various rodents and bats. questions about felids conservation, be- Without the cats to feed on these ani- cause your information is very important areas are necessary for cat mals, there may be an increase of pests for me and I have worked in a school and given prevailing rates around in households, and who wants project about felids conservation, What habitat loss and their that?! : ) is the importance of the felids conserva- importance is increasing with time ... tion and how can I change the public some things that should be done: Response from student opinion about its importance? What 1 establishing new protected areas to Hello! Thank you for your e-mail! I pre- could happen if most of felids were conserve important habitat on popula- sented a seminar about conservation of extincts in North America? Why felids tions. feline last Tuesday and I got to do a great are important? Thank you for your at- 2 strengthening the protective work. I would like to work with felines tention .... intrastructure of threatened areas. when it finishes my graduation in 2001 3 generating local community support and I would like to know as I could study Answer from UPDATE research as- for maintaining the protected area. and to work with felines in USA, and later sistant 4 taking measures to ensure that pro- return and to workat the Pantanal, where The importance of Felidaeconservation: tected populations are of variable size. we have many felines needing conser- r nearly every species and race of the Effort n7ust also be directed toward con- vation plans. Felidae is rare or endangered. serving cats in places used more inten- "Thank you very much, it is always a persecution, both direct and indirect, sively by people. pleasure to talk with such kind people!" The main consequence of the extinc-

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 5 Special Series: Habitat Conservation Planning Where Property Rights and Biodiversity Converge Part II: The Role of Science Gregory A. Thomas Natural Heritage Institute, 2140 Shattuck Ave.. 5th Floor, Berkeley, CA 94704; [email protected]

Abstract This article is the second in a three part serles synthesizing independent reaiewers' recomnzerzda- tions for ilnpro~ingHabitat Consenlation Plans (HCPs). It focuses oil tlze need to ensure that plans provlde a net sunival benefit for endangered species and the ilnportant role for irzdepen- dent science in plan development. Although the objective of the Endangered Species Act (ESA)is the ultirnate recover? of imperiled species, HCPs are currently not required to confer a net sunival benefit to species, and are therefore ofteil criticized as reducing, albeit inarginallj the prospects for suni~talrather tharl contributing to biodiversih consen~ariot~. One tvay to recnlibrate HCPs to recovel? goals would be to link tlze regmlaton assur- ances giver1 to the applicant with the quali~of a plan's consewation measures such that plans consistent with recoven goals would be afsorded a greater level of assurances. The qualih of HCPs could also be improved If state-of-the-art knowledge and independent biological expertise were utilized during plan developnzent. The participation of independent scientists can inzprove the eficacy of the consewation and mitigation strategies used in plans, arbitrate differences irz scientific opinion, and increase the lewl ofpublic trust in the final plan. To fuCfill these roles effectively, independent scientists must be involved early and throughout the planning process, not simply as post hoc re\>ie\t9ers. To permit this lealel of participation, we recommend that the HCP approval agencies, rather than the applicant, sene as the 'gatekeeper' to determine ,tho is involved in plan development. Because participation of independent experts can require substan- tial logistical and financial support, tlze Natural Heritage Insrir~iteis developing a HCP Resource Center to facilitate scientific participation in these processes.

Introduction HCPs have been distilled from only defensible biological goal for Habitat Conservation Plans (HCPs) these studies by the Natural Heri- habitat conservation is species re- have become the primary vehicle for tage Institute. This article is the covery. Otherwise, the ESA is implementing the Endangered Spe- second in a three-part series that merely a set of procedures for slow- cies Act (ESA) on non-Federal land. synthesizes these recommenda- ing the process of extinction. Thus, (For a summary of HCPs, please re- tions. Its main focus is on the im- contribution to species recovery is fer to the first article in this series portance of setting performance the yardstick by which habitat con- published in the NovIDec 2000 issue standards for habitat conservation servation planning will ultimately of ESU.) Because of their key role, planning that will ensure a net sur- be measured. Unless they confer a HCPs have come under intense scru- vival benefit for endangered species net survival benefit to the species, tiny from both developers and con- and give value to incorporating in- HCPs contribute to the loss of servationists. Practicing and aca- dependent science into the devel- biodiversity rather than its conser- demic conservation biologists as opment of HCPs. vation. In this case, the efforts of well as environmental organiza- the US Fish and Wildlife Service and tions have conducted numerous in- Habitat Conservation Plan- the National Marine Fisheries Ser- dependent reviews of HCP policy ning must be calibrated to bio- vice (collectively, "the Services") are and plans that identify shortcom- logically defensible goals akin to running an emergency room ings in current practices. The reco\feg standard in which the patients will never be Recommendations to improve We start with the premise that the taken off life support systems.

6 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 What constitutes the biological recovery of endangered species, however, is far from straightfor- ward. Although the objectives of ecosystem conservation and species recovery are explicit in the ESA, the means to achieve these goals are not. Judging if a given HCP meets the recovery standard is difficult for a number of reasons. First, recov- ery planning lags behind conserva- tion planning in that many HCPs are approved before the Services have completed draft recovery plans for the species. Second, re- covery planning is impeded by agency budget constraints and by Figure 1. Coachella Valley fringe-toed lizard (Uma inornata) was one of the competing demands for agency the first endangered species covered under an HCP. USFWS file photo1 resources to list species and desig- William R. Radke, Bureau of Land Management. nate critical habitat, as well as pro- cess the growing numbers of HCPs. cies' viability. Independent scien- covery and delisting if it is assumed Where recovery plans do exist, they tific peer review as discussed later that some other steward of actual are often obsolete for current plan- in this paper, would be very ben- or potential habitat will undertake ning (Sher and Weiner 1997). At eficial in making such qualitative a program to recover the species. best, recovery planning is a single assessments. Where more life his- This assumption is questionable species strategy that lacks the ad- tory and population data are avail- because federal lands and waters vantages of bioregional conserva- able, quantitative methods, such as are now also managed to meet a tion. Moreover, recovery plan- population viability analysis (PVA), "no-jeopardy" standard, that is, to ning itself is a highly politicized can be used to assess relative prob- avoid or mitigate projects that may process wherein biological fac- abilities of species survival under appreciably contribute to a species' tors can be compromised by eco- different scenarios (Beissinger and extinction. Moreover, funds to pur- nomic and social considerations Westphal 1998). chase, preserve, and restore high (Defenders of Wildlife 1998). The HCP approval standard is quality habitat are neither a precon- Notwithstanding these difficul- not necessarily consistent with the dition for the approval of HCPs nor ties, the difference between sur- statutory recovery goal (Noss et al. are they generally available. The vival and recovery can be under- 1997). Thus, plans may be ap- contrast between the HCP approval stood as posing different risk lev- proved under Section 10 of the standard and a recovery standard is els for the protected species. Cur- ESA as long they do not appre- best illustrated when an HCP cov- rently, the acceptable risk level for ciably reduce the chance of the ers most, or all, of the remaining species is left to the judgment of the covered species' survival and re- habitat of a listed species. If the applicants and the Services and is covery, suggesting that some majority of this species' range oc- seldom made explicit. The data to habitat degradation and species curs on nonfederal land, recovery quantify these risks are often not loss is acceptable. Certainly, Sec- cannot occur unless the HCP con- sufficient; however, qualitative tion 10 does not impose on permit- tributes to that objective (Defend- analysis of risk factors is possible. tees an obligation to improve the ers of Wildlife 1998). The mis- Qualitative risk analysis is famil- survival prospects for the listed spe- match between biological objec- iar terrain in setting air and water cies (Hall 1997). As a result, HCPs tives and statutory requirements is quality criteria, for example. Us- can and usually do degrade the sta- a serious problem for both devel- ing qualitative assessment, the risk tus quo (Noss et al. 1997). opers and conservationists because it to species can be identified and ad- The approval of HCPs under raises the stakes in the negotiation of dressed by looking at the factors this standard can only be reconciled HCPs and creates political fault lines that have the largest effect on spe- with the ultimate objective of re- that leave both development and con-

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Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 7 servation interests insecure. such as conservation easements, or to achieve a recovery performance Thus far, Congress has been re- by federal land management agen- standard with a higher level of regu- luctant to amend the ESA in order cies, such as habitat restoration on latory assurances in their HCPs. to recalibrate the HCP approval cri- federal lands. In either case. the teria to confer a net benefit on listed federal government could absorb Inceizti~~esto recoller species species. Yet. nothing less will the financial burden if both devel- Creating the right incentives is es- square HCPs with the explicit ob- opers and conservationists cooper- sential to making the HCP program jective of the ESA, or halt the im- ate to make these measures politi- work. Enforcement of the "take" pending biodiversity crisis. It may cally viable. prohibition under Section 9 of the be possible to resolve this political The remaining issue at hand is ESA provides an incentive for pri- impasse if the incremental financial whether compensated conservation vate rights holders to seek inciden- burden of achieving recovery is measures should be voluntary for tal take permits that require HCPs absorbed by the public rather than the private rights holder (as some as a prerequisite (please refer fo the imposed on landowners. The costs recent ESA reauthorization bills first article in this series). The of avoiding, minimizing, and miti- stipulate). or mandatory at the be- practical difficulties in enforcing gating adverse impacts on habitat hest of the Services. This issue IS the take prohibition, however, limit are as much as the developers of politically controversial because al- its value as an incentive. For in- non-federal lands and waters are lowing the Services to mandate stance. the Services are burdened willing to pay in order to meet na- habitat conservation measures that by their inability to enter private tional biodiversity conservation bear no proportionate nexus to a de- lands without permission and by goals. More to the point. these velopment project, such as creating budget limitations. Also, the data costs are as much as the political preserves. even on a compensated for some species (for example. process is willing to impose. The basis, is tantamount to conferring mussels) are not sufficient to deter- additional measures necessary to eminent domain authority on the mine what actions constitute a take: bridge the gap between survival and Services. As discussed below, one for other species, the Services do recovery could be undertaken by solution might be to reward private not know where they occur on pri- either the private rights holder rights holders who accept the man- vate lands. Because the Services through compensation measures. datory measures deemed necessary have been hesitant to implement the take prohibition, the main incentive for rights holders to develop HCPs today is the fear of citizen suits, and the attendant insulation from pros- ecution that an HCP can provide. To conclude, enforcement of the take prohibition is clearly an essen- tial incentive for rights holders to develop HCPs. yet it cannot substi- tute for habitat conservation plan- ning given the current realities. The ESA does not mandate that HCPs confer a net survival benefit on species; at the same time it does not codify regulatory assurances, such as the "no surprises" guaran- tee, against additional take restric- tions that the Services now issue to permittees. [Under the "no sur- prises" guarantee, the Services will not require an applicant to provide Figure 2. An endangered California red-legged frog (Rana aurora draytono. Recent USFWS critical habitat designations in California are additional conservation measures integral to species recovery efforts. Photo courtesy H. Brad Shafferl or other requirements. beyond those Western Amphibian Conservation Group, University of California, Davis. specified in a HCP, regardless of the

8 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 12001 degree of success or failure of a 1998). These two recommenda- ecological information, prioritize particular plan.] Since this policy tions merge under the premise that habitats and projects, and evaluate is only an agency regulation, it can independent scientific experts are management techniques. To meet be made conditional if the Services the most effective representatives these considerable demands, those find that a HCP provides a net sur- of the public's interest in improved who prepare HCPs generally need to vival benefit to the species for conservation planning. conduct field surveys and utilize which the guarantee is issued. Also, In a March 1997 letter to the state-of-the-art tools for planning (for plans that contribute to recovery Clinton Administration and Con- example, geographic information might receive assurances for a gress, a number of prominent con- systems), all of which can greatly in- longer term than those that merely servation biologists warned that crease the costs of HCP development. avoid jeopardy. Further, plans based many HCPs have been developed Performance reviews reveal on highly reliable science might be without adequate scientific guid- that existing plans often do not in- entitled to more extensive guarantees. ance in the form of independent clude sufficient analysis or research In some cases, recovery could peer review. Consequently, these to substantiate the conservation be possible without increasing the plans contribute to, rather than al- strategies. Of particular concern are burdens on private rights holders leviate, threats to listed species. data omissions regarding the cumu- through shifting a larger share of These scientists recommended that lative impacts of development ac- the conservation costs for a listed the data, analyses, and interpreta- tivities elsewhere in the surround- species to the federal land manage- tions regarding species status, take, ing landscape. The exclusion of ment agencies. Yet, today most impact, mitigation, and monitoring data on questions such as the management decisions on federal should be reviewed to ensure that amount and quality of habitat for land focus on preventing the threat HCPs are founded on sound science feeding, breeding, and migration of extinction. This low manage- (Murphy et al. 1997). were also judged to be a serious ment standard for public lands problem in the development of should concern the property rights Why there is a need for inde- mitigation or minimization efforts community as much as the conser- pendent science in Habitat (Kareiva et al. 1999). Even when a vation community due to a higher Conservation Planning fair amount of information is burden of species conservation that In the general process of develop- known about a species, it is still may be apportioned to the private ing an HCP, biologists employed by difficult to incorporate biological rights holders if recovery is to be the applicant submit a plan to the data efficiently into conservation achieved. Of course, holding pub- Services, sometimes working infor- strategy decisions because no well- lic lands to a higher standard in mally with the Services biologists accepted model exists. Yet, all in habitat conservation will not con- in the process (Defenders of Wild- all, the scientific quality of HCPs, tribute to the recovery of those spe- life 1998). Typically, relatively especially in terms of mitigation cies found primarily on private land little detailed information concern- analysis, has been improving (see Wilcove et al. 1996 for a dis- ing a listed species' habitat exists (Kareiva et al. 1999). cussion of endangered species on at the time of listing; thus, gather- The Services, responsible for private land). ing this information is the first req- making sure that applicants use ad- uisite in preparing an adequate HCP equate scientific information to de- Incorporating independent sci- (USFWS and NMFS 1996). This velop HCPs, acknowledge that the ence and public participation to process can be labor-intensive and availability of up-to-date biological improve HCP conservation expensive, one reason why it is information is crucial to any HCP. measures easier to prepare landholding-spe- Yet, the HCP Handbook (USFWS Many performance reviewers agree cific HCPs after a bioregional con- and NMFS 1996) stipulates that that HCPs would be improved if servation plan has already been de- data collection is exclusively up to state-of-the-art, independent bio- veloped. As HCPs include more the applicant, as is the threshold logical expertise was utilized, and species and grow in geographic decision whether the available bio- if local communities with conser- scope and duration, the complexity logical information is adequate to vation interests had opportunities to of biological planning increases. proceed with planning. According participate in HCP development Larger HCPs often require to the handbook, the Services will (Kareiva et al. 1999; Defenders of Herculean efforts in order to as- make recommendations on research Wildlife 1998; Anderson and Yaffee semble and analyze all the relevant and collection of biological infor-

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 9 mation if the applicant conveys to HCP process. The concurrence of bution is often given only at the fi- the Services that additional data are the broader scientific community nal stage when the Service issues needed (USFWS and NMFS 1996). confers an imprimatur of technical the incidental take permit. For in- Yet, the applicants have little moti- excellence that can garner public stance, public assessment of com- vation to activate the Services in acceptance for controversial HCPs. pleted plans comes at the least use- this way: their primary concern is Under current practice. inde- ful stage, making the chances for for speedy. cost-efficient plan de- pendent scientists could become in- changing major elements of the velopment. Thus. they prefer to L olved in the development of HCPs plan slim. In the current system, late avoid resource- and time-intensive through informal consultation, or scientific analysis relegates science studies unless the Services require by serving on a scientific review to the role of an adversarial interest them for the HCP approval. panel. When the applicant is a pri- at the approval stage rather than a Some of the HCP reviews have vate landowner. such opportunities shaping influence at the foundational found that the statutory command usually come only after the HCP stage (Noss et al. 1997). to minimize and mitigate project has been developed and submitted impacts to the maximum extent to the Services for approval. Even Access bam'ersfor independent science practicable has caused HCP nego- this limited involvement often Even though state-of-the-art bio- tiations to be driven by consider- arises only at the behest of the out- logical information is of pivotal im- ations of economic feasibility side scientist (or an environmental portance, the Services defer to the rather than principles of conserva- organization that organizes scien- applicant regarding admission of tion biology. As a result, the tific review). not as a result of so- others to the HCP negotiation pro- applicant's assertions regarding the licited peer review. When the ap- cess. In the role of "gatekeeper," effects of mitigation alternatives on plicant is a public agency or politi- applicants typically do not wish to profit margins. as opposed to sci- cal jurisdiction. scientific advisory involve interested scientists who entists' assertions regarding bio- committees that include represen- are neither agency staff nor consult- logical imperatives, have become tatives from governmental agen- ants paid by the applicant. As it is. operative fact. This trend has led cies. conservation organizations, applicants argue that they spend some scientists to criticize HCPs as consultants, industry, and academia large sums of money to hire com- discretionary measures based are often formed. The question petent consulting firms and that the mainly on political and economic here becomes whether the plan Services' reviews are already exces- considerations rather than on em- effectively incorporates the input sive (Hosack et al. 1997). pirical scientific data concerning of the independent scientists who The Services' deference to the the ecological requirements of a are generally involved later in the applicants on public participation species (Bingham and Noon 1997 ). process. Their participation. reflects their view of the HCP as a The intervention of independent however, is strictly voluntary and permit application over which the science, however, can give biologi- not part of a routine practice in applicant itself should exercise fi- cal principles greater weight in the the HCP formulation. nal. substantive control. Yet for all HCP process. Volunteer services, such as post intents and purposes, a HCP is a ne- l~ocpeer review of completed plans. gotiated settlement of an applicant's The role of independerzr scientists are not enough for a successful regulatory liability under the ESA. Apart from the influence of eco- HCP. Defensible science must be The plan determines the terms and nomics and politics, a range of sci- integrated throughout all phases of conditions under which a discre- entific opinion may exist on the planning process. It is impor- tionary permit will be issued to en- whether the conservation strategy tant for scientists to compile their gage in otherwise forbidden acts, adopted in an HCP is adequate to own data and do analyses, as op- namely the taking of protected spe- meet the stated biological objec- posed to merely reviewing someone cies. Once these terms and condi- tives. Establishing an independent else's results. The input must come tions are approved by the Services, scientific review might help to ar- at the formative stage of the plan- issuing the incidental take permit or bitrate the differences in profes- ning process to assure that the re- implementation agreement is sional judgment and help ensure serve design or mitigation strategy largely a formality. species survival and recovery. In- will be based on the principles of Under these circumstances, the dependent review is also important conservation biology. Such is not HCP development and approval in fostering public confidence in the the case today as scientific contri- process should be as open to out-

10 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 12001 side scientists and interested pub- lic as is the issuance of land-use \. \ permits in other contexts. For ex- ample, when the Department of In- terior grants grazing permits under the Federal Land Policy and Man- agement Act, it allows for public participation in order to accommo- date all parties affected by the pro- cess. The granting of Clean Water Act permits and local building per- mits entail similar public processes. Applicants applying for these per- mits are not allowed to control par- ticipation in the issuing process. Likewise the Services, not the ap- plicants, should determine who gets Figure 3. Red-cockaded woodpeckers (Picoides borealis). Line drawing cour- a seat at the HCP negotiation table. tesy Robert Savannah, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Native fish and wildlife are public resources under both state and fed- The value of public participation in accorded in developing conserva- eral jurisprudence, wherever they Habitat Conservation Planning tion plans, beyond simply com- may be found. It is fundamentally It must be recognized that the pub- menting on completed plans, the wrong to treat the permitting pro- lic does have a significant stake in more satisfied they tend to be with cess as a private, rather than a pub- the HCP process because wildlife the final result (Anderson and lic, affair especially when the pub- is a public resource, both legally Yaffee 1998). lic does have a legitimate interest and in the court of public opinion. When a county or state agency in the substantive validity of the Further, the conservation responsi- applies for federal approval of a negotiated terms and conditions for bilities or risks that are not shoul- HCP and then issues development the take of endangered species on dered by the HCP applicant will permits, the local community and private lands. either be borne by the species, general public have easier access to The recommendation that the shifted to other landowners, or the process, thereby diminishing Services, rather than the HCP ap- transferred to the public lands (the the issue of participation. Also, plicants, act as the gatekeeper of latter usually at public expense). HCPs that include some form of HCP negotiations does not mean For instance, an HCP authorizing public land-federal, state, or lo- that the Services must admit every- land disturbances that can cause cal-tend to encompass wider one who knocks on the door to the flooding, mudslides, or loss of fish- public participation than HCPs negotiating table. Demonstrated eries directly affects the welfare of that strictly involve private land. ability to contribute substantively the local community (Kostyack The public usually becomes in- to the issues on the table without 1997). Thus, public participation volved earlier and more actively undue delay could be the price of in the development of an HCP can in HCPs on public land compared admission. Qualified conservation enhance the quality of information to those on private land (Ander- biologists should have an easier on which HCP decisions are based, son and Yaffee 1998). time crossing that threshold than improve understanding and rela- Public participation, however, would lay representatives of the tionships among stakeholders, is usually extremely limited when public interest. The Natural Heri- heighten public and political sup- private rights holders initiate the tage Institute has urged the Ser- port for an HCP, and enhance the HCP process, a tendency exacer- vices to assume the role of mak- plan's long-term viability. Indeed, bated by the Services' insufficient ing these decisions instead of the extent to which the public ac- guidance on fostering public par- leaving them to the permit appli- cepts an HCP is strongly related to ticipation. Following HCP guide- cant who has a vested interest in the degree of public participation in lines, the Services merely encour- moving the negotiation process the plan's development. The larger age applicants to involve appropri- forward with the least resistance. the role that interested parties are ate parties and hold informational

p~

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 1 1 meetings during public comment ment requires access to the deci- cost of maintaining such a databank periods (USFWS and NMFS sion-making process before ma- would be relatively modest since it 1996). The Services haire taken jor decision have been negotiated would utilize information already a "satisfied customer" approach and incorporated into a draft im- compiled by the Services. to HCPs wherein they view the pact statement. Based on these applicant rather than the public as considerations, performance re- The HCP Resorlrce Center. the "customer" to satisfy (Ander- viewers have recommended that Local communities and conserva- son and Yaffee 1998). the Services implement "trigger tion organizations that are inter- points." or points between ested in upgrading the scientific Public participntio/l under the No- scoping and the comment period, competence of HCPs generally do tional Environmental Policy Act when negotiators would be re- not have access to the requisite Issuance of an incidental take per- quired to disclose agreements in expertise or have the means to mit is a federal action subject to the early drafts and seek public com- procure it. To meet this obvious National Environmental Policy Act ments on those documents need. the Natural Heritage Insti- (NEPA). Like the NEPA. the ESA (,4nderson and Yaffee 1998). tute is working with other na- requires a description of alternative tional conservation organizations actions to such taking of a species. Tools for facilitating effective par- to create a pool of resources, both But, the NEPA goes beyond Section ticipation by independent scien- intellectual and financial, that 10 of the ESA in considering the tists and local communities will facilitate independent scien- comprehensive impacts of a federal National databank,for HCP materials tific expertise in HCP negotia- action on the natural environment In order to facilitate public involve- tions on behalf of conservation and not just the impacts on wildlife ment in HCP preparation, several interests and local communities. resources. To satisfy the ESA re- experts have recommended that the The HCP Resource Center will quirement, applicants commonly Services maintain a comprehensive. consist of a nationwide network analyze just two alternatives; how- publicly accessible databank of of conservation scientists from ever, they must explain why an al- HCPs (Lin 1996; Anderson and universities. private consulting ternative was rejected. The Ser- Yaffee 1998; Kareiva et al. 1999). organizations, and the non-profit vices do not have the authority to The databank should include suffi- sphere who represent the full impose a choice among the alter- cient details to assist landowners in range of relevant sub-specialties. natives analyzed in a particular matching their conditions to previ- It may also include resource HCP; their role during development ously approved HCPs. This char- economists and wildlife law ex- is to simply advise the applicant in acteristic would allow applicants to perts with appropriate negotiation developing an acceptable plan model their plans after the success- skills. Teams specializing on the (USFWS and NMFS 1996). ful efforts of others. It would also fundamentals of a particular HCP NEPA's comment periods and allow the public and nonprofit con- will be assembled to engage di- disclosure requirements often servation organizations to track and rectly and effectively with the provide the only opportunity for monitor the implementation of the Services and the applicant's team the interested public to review ESA through individual HCPs. The of scientists and negotiators. and comment on an HCP before public is currently not able to fol- Creation of the HCP Resource it is approved. NEPA's usefulness low this implementation as closely Center is currently in the plan- as a participation and communi- ah some would like (Kostyack ning and fundraising stages. Es- cations device. however. is lim- 1997) as no central repository of tablishing the center will be a re- ited because the HCP negotia- completed plans and no log of source-intensive process: high tions tend to solidify a particular HCPs under development exists. quality. independent science approach before they can be in- Today. information on individual comes with a price tag and, for fluenced by public environmen- plans can only be found by calling most species. qualified experts tal review (Anderson and Yaffee government field offices and ask- are not numerous. 1998). Similar to any planning ing overworked biologists. This effort, the HCP process becomes databank would help both the pub- Conclusion less flexible as time goes on and lic and Services track the overall The expressed goal of the Endan- more ground is covered. There- performance of approved plans gered Species Act-and the only fore, effective public involve- (Kaseiva et al. 1999). The financial defensible biological goal for habi-

12 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 tat conservation planning-is the substantial logistical and financial Habitat Conservation Under the Endan- recovery of listed species. Unless support, the Natural Heritage Insti- gered Species Act. R. F. Noss, M. A. OIConnell, and D. D. Murphy. Washing- HCPs confer a net benefit to spe- tute is developing a HCP Resource ton, D. C., Island Press. cies' viability, plans will contribute Center to facilitate scientific par- Noss, R. F., M. A. O'Connell, and D. D. to the loss of biodiversity rather ticipation in HCP processes. Murphy. 1997. The Science of Conser- than its conservation. Nonetheless, vation Planning: Habitat Conservation the ESA authorizes approval of Literature cited Under the Endangered Species Act. Is- land Press, Washington, D. C. Anderson J. and S. Yaffee. 1998. Balanc- HCPs that reduce the prospects for Sher, V. M., and H. L. Weiner. 1997. Why species' survival and recovery pro- ing public trust and private interest: pub- HCPs must not undermine recovery. En- lic participation in Habitat Conservation dangered Species Update. 14: 67-69. vided that the reduction is judged Planning, a summary report. University to be not "appreciable." Poten- U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and the Na- of Michigan, School of Natural Re- tional Marine Fisheries Service. 1996. tially, HCP proponents can be in- sources and Environment, Ann Arbor. Endangered Species: Habitat Conserva- Beissinger, S. R. and M. I. Westphal. 1998. duced to adopt biological goals tion Planning Handbook. that go beyond the minimum le- On the use of demographic models of Wilcove, D. S., M. J. Bean, R. Bonnie, and population viability in endangered spe- M. McMillan. 1996. Rebuilding the ark: gal standard by rewarding those cies management. Journal of Wildlife toward a more effective Endangered plans that contribute to a net ben- Management 62 (3): 821-841. Species Act for private land. Environ- efit for species with a higher level Bingham, B. B. and B. R. Noon. 1997. mental Defense, Washington, D.C. http:/ of regulatory assurances. Mitigation of habitat "take":application /www.environmentaldefense.org/ pubs/ to Habitat Conservation Planning. Con- Reports/help-esa/index.html#4. The quality of HCPs can also servation Biology 11 (1): 127-139. be improved by expanding partici- Defenders of Wildlife. 1998. Frayed Safety pation in plan development, par- Nets: Conservation Planning under the En- ticularly from independent scien- dangered Species Act. Washington, D. C. tific experts. Independent scientific Hall, D. A. 1997. Using Habitat Conserva- tion Plans to implement the Endangered review can help ensure that plans Species Act in Pacific Coast forests: com- You do interesting adequately incorporate principles mon problems and promising precedents. work ... of conservation biology, and deal Environmental Law 27: 803-844. share it with the UPDATE! transparently and forthrightly with Hosack, D. A., L. Hood, et al. 1997. Expand- ing the participation of academic scientists the uncertainties associated with The Engangered Species UP- in the HCP planning process. Endangered DATE is designed and pub- complex and dynamic biophysical Species Update 14(7&8): 60-62. lished as a forum for informa- systems. Independent review is Kareiva, P. and 16 co-authors. 1999. Us- tion exchange on endangered ing Science in Habitat Conservation also key in fostering public confi- species issues. The UPDATE dence in the HCP process. It is Plans. Santa Barbara (CA): National Center for Ecological Analysis and Syn- welcomes articles related to important that scientists contribute thesis, and Washington, (D.C.): Ameri- species protection in a wide substantively to decisions, and not can Institute of Biological Sciences. range of areas including, but simply review a plan after the ma- http://www.nceas.ucsb.edu/projects/hcp. not limited to, research and jor decisions on conservation strat- Printed version available from AIBS, management for specific 1441 I St., NW, Suite 200, Washington, engangered or threatened spe egy and mitigation measures have D. C. 20005. already been negotiated. Therefore, cies, theoretical approaches to Kostyack, J. 1997. Habitat Conservation species conservation, policy Planning: time to give conservationists we recommend that independent and legislation related to spe- and other concerned citizens a seat at the experts be involved in HCPs in an cies conservation, and early, ongoing, and substantive table. Endangered Species Update 14(7&8): 51-55. stragegies for habitat protec- manner. Currently, this quality and Lin, A. C. 1996. Participants' experiences tion and preserve design. In degree of participation is rare in with Habitat Conservation Plans and addition, book reviews, edito- plans prepared by private rights suggestions for streamlining the process. rial commentary, and an- holders because the Services allow Ecology Law Quarterly 23 (2): 369-446. nouncements of current events Murphy, D., P. Brussard, G. Meffe, B. and publications are welcome. the applicant to control access to Noon, R. Noss, J. Quinn, K. Rall, M. the process. The Services could Soule, and R. Tracy. 1997. A statement Visit our webpage at foster greater participation of sci- on proposed private lands initiatives and www.umich.edul-esupdate reauthorization of the Endangered Spe- entific experts by serving as the or email us at "gatekeeper" overseeing participa- cies Act from the Meeting of Scientists at Stanford University. pp. 214-219 in [email protected] for tion. Because the participation of The Science of Conservation Planning: further information. independent experts can require

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 13 Marine Matters A Review of Marine Major Ecological Disturbances Bruce McKay SeaWeb, 1731 Connecticut Ave, NW, Washington, DC 20009; [email protected] Kieran Mulvaney 1219 W. 6th Ave., Anchorage, AK 99501; [email protected]

Abstract The apparent increase in marine morbidi~and mass mortalih events, the emergence of new diseases across a ralzge of tasa, increases in harmnful algal bloorns, and the loligternz and ofte~z unexplained declines of ~$ciriouswildlife popztlations hal'e heightelled concern and debate oL9er human impacts on the marine en\*irolzment. Resolving the relative extent to \vhich natural arzd anthropogenic factors drive marine major disturbance events is becoming increasingly important as public health, ecovzor~zicactivi5, and biodi~~ersi~are tlzreatened along various coastal regions. Understanding en19ironmental change ~,ithirzthe contest of highlg complex systelns has proIJen to be dificult, and thus increased scientific~focuson large-scale 17iarine disturbances along with more precautiolzan approaches ill rnalzaging lzuniatz activih are warranted.

Concern has mounted over the last brates-are not without precedent altieus) (Carlton 19931, a 75 to 90 15 to 20 years over what appears to and have been commonly noted and percent decline in dark-bellied be an increase in the number and recorded in the past. Brongersma- brent geese (Branta bernicla scale of disturbances affecting ma- Sanders (1957) compiled an ex- beruticla). and as much as a 90 per- rine species and populations haustive review of marine wildlife cent decline in Atlantic brant (B, b. (Harvell et al. 1999; Williams and "catastrophes" and categorized the hrota) (Ganter 2000). Long-spined Bunkley-Williams 2000). The term causes as vulcanism (volcanic ac- sea urchin (Diadema antillarunz) "marine major ecological distur- tivity). tectonic earth- and were virtually eliminated (approxi- bance," or MMED. has been coined seaquake. change in salinity. tem- mately 95 percent mortality) (Williams and Bunkley-Williams perature change. noxious throughout much of the Caribbean 1990) to loosely describe events waterbloom, lack of oxygen, and by during 1983 and 1984 (Lessios occurring over at least a regional poisonous gases, severe storms. as 1988) in what was the most exten- scale, are the result of multiple fac- connected with spawning runs, by sive disease event ever recorded for tors, and are characterized by an un- stranding, or uncertain. The im- a marine invertebrate. Thick mats usual increase in a syndrome or pacts of marine disturbances can be of macroalgae overgrew many reefs disease. or in mortality rates. In this profound. Populations of plant and in the absence of the grazing sea ur- brief, we also consider emerging animal species can be substantially chins though other factors, natural diseases and unprecedented (and reduced across large geographic re- and anthropogenic, have combined often unexplained) population de- gions. and there can be collateral to cause the decline of Caribbean clines as major disturbances. Al- and extended effects on other spe- coral reefs over the last decades gal blooms, though natural phe- cies and surrounding environments. (Hughes and Connell 1999). nomena, are also included because During the early 1930s, a "wasting Recent mass mortality episodes of the recent increase in their fre- disease" caused by a pathogenic involving Mediterranean monk quency, intensity and geographic strain of slimemold (Labgrinthula seals (Monachus r?lonachus) and distribution and, hence. their grow- spp.) virtually exterminated eel- Hooker sea lions (Phocarctos ing role in marine morbidity and grass (Zostera marina) throughout lzookeri) highlight the potential mortality events. its north Atlantic range (Short et al. impact of MMEDs on endangered Marine-based mass mortali- 1987) and resulted in the extinction species. This would suggest a sig- ties-notably of fish and inverte- of the eelgrass limpet (Lottia al\?eus nificant vulnerability to various

14 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 marine species in the U.S. such as mately 75,000 km2 of Scandinavian important factor in marine mammal the north Atlantic right whale waters in 1988, were found to have epizootics and were implicated in (Eubalaena glacialis), the Hawai- generally recovered within five mass mortalities involving bottle- ian monk seal (Monachus years (Gjosaeter et al. 2000). nose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) schauinslandi) and the Florida A variety of events have under- along the U.S. Atlantic coast (1987 manatee (Trichechus manatus lined the perception that MMEDs to 1988) and Gulf of Mexico (1993 latirostris), all of which are still have increased over recent years. to 1994), harbor seals (Phoca impacted by human activity (Ma- Some of the more significant of vitulina) in the North Sea (1988), rine Mammal Commission 2000a). these include: striped dolphins (Stenella On the other hand, Fiori and coeruleoalba) in the Mediterranean Cazzaniga (1999) consider that the Marine mammal mass mortalities Sea (1990 to 1992) and common yellow clam (Mesodesma Morbilliviruses have emerged as an dolphins (Delphinus delphis) in the mactroides) had become a threat- ened species under IUCN criteria Table 1. Selected disturbances in Florida marine fauna and flora, 1980 to present. following mysterious mass mortali- Year Species Disturbance Indian River Lagoon Florida Bay, Florida Keys high prevalences of ties across its entire range (south- fibropapilloma disease, ongoing since its epizootic emergence in the ongoing sea turtles mid-1980s causes are unknown (Jacobson et al 1991 Lackovich et ern Brazil to the Negro River in a1 1999 Landsberg et at 1999) Argentina). In the U.S., distur- Indian River to Charlotte Counties between September (2000) and February 7 (2301) 150 sick sr dead turtles have seen reported bances in the Bering SealAlaska 2000-01 loggerhead turtle because most sea turtles do not wash ashore many more are expected to have died unique disease conditions in afflicted animals region have recently prompted ESA though causejs) are unknown (Fiorida Marine Research Institute 2001) Indian River Lagoon. increase in skin lesions, severe dermatitis and listing, or petitions, for four spe- 2001 bottlenose dolphin obomycosis noted in five animals (Bossart pers cornm) cies. Unique environments may 2000-current Homosassa Springs: papilloma virus lesions in isolated population, first discovery of a virus in manatee (Kirley 2000) also be threatened: Williams et al. 2000 bottlenose dolphin Atlantic coast oral papillomas in 12 animals (Bossart pers comm) Florida Keys: 150 animals stranded, with at least 31 mortalities, over a (1999) have predicted the disap- 2000 bottlenose dolphin two day period in mid-January, causes are unknown (Marine Mammal Commission in DreD) pearance of Atlantic coral cay ram- Barnes Key, southeast Florida: scattered patches of diseased 1999-current seagrass seagrasses resembling conditions associated with massive mortalities parts, structural habitat formed in in late 1980s and early 1990s (Durako, pers comm) Florida panhandle 68 dead animals found between August 8 and large part by elkhorn coral (A. 1999-2000 dolphin October 31 by February 2000 total strandings numbered approximately 120, brevetoxin suspected (Hull 2000 Marine Mammal palmata) rubble. They hypothesize Commission in prep) Southwest Florida over 150 animals are killed by brevetoxin 1996 manatee that the large reduction in elkhorn intoxication (Bossall et al 1998) coral by major disturbances-dis- Alligator Reef first recorded occurrence of 'white plague type II" disease the disease ultimately infected 17 species of scleractin an 1995 coral corals over -200 km along the Florida Keys (Feingold 8 Richardson ease and bleaching-are reducing 1999 Richardson et a1 1998) the material required for rampart re- 1994-96 South Florida imrnunoblastic malignant lymphoma (cancer) noted in five animals (Bossart et ai 1997) plenishment and thus making exist- Florida Keys first identification of 'yellow-blotch" disease (originally '994 coral calied "yellow-band" disease), disease incidence an3 associated coral ing structures highly susceptible to death has increased in some areas since (Green t Bruckner 2000 Reeves 19941 storm action. Palm Beachlupper Florida keys mass mortality (est at several thousands\ over a 3 month oeriod multiole Dathoaens found but no However, while north Atlantic 1993-94 reef fish one suggesting that some stressor severeiy weakened the fish, 1st extensive reef-fish mortaiitv event reoorted in Florida since eelgrass recovery has been slow, 1980 (Landsberg 1995) 1992-93 sponges Florida Bay 'urther mass mortalities of sponges coinciding with and it is unlikely that sea urchins cyanobacteria blooms (Butler et al 1995) Florida Bay mortality of over 80% of vase candle and commercial sponges and over 40% of loggerhead sponges in an area covering will ever rebound to past abun- 1991.92 sponges hundreds of km2 and coinciding with unprecedented blooms of dances in the Caribbean, many cvan- 1995) 1991 sea Lower Florida Keys suspected disease event reduced densities by mass mortality events are ephem- 97% (FO~CJCCI19941 North Biscayne Bay two studies note high levels of developmental eral. Herring (Clupea harengus) 1989-1992 fish abnormalities across a range of fish species suggesting one common stressing agent cause is not determined (Browder et a 1993 populations in the Gulf of St. Gassman et al 1994) Atlantic coast major mass mortality event involving the deaths of Lawrence recover quickly after se- -2,000 animals from Florida to New Jersey (following a migration 1987-88 bottienose dolphin trajectory) likely morbillivirus-related though environmental vere epizootics involving the fun- contaminants and brevetoxin may have contributed to the severity of gus Ichthyophonus hoferi, an event the event lGeraci et a1 1999) Fiorida Bay unprecedented mass mortaiity event that ultimately 1987-1 991 turtie grass destroys 4 000 ha of Thalassfa seagrass beds while affecting another that occurs at roughly quarter cen- 23 000 ha a complex etiology suspected (Robblee et al 1991) tury intervals (Sindermann 1958). Florida Gulf and Atlantic coasts over 13 000 wintering loons may have 1983 common loon died over a three month penod a complex etiology was suspected Fish and benthic communities suf- (Forrester et al 1997) southwestern Florida 37 animals killed likely via brevetoxin ingestion fering massive mortalities during an 1982 manatee during a red tide bloom deaths of cormorants and fish also reported (OSheaet al 1991) unprecedented Chrysochromulina Indian RiverIBanana River. -50 animals found dead in a three month 1982 bottlenose polylepis bloom covering approxi- oeriod: iikelv caused bv a morbiliivirus (Duianan et ai. 1996)

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 15 Black Sea (1994) (Birkun et al. 1999: At least 1.600 Hooker sea lions portant and immediate threats to Geraci et al. 1999; Lipscomb et al. perished in a mysterious mass mor- reefs, coral bleaching and disease 1994; Taubenberger et al. 1996). tality event in the Aukland Islands have emerged as large-scale distur- Over the same period, algal tox- during early 1998 (MUCIC 1998); bances that would seem to portend ins have also been increasingly cor- this species' range and abundance an acceleration of coral decline. related with mortalities. Geraci et is vastly reduced from historical Coral bleaching, which results al. (1989) considered saxitoxin vec- times and numbered some 12.500 from the loss of the endosymbiotic tored by mackerel (Scornber animals prior to the event (Gales algae that reside in the cells of the scombrus) as the cause of 14 hump- and Fletcher 1999,. Two separate coral host, is a generalized stress re- back whale (Megaptera mortality events involving a num- sponse and if prolonged will lead novaeangliae) mortalities in the ber of marine mammal species to a decrease in growth and repro- Cape Cod Bay area during late 1988 occured during the early 1990s in duction: extended bleaching will and early 1989. A die-off of highly the Gulf of California: algal toxins eventually result in the death of endangered Mediterranean monk were deemed the likely cause entire colonies (Glynn 1996). Prior seals in 1997 off the western Sahara (Ochoa et al. 1997) but no support- to the 1980s. bleaching other than coast, which reduced that popula- ing information was made avail- on local scales appears to have been tion by over 50 percent, was also able. In addition, gray whales extremely rare. Since then the fre- attributed to saxitoxin (Costas and (Eschrichtius rob~tstus)have suc- quency of bleaching has increased Lopez-Rodas 1998) though this is cumbed in high numbers along their substantially (Williams and controversial; others (e.g.. van de migratory route from Mexico to Bunkley-Williams 1990) with im- Bildt et al. 1999) have emphasized Alaska during both 1999 and 2000; pacts having expanded to regional a morbillivirus as the cause (though 273 and 355 animals were found re- and global scales. Six bleaching see Harwood (1998) for a multifac- spectively (Marine Mammal Com- events affecting corals worldwide torial explanation). Brevetoxin, mission in prep). During the pre- have occurred since 1980, with the produced by the dinoflagellate vious ten years. the highest num- 1998 mass bleaching event consid- Gymrzodinium breve, killed ap- ber of strandings reported for any ered the most extensive and severe proximately 150 Florida manatee. one year was 87. Le Boeuf et al. on record (Hoegh-Guldberg 2000). another endangered species, in (2000) have argued that malnour- An estimated 16 percent of glo- 1996 (Bossart et a1 1998), and was ishment was the likely factor based bal coral was killed with highest likely the cause for a smaller die-off on the discovery of a number of mortalities occurring in the in 1982 (O'Shea et al. 1991 ). G. breve emaciated animals and have postu- Middle East and wider Indian blooms have also been associated lated that this could have been due Ocean (Wilkinson 2000). 1998 with recent bottlenose dolphin mor- to climate-related declines of their was also characterized by the talities in the Gulf of Mexico (Ma- principal prey of benthic amphi- highest sea surface temperatures rine Mammal Commission 2000 in pods or to the whales having sur- ever recorded (Hansen et al. prep) though given the frequent passed their carrying capacity. This 1999). It is now considered (e.g., overlap of living dolphins and red conclusion, however, may be prema- ISRS 1998) that the most probable tides in this region it remains per- ture as many of the other stranded cause of the overall bleaching in- plexing why so few mortality animals were reported as appearing crease has been the rise of global events are reported. In 1998, in good nutritional condition (Marine temperature and associated meteo- domoic acid associated with a Mammal Commission in prep). rological extremes. bloom of the diatom Pseudo- Increases in reports of coral dis- nit,-schia australis killed over 400 Coral distzrrbar~ces eases, including potential disease California sea lions (Zalophus It has been well documented states and syndromes. generally californianus) along the central (Jameson et a1 1995) that many of parallel the rise of bleaching events California coast over a short period the world's tropical coral reefs have though any causal connections be- in 1998 (Scholin et al. 2000). High been in decline or have been de- tween the two are obscure. The first numbers of sea lion strandings dur- stroyed over the last decades-typi- three diseases to be reported in ing the latter half of 2000, and in the cally the result of fisheries, land- coral-black and white band dis- same general region, appear also to use changes increasing sedimenta- ease and white plague-were not have been domoic acid related (Ma- tion, and nutrient pollution. While described until the 1970s rine Mammal Commission in prep). these are considered the most im- (Richardson 1998). and highly de-

16 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 structive effects were only first Harmful algal blooms sociated with fibropapilloma dis- noted during the early 1980s with Numerous recent reports and re- ease were anecdotally noted in this the recognition that structurally- views (e.g., Morand et al. 1996; species in Florida around 1900 important acroporid corals were be- Smayda, 1990) have provided com- (Jacobson et al. 1991), and noticed ing eliminated by white band dis- pelling evidence for an increase in for the first time in Hawaii in 1958 ease throughout areas of the Carib- the frequency, intensity, duration, (Balazs 1991). It appears to have bean (Gladfelter 1982). Twenty-six and geographic distribution of sea- been quite rare until the late 1970s additional "diseases" have been re- weed and phytoplankton blooms, before its expansion into epizootic ported in the literature since then and toxicity events. Previously proportions in green turtles at mul- (Green and Bruckner 2000) benign or unknown species have tiple sites in those two states-in though not without some confu- emerged as problematic 52 percent (70 out of 134) of sion: different names may have (Burkholder et al. 1992; Ito et al. strandings in the Florida Keys be- been given to different stages of 2000; Todd 1993) and there has tween 1983 and 1989 (Jacobson et the same disease; and it is unclear been a concomitant increase in re- al. 1991), a prevalence of 72.5 per- in many cases that what has been ports of associated disruptions on cent (121 out of 167); in the Indian described is actually a disease flora and fauna, human health, tour- River Lagoon in 1998 (Lackovich (Hayes and Goreau 1998; ism, aquaculture, and on recre- et al. 1999); and a prevalence of Richardson 1998). ational and commercial fisheries 44.9 percent (n=581) from a cap- A soil fungus, Aspergillus (Burkholder 1998; Van Dolah ture and tagging program in sydowii, however, was clearly de- 2000). Yet the magnitude of human Kaneohe Bay in Hawaii between termined as the pathogen behind a influence still remains largely un- 1989 and 1997 (Balazs et al. in major epizootic involving sea fan clear and increased reporting of press). Other areas, even with mini- corals which has been ongoing such events would be expected mal geographic separation from af- throughout the Caribbean since the given rapidly growing coastal fected populations, have remained mid-1990s (Geiser et al. 1998)- populations and increased human virtually free of the disease. Since and similar disease symptoms sug- exposure (e.g., via shellfish con- 1985 fibropapillomas have been gest that it was the likely factor in sumption), and the considerable reported in green turtles from Aus- mass mortalities of the species dur- expansion in surveillance programs tralia (Limpus & Miller 1994) and ing the early 1980s. A, sydowii and scientific attention. Likewise, from fourteen Caribbean countries spores have been isolated from dust the explosive growth in coastal fin- (Williams et al. 1994), with a con- atmospherically transported from fish aquaculture may have pro- siderable increase in Puerto Rico Africa and were successfully moted localized blooms by nutrient and Columbia. The disease appears innoculated in healthy sea fans enrichment or by providing visible to have recently emerged in logger- (Weir et al. 2000 as cited in Shinn targets for bloom effects, or both. head turtles (Caretta caretta) with et al. 2000); the "dust hypothesis" Definitively quantifying any in- prevalences of up to 11 percent in has now been added to the large crease is further prevented by the Florida Bay (Landsberg et al. number of potential factors in- absence of data sets long enough to 1999), and has been reported in volved in the gradual demise of factor out cyclical fluxes and cli- prevalences of 1 to 10 percent in Caribbean reefs (Shinn et al. 2000). mate variability. The balance of the large population of olive rid- The unprecedented nature of some evidence, nonetheless, suggests ley turtles (Lepidochelys recent coral disturbance events has that human influence via nutrient olivacea) nesting at Ostional on been demonstrated in cores ex- enrichment and eutrophication, the Pacific coast of Costa Rica tracted from Belizean reefs: two alteration of nutrient ratios, and (Aguirre et a1 1999). recent mass mortality events-in- by shipping- and aquaculture- Sea turtle fibropapilloma dis- volving staghorn coral (Acropora mediated introductions has been ease can severely debilitate af- cen)icornis) and white band disease a critical factor. flicted animals causing stranding in the late 1980s, and lettuce coral and death, though in some cases (Agaricia tenuifolia) during the Sea turtle fibropapilloma disease tumors remain minimal or can re- 1998 bleaching complex-have had Though originally described in the gress (Herbst 1994). A herpes vi- no historical equivalent there in a late 1930s in green sea turtles (Che- rus and retrovirus have been iden- record extending back 3,000 years lonia mydas) in the Florida Keys, tified in association with the disease (Aronson et al. 2000). the conspicuous external tumors as- (Casey et al. 1997; Herbst 1994) but

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 17 the primary cause and modes of bance events in U.S. Atlantic and (Hornants ainericaizus ) were esti- transmission are unknown. Gulf waters was also noted by the mated to have died in an apparent Landsberg et al. (1999) have sug- HEED program and, indeed. a re- disease-related event in Long Island gested the possible role of okadaic cent review (CENR 2000) con- Sound over the latter part of 1999. acid, a tumor promoter associated cluded that the effects of harmful A paramoeba infection is suspected with the toxic benthic dinoflagel- algal blooms in the U.S. have ex- but the predisposing factors are un- lates Prorocentrurn spp.. and epi- panded from a few scattered coastal known (Van Patten and French phytic on forage plants. areas to virtually all coastal states 2000). Withering disease has vir- oker the past two decades. How- tually exterminated black abalone Disturbances in U.S. ever. the report noted that the rela- (Haliotis craclzerodii) from the coastal waters tive roles of increased observer Channel Islands since emerging The Health Ecological and Eco- coverage and monitoring. nutrient during the mid- 1980s. and has since nomic Dimensions (HEED) of Glo- enrichment, the introduction of ex- spread to populations on the main- bal Change Program, in a review of otic species. and naturally-medi- land California coast ( Altstatt et al. marine disturbances from the U.S. ated range expansion remain unre- 1996). The pathogen. a rickettsiale. Atlantic and Gulf coasts and the solved. The increase in algal has only recently been confirmed Caribbean (1945 to 1996). con- blooms globally has occurred in (Friedman 2000) but the factors cluded that anomalous morbidity tandem with increases in cultural prompting the emergence of the dis- and mortality events had increased eutrophication (Smayda 1989; ease are unknown; its severity. since the early 1970s (Epstein et al. Paerl 1997), a pattern readily evi- however, is enhanced by in- 1998; Sherman 2000). Recent dent in U.S. estuaries (Bricker et al. creased water temperature events in Florida coastal waters 1999). The recent emergence of (Moore et al. 2000). (Table 1) are representative of the predatory and toxic Pfiesteria- Some of the most profound dis- range and types of disturbances like dinoflagellates as a conspicu- turbances associated with marine currently being reported for the ous feature of massive fish kills wildlife populations have been on- wider Caribbean (see Williams et (10' to lo9)in mid-Atlantic estu- going over the past decades in the al. 2000), and suggest a larger re- aries has been linked, in part, to Alaska region. Northern fur seal gional phenomena. The increase in nutrient enrichment (Burkholder (Callorhinus ursinus) numbers fell coral disease and reef decline has and Glasgow 1997). from 1.25 million in 1974 to been particularly noticeable. In ex- A relationship between the 877,000 in 1983. though they have tensive surveys (1 60 monitoring toxic effects of Pfiesteria spp. and climbed slightly since then to an es- stations) throughout the Florida recent and recurring epidemics of timated 1 million, about 50 percent Keys, Porter et al. (1999) and Jaap a severe ulcerative disease (ulcer- of pre-exploitation size (NMFSa et al. (2000) documented increases ative mycosis) in U.S. southeastern 1999). Steep declines in harbor seal in areas with disease (from 26 sta- finfish, primarily menhaden (Phoca t-itulina richard~i)numbers tions in 1996 to 131 in 1998) and (Brecoortia tyrannus), has been were recorded during the 1980s. in numbers of species affected proposed (Burkholder and Glasgow primarily from the Gulf of Alaska; (from 11 species in 1996 to 31 in 1997: Noga et al. 1996) but has also current overall population size is 1998). Furthermore, 67 percent of underlined the complexities of ma- placed at around 80.000 animals, the monitoring stations lost species rine pathobiology (see Blazer et al. substantially les5 than the 270,000 between 1996 and 2000, and stony 1999). The most important feature estimated for the early 1970s (Ma- coral cover decreased by about 40 of diseased fish has been the in- rine Mammal Commission 1998; percent between 1996 and 1999. volvement of the fungal-like organ- NMFS 1998). The western stock Some 75 percent of all Florida Key ism Aptzanornyces spp. but difficul- of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias coral species now present disease ties in fulfilling Koch's postulates jubatus) numbered approximately symptoms but the question of why with either Pfiesterin or 140,000 in the late 1950s and so many have become simulta- Aphalzom~ceswould suggest that 30,500 by 1990 when it was desig- neously susceptible to a variety of other factors are involved (Dykstra nated as an endangered species un- pathogens has yet to be answered and Kane 2000). Other U.S. ma- der the ESA. Numbers have con- (Porter et al. 1999). rine disturbances have also pre- tinued to decline and were esti- The preponderance of sented a considerable challenge. mated as slightly over 20.000 in microalgal involvement in distur- Hundreds of thousands of lobsters 1998 (NMFS 1999b). Sea otters

18 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 (Enhydra lutris) in the Aleutian Is- slightly, and species whose popu- that decimated populations (above lands have declined from an esti- lations have declined in one (or 40 m depth) throughout the eastern mated 55,100 to 73,700 animals in more) area(s) have remained stable part of the basin (Vacelet et al. the mid-1980s to under 10,000 by or have increased in others. Causes 1994). The event, likely bacterial- 2000, and have been listed as a can- of declines are not known. related, was unprecedented in didate species for listing under the Mediterranean recorded history. ESA (Federal Register 2000). Estes Anthropogenic and natural Millions of sea fans (Paramuricea et al. (1998) consider that increased influences clavata, Eunicella spp.) were esti- orca (Orcinus orca) predation has It has only been recently (e.g., mated to have died in the Ligurian driven the sea otter collapse, a re- Sarokin and Schulkin 1992; Sea in 1999 in a catastrophic event sponse to vastly reduced numbers Rosenberg et al. 1988; Williams also correlated with an increase in of the orca's preferred prey, Steller and Bunkley-Williams 1990) that sea water temperature (Cerrano et sea lions and harbor seals. It has human involvement-for example al. 2000). Temperature increase been generally considered (e.g., chemical pollution, nutrient enrich- was suggested (Vincente 1989) as NRC 1996) that the most important ment, and climate change-has a possible factor in the extinction factors involved overall are some been deemed a factor to consider of commercial sponges (the same combination of a natural climate when investigating marine distur- genera as affected in the Mediter- regime shift and fisheries, and per- bances. In addition, it has been in- ranean), in areas throughout the haps the effects of prior intensive creasingly noticed that disease, West Indies by the 1950s. Echino- whaling; their effects may have biotoxins, and food shortages are derm mass mortalities in Japan and combined to reduce the abun- important components of some dis- the Gulf of California were linked dances of nutritionally-adequate turbance events (Alaska Sea Grant to abnormally warm sea water tem- forage fishes. 1993; Harvell et al. 1999). In most perature (Dugan et al. 1982; Occurring in tandem have been instances, however, little can be Tsuchiya et al. 1987). Cook et a1 declines in various populations of said over the relative roles of natu- (1998) noticed a correlation with Alaska sea ducks including, for ex- ral processes and human influence increasing sea surface temperature ample: (1) a 54 percent decline be- as interactions are complex and and the northward spreading of the tween 1976 and 1994 of nesting cover a spectrum of physical, bio- protozoan Perkinsus marinus, a se- common eider (Somateria logical and chemical variables. rious pathogen of the eastern oys- mollissima) in northern Alaska and Levels and causes of disease in ter (Crassostrea virginica). the western Canadian arctic; (2) a marine species and the role of dis- Z? marinus, however, was likely 2.2 percent annual decline between ease in regulating populations are, introduced into the U.S. Atlantic 1977 and 1998 in black scoter likewise, poorly understood. and Gulf coasts via aquaculture- (Melanitta nigra) in western Some associations between ma- an activity which has been the Alaska; (3) a 5.5 percent annual rine disturbances and climate have source of many epizootics (see decline of oldsquaw (Clangula been reviewed by Harvell et al. Renault 1996 for a review). A vi- hyemalis) in surveyed areas in (1999). Lavigne and Schmitz rus, possibly introduced via baitfish western Alaska since 1977; (4) over (1990) also suggested that rising for offshore fish farming, is sus- a 90 percent decline in spectacled temperatures associated with an- pected in two massive pilchard eider (Somateria fischeri) in the thropogenic climate change could (Sardinops sagax neopilchardus) YK-Delta from the 1970s to 1992; increase epizootics in pinnipeds, die-offs in Australian waters (1995, and (5) the virtual disappearance of particularly in those species that 1998 to 99) (Gaughan et al. 2000); Steller's eiders (Polysticta stelleri) "haul out" at small temperature in- in the latter event it was estimated from the YK-Delta since initial sur- creases. Higher densities of seals that 60 to 70 percent of total pil- veys in the 1960s (USFWS 1999). for longer duration could create the chard numbers around western Aus- Spectacled eiders and the Alaska conditions appropriate for pathogen tralia perished. Ballast water breeding population of Steller's ei- invasion. Increased sea water dumping practices (Ruiz et al. ders have been listed as threatened temperature was correlated with a 2000) and tourism (e.g., Gardner et under the ESA. There is, however, major epizootic involving commer- al. 1997) may also be important little consistency in Alaska sea duck cial sponges (Spongia spp., sources in the continuing transfer trends: some species have generally Hippospongia spp.) in the Mediter- of new microbial pathogens into remained stable or have increased ranean Sea between 1986 and 1990 marine wildlife.

Vol. 18 No. 12001 Endangered Species UPDATE 19 Environmental pollutants, nota- complex, and teasing out ultimate Raimondi. 1996. Recent decline5 of bly the halogenated hydrocarbons causes and effects, and the full black abalone Haliotis cracherodii on have, likewise, been implicated in range of risk factors. has proven the mainland coast of central California. Marine Ecology Progress Series a variety of marine disturbances elusive in the majority of events 142: 185-192. (for recent reviews see Oberdorster (see for example Simmonds and Aronson, R. B.. W. F. Precht. I. G. Macintyre and Cheek 2000: Vos et al. 2000). Mayer 1997: Ferguson et al. (2000) and T. J. T. Murdoch. 2000. Coral bleach- Pinnipeds and coastal odontocetes for recent case reviews). There is. out in Belize. Nature 405:36. Balazs. G. H. 1991. Current status of have received particular attention however. increasing recognition fibropapillomas in the Hawaiian green given their high contaminant load- that human activities are now inex- turtle. Chelonia nrqdrr.~.Pages 47-5 1 in ing and the recent occurrence of tricably bound with global pro- G. H. Balazs and S. G. Pooley. editors. population disturbances that have cesses. and that rapid and Research Plan for Marine Turtle involved disease or declines in re- unpredicted environmental re- Fibropapilloma. NOAA Technical Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC- 156. U.S. productive ability, or both (Marine sponses (Streets and Glantz 2000) Department of Commerce. Seattle. Mammal Commission 1999). can ensue from even minor shifts Balazs. G. H.. S. K. K. Murakawa. D. M. Polychlorinated biphenyl in forcing conditions or from Ellis and A. A. Aguirre. In press. Mani- (PCB) contamination of the resi- gradual change over extended time festation of fibropapillomatosis and rates of growth of green turtles at Kaneohe dent Puget Sound population of periods. Interactions and feed- Bay in the Hawaiian Islands. Pages 112- orca may be an important factor in backs, and the cascades of effects 1 13. Proceedings of the 18th Interna- their recent decline (Ross et al. associated with threshold re- tional Symposium on Sea Turtle Biol- 2000); the population has fallen by sponses. are typical of the dynamic. ogy and Conservation. March 3-7. 1998. Mazatlan. Mexico. (online at: http:// 14 percent (from 99 to 84) since non-linear, earth system. Nonethe- ola.icmyl.unam.mx/tortug3s/ 1995 (Forney et al. 2000). PCB less. MMEDs can provide a warn- TOC-Proc.htm) levels from live-sampled animals ing mechanism into the conse- Blazer. V. S.. W. K. Vogelbein. C. L. exceed those found to induce im- quences of human activities and Densmore. E. B. May. J. H. Lilley and munosuppression and endocrine alert the public to potential health D. E. Zwerner. 1999. Aplzanornyes as a cause of ulcerative skin lesions of men- disruption in harbor seals. though threats and deteriorating environ- haden from Chesapeake Bay tributaries. the toxicological significance in mental conditions. As such, Journal of Aquatic Animal Health orca is not known. Levels of PCBs. MMEDs should receive increased 11:340-349. DDT, and tributyltin in California scientific attention. However. the Bossart, G. D., Harbor Branch Oceano- southern sea otters are higher in graphic Institution. Fort Pierce. FL I4 far reaching consequences of envi- February 200 1. animals dying of infectious disease ronmental disturbances within the Bossart. G. D.. D. G. Baden. R. Y. Ewing. than from trauma or unknown context of complexity strongly ar- B. Roberts and S. D. Wright. 1998. causes (Kannan et al. 1998: Nakata gues for management initiatives Brevetoxicosis in manatees (Trichechus et al. 1998), and an unusual fre- that are precautionary-that is rnunurus latirostris) from the 1996 epi- zootic: Gross, histologic, and immuno- quency and variety of diseases in regulatory action before scientific histochemical features. Toxicologic Pa- the species have been reported proof of human-related deleterious thology 26:276-283. (Thomas et a1 1998). The role of effects and a shift in the burden-of- Bossart. G. D.. R. Ewing. A. J. Herron. C. contaminants, or disease. in this proof (concerning an activity's Cray. B. Mase. S. J. Decker. J. W. Alexander and N. H. Altman. 1997. population's recent decline (Marine safety or sustainability) from the Immunoblastic malignant lymphoma in Mammal Commission 2000a), public onto the proponent. dolphins: histologic. ultrastructural, and however, are likewise not known. immunohistochemical features. Journal Similarly, the impact of environ- Literature cited of Veterinary Diagnostic Investigation mental pollutants in disease-medi- Aguirre. '4. A,. T. R. Spraker, A. Chaves. 93154-458 Bricker. S. B.. C. G. Clement, D. E. ated mass mortality events is not L. Du Toit. W. Eure and G. H. Balazs. 1999. Pathology of fibropapillomatosis Pirhalla. S. P. Orlando, and D. G. G. known; however, elevated levels in in olive ridley turtles Lepidochelqs Farrow. 1999. National Estuarine affected populations (e.g.. Kannan olivacea nesting in Costa Rica. Journal Eutrophication Assessment: A Summary et al. 1997; Kuehl et al. 1994) of Aquatic Animal Health 11:283-289. of Conditions, Historical Trends, and Fu- Alaska Sea Grant. 1993. Is It Food'? Ad- ture Outlook. National Ocean Service. may increase the severity of epi- National Oceanic and Atmospheric Ad- zootics through immunosuppres- dressing Marine Mammal and Seabird Declines: Workshop Summary. Alaska ministration. Silver Spring, MD. sive action (Marine Mammal Sea Grant College Program. Fairbanks. Brongersma-Sanders, M. 1957. Mass mor- Commssion 1999). Altstatt. J. M.. R. F. Ambrose, J. M. Engle. tality in the sea. Pages 911-1010 in J. W. MMEDs are multifaceted and P. L. Haaker. K. D.Lafferty and P. T. Hedgpeth. editor. Treatise on Marine

20 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Ecology and Paleoecology, Volume 1. Dugan. M. L. T. E. Miller and D. A. Thomson. Diadema antillarum in the Florida Keys. Geological Society ofAmerica, New York. 1982. Catastrophic decline of a top carni- Bulletin of Marine Science 54:917-928. Browder, J., D. McClellan, D. Harper, M. vore in the Gulf of California rocky inter- Forney, K. A., J. Barlow, M. M. Muto, M. Kandrashoff and W. Kandrashoff. 1993. tidal zone. Science 216:989-991. Lowry, J. Baker, G. Cameron, J. Mobley, A major developmental defect observed Duignan, P. J., C. House, D. K. Odell, R. C. Stinchcomb and J. V. Carretta. 2000. in several Biscayne Bay, Florida, fish S. Wells, L. J. Hansen, M. T. Walsh, D. U.S. Pacific Marine Mammal StockAs- species. Environmental Biology of J. St. Aubin, B. K. Rima and J. R. Geraci. sessments: 2000 (draft). NOAA Techni- Fishes 37:181-188. 1996. Morbillivirus infection in bottle- cal Memorandum NMFS-SWFSC-XXX. Burkholder, J .M. 1998. Implications of nose dolphins: Evidence for recurrent U.S. Department of Commerce. Seattle. harmful microalgae and heterotrophic epizootics in the western Atlantic and (online at: http://www.nmfs.noaa.gov/ dinoflagellates in management of sus- Gulf of Mexico. Marine Mammal Sci- prot-res/readingrm/MMSARS/ tainable marine fisheries. Ecological Ap- ence 12:499-515. Pacific-dsarOO.pdf) plications 8:37-62. Durako, M. J., University of North Carolina, Forrester, D. J., W. R. Davidson, R. E. Burkholder, J. M. 1997. Pfiesteria U7ilmington,NC. 12 February 2001. Lange, R. K. Stroud, L. L. Alexander, J. piscicida and other Pfiesteria-like di- Dykstra, M. J. and Kane, A. S. 2000. C. Franson, S. D. Haseltine, R. C. Littell noflagellates: behaviour, impacts, and Pfiesteria piscicida and ulcerative my- and S. A. Nesbitt. 1997. Winter mortal- environmental controls. Limnology and cosis of Atlantic menhaden - Current sta- ity of common loons in Florida coastal Oceanography 42: 1052- 1075. tus of understanding. Journal of Aquatic waters. Journal of Wildlife Diseases Burkholder, J., E. Noga, C. Hobbs and H. Animal Health 12:18-25. 33:833-847. B. Glasgow. 1992. New 'phantom' di- Epstein, P., B. Sherman, E. Spanger- Friedman, C. S., K. B. Andree, T. T. noflagellate is the causative agent of Siegfried, A. Langston, S. Prasad and Robbins, J. D. Shields, J. D. Moore, K. major estuarine fish kills. Nature B. McKay. 1998. Marine Ecosystems: Beauchamp and R. P. Hedrick. 2000. 358:407-410. Emerging Diseases as Indicators of "Candidatus Xenohaliotis Butler IV, M. J., J. H. Hunt, W. F. Change. Harvard Medical School. californiensis," a newly described bac- Herrnkind and M. J. Childress. 1995. Boston, MA. terial pathogen and etiological agent of Cascading disturbances in Florida Bay, Estes, J. A,, M. T. Tinker, T. M. Williams, withering syndrome found in abalone, USA: cyanobacteria blooms, sponge and D. F. Doak. 1998. Killer whale pre- Haliotis spp., along the west coast of mortality, and implications for juvenile dation linking oceanic and nearshore North America (abstract). Journal of spiny lobsters. Marine Ecology Progress ecosystems. Science 282:473-476. Shellfish Research 19:s13. Series 129: 119-125. Federal Register. 2000. Notice of Desig- Gales, N. J. and D. J. Fletcher. 1999. Abun- Carlton, J. T. 1993. Neoextinctions of ma- nation of the Northern Sea Otter in the dance, distribution and status of the New rine invertebrates. American Zoologist Aleutian Islands as a Candidate Species. Zealand sea lion, Phocarctos hookeri. 33: 499-509. Proposed Rules 65, No. 218 /Thursday, Wildlife Research 26:35-52. Casey, R. N., S. L. Quackenbush, T. M. November 9, 2000. Ganter, B. 2000. Seagrass (Zostera spp.) Work, G. H. Balazs, P. R. Bowser and J. Feingold, J. S. and L. L. 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Veterinary Record 142:643-644. cruitment and 1991 mortality event of Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences

Vol. 18 No. 12001 Endangered Species UPDATE 21

Annual Report to Congress 1999. Noga, E. J., L. Khoo, J. B. Stevens, Z. Fan Porter, J. W., P. Dustan, W. C. Jaap and J. Bethesda, Maryland. and J. M. Burkholder. 1996. Novel toxic L. Wheaton. 1999. Patterns of distribu- Marine Mammal Commission. 1999. Ma- dinoflagellate causes epidemic disease tion and spread of coral disease in the rine Mammals and Persistent Ocean in estuarine fish. Marine Pollution Bul- Florida Keys (abstract). International Contaminants: Proceedings of the Ma- letin 32:219-224. Conference on Scientific Aspects of rine Mammal Commission Workshop, Oberdorster, E. and A. 0. Cheek. 2000. Coral Reef Assessment, Monitoring;and Keystone, Colorado, 12-15 October Gender benders at the beach: Endocrine Restoration, April 14-16, 1999, Ft. Lau- 1998. T. J. O'Shea, R. R. Reeves and A. disruption in marine and estuarine or- derdale. National Coral Reef Institute, Kirk Long, editors. Marine Mammal ganisms. Environmental Toxicology and Dania Beach. Commission, Bethesda, Maryland. Chemistry 20:23-36. Reeves, L. 1994. Newly discovered: Yel- Marine Mammal Commission. 1998. Species Ochoa, J. L., A. Sanchez-Paz, A. Cruz- low band disease strikes Keys reefs. Un- of special concern. Pages 3-92. Marine Villacorta, E. Nunez-Vazquez and A. Si- derwater USA 11: 16. Mammal Commission Annual Report to erra-Beltran. 1997. Toxic events in the Renault, T. 1996. Appearance and spread Congress 1997. Bethesda, Maryland. northwest Pacific coastline of Mexico of diseases among bivalve molluscs in Moore, J. D.. T. T. Robbins, and C. S. during 1992-1995: Origin and impact. the northern hemisphere in relation to in- Friedman. 2000. Withering syndrome in Hydrobiologia 352: 195-200. ternational trade. Revue scientifique et farmed red abalone Haliotis rufescens: O'Shea, T., G. Rathbun, R. Bonde, C. D. technique de 1'0ffice international des Thermal induction and association with Buergelt and D. K. Odell. 1991. An epi- epizooties 15551-56 1. a gastrointestinal Rickettsiales-like zootic of Florida manatees associated Richardson, L. L. 1998. Coral diseases: prokaryote. Journal of Aquatic Animal with a dinoflagellate bloom. Marine What is really known? Trends in Ecol- Health 12:26-34. Mammal Science 7: 165-179. ogy and Evolution 13:438-443. Morand, P. and X. Briand. 1996. Excessive Paerl, H. W. 1997. Coastal eutrophication Richardson, L., W. M. Goldberg and K. G. growth of macroalgae: A symptom of en- and harmful algal blooms: importance of Kuta. 1998. Florida's mystery coral vironmental disturbance. Botanica Ma- atmospheric deposition and groundwa- killer identified. Nature 392:557-558. rina 39:491-516. ter as "new" nitrogen and other nutrient Robblee, M., T. Barber, P. Carlson, M. MUCIC (Massey University Cetacean In- sources. Limnology and Oceanography Durako, J. W. Fourqurean, L. K. vestigation Centre). 1998. New Zealand 42:1154-1165. Muehlstein, D. Porter, L. A. Yarbro, R. sea lion epidemic, January-February 1998. MUCIC briefing paper. Massey University. New Zealand. Nakata, H., K. Kannan, L. Jing, N. Tho- mas, S. Tanabe and J. P. Giesy. 1998. Ac- cumulation pattern of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) found stranded along coastal California, USA. Environmental Pollu- tion 103:45-53. National Research Council. 1996. The Bering Sea Ecosystem. National Acad- emy Press. Washington, DC. NMFS. 1999a. Northern fur seal (Callorhinus ursinus): Eastern Pacific stock. National Marine Fisheries Service Stock Assessment Report. (http:/1 www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot~res/PR2/ Stock~Assessment~Program/ The SANTA CRUZ LONG-TOED SALAMANDER (Am- individual-sars.htm1) bystoma macrodactylum croceum) grows to about five NMFS. 1999b. Steller sea lion (Eumetopias inches in length and is black with metallic gold spots on jubatus): Western U.S. stock. National its back and white specks on its sides. It feeds on spi- Marine Fisheries Service Stock Assess- ders, snails, centipedes, and earthworms. During the win- ment Report. (http:/1 ter, this long-toed salamander breeds in two temporary, www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot~res/PR2/ shallow ponds in Santa Cruz County in northern Califor- Stock-Assessment-Program1 nia. Eight to ten eggs are attached to vegetation border- individual-sars.htm1) ing these ponds where the larvae mature for several NMFS. 1998. Harbor seal (Phoca vitulina I months. Moist soil and small animal burrows in wood- richardsi): Gulf of Alaska stock I south- lands of oak and willow provide protection and needed east Alaska stock / Bering Sea stock. Na- moisture the rest of the year. Donating your time or tional Marine Fisheries Service Stock money to a nature conservation organization will help Assessment Report. (http:l/ protect and preserve the remaining habitat of this endan- www.nmfs.noaa.gov/prot~res/PR2/ gered species. O 1998 Rochelle Mason. Stock-Assessment-Program/ www,rmasonfinearts.com. (877) 726- 1544 individual-sars.htm1)

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Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 23 T. Zieman and J. C. Zieman. 199 1. Mass mammal mortalities in Europe: Implica- 355-362 in van Soest. van Kempen and mortality of the tropical seagrass tions for conservation and management. Braekman, editors. Sponges in Time and Thnlassia trstudin~linin Florida Bay Environmental Reviews 5:89-98 Space. Balkema Publishing, Rotterdam. (USA). Marine Ecology Progress Series Sindermann, C. J. 1958. An epizootic in van de Bildt. M. W. G.. E. J. Vedder, B. E. 71: 297-299. Gulf of Saint Lawrence fishes. Transac- E. Martina, B. Abou-Sidib, A. B. Jiddou. Rosenberg, R.. 0. Lindahl and H. Blanck. tions of the North American Wildlife M. E. 0. Barham, E. Androukaki, A. 1988. Silent spring in the sea. Ambio Conference 28:336-356. Komnenou. H. G. M. Niesters and A. D. 17:289-290. Smayda. T. J. 1989. Primary production M. E. Osterhaus. 1999. Morbilliviruses Ross, P. S., G. M. Ellis. M. G. Ikonomou. and the global epidemic of phytoplank- in Mediterranean monk seals. Veterinary L. G. Barrett-Lennard and R. F. Addison. ton blooms in the sea: A linkage? Pages Microbiology 69: 19-2 1. 2000. High PCB concentrations in free- 149-483 in E. M. Cosper, V. M. Bricelj Van Dolah, F. M. 2000. Marine algal tox- ranging Pacific killer whales, 0rcinir.r and E. J. Carpenter, editors. Novel Phy- ins: origins. health effects, and their in- orca: Effects of age, sex and dietary toplankton Blooms. Springer-Verlag. creased occurrence. Environmental preference. Marine Pollution Bulletin New York. Health Perspectives 108(S):133-111. 40:504-515. Smayda. T. J. 1990. Novel and nuisance Van Patten. P. and R. A. French. 2000. Ruiz, G. M., T. K. Rawlings, F. C. Dobbs. L. phytoplankton blooms in the sea: Evi- What's happening to lobsters in Long A. Drake, T. Mullady. A. Huq and R. R. dence for a global epidemic. Pages 29- Island Sound? Connecticut Sea Grant Colwell. 2000. Global spread of microor- 40 in E. Graneli. B. Sundstrom. L. Edler Extension. Groton. Connecticut. ganisms by ships. Nature 408:49-50. and D. M. Anderson. editors. Toxic Ma- Vicente. V. P. 1989. Regional commercial Santavy, D. L.. E. Mueller. J. W.Porter. E. rine Phytoplankton. Elsevier, New York. sponge extinction in the West Indies: Are C. Peters, L. MacLaughlin. J. G. Streets. D. G. and Glantz. M. H. 2000. Ex- recent climatic changes responsible? Campbell, M. Parsons and L. C. Becker. ploring the concept of climate surprise. P.S.Z.N.1:Marine Ecology 10: 179-191. 1999. The distribution and frequency of Global Environmental Change 10:97- 107. Vos. J. G.. E. Dybing. H. A. Greim. 0. coral diseases in the Florida Keys and Taubenberger. J. K.. M. Tsai. A. E. Krafft. Ladefoged. C. Lambr. J. V. Tarazona. I. the Dry Tortugas (abstract). International J. H. Lichy, A. H. Reid, F. Y. Schulman Brandt andL4.D. Vethaak. 2000. Health Conference on Scientific Aspects of and T. P. Lipscomb. 1996. Two effects of endocrine-disrupting chemi- Coral Reef Assessment. Monitoring, and morbilliviruses implicated in bottlenose cals on wildlife. with special reference Restoration, April 14-16, 1999. Ft. Lau- dolphin epizootics. Emerging Infectious to the European situation. Critical Re- derdale. National Coral Reef Institute. Diseases 2:213-216. views in Toxicology 30:73-133. Dania Beach. Thomas. N. J.. L. H. Creekmore. R. A. Williams Jr.. E. H. and L. Bunkley-Will- Sarokin, D, and J. Schulkin. 1992. The role Cole and C. U.Meteyer. 1998. Emerg- iams. 1990. The world-wide coral reef of pollution in large-scale population ing diseases in southern sea otters. bleaching cycle and related sources of disturbances Part I : Aquatic populations. Page 613 in M. J. Mac. P. A. Opler. C. coral mortality. Atoll Research Bulletin Environmental Science & Technology E. Puckett-Haecker and P. D. Doran. 335: 1-7 1. 26:1476-1484. editors. Status and Trends of the Williams Jr.. E. H,and L. Bunkley-Will- Scholin, C. A. and 25 others. 2000. Mor- Nation's Biological Resources. CS iams. 2000. Marine major ecological dis- tality of sea lions along the central Cali- Department of the Interior. US Geo- turbances of the Caribbean. The Infec- fornia coast linked to a toxic diatom logical Survey, Reston. V.4. tious Disease Review 2: 110-1 27. bloom. Nature 403:80-84. Todd. E. C. D. 1993. Domoic acid and am- Williams Jr.. E. H.. L. Bunkley-Williams. Sherman, B. H. 2000. Marine ecosystem nesic shellfish poisoning--a review. E. C. Peters. B. Pinto-Rodriguez, R. health as an expression of morbidity. Journal of Food Protection 56:69-83. Matos-Morales. A. A. Mignucci- mortality and disease events. Marine Tsuchiya, M., K. Yanagiya and M. Giannoni. K. V. Hall. J. V. Rueda- Pollution Bulletin 41:232-254. Nishihara. 1987. Mass mortality of the Almonacid, J. Sybesma, I. Bonnelly de Shinn. E. A,. G. W. Smith. J. M. Prospero, sea urchin Eclzinotnetra rnutlzriei Calventi and R. H. Boulon. 1994. An P. Betzer. M. L. Hayes. V. Garrison and (Blainville) caused by high water tem- epizootic of cutaneous fibropapillomas R. T. Barber. 2000. African dust and the perature on the reef flats in Okinawa. in green turtles of the Caribbean: Part demise of Caribbean coral reefs. Geo- Japan. Galazea 6:375-385. of a panzootic? Journal of Aquatic Ani- physical Research Letters 27:3029-3032. USFWS. 1999. Population Status and mal Health 6:70-78. Short, F.. L. Muehlstein and D. Porter. Trends in Sea Ducks in Alaska. U.S. Fish Wilkinson. C. 2000. Status of coral reefs 1987. Eelgrass wasting disease: Cause and Wildlife Service, Waterfowl Man- of the world: 2000. Global Coral Reef and recurrence of a marine epidemic. agement Branch, Anchorage. AK. Monitoring Center. Biological Bulletin 173:557-562. Vacelet. J.. E. Vacelet. E. Gaino and M.-F. Simmonds, M. P. and S. J. Mayer. 1997. Gallissian. 1994. Bacterial attack of An evaluation of environmental and spongin skeleton during the 1986- 1990 other factors in some recent marine Mediterranean sponge disease. Pages

24 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Opinion The Roadless Legacy Ken Rait Hertiage Forests Campaign and Oregon Natural Resources Council, 5825 North Greeley, Portland, OR 97217; krQonrc.org

Few creatures are more emblematic When the Forest Service held erful economic reasons for supporting of the American wilderness than the over 600 public meetings to explain roadless forest protection, noting that huge, lumbering mountain of flesh the roadless forest plan, they found National Forest land generated 30 ties and fur know as the grizzly bear. Not nearly every single community ex- more revenue and jobs when used for many Americans have seen one in the pressing overwhelming support for recreational purposes than it did when wild, however, and for good reason: the initiative. Over a dozen state and used for timber sales. the grizzly is officially listed as a national polls by eight different poll- Recreational organizations such threatened species in every state but sters found support for roadless for- as the American Canoe Association Alaska. Thriving populations exist in est protection among Republicans as and the American Hiking Association only two areas of the lower 48: Gla- well as Democrats, Easterners as well weighed in with support for roadless cier and Yellowstone National Parks. as Westerners, and hunters as well as area conservation, noting that the Na- The good news is that while soccer moms. Over four hundred sci- tional Forests had over 800 million much of America has changed in the entists and two thousand leaders of visitors a year (most of them voters). last 150 years, the Bitterroot Moun- America's faith communities wrote Almost none of them were interested tains of central Idaho have not. Large the President, urging him to extend in seeing pristine areas roaded, de- expanses of unbroken forest still ex- the strongest possible protection to nuded, and reduced to stump and ist here. Grizzly bears, however, do roadless National Forest areas. slash piles. "Protecting roadless ar- not. While Lewis and Clark When the dust finally settled in De- eas is especially critical in the South- reported a large and healthy popula- cember 2000, the Forest Service re- ern Appalachians, where the demand tion of grizzly bears in the Bitterroot ported a record 1.6 million official pub- for hiking, hunting, fishing, and other area in the mid 19th century, Idaho lic comments in support of roadless backcountry recreation is fast out- hunters and ranchers had nearly ex- forest protection-seven times more growing the amount of protected pub- terminated the bear in the region by public input than had ever been re- lic land," noted the Southern Envi- the turn of the Century. The last ceived for any other regulatory initia- ronmental Law Center. known grizzly sighting in the Bitter- tive in the history of the United States. For the conservation community, root took place in the 1940s. Exactly what were Americans roadless area consenration was key The good news for the grizzly is supporting? A large number were to protecting watersheds, wildlife that while hunters managed to kill all supporting habitat protection, not just habit and recreational opportunities the bears, loggers could not fell all for grizzly bears, but also for bull in 39 states. Here too, however, each the trees. Now, thanks to the trout, elk, mule deer, and a thousand organization presented its own Roadless Area Conservation Initia- other species on and off the endan- strengthening message. tive of the USDA Forest Service, log- gered species list. Others Americans Defenders of Wildlife, for ex- gers may never get a chance. supported roadless forest protection ample, argued that threatened species The Roadless Forest Conserva- because they saw these vast pristine such as grizzlies and wolves required tion Plan is the largest land protec- areas as essential to their own recre- large tracts of wild western wood- tion initiative of the last 80 years, as ational and spiritual renewal. For lands and that roadless forest protec- well as the most popular and partici- these Americans, the National For- tion was the only way to ensure their patory. Aproduct of a two-and-a-half est system is not a lumberyard or a long-term survival. year regulatory process, the roadless construction site, but a place to com- For The Wilderness Society, the forest protection plan was strength- mune with God's original design while roadless forest protection initiative ened, at every stage of the debate, by having a little fun in the woods. was a chance to designate as near- citizen participation. Economists weighed in with pow- wilderness an area larger than the to-

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Vol. 18 No. 12001 Endangered Species UPDATE 25 tal amount of land added as wilder- roadless areas had I L ness since the Wilderness Act was been open to oil and passed in 1964. gas leasing for de- For the National Audubon Soci- cades. but industry ety, which spearheaded the roadless had expressed little forest campaign from its Washington, interest in them since D.C., offices, the roadless forest pro- few deposits were tection initiative was a way of pro- large or worth the tecting vast expanses of habitat for cost of recovery. birds and other wild creatures. With National Forest Audubon noted that over 70 percent land accounting for of Neotropical songbird species in the less than one fifth of heavily roaded eastern and prairie one percent of U.S. states have been in decline for the last domestic oil and gas ,, gg mskba mmn tmnd far neutmpical species 30 years. Only in the intermountain production. it was Neg?divamsan tmdfor rimtropical species west, where large tracts of unbroken hard to argue that the 1 forest still remain, were migratory fate of the nation Figure 1. Trend of neotropical migrant birds. Map re- Neotropical songbird populations on ripping printed with permission from the Breeding Bird Survey: http:llwww.mbr-pwrc.usgs.govIbbs/genintro.html. still robust (Figure 1 ). new holes into a sub- On the other side of the coin. the set of this land- arguments in support of increased pristine forest areas that the industry gained ground, instead of lost ground, road construction, logging and min- had ignored for 50 or 100 years. for the first time in 100 years. So ing within roadless areas of the Na- In the end, the fate of America's too will have bull trout and salmon, tional Forest system were either weak public forests was decided by the elk and mule deer, and wolf and wol- or non-existent. Though roadless ar- public, a situation ironic only because verine. As America's population has eas comprised nearly one third of the of its rarity. The final roadless forest risen from 80 million in 1900 to over National Forest system, they ac- protection rule protects 58.5 million 280 million today, the wild lands counted for less than one quarter of acres of roadless forest in 39 states. these creatures need to survive has one percent of the national timber The total area is larger than the en- become increasingly rare. cut. With over 383,000 miles of log- tire National Park System. What is true today will be no less ging roads winding through the Na- One of the areas protected in- true in 50 years, when the population tional Forest system-eight times cludes 7.8 million acres within the of the United States is projected to more roads than in the interstate high- Bitterroot ecological system. This rise past the 350 million mark. By way system-it was hard to argue enormous expanse of roadless forest then we will look back on the that more roads were needed for rec- is now the largest tract of prime griz- roadless forest conservation initiative reation or access. zly bear habitat in the continental from the advantage of time and dis- The timber industry and a hand- United States-larger than the 3.2 tance and recognize it for what it truly ful of allies on Capitol Hill argued million acres in the Northern Conti- is-a truly monumental achievement. that logging wild forest areas was one nental Divide ecosystem and the 5.2 When the history of the environ- of the very best ways to prevent for- million acres in the Yellowstone eco- mental movement is written then, the est fires-a theory that drew open system. Though the Bitterroot is still foresight of President Bill Clinton ridicule from scientists and editorial grizzly-free, scientists and conserva- and Forest Service Chief Mike writers who noted that more than 85 tion officials expect that to change Dombeck will be paired with that of percent of the lands most at risk for soon under a plan that would rein- President Theodore Roosevelt and fire were in previously logged and troduce wild grizzlies trapped in his Forest Service Chief, Gifford roaded areas. How could forests un- Montana to the region. Pinchot, a century before. Thanks in changed for millennia be "out of bal- When that occurs, something no small part to their vision, and a ance" and in an "unnatural state"? truly monumental will have hap- phenomenal outpouring of support Arguments put forth by oil, gas. pened-the grizzly will have re- from the American people, the griz- and mining interests sounded simi- claimed land it had lost. Pushed up zly has a very real chance of continu- larly bankrupt when trotted out into against the brink by a rising tide of ing as a livinn symbol of America's the court of public opinion. Most "civilization". the grizzly will have wilderness for generations to come.

26 Endangered Species UPDATE Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 News from Zoos

Great Ape Conservation Act

In a press release dated November 3, the American Zoo and Aquarium Association (AZA) praised the U.S. Congress and President Clinton for passing and signing into law HR 4320, the "Great Ape Conservation Act." "America's zoos and aquariums are passionately committed to conserving the world's wild creatures and their habitat. We are proud to be part of the powerful partnership that has achieved passage of this bill," said Syd Butler, executive director of MA. HR 4320 authorizes the appropriation of $5 million a year for the Department of the Interior to grant to organizations involved in the conservation of great apes--chimpanzees, bonobos, gibbons, orangutans and gorillas. These grants will provide financial resources for the conservation programs of countries within the range of great apes and projects of persons with demonstrated expertise in the conservation of great apes. Unfortunately, no funds have been appropriated for these grants for fiscal year 2001 as the Great Ape Conservation Act was signed into law after the passage of the FY 2001 Interior Department Appropriations bill. AZA is working diligently to secure some measure of funding for these important grants for the upcoming fiscal year. MAhas supported HR 4320 from its inception on April 13, when it was introduced by Congressman George Miller (D-CA). Senator James Jeffords (R-VT) had introduced similar legislation in the Senate on 11 May 1999. AZA President Richard Lattis testified on behalf of AZA in support of HR 4320 during a June 20 hearing held by the House Committee on Resources. "For many years, the AZA Species Survival Plans (SSPs) have provided protection both in our care and in the wild, for endangered species from Partula snails to great apes," commented Lattis. "This bill was a logical next step in addressing the plight of the great apes." Chief among the threats to great apes are habitat destruction, civil wars which drive humans into great ape habitat and the devastating increase in the illegal commercial hunting of forest animals for their meat, known as the "bushmeat"trade. In 1999, 133 million people visited AZA's 188 accredited zoos and aquariums, and members daily educate visitors about the devastating effects of the loss of vital species habitat, as well as the illegal trade in endangered species parts and products. AZA facilities go far beyond the daily care and husbandry of animals-in 1999-2000, they supported nearly 1300 conservation and research projects in 80 countries. "And while AZA zoos and aquariums have become the last stronghold for some species, we realize we cannot save them by zoo propagation alone," concluded Lattis in his testimony. "AZA and its member institutions will continue to work with Congress, Federal agencies, conservation organizations and the private sector world-wide to conserve these magnificent animals."

Banggai Cardinalfish Conservation Program

The Banggai cardinalfish project, which includes an exhibit featured in the Indo-Pacific segment of Conservation, Outreach and Observation Lab (COOL) at the New Jersey State Aquarium, is the culmination of three years of successful research and captive breeding under the direction of the aquarium's Manager of Science and Conserva- tion, Alej andro Vagelli. The New Jersey State Aquarium is the only facility in the world where this species' life history has been studied. It is the research lab's goal to develop techniques for the reproduction and rearing of aquatic species; in particular, marine tropical fishes, and to use this as a tool to further understand and describe their basic biology. The Banggai cardinalfish inhabits a small triangular area of Banggai and other nearby islands in Indonesia. Due to this species' vulnerability to exploitation for the pet trade, coupled with low levels of productivity, the continued survival of the cardinalfish is in question just five years after its rediscovery by science. The program will provide the first scientific evaluation of the Banggai cardinalfish population status and will yield essential data on its reproductive ecology in the wild. In addition, the aquarium will establish a breeding program with the Indonesian Institute of Sciences and local collectors in an effort to develop a specific methodology for the captive breed- ing and care of the Banggai cardinalfish. The American Zoo and Aquarium Association's Conservation Endowment Fund provided funding for the Banggai project.

Information for News from Zoos is provided by Joseph Lankard of the American Zoo and Aquarium Association.

Vol. 18 No. 1 2001 Endangered Species UPDATE 27 News & Events

Marine conservation biology with seminars from distinguished ogy and the Vancouver Aquarium funding website ecologists. such as Lenore Fahrig, J.P. Marine Science Centre is hosting this The Marine Conservation Biology Grime, Dan Janzen, Jim Kitchell, international event. Current research Institute recently added a new feature Ariel Lugo, Judy Meyer, Bruce on whales, dolphins, seals, sea lions, to its website-a comprehensive di- Milne, and Dan Simberloff. The aim and other marine mammals will be rectory containing federal funding of the symposium is to encourage in- showcased through spoken and poster opportunities for marine conservation tegration across diverse fields of ecol- presentations. Special events, video biology research. This is the first at- ogy and to provide insight into the evenings, and vendor exhibits are tempt at a directory of its kind. The complex relationship between planned as well. The conference Web directory is intended to be a compen- biodiversity and ecosystem function site (http://www.smmconference.org) dium of current research funding op- across multiple scales. Admission is is designed to be the primary resource portunities for all scientists seeking free and all are welcome to attend. If for all information pertaining to the support. You can visit the site by you are interested in attending please meeting, and will be updated fre- clicking on "Sources of federal fund- \isit our web site (http:/1 quently, so check back often. Gen- ing" at http://www.mcbi.org. wfscnet,tamu,edu/int/ eral inquiries: e-mail integration.htm) and register online. [email protected]. Scientific Integrated ecological symposium program inquiries: e-mail The Second Annual Integration Marine mammal conference [email protected]. Across Ecological Scales sympo- The 14th Biennial Conference on the sium, entitled "Complexity, Biology of Marine Mammals will be Annour~cernentsjoy the Bulletin Boardare ~rlel- corned. Some items have been provided by thr Biodiversity, and Ecosystem Func- held from 28 November to 3 Decem- Smithsoniar~Instit~ltiorl's Biological Conserva- tion," will be held at Texas A&M ber 2001 in Vancouver, British Co- tion Ne\csletter or jound or1 the SocirQ .fi,i- University on 24 March 2001. The lumbia. The Conference is sponsored Conser?~ationBiology Bulletin Board (izttp:// event will be a one-day symposium by the Society for Marine Mammal- ~~o~~bio,ner/scb/Sen~ices/Bbonrd/l.

Non-Profit Organization Endangered Species U.S. POSTAGE PAID Ann Arbor, MI UPDATE Permit No. 144

School of Natural Resources and Environment The University of Michigan Ann Arbor, MI 481 09-1 115

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