Hebrew Language Status and Corpus Planning

HEBREW LANGUAGE STATUS AND CORPUS PLANNING

Asher Shafrir

The initial problem faced by those few that sought to revernacularize Hebrew was a complex one in that daily conversational use of Hebrew could not occur unless traditional Jewish multilingualism could be overcome on the one hand, and unless the Hebrew language itself could be modernized and standardized on the other hand. The entire beginning of revernacularization of Hebrew was far from being planned by any public authorized body. It was rather on an individual and sporadic basis. Only later came attempts at organization of some fragmentary "planning", especially in the areas of pronunciation, spelling and lexicon, made by some semi-public bodies. With the official recognition of Hebrew on the part of the British Mandate authorities in 1922 as one of the official languages of Palestine, Hebrew's legal status was similarly fixed. Although Hebrew had to undergo many challenges in later years, nevertheless its status as the national language of Israel was never again in doubt.

Hebrew, language planning, language revival, Israel, corpus planning, status planning

The development of Modern Hebrew modern life—lacking words for concepts such may be viewed as consisting of three periods, as "tomato", "a match", "serious", "polite", in each of which at least one language and "newspaper" – that some leaders planning "goal" has been sought. The first of questioned the capacity of the language to be these periods is that of "Language Revival" restored. 1890-1914 (Nahir, 1984), in which the revival I will define codification: "the work of the Hebrew language in Palestine at the of a body or an individual who more or less turn of the 20th century took place, and my knowledgeably, decides to give explicit, discussion here will start with this period. usually written, form to the [language] norm... Much of the study of the Revival has focused chosen" (Haugen, 1983). on the status of the language, because the unprecedented transformation of the status of Macro-corpus planning; The Hebrew Hebrew from a language of religion back to a Language Committee vernacular and a national language has been rightly viewed as the product of status Eliezer Ben-Yehuda (1857-1922), planning (Nahir, 1998). Much corpus who is the "father" of the revival movement, planning, however, was also involved. understood that the revival of Hebrew was not Restoring the status of the language was only possible without adapting it to modern life. going to succeed if its speakers would have an Therefore, in addition to his own work on the adequate code, most of all a lexicon, to lexicon, he and some friends established in communicate with. Here I will discuss first Jerusalem in 1890 the Hebrew Language the lexical codification work carried out in the Committee, whose major task, other than Revival period, mostly by individuals, "extending the use of the Hebrew language informally, even though a massive amount of and of spoken Hebrew among all sections of lexical codification had been done previously the people" (Rabin, 1973), would be to codify by generations of writers in Hebrew, a Hebrew in order to prepare it for its new language which never actually "died", but, function. A subcommittee was to search for following its demise two millennia ago, existing words through Hebrew literature of continued to be used as a "living written all periods and to create new words where language". Despite these contributions, none existed. however, at the beginning of its revival the In 1912, the Committee decided to Hebrew lexicon was so gravely inadequate for become active in preparing its own critically

499 needed Hebrew terminologies. It first dealt communication problems in their work. Some with 120 terms in arithmetic, some proposed were known literary figures or leaders, but by teachers but mostly drawn from ancient countless lexical items were created by literature. These were words for concepts unidentified individuals, whose creation such as "number", "digit", "addition", nevertheless has since become part of the "subtraction", "multiplication", "division", Hebrew lexicon. We will discuss briefly some "remainder", "sum", etc. The next of the most prolific lexical innovators and the terminology lists were in gymnastics, sowing, methods applied generally in the process of food, and plants. In gymnastics, for example, lexical codification. the published list included words for "right Eliezer Ben-Yehuda, mentioned turn!", "left turn!", "forward!", "(stand) at earlier, was the most prominent and prolific ease!", etc., also currently in general use. codifier of the new Hebrew lexicon. He Many more lists were soon published, dealing compiled the first comprehensive Hebrew with terms for one subject at a time. Until Dictionary, whose impact on the Revival, 2011 the Committee (from 1953 "Academy") however, was rather limited since the first published some 125,000 terms in 230 volume was only published in 1909, when the Glossaries. The last glossary published in Revival was approximately five years from November 2010 is in general biology and completion, and only half the Dictionary was includes 2730 terms such as "symbiosis", completed by the end of the Revival. But "mutation", "instinct", "biota", "hatchling", Ben-Yehuda also made significant etc. (http://hebrew-academy.huji.ac.il/). contributions to Hebrew codification by The Committee also assumed the task writing several school textbooks and of resolving language queries from the public. translating literary works. In all of these he A selection of letters sent to the Committee used the Hebrew words he had discovered or was recently published in the Hebrew created for his newspapers and for his large Academy's Newsletter (Akadem, 7, 1995). Dictionary. His innovations which are still in Today the Academy involves the public in use included words for, "omelet", "salami ", search for new terms. The last task was to "jam", "fashion", "stockings", "gloves ", "fur", propose terms for "compost". The Academy "cauliflower", "cactus", "telegram", published more than a hundred proposals "municipality", "front", "soldier", "invasion", from the public received till end of February "bomb", "maneuver", "exercise", 2011 (http://hebrew-academy.huji.ac.il/). "newspaper", "dictionary" etc. The Committee had its critics too, Itamar Ben-Avi, Ben-Yehuda's oldest who took exception to what they viewed as son, unlike his father, though, he restricted mass production of words, or "a word himself to coining words only as he needed factory". Even Ahad Ha'am, the highly them rather than as a scholarly activity. This influential writer, thought that new words may explain why, having met actual should only be created by writers and only as communicative needs, his innovations were needed. The famed Shuy Agnon (later Nobel accepted by users much more readily than Laureate) called for more effort to draw words were his father's. from existing sources, even though he, like H. N. Bialik, a highly acclaimed Poet other critics of word innovators, eventually Laureate, also created numerous words as he used most of their innovations (Bar-Adon, needed them for his work. According to some 1977). scholars (e.g., Sivan, 1980; Kutscher, 1982), Bialik had a unique ability to introduce new Micro-corpus planning and lexical life into old, even ancient words, filling them codification with "vitality". He particularly favored Most new word creation in the combinations of older words, which he used Revival, then, was the informal product of abundantly in both his poetry and prose. We individuals, mostly in the process of solving can recognize two types in his innovations:

500 new words and new combinations, blends, or /yarkan/, greengrocer', from /yarak/, compounds. His innovations which are in use 'vegetables'. included words for "import", "export", "car", /-ay/, for trade or having certain features "kitchen" etc. (e.g., /xašmalay/, 'electrician', from /xa Many others created new words – šmal/, 'electricity'; /mexonay/, 'mechanic', among them writers, journalists, educators, from /mexona/, 'machine'. translators, publishers and editors – e.g., /-iyya/ (borrowed from Arabic) /naxat/, 'to land', /palaš/, 'to invade', by a (e.g., /sifriyya/, 'library', from /sefer/, leading journalist, /agvaniyya/, 'tomato', 'book'; ; /'iriyya/, 'city hall, municipality', /xamtzan/, 'oxygen' by Y. M. Pines, Ben- from /'ir/, 'city'). Yehuda's friend and colleague, writer and (3) Drawing words from old teacher. A revered poet, Avraham Shlonsky, sources and assigning them new meanings coined countless words as he needed them in /xashmal/, 'electricity'; /mexona/, translating foreign literary works into 'machine'; /totax/, 'cannon') from Biblical Hebrew. Israel's first Foreign Minister, Moshe Hebrew; /'itzumim/, 'sanction'; /tekes/, Sharet, was considered to be the creator of the 'ceremony' from Mishnaic Hebrew now established /darkon/, 'passport', /ašra/, (4) Merging pairs of words 'visa', /etgar/, 'challenge', but he later into single words (e.g., /migdalor/, admitted that he had "ordered" them from 'lighthouse', from /migdal/, 'tower', and someone else. He did create several other /or/, 'light'; /madxom/, 'thermometer', from words, though, e.g., /takrit/, 'incident', from /mad/, 'measure', and /xom/, 'temperature'). /kara/, 'happen', and /šmar-taf/, 'baby-sitter', (5) Adding Aramaic, European from /šamar/, 'watch', and /taf/, 'infants'. and Hebrew prefixes and suffixes (e.g., David Remez, the first Israeli Minister of /tat-aluf/, 'brigadier general'; /xad-sitri/, Transportation, created the still used /monit/, 'one-way'; /micro-gal/, 'micro-wave'; 'taxi', from /mana/, 'to count'. /dugmanit-al/, 'super model'). (6) Loan-translation (e.g., Methods of lexical codification in the /gibbuy/, 'backing'; /kissuy/, 'coverage'; Hebrew Revival /gan-yeladim/, 'kindergarten'; /'ittuy/, Some of the major methods used in lexical 'timing'; /yissum/, 'application'; /haslama/, codification may now be summarized: 'escalation'). (1) Inserting new roots to (7) Borrowing from European existing patterns: the pattern /CaCaC/ for languages: from Yiddish (especially profession (e.g., /sappar/, 'barber'; /tabbax/, colloquialisms, /menadned/, 'nag'; /shprits/, 'cook'); the pattern /CaCeCet/ for disease 'spray'; /mashvits/, 'boast'; /kumzits/, (e.g., /ademet/, 'rubella'; /nazelet/, 'a cold'); 'sitting and singing around a bonfire'; the pattern /maCCeC/ for tools (e.g., /shnorer/, 'one who lives off others'), /masmer/, 'a nail'; /mavreg/, 'screwdriver'; Russian (including suffixes, e.g., /-chik/ /maxshev/, 'computer'. diminutive; /-nik/, 'one who belongs to a (2) Adding suffixes or infixes given group' and from Arabic (including to create words of different patterns from colloquialisms, e.g., /adiv/, 'polite'; /nadir/, existing words. Some of the major ones 'rare'; /mabsut/, 'happy', 'content'; /zift/, are: -on/ (e.g., /ša'on/, 'a watch', from /ša'a/, 'trash, no-good'; /kef/, 'fun') and Aramaic. 'an hour'; /iton/, 'newspaper', from /et/, Usually borrowed words went through a 'time'; /yarxon/, 'a monthly', from /yerax/, Hebraization process. 'month'). /-an/, for profession, occupation or having Status Planning certain characteristics (e.g., /ta'asyan/, 'industrialist', from /ta'asiyya/, 'industry'; Establishing an official language in a multi-language state is a complex and

501 extremely important task. This decision is language, leaving two official languages: only the first stage, since implementation of Arabic and Hebrew (Harel-Shalev, 2005). the language policy is no less important that In the Israeli Declaration of its formal declaration. Every new state must Independence from May 14, 1948 is a sole cope with the challenge of determining which mention of language: "Israel … will guarantee language will be its official national language freedom of religion, conscience, language, and the status of the languages of the minority education and culture (Declaration, 1948). groups. The language is recognized as a Attempts in the Knesset to make central symbol of the state's identity and Hebrew the sole official language has failed functions as an extremely important cultural up until the present day. However, Israeli law institution. has not formulated a comprehensive Consociational democracies define normative dual-language regime. As a result, themselves as dual- or multi-lingual states. Arabic has a vastly inferior status to that of They grant the minority's language a Hebrew. The superior position accorded to respected official status. Among deeply Hebrew is not by virtue of a statute or divided states which have succeeded in government regulation, but results from establishing a democratic regime for more governmental policy. than fifty years, Canada, Belgium and While Hebrew and Arabic have the Switzerland. In Israel, which was established same status in law, Hebrew is clearly as an ethnic state as the state of the Jews, one dominant as the language of day-to-day would be expect less compromise with government activity. Whereas Hebrew and minorities, and that languages other than Arabic each symbolize a nationality, only Hebrew would not be made official languages Hebrew symbolizes the Jewish state. of the state. Nevertheless, the Jewish Although the official status of English is no leadership decided not to eliminate Arabic as longer protected by law, it continues in use an official language (Harel-Shalev, 2005). for many government functions. For example, When Britain captured Palestine from money currency, metal coins and postal the Ottoman Empire in 1918 it found two stamps are printed in English as well as in national communities, one Arab and one Hebrew and Arabic. Till 1951 the Anglo Jewish. By that time Hebrew had become the Palestine Banknotes were in English and principal language of public discourse among Hebrew on one side and in English and the Jewish population. When the Zionist Arabic on other side. In 1951 Bank Leumi le- Organization made in 1916-18 a census of the Israel issued a new series of banknotes almost Jewish Population of Palestine, 34,000 identical to the old, except the color, the name people, 40% of the 85,000 who then made up of currency and the languages: one side Palestine's Jewry, stated that Hebrew was Hebrew and the other English and Arabic their main language (Rabin, 1973). There (Bank of Israel, 2011). was of course no rival whatsoever to Arabic When highway and street signs are as the language of the Arab population. bilingual, the second language is more likely The state of Israel has never enacted a to be English than Arabic. In a verdict done statute which clearly established its official in 2002 the Supreme Court decided that the languages. Article 82 of the Palestine Order- street signs in Israel must add the Arabic in-council (1922) states that Palestine has language to the Hebrew (HC 4112, 1999). three official languages: English, Arabic and When government publications, such as Hebrew – and this action, as amended, reports issued by the Central Statistical Office remains valid even today. The main change to are bilingual, the second language is more Article 82 was enacted by the Knesset in the likely to be English than Arabic. On the other Law and Government Ordinance (1948), hand, transactions of the Knesset, Israel's which eliminates English as an official parliament, are published fully in Hebrew, but only the chapter headings are published in

502 English and Arabic. The Knesset Website is the endangerment of other languages. Jewish in Hebrew and some chapters are in English languages developed over the centuries in the and Arabic equal and in Russian partial. Diaspora as well as non-Jewish languages Thus with respect to the three types of brought by immigrants from various countries official language in Israel, Hebrew is official are slowly disappearing. It is in evidence then in all three senses, Arabic is both a statutory of the "success" of Hebrew revival that once and working official language, but not a revived, it functions effectively as a national symbolic official language, and English is a language working towards the 'one nation, working official language only. one language' favored in most nation states. The languages status usage can be Nonetheless it would be summed up as following: oversimplified to consider Israel a strictly monolingual nation. First, language practices Language Hebrew Arabic English are obviously multilingual. Second, there is King's order in Council (1922) a a a the role of Arabic, the language of the largest Declaration of Independence (1948) a c c minority. Third, there is regular argument for Knesset Transactions (2011) a c c linguistic as well cultural pluralism, Banknotes of Bank of Israel (2011) a b b encouraged by continuing immigration of Central Statistic Office (2011) a c b a: official in 3 senses; b: statutory; c: working; d: none speakers of other languages. Fourth, there is the growing presence of English as a global The Israeli public life is dominantly in language, reinforced by the existence of a Hebrew; the nominal official status for Arabic significant number of English-speaking is reflected in the use of the language in many immigrants and by the close relationship of public signs, but usually alongside similar use Israel with English-speaking communities of unofficial English. The heavy migration of abroad. nearly a million and half new immigrants from the former Soviet Union in the 1990s Summary has been reflected in much wider use of The revivers of the Hebrew at the turn Russian both on the street and in signs of the 20th century had two monumental tasks. (Spolsky, 2004). One involved the corpus of the language and Determining media of instruction for called for its codification to allow its potential school systems is perhaps the status planning speakers to communicate freely in a modern decision most frequently made, the one most world. A number of codification areas were commonly subject to strong political involved, including the choice and pressures, and the one most often considered harmonization between the different by educationists and by students of language phonological systems. Decisions also had to planning (see for example Fishman, 1976). be made on the unification of spelling and The educational status planning of Hebrew related issues. But crucial as these issues were was: the decision by nineteenth-century East in the process, they could not compare with European immigrants to use Hebrew as an all- the task of filling the vast lexical gap that purpose medium of instruction in the schools existed in Hebrew. Like the shift from several of new settlements in Palestine; the decision languages to Hebrew, this aspect of by a German-Jewish foundation in the second revernacularization of Hebrew was also decade of the twentieth century to use achieved within 2.5 decades through the German as the medium of instruction in its cumulative efforts of the "language planning new technical institute in Palestine; and the agents" in the field – educators, writers, poets, boycott by the teachers and the students of the translators, editors, etc. – as well as countless schools in Palestine to force the foundation to language-conscious individuals in and out of use Hebrew instead (Cooper, 1989). the technological occupations. This was With the exception of Arabic, one of carried out in various ways, retrieving old the effects of the revival of Hebrew has been words and roots, creating new words from old

503 words and roots, loan-translations, combining Declaration of independence of the state of existing words, blending, filling in pattern Israel. (1948, 14th May). Official with root "fillers", borrowing words and roots, Gazette, 1. In Hebrew. etc. All this arduous, seemingly endless Fellman, Jack (1973). The revival of a campaign eventually paid off, and Hebrew is now a modern language, standardized and classical tongue: Eliezer Ben-Yehuda "normalized" in every respect. When the and the Modern Hebrew Language. Revival was completed about 1914, the drive The Hague: Mouton. has shifted to ensure that it keeps up with new Fishman, A. Joshua. (1991). Reversing developments in the modern world. As in all language shift. Clevedon: Multilingual other developed, "mature" languages, Matters codification in pursuit of lexical Harel-Shalev, Ayelet. (2005, June). Arabic as modernization is an ongoing process. The other task involved the status of a minority language in Israel: A the language and called for bringing about a comparative perspective. Adalah's shift in Palestine's Jewish community from Newsletter, 14, 1-10 the use of dominant Yiddish and some other Haugen, Einar (1983). The implementation of languages to Hebrew. Within twenty five corpus planning: Theory and practice. years of the start of the revival in the 1880s' In: J. Cobarrubias & J.A.Fishman Hebrew became the dominant official (eds.). Progress in Language Planning language of a modern state, vital in that it was passed on the children in the home, (pp. 269-289). The Hague: Mouton. vernacularized in that it was used as the daily Kutscher, E.Y. (1982). A history of the spoken language of all classes, standardized Hebrew Language. Jerusalem: The in what it had not just dictionaries and Magnes Press. grammars and an academy but a school Nahir, Moshe (1984). Language planning system ranging from kindergarten to goals: A classification. Language postgraduate university levels, and modernized in what it could be used to talk Problems and Language Planning, 8 about sport or physics or politics or any topic. (3), 294-327. Nahir, Moshe. (1998). Micro language References planning and the revival of Hebrew: A schematic Framework. Language in Adala et al v. Municipality of Tel Aviv et al, Society, 27 (3), 335-357 HC 4112/99 High Court of Justice Rabin, Chaim. (1973). A short history of the (2002) Hebrew Language. Jerusalem: Alpha Bank of Israel: Banknotes and coins catalog. Press.. Retrieved April4, 2011 from Sivan, Reuven (1980). The revival of the http://www.bankisrael.gov.il/catal/cata Hebrew Language. Jerusalem: E. loge.htm Rubinstein Publishing Bar-Adon, Aaron. (1977). S.Y. Agnon and the Spolsky, Bernard. (2004). Language policy. revival of the Hebrew Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University Jerusalem: Bialik Institute. In Hebrew. Press Cooper, L. Robert. (1989). Language The Scientific Secretariat in Public Service, planning and social change. Academy of Hebrew Language. Cambridge: Cambridge University (1995, September). Akadem, 7, pp. 2, Press. 5. In Hebrew.

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