Globalization and Language Change in Chile (A Look at the -Ish Languages and More)

Globalization and Language Change in Chile (A Look at the -ish Languages and More)

Anne Bliss, Ph.D. 1

1. Universidad Catolica del Maule, CHILE, University of Colorado-Boulder, USA Xi’an Jiaotong University, CHINA E-mail: anne.bliss gmail.com *An adaptation of this paper was presented at the SONAPLES 2011 Conference.

Resumen

Este artículo analiza los cambios históricos y recientes en los idiomas en Chile, desde el aymara y el mapudungun y español de los españoles conquistadores a las más recientes influencias de otras lenguas, incluidos los idiomas asiáticos. Chile es un lugar de la inmigración, la colonización y la influencia de los medios de comunicación. Todos estos factores contribuyen al cambio lingüístico como resultado de la globalización, que tiene como objetivo acercar a las personas, culturas y naciones más juntas hacia un entendimiento global y para fomentar los procesos globales en cualquier área (por ejemplo, negocios, religión, política, ciencia, etc.) El documento concluye que el español de Chile, así como otros "-ish" lenguas en Chile (Spanglish, Inglés, Chinglish) comparten no sólo léxica, pero las influencias fonológicas provocada por una zona de contacto lingüístico que se amplifica por la inmigración, el comercio y la política, y por las nuevas tecnologías de comunicación electrónica.

Key Words: Chile, Chinglish, comunicación, Inglés, globalización, cambios del lenguaje, zonas linguísticas de contacto, influencia del lenguaje, lenguajes nativos, Español.

Abstract:

This paper examines the historic and recent changes in languages in Chile, from the native Aymara and Mapudungun to the Spanish of the Conquistadores to more recent influences from other languages, including Asiatic languages. Chile is a place of immigration, colonization and media influence; all these factors contribute to language change as a result of globalization, which aims to bring people, cultures, and nations closer together toward a global understanding and to foster global processes in any area (e.g., business, religion, politics, science, etc.). The paper concludes that Chilean Spanish as well as other “-ish” languages in Chile (Spanglish, English, Chinglish) share not only lexical but phonological influences brought about by a linguistic contact zone that is amplified by immigration, commerce and politics, and by the new electronic communication technologies.

Key Words: Chile, Chinglish, communication, English, globalization, language change, linguistic contact zones, language influence, native languages, Spanish.

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Definitions: other eastern European languages; and several Asian languages, such as Arabic, Globalization: any effort to bring Chinese, and more recently, Hindi and people, cultures, or nations closer together others. In addition, ongoing influences to form a global understanding and to from neighboring languages, such as foster global processes in any area (e.g., Argentinean Spanish, move freely back business, religion, politics, science, etc.) and forth over national borders. Language “ish” languages: languages in has no borders, only contact zones and which influence from English plays a role changes in the languages that exist within in language change or use. NOTE: English those zones, where the speakers itself is such a language, as it is the encounter one another and gain influences language that developed from global from other languages—these influences encounters in linguistic contact zones from can be found wherever globalization Latin (via the French), from Germanic occurs. Languages (especially Saxon), and from Furthermore, more recent the Anglo (Celtic) languages. Spanglish influences, since the eighteenth century, and Chinglish are contemporary examples have come by way of various media, which of linguistically changed languages include spoken messages, personally resulting from contact between Spanish, written messages, hardcopy publications Chinese and English. of one form or another, and more Chilean Spanish: derived from recently, by electronic media such as languages including, but not limited to: telephone, telegraph, television, computer Castilian Spanish, the native languages of and the new portable communication Mapudungun, Aymara, Quechua, and system and its thousands of apps others, plus all other languages with which (applications): mobile cellular phones. it comes into contact and from which it Chile prides herself on being the “most borrows terms wholly or partially, from connected” country in Latin America; this which it creates “dichos” or idiomatic connection to the world plays out in the expressions, or otherwise uses. Chilean language used throughout the nation, and Spanish is highly creative and forgiving, abroad. And, the globalizing influences of and it is recognized a dialect, from these media affect the politics, market, Castilian, which is the root of Spanish in social situation and, importantly, the Chile (1500s). language(s) of Chile. GLOBALIZATION AND LANGUAGE Thus, when considering language CHANGE IN CHILE change in Chile, we must look at the (Contact Zones, the “-ish” Languages, and multiple influences of globalization. Chile More) is, or would like to be, a member of the “industrialized nations” of the world. For Introduction this reason, and others, the Ministry of Education spends a lot of money on such Language changes in the Spanish programs as “Programa Ingles Abre of Chile can be attributed to historical Puertas”--the “open doors” English influences from native languages, such as, program--and the Comisión Nacional de but not limited to, Mapudungun, spoken Investigación Científica y Tecnológica by the Mapuche in southern Chile, and the (National Commission of Scientific and Quechua and Aymara languages spoken Technological Research or CONICYT) by the native peoples of the altiplano in graduate scholarship program, among northern Chile, southern Peru and western others, and it offers many exchange Bolivia. Immigration languages have also scholarships and sponsors visits to influenced the language in Chile. These English-speaking countries include: British, American and other (www.Mineduc.cl) for students, faculty, Englishes; French, German and other and administrators. Why all this interest in western European languages; Czech and English? Because it has been accepted as

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the official language of the World Trade change in Chile, but more about that later Organization, and perhaps because in this paper. China’s 1.4 billion people are learning English—with children as young as two or Native Language Influence three years studying English in nursery school, and all college graduates required First, let’s take a look at the to pass the CET English exam if they want native languages and the ways in which to earn their diplomas, and also because they have influenced Chilean Spanish. India’s 1.4 billion people learn English in When the first Spanish came over the the schools (left over from British Andes into Chile in the area near Copiapo colonialism). The joint population of India in the central Atacama Desert, in what and China is nearly half the human was, though not historically documented population on earth, and those people are as such at the time, an early effort in learning or already using at least basic globalizing the world (to expand controlled English. The four most widely spoken area, gain resources, establish trade, languages on the planet are Mandarin, colonize, and do all the things that English, Castilian Spanish, and Hindi-Urdu, globalization does), they brought with all of which are found in pure form as well them the sixteenth century Castilian as in changed form in Chile language. The military men in the early (www.krysstal.com/spoken.html). expeditions, and in later groups of These four languages are deeply immigrants, usually spoke the standard involved in the globalization that affects Castilian Spanish of the time, and as is business, economy, science, politics, typical in a situation where the conquerors education and everything else about life in determine the rules for the conquered Chile, except for those who live in total or people, the locals had to learn to near-total isolation. Contact through communicate in their language. But, as globalization has led to the influences of these men bedded the local women and one language upon another, so that in learned about local culture and the areas Chile one now finds Spanglish, Chinglish, in which they settled, they also learned English and “–ish” variations of other native languages. These included, as we languages present in the country. In know, the Quechua and Aymara languages addition, Chileans use uncountable in the north and later, Mapudungun in the colloquial expressions, or dichos, that southern part of the country, as well as show influences from common habits and other less influential native languages, usage as well as borrowing from other such as the Kolla, a stem language from languages. Although these “ish” language Quechua (Adelaar), spoken by the native forms often follow the vocabulary and group who migrated from Argentina into linear structure of English, when spoken the high desert precordillera valleys of they may also tend to become wild north central Chile. These native varieties of English in which the first languages contain words that have languages often predominate in entered entirely or in altered form into the pronunciation and accents, and speakers speech of Chileans, no matter their ethnic may also hold onto the first language or earlier national heritage, as Chileans in diction and syntax when spoken. general are a mixed racial and ethnic Conversely, the “-ish” variations may also group. Words for common human be predominately Spanish or Chinese with activities include such terms as “corral” heavy influence of English vocabulary, from Mapudungun koral, which we know especially slang as a place to hold animals. These native (www.spanglishexchange.com). terms also included traditional names for We should bear in mind that apart areas or places that still exist in Chile. For from these variations and lingual example, an M8.8 earthquake in 2010 exchanges, purely linguistic influences also noisily shook Talca; this city name is a play very important roles in language distorted form of the Mapudungun word

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tralka, which means “thunder” in English Their miners were altiplano people, (Glosario: Espanol-Mapudungun). speaking Aymara and Quechua. And, Chileans also use native names for British babies in the far north of Chile were family—how about gua-gua, the Aymara no longer babies in the language of the word for “baby”, but which Chileans use as “nanas” or maids and child care givers, one of the famous dichos to mean who cared for gua-guas, which the local anything alive that is small and dear, like British began to use in their a cute “perrito” or little puppy. Names for English/Spanglish as well. The term things (especially food), also come from “nana” was first used ancient Greece or native languages. “Manzana” originally Italy, and though suspected of stemming came from Mapudungun manshana and from baby talk, referred to grandmothers means “apple” (Glosario: Espanol- (nanna/nonna), who traditionally cared for Mapudungun); manzana is used their grandchildren (collinsdictionary.com). throughout Spanish speaking countries to The term easily transferred to household mean apple. And Chileans and visitors helpers. (Although “nana” has nearly the very much enjoy palta from the Aymara same meaning throughout Latin America, phalta, or avocate (Joelson 2005), which in certain parts of Mexico, a gua-gua is a is the term in Spanish everywhere other bus? How did that happen?) It is than in Chile, or, in English, an avocado. important to remember that languages Or how about “mani”, which is really a change constantly, and Spanglish took cacahuete, or peanut? “Mani” is the Hindi hold in northern Chile as the Brits learned word meaning jewel Spanish and Chileans learned English, (www.dictionary.tamilcube.com/hindi- including their borrowing from the native dictionary.aspx?term=Jewel). How did languages in that contact zone. Chileans obtain that word? From the Hindi, And, Darwin and other British or from “mano” because hands are scientists and explorers brought scientific “manos” in Spanish, and hands hold the and other very different terminology to peanuts? In any case, the creative Chilean Chile, just as they took things home with language embodies many such different them to Europe. Experts believe that terms and treats them as its own. Darwin, for one, took home Chagas Disease and died from it (Bernstein; Immigrant Language Influence Salwen); that disease results from the bite of the insect called a ”vinchuca” in Following the early Spanish, Argentina, Bolivia, Chile and Paraguay, but within a century or so, other immigrants known by other names in other Latin began to arrive in Chile with additional American countries. Along with language, early globalization efforts, and other the Europeans also introduced many languages began to influence the Chilean communicable diseases, such as measles Spanish. In the late eighteenth century, and poxes that decimated the native the British arrived in force in northern population, just as they took home Chile, even though they had already made Syphilis and other diseases that had been themselves at home in ports such as unknown in Europe. Thus, not only do the Valparaiso, where today we find Chilean globalizing influences of humans share a sailors using English terms for navigation, linguistic contact zone, but also a contact but in their local Spanglish, in which the zone of health, which brings about pronunciation may follow Spanish, but the changes in medicine, too. And with these word is basically taken from the English. contacts, the beginning of recognized Look at barco, for example, which is a globalization and the influence of British bark, which originated earlier in politics,commerce, trade, science, English from the French barque, a three to medicine and other endeavors took hold in five masted ship (Shakespeare’s Words). Chile. In the north, the British came for In the middle of the nineteenth minerals, principally nitrates for fertilizer. century, Chile encouraged immigrants

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from Europe to open southern Chile by joined with Chileans, their language, offering land and assistance in settling the mostly Mandarin Chinese (rather than wild forests of the Lakes, Bio-Bio and Cantonese), entered the language contact Patagonian areas. In this zone and introduced many words that colonization/globalization effort, Germans Chileans have adopted wholesale, albeit came in force, as did French, Swiss, with spelling, pronunciation and Czechs, and other hard working Europeans accentuation differences. For example, in seeking a new life (Tock; Sutter and Chinese, chi fan means “eat food” and Sunkel). With them came new language today, village people in rural China greet influences, and when they contacted each other with those two words meaning: Mapudungun and Spanish, many changes “Hello, did you eat/have breakfast”—and in languages occurred so that in many if so, that means you have enough to eat, parts of Chile, especially in southern Chile, and the day will be a good one we now have kuchen and beer, not torta (Chinesetools.en). But in Chile there are and cerveza. Yet, in the north, in the numerous Chinese restaurants that are Arica area where many Arab-speaking named or commonly called “chifun” or people have settled, and in other parts of “chifa”. In addition, Chileans are growing Chile where where settled Spanish from to enjoy eating chushi or Japanese sushi, the Alhambra, which the Arabs controlled using the Spanish “ch” sound rather than for 700 years, the linguistic contact zone the “ts” sound of the Japanese or the “sh” enabled various elements of Arabic to of English. And to go with that good enter the Chilean Spanish. Thus, non-Arab Spanglish/Chinglish/”SpangChing” cho sue Chileans use the word keke for cake (from (chop suey), one might drink a “Fanta” Arabic kaka) and pastel for various types (Fanta), which in Chilean dichos, is not an of pie (www.arabic- orange colored soft drink; it’s a red- language.org/arabic/dictionary.asp). headed person (Joelson). Truly, Chilean Pastel is a common word used today in the language is affected by English, Chinese Magreb, the northern Arabic-speaking area and a host of other languages—and of Africa, for example, in Morocco, as the cultures—and adapts them to serve its name of various types of vegetable or purposes for communication. Where else somewhat sweet meat pies e.g., chicken in the world can people say that the with fruit, cinnamon, and sugar). And of women selling watermelons (English) has course, with not often considered grandes sandias and NOT mean that her language borrowing and adaptation, the edible watermelons are huge? Chileans now make and eat their famous “pastel de choclo”—it’s not keke de maiz! Neighborly Language Influence Or even keke de choclo…and certainly not corn pie! It is absolutely pure Chilean food Of course, the language contact made from local starchy corn or choclo zones in our globalizing world also include paste cooked over meat and onions, but the “neighborhood languages” such as the name for the dish is certainly Argentinean Spanish, Peruvian Spanish, influenced by the language contact with Mexican Spanish and others in addition to pastel influenced from Arabic, and choclo the various Chilean Spanish dialects such from an unknown native language. Choclo as Chilote, from Chiloe Island. Many is not a Spanish word, and neither is maiz, dichos, or popular terms, also stem from which is also from a Latin American the code languages used in prisons or indigenous language (Introductions). among mobs, coa terminology, for Prior to the 1879-1893 War of the example. And, even the commonly used Pacific (Library of Congress), Chinese had “onces” comes from the Prohibition era come to Peru and Chile as miners and when the workmen, wanting a little nip of railroad builders, and more than a alcohol after work, used the code of thousand Chinese sided with Chile during “elevens” to ask for aguardiente (or tooth that conflict (Chou 2004). When they water), the strong alcohol whose name

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has eleven letters. Or, for tea, they asked reporters talked about the terrific central for “te rojo”, meaning red wine. Tea, of Chilean M8.8 earthquake and ten meter course, is not a Spanish or Chilean word, tsunami, with Chileans asking why the or an English word, either; it’s from the world was calling the terremoto an Malay the, from the Mandarin t’h by way earthquake or the maremoto a tsunami. In of cha (pronounced cha or chai) from the 2011, Chileans heard about the Portuguese—but who knows who said it devastating earthquake and tsunami in first? Thus, code terms, as well as Japan, and they are discussing the common terms derived from other earthquake and tsunami--not the languages spread about by globalizing terremoto and maremoto. Let’s see how efforts, have immense influence on much longer it takes for earthquake and language change as they enter the tsunami to become Chileans’ favored everyday speech of Chileans and others. linguistic terms for those two natural So, geography, types and times of events that can wreak so much damage, immigration, other efforts in globalization, with the possible disappearance of including trade in minerals and other terremoto and maremoto, at least in the products, and many other factors continue media. to influence Chilean language. The Central Valley “huaso” speaks a very Other Globalizing Influences different language from Chiloe’s “chilote”; yet, these Chileans can understand one In addition to the media, another because they have a base in globalized trade in minerals, timber Castilian Spanish. Plus, they share the products, agricultural products, oceanic media, in which spoken, written, and products, and human resources have electronic materials and programs attracted outside investment in Chile, (including the language spoken or written) while at the same time, Chile invests are shared among everyone. Chileans externally. People make these also seem to share a generous tolerance transactions, and they do so in shared for linguistic differences, and errors. language—which is more and more in Classes in “correct” Spanish language are English or Spanglish. One hears people taught in schools and institutes, but say “voy al bank” instead of “voy al banco” people read newspapers including El and everyone goes to the “supermercado” Mercurio, the oldest Spanish language or supermarket. And, which Chilean newspaper on the planet, watch TV, and doesn’t say “super”, with a beautiful communicate in “text messaging”—and in Spanish pronunciation and the lengthy “u” all of these communication media, dichos accentuaed? and –ishes can be found as part of the Scientific discoveries and shared common everyday language use. research in such areas as astronomy, gastronomy, and human and other animal Media Language Use Influence biology also lead to new terms and changes in the language. Americans know Perhaps the greatest modern what guavas are, and Chileans know what influence on Chilean language comes from blueberries are. The rush to plant electronic sources: television, computer, arandanos began about five years ago, mobile phones, and other mobile devices. and no one in Chile knew what those It’s not for nothing that Chile is the most were, and especially, no one recognized connected nation in South America. Her the fruit as a blueberry. Today, however, citizens feel the effects of globalization everyone seems to know what a blueberry with its focus on business, economy, is, and we even see supermarket ads for science, politics, education and language. blueberries, not arandanos. Cranberries In 2010 there was an argument in the are another new export crop being raised media about the terms terremoto and in the south of Chile, and as of 2012 were maremoto when the international just entering the Chilean market. Still,

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very few people have heard of or tasted a individual who has little exposure to fresh or dried cranberry. But, to the English apart from a formal class once or contrary, many Chileans now know what twice a week will generally be slower in peanut butter is, since the LIDER (LEADER acquiring skills and will not gain the in English)) supermarkets sell it at half the fluency of a person who takes that same price it cost three years ago, and kids love class but has friends or family who speak it. Even the label calls it “pasta de mani” English on a frequent or daily basis and with a subtitle of “peanut butter”, but the with whom he or she can practice. And, product name includes that Hindi jewel, we know that children are like little the mani, in the Chilean Spanish. And, sponges, soaking up anything they hear even the Chilean scientists have entered and trying to use it, including foreign the linguistic contact zone: all the terms, English language from school astronomers discuss stars and planets, not classes, family and others, and the media. estrellas and planetas. People also tend to mimic language used In Chile, a lot of international by those around them; so, they learn their activities are going on, with visits from pronunciation, vocabulary, and errors, government officials, religious officials, which they tend to fossilize or make tourists and students. All of this global permanent as part of their own speech if movement means more contact in cultural not corrected early in the acquisition and linguistic zones, in which Chileans, process. A woman, who speaks lovely with their many linguistic and cultural Castilian Spanish a la Costa Rica listened differences, encounter each other, adapt to this writer speak Spanish and told her, what’s useful, and make changes. “You sound like a Chilean…super fast, no Language change in Chile is an important “s” and no “d” and a lot of weird words!” result of these activities, as people Her Spanish is slower and more carefully attempt to communicate with and pronounced but perhaps not so much fun comprehend each other. (Nicita)! The more communicative Linguistic Influences redundancy, that is, the more repetition of sounds, vocabulary, syntax, and so forth Earlier, it was mentioned that that a person hears or uses, the easier apart from the immigration, trade, and so and faster it is to acquire the second on of globalization, and the culture and language. In classes, teachers and language sharing, there are purely students learn and use formal rules for linguistic influences that also affect acquiring language, and the grammar that language change in Chile. For example, contains the do’s and don’ts of the formal the stage of acquisition of second language. Those rules usually don’t apply language learners is important (Nahkola when the “correct” form of a language is and Saanilahti 2004), and Chilean children altered (Young 1988). For example, when are typically receiving some sort of English Eubonics, the dialect of English or English- class beginning in the fifth grade of based language (there is discussion about elementary school. English has overtaken whether Eubonics is a language or a the popular French as the second language dialect) that is used in urban black to acquire in Chile, after native Spanish, neighborhoods in the U.S. is examined, we and it appears that Chilean education and find that Eubonics has its own rules individuals are developing a “critical (Rickford). The agreement of the verb with language awareness” (Ferias) that is the second or third person is typically the influencing teaching and learning of same as for the first person. And the foreign languages. But, the linguistic infinitive often takes the place of a present environment and the communicative tense verb, for example, I be, you be, he redundancy are factors of strong influence be, we be, you be, and they be are correct on the skills and speed of acquisition forms in the grammar in Eubonics. In (Young 1988). For example, an Chilean Spanish, the second person plural

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“vosotros” is not used, but that is incorrect (Chinesetools.en). Missing the tone can usage in Castilian Spanish. Perhaps lead to calling a mother a horse, etc. but grammar rules are easily broken in the “a” maintains its single sound in all of linguistic contact zones when the ma variations. Furthermore, repeated communication takes priority. words, such as are heard daily in the It is important to recognize that the users media, especially on TV, such as blue themselves also affect the language, as jeans, which comes out in Spanglish as they want, above all else, to have the bluyeans or Nike a Nik (neek) or Neekay in language function for them (Cox 2003). Chilean Spanglish. Phrases do the same: So, when a Chilean says that he wants to Go for it! (Go for eet) or See you later drive “vuelte la manzana”, other Chileans (see you laa-tearrr with a nice roll at the know that he wants to drive “around the end!). And it goes on and on; the more block”, not really “around the apple”. Or, repetition and redundancy we hear around and consider this huaso dicho (a huaso is us, the more we change our own central Chilean Farmer, often considered language--and the more the general usage backward, or in English slang, a “hick”), changes, with the surviving form being the “Cama corta y muerte dulce” (Cox 2003). strongest or the one most able to Since when is a short bed a sweet death? accurately describe the users’ intentions No, but people want the language to (Ritt 2004). function to express their ideas, and in this Chileans often tell me that they case to say that if one spend less time in speak lazy Spanish or bad Spanish. bed/being lazy, one’s life will be happier or Sometimes they say that they don’t speak sweeter. Not only the ideas, but alto the Spanish at all, except in formal situations; linguistic influences of other languages they say they speak Chilean, which is spread fast and deep. When humans recognized as a dialect of Spanish and respond to others, they use minds and very different from Castilian Spanish. But, bodies, cognition and pragmatics, to Chileans can communicate easily and communicate. Exposure to language rapidly, even with body gestures and an “- comes in many ways and from many ish” language; they’re friendly, outgoing, places, and the language changes and is happy, and not exactly introverts! They’re used differently on account of those curious and want to understand the world influences (Hickey 2003). even though most never travel far from A Few Additional Linguistic Factors home. And they are generous in so many that Affect Chileans and Their Repeated ways, one of which is in language sounds help us learn pronunciation tolerance. Never has a polite, kind Chilean (McMahon 2003), and Spanish and told this writer that she has “lousy Chinese share the same vowel sounds, so Spanish”—oh, no, they say, “ah senora, se that speakers of Spanglish and Chinglish puede hablar bien”—and that’s better than must learn to pronounce a “short I” in it telling her something like “Estar arriba del vs. the Spanglish/Chinglish eat (this vs. columpio” (You are high on the swing.) or these, etc.) if they wish to speak English “Ud es un cero a la izquierda!” (You are a without that home language pronunciation zero to the left!), none of which really influence. The sounds of “a” in English are make much sense in literal translation but much more plentiful than in the single are commonly understood colloquial terms sound of the “a” in Chinese and Spanish: or dichos (Cox 2003). apple vs. awful vs. senora vs. ma. The Chinese ma maintains the single sound of Conclusion “a” but with four tones in Mandarin, to indicate the meaning—mother, horse, In conclusion, it can be seen that question marker (?), ant, grasshopper language changes by the moment, and frog, toad, and many other words those changes are caused by contact depending on which of the four tones is between people and their communication used, and on the calligraphic symbol during purposeful or accidental

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globalization. We recognize that Chile is in Bernstein MB, Ralph E. Darwin’s illness: the global world in so very many ways, Chagas’ disease resurgens. Journal of the through trade, political and economic Royal Society of Medicine, Volume 77 July situations, people exchange, media 1984. influence from outside, and so on. And, the Chilean language is globalizing. Chinesetools.en. Chileans are creative, and their language www.chinesetools.eu/chinese- pragmatically acts like a sponge within its dictionary/index.php?q=ma&champs=all& own parameters, sucking up English, Submit=Search&ca=&tr=. Accessed Chinese, and any other language, regional February 24, 2011. dialect, slang, or media-projected Chou, Diego Lin (2004), Chile y China: language with which Chileans come in inmigración y relaciones bilaterales (1845- contact. External and internal influences 1970), Santiago de Chile: Instituto de affect the language changes in Chile, as Historia/Centro de Investigaciones Diego Chileans and foreigners learn about each Barros Arana. other in the world at large and in various Collins Dictionary (online). areas of this long long slender country full http://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionar of many interesting cultures and language y/english/nana. Accessed January 24, differences, si po…or is it si puu? Catchai? 2012. Formal and informal education affects Cox, Huneeus Pablo. 2003. Perro con language rapidly and for both long and corbata nadie lo mata: Dichos de campo. short duration, and individuals and groups República de Chile: Editora Nueva change all aspects of communication, Generacion. frequently and with long-lasting effects. Fanta. 2011. http://www.fanta.com. We also know that Chileans may not be Accessed February 12, 2012. understood by other Spanish speakers, not even by Chileans from other parts of the Ferias, Miguel. 2005. Critical language country—but that makes communication awareness in foreign language learning. interesting, and challenging! Si no? Literatura y Linguistica, n. 16, p. 211-222. Chilean (Spanish) is unique, http://www.scielo.cl/scielo.php?pid=s0716 generous, and fun! The “-ish” languages -58112005000100012&script=sci_arttext. found in Chile are the same, mainly Accessed January 27, 2012. because they are used by such generous Glosario: Espanol-Mapudungun. people who are usually more interested in www.xs4all.nl/%7Erehue/lang/gloss.html. communication than correctness. Nosotros Accessed October 6, 2009. no tenemos una cabeza de pollo (We don’t Hickey, Raymond. 2003. “How do dialects have a head of a chicken), Entonces get the features they have? On the espero que uds. no tengan un problema process of new dialect formation” in (so I hope you don’t have any problem) de Motives for language change. Cambridge: no entender ni a palo de este articulo (of Cambridge University Press, pp. 213-239. not understanding a stick of this article). Hindi Dictionary. And with that, hasta la vista, bebe—or www.dictionary.tamilcube.com/hindi- should I say, hasta la vista, gua-gua? dictionary.aspx?term=Jewel. Accessed March 14, 2011. Introduction to the Indigenous Languages Works Cited of Latin America. http://www.arch.cam.ac.uk/~pah1003/qu Adelaar, Willem F.H. (2004). The echua/Eng/Main/i_INTRO.HTM. Nd. languages of the Andes. Cambridge: Accessed March 18, 2011. Cambridge University Press. Joelson, Daniel. 2005. Chilenismos. New Arabic Dictionaries. www.arabic- York: Hippocrene Books. language.org/arabic/dictionary.asp. Library of Congress. 1994. Hudson, Rex Accessed March 12, 2011. A., ed. War of the Pacific, 1879-83 In

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