Index

References to notes, figures and tables are entered as (respectively) 21n, 21f or 21t. Phonetic symbols are filed (in order of articulation point), at the beginning of the index.

/b/, 81–2 Aaron, Jesse, 277 /Ө/, 61–2, 114–16, 311, 718 Aaron, Jessi E., 158, 159, 496, 497, 583–4 /tʃ/, 116 AATSP (American Association of /s/, 18, 19f, 29n, 38, 64, 65, 73–7, Teachers of Spanish 99–106, 114–16, 216–17, 219, and Portuguese), 603 311, 331, 358, 361, 404, 405, 480, accommodation, 42–3, 44–5, 581, 591, 482, 583–4, 709, 710–14, 718–19 592, 593–4, 708 deletion, 43–4, 104–5, 106, 189, definition, 579 232–42 Accountability Principle, 151 word-initial /s/, 82–3 accusative a, 130–7 /d/, 44, 80, 81–2, 112–14, 220–4, ACTFL (American Council on the 265–70, 716t, 720–1 Teaching of Foreign Languages), (ž), 217, 218t, 223–4 600, 603 /r/, 362, 712 actuation problem, language change, /ɾ/, 41, 64, 77–8, 107–9, 265–70, 286–7, 292 331, 341, 342 Adamson, H. Douglas, 268, 305 /l/, 64, 77–8 address, 42–3, 44–5, 210–14, 246–8 (cˇ), 217, 220 child-directed speech, 272–5, 278 /j/, 358 tú-usted variation, 192, 194, 210–11, / λ /, 61, 81, 107–9, 331, 244–60 342, 712 COPYRIGHTEDcross-dialectal MATERIAL comparisons, 249–50, /ɡ/, 81–2 256–9 /r/, 362, 404–5, 483 adjectives, 365 [h], 74 administrative languages, 326–7, 399 [ʔ], 360–1 adolescents, 41, 45, 219, 220–4 17th–19th century Spanish, 153–9, acquisition of group norms, 276–7, 247, 297–8 315–16

The Handbook of Hispanic Sociolinguistics, First Edition. Edited by Manuel Díaz-Campos. © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. Published 2015 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

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adolescents (cont’d) Alba, Matthew, 39 role in language change, 293 Albó, Xavier, 688 terms of address, 211–14 ALEA (Atlas Lingüístico y Etnográfico de adverbs, 210, 387, 390, 405–6 Andalucía), 115, 117n and morphosyntactic variation, 126–30, Aleman, Steven R., 637 151, 161, 194 Alentejano (Portuguese ), 402–4, 414 scope, 144n Alfonso X, King of Castile and León, 296, advertising, 542–4, 565 297, 399, 670 affricate consonants, 21–2, 63, 81, 116, Algeria, 475, 479 360, 483 allí~allá alternation, 171–2 African-Americans, influence on New Alliance for the Advancement of York Spanish, 741 Heritage Languages, 604 African contact varieties, 446–67 allophones, 59–62, 65–6 lexico-semantic features, 448–50 Alonso, Amado, 63 morphosyntactic features, 450–3, 457–8, Alonso, Ana, 564 466–7 Alonso, Dámaso, 249 phonological features, 74, 76, 80, 453, Althusser, Louis, 556 456–7, 458 Alvarez, Celia, 565 prosodic features, 86–8, 457 Álvarez Nazario, Manuel, 77, 232 ritual languages, 453, 458–62, 467, 469n alveolar consonants, 60f, 61 Afro-, 81, 86 Alvord, Scott, 22, 331 Afro-Cuban ritual languages, 453, 459, 467 Amastae, Jon, 81–2 age differences, 37, 40–1, 207–25 ambisyllabicity, definition, 74–5 addressee-speaker relationship, 210–14, American Association of Teachers of 272–5, 278 Spanish and Portuguese changes in brain structure, 208 (AATSP), 603 definition, 208 American Council on the Teaching of discourse-pragmatic factors, 433–9 Foreign Languages (ACTFL), and gender segregation, 219–25, 231, 600, 603 237, 241–2 American English, 268–9, 270–1, 274, and language acquisition, 264–79 275, 276–7 and language change, 293, 714 American Spanish see Latin American and language shift/maintenance, Spanish; United States Spanish 355, 633 anaphora, direct objects, 137–43 morphosyntactic variation, 172, 175, 182, , 29n, 106, 112–16, 190–2, 426, 433–9 706, 707, 715–19, 720 peer / parent distinction, 276, 279 , 323–42 phonological variation, 106, 108–9, 114, castellano motoso (interlect), 328–9 116, 264–79, 584 morphosyntactic features, 328–33 prosodic variation, 22, 23–4 phonological features, 14, 84, 328, 331 stylistic variation, 268–9, 270–2, prosodic features, 22, 85 279n sociolinguistic features, 334–41 Age Grading, 219, 220 Andersen, Margaret L., 656 agreement, 387, 420–1, 457, 719, 722 Andersen, Roger, 304 Agüero Mansfield, Karina, 358 Andorra, Bruno, 637 Aguirre, A., Jr., 536 animacy Aijón Oliva, Miguel Ángel, 195, 197 and case marking, 195 Aikhenvald, Alexandra Y., 467, 469n and differential object marking, Alarcos, Emilio, 61 131–2, 133–5, 137

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and resumptive pronouns, 176–7t Atlas lingüístico y etnográfico de Andalucia Anipa, Kormi, 298 (ALEA), 115, 117n anthropolitical linguistics, 554 atonic vowels, 83 Antilla, Arto, 58 attrition, 526n Antón, Marta, 476 Auger, Julie, 207 Antoníni-Boscán, María, 277 , 324, 326, 327, 339, 674, Anzaldúa, Gloria, 540, 566, 567, 740 690–1, 692, 693, 694, 737 Aparacio, Frances R., 558 Azevedo Maia, Clarinda de, 397, 398–9 Appadurai, Arjun, 738 Apparent Time analysis, 219–20 Bach, Robert L., 636 Appleyard, José Luis, 363, 366–9 Backus, A., 532 approximants, 15, 17, 80, 81–2, 112–14 Badia i Margarit, Antoni, 387 aquí~acá alternation, 171–2 Bakker, Dik, 359 contact varieties, 473–86 Bakker, Peter, 395–6 history of, 474–6 Baldauf, Richard B., 668 lexicon, 481, 485–6 Balearic Islands, 385, 388 monolingual speakers, 478, 480–1 Bariola, Nino, 739 morphosyntactic features, 484–5 Barker, George Carpenter, 566 phonological features, 480, 481–3 Barranquenho, 395–415, 416n Arellano, Gustavo, 655, 659–60 lexico-semantic features, 401, Arellano, Juan Estevan, 84 405–6, 412 Arends, Jacques, 395–6 morphosyntactic features, 396–7, , 475, 479–80, 484 405–12 Argentinean Spanish phonological features, 402–5 discourse markers, 330–1 Barranquilla Spanish, 174–5 discourse-pragmatic features, 249–50, Barrera-Tobón, Carolina, 592 258, 259t Barrett, Rusty, 562, 654, 655, 656, 658 morphosyntactic features, 127–37, Barrios, Graciela, 76 144n, 179 Basque contact varieties, 188, 192, 194, phonological features, 12–13f, 15, 17, 343n 20, 38, 67, 69n, 75–6, 217–18, prosodic features, 22 360–1, 482–3 Basque (Euskara), 671 prosodic features, 22, 23–4, 25f, 85, 88 Bauckus, S., 599 argumentation, definition, 48 Bauer, Laurie, 592 articles, 457 Bayley, Robert, 439, 560, 569 articulation, 56 Beaud, Laurence, 270 consonants, 15, 17, 21, 63, 65 Beebe, Leslie, 306 vowels, 17, 264 Bell, Allan, 42, 44–5, 46, 49 aspect, 159–64, 191, 332–4, 406–7 see also Bello, Andrés, 673 tense/aspect benefactive aspect, 334 aspiration, 18, 29n, 64, 73–5, 104, 106, 358, Benson, Carole, 691 719, 731–2 Benson, E., 530 word-initial /s/, 82–3 Bentivoglio, Paola, 39, 168, 169, 173, assibilation, 20, 38, 331, 341, 342 176–7t, 178, 180, 431 assimilation, 65–6 Benvenutto Murrieta, Pedro, 328 theories, 56, 57–9 Berger, Peter, 212 Atanay, Reginaldo, 557 Bernstein, Robert, 633 Atlas lingüístico de la península Ibérica Bestene, Jorge, 475 (ALPI), 10, 117n Bhatia, T., 545n

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Biber, Douglas, 45 Borrego Nieto, Julio, 378 Bickerton, Derek, 418–41 borrowing see loan words Bilingual Education Act (2001), 677 Boswell, Thomas D., 630 bilingualism, 337–41, 355–8, 439–41, 481–6, Bourbon monarchy, 296–7, 325, 374, 670 546n see also specific speech Bourdieu, Pierre, 214, 730 communities, e.g. New York, Bourhis, R.Y., 633, 634 Spanish-English speakers Boyd, Sally, 632 attitudes to, 555–62, 566–7, 569–70, Boyer, Henri, 357 634–40, 675–8, 742 , 453, 466 see also African bicultural/bilingual education, 336–7, contact varieties 344n, 357–8, 479, 673–4, 677, Bradley, Travis, 15 686–700, 736 , 138–9, 736 colonial period, 324–6, 354, 356–7 Brekhus, Wayne, 215 and convergence, 385–7, 534–6 Brezinger, Matthias, 626, 628 immersion programs, 389, 390 Briggs, Charles L., 565 and language shift, 556–7, 562–3, 625–8 Bright, Jane, 527n research questions, 419, 421, 609–15 Bright, William, 527n sequential bilingualism, 436–7 Brinton, D., 599 stable bilingualism, 339–41, 413, 631–3 Britain, David, 717 theoretical models, 560–1, 568–70 British English, 273–4, 275–6 Billig, Michael, 734 Brizuela, Maquela, 498 Bills, Garland D., 630, 634 Broce, Marlene, 39 biological age, definition, 208 see also age Brody, Jill, 494, 563 differences Brown, Penelope, 256 Biondi Assali, Estela, 479–80, 482–3, 484 Brown, Roger, 192, 246–7, 249, 252 Birren, James, 208 Brugè, Laura, 135 Bishop, Melissa, 543, 565 Brugger, Gerhard, 135 Blackledge, Adrian, 681n Brutt-Griffler, J., 750 Blanco, Ana, 117n, 189 Spanish Blas Arroyo, José Luis, 188, 189, 192, discourse-pragmatic features, 249–50, 193–4, 376, 378, 379, 382, 383, 258, 259t 385, 387, 388, 389, 390, 722 morphosyntactic features, 131–7, 144n bleaching, 161, 164 phonological features, 12, 20, 75, 217–18 definition, 154 prosodic features, 22, 23–4, 25f, 85, 88 blending, 387, 390 Bullock, B., 534, 536 Blevins, Juliette, 28 Bullock, Barbara E., 732 Blondeau, Hélène, 220, 225 Burke, Deborah, 208, 219 Bloomfield, Leonard, 221 Bustamente, Isabel, 333 Bogard, Sergio, 178 Bustos, Eugenio de, 65 Bogotá (Colombia), 250–6 Bustos Tovar, José Jesús de, 285 Bohannon, John Neil, 274, 278 Bybee, Joan, 39, 149, 156, 157, 159, 160 Bolivia bilingual education, 687–92 Cabré, Teresa, 12 language policy, 327, 336, 690–2 Callawalla language, 324, 342n population, 338–9, 687 calques, 363–4, 381, 499–500, 527n, 532 Bolivian Spanish, 81 Calvet, Louis-Jean, 680 Bonfil Batalla, Guillermo, 672 Cameron, Richard, 189, 211, 219, 220–4, Booth, Wayne ., 48 225, 231, 241, 426–7 borderlands theory, 566–7, 630 Campbell, R., 604–5

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Campos, Héctor, 138 morphosyntactic features, 188, 189, Canadian English, 275–6 194, 376–7, 379, 383–4 Canale, Michael, 314 phonological features, 16, 27, 379, 382–3, 388 morphosyntactic features, 188, 189, prosodic features, 22, 23f, 384 190–1, 192, 194 , 671 phonological features, 38, 39, 99–117 Catalan-Spanish speakers, 189, 391n Canfield, D. Lincoln, 81 categorization, 28 Cano Aguilar, Rafael, 296, 298 Cedergren, Henrietta J., 80, 217, 220 Cano, R., 720 CEECS (Corpus of Early English Canqui, Roberto Choque, 688 Correspondence Sampler), 290 Cantone, Katja, 545n Cepeda, Gladys, 38 Cantonese, dialect acquisition, 586–7, 594n Cerrón Palomino, Rodolfo, 328, 333, 693 Caracas Spanish Cervantes Institute (), morphosyntactic features, 169–74, 678, 754, 756–8, 760, 761n 176–7t, 178, 179–80, 182–3 Cestero, Ana María, 722–3 phonological features, 44, 265–70 Ceuta, 474, 476, 477, 486 Caravedo, Rocío, 56, 63, 331 Chakor, Mohammed, 486 Carbonero, Pedro, 717 Chambers, J.K., 707–8 Chambers, Jack, 275–6, 584 morphosyntactic features, 421, Chang, Charles, 20 429–30 change see language change phonological features, 76, 78, 453 Chávez, R., 607 Carrasco, Patricio, 29n Cheng, An Chung, 308, 310, 312 Carreira, Maria, 593, 606 Chevrot, Jean-Pierre, 270 Carter, Philip M., 563 Chicago Spanish, 496–7, 580t, 584, 588–94 Casado con hijos (TV show), 731–4 Chicano English, 556, 558, 562 case marking, 130–7, 194–5, 199n Chicano Spanish, 565–7, 583, 740 see also Casilda Béjar, Ramón, 679 United States Spanish Cassano, Paul, 359–60, 361, 362 Chihuahas, 647–9, 658, 659–60 Castañer dialect (Puerto Rico), 232–42 child-directed speech, 272–5, 278 castellano motoso (interlect), 328–9 see also child language acquisition, 263–79, 439–41 Andean Spanish cross-linguistic comparisons, 265, 268–9, Castellanos, Diego, 676 273–7, 278 Castellanos, Isabel, 632 dialect acquisition, 275–7, 278, 586–7, Castellón Spanish 590 morphosyntactic features, 188, 189 discourse-pragmatic features, 268–9, phonological features, 388 270–2, 279n, 498–9, 537 morphosyntactic features, 545n history of, 296–8, 398–400, 669–71, 705–6 theories, 263–4, 584 influence of non-standard varieties, children 719–23 identity, 569 morphosyntactic features, 192, 295, 720, terms of address, 212, 213–14 721 Chilean language policy, 327 phonological features, 294–5, 720–1 Castillo-Trelles, Carolina, 173, 174 morphosyntactic features, 176–7t, 179, Castro, Amanda, 251 245 Catalan contact varieties, 374–91 phonological features, 17, 38 lexico-semantic features, 379–80 terms of address, 257–8

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Chinese-Spanish speakers, 308 cognitive processing, age-related Chinese Sui speakers, 276, 279, 586 differences, 208 Chipaya language, 324, 342n cognitivist methodology, 196–8, 199n Choi, Jinny K., 138, 356, 364–6, 370 Colantoni, Laura, 12–13f, 15, 17, 20, Christian, D., 604–5 22, 85 church members, terms of address, Colina, Sonia, 270 210–14 Colombi, M.C., 605 Clahsen, Harald Felser, 440 Colombian language policy, 327 class differences, 37, 38, 39–40, 106, 219–20, , 86, 87–8, 454–8 246–8, 249, 569, 714, 720, 723 discourse-pragmatic features, 250–6, Buenos Aires Spanish, 20, 23–4, 75 494–5 Caracas Spanish, 174 morphosyntactic features, 174–5 in children, 265–70 Palenque , 454–8 Colombian Spanish, 250–6 phonological features, 16–17, 81, 82, Corrientes Spanish, 21, 75–6 456–7, 731–2 , 239, 240 colonial period, 324–6, 356–7, 474–5, 564, United States Spanish, 634–5 565, 672–3, 687, 692–3 , 172, 174 Common Spanish, 717–19 workplace relationships, 253–60 communicative competence, 314–15 clefts, 384, 466, 469n communities of practice, 604–6, 608–13, clitics, 192, 194–5, 199n, 295, 331, 332, 614 407–12, 416n, 453 como (discourse marker), 499–500 deletion, 139–43, 365 Company Company, Concepción, 157, 178, differential object marking, 136 285 resumptive pronouns, 175–7t, 183n Compensatory Hypothesis, 69n coarticulation, and weakening, 17 competence, development of, 314–16 coda consonants, 21, 63–4, 73–80, 99–117 Comrie, Bernard, 137, 139, 154, 162 /s/, 18, 19f, 38, 64, 65, 73–7, 189, 216–17, conceptual convergence, 504–24, 525n see 219, 232–42, 331, 358, 361, 404, 405, also convergence 480, 482, 583–4, 719 definition, 504–5, 511–13 /ɾ/, 41, 64, 77–8, 265–70, 404 Conde Silvestre, Juan Camilo, 289, 290 hierarchy of reduction, 78 conditionals, 188–9, 331 nasals, 79–80 Congos people, 87–8 obstruents, 78–9 Connectionist Model, 306 code separation, 464–5 consonants, 14–22, 59–62, 69n, 73–84, code-switching, 329, 330t, 343n, 367–9, 99–117, 360–1, 403–5, 480–1, 482–3 448–50, 485–6, 530–44, 631–3 see also individual phones, definition, 530, 531–3, 544n e.g. /s/ discourse markers, 496 articulation of, 15, 17, 21, 63, 65 morphosyntactic features, 538–9, 545n deletion see deletion phonological features, 534–5, 544n devoicing, 18–21 in popular culture, 368–9, 501, 533–4, distinction, 114–16 542–4, 557–9, 565 , 362, 453 and stylistic variation, 498–500, 501, syllabic consonants, 83–4 563 weakening, 99–114, 220–4, 311 typology of, 536–7, 544n constitutional rights, 326–7, 336, 344n, codification, 297–8, 399, 670, 671, 673, 754, 637–8, 673–4, 688, 694, 698–9 755–6 see also standardization Constraint Approach (methodology), Cognitive Grammar, 522 209, 215–24

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contact lect, definition, 525n Corvalán, Grazziella, 354 contact varieties see also specific varieties, Cosieru, Eugenio, 706 e.g. Arabic contact varieties , 12, 29n, 81–2 classification of, 381–4, 520–2, 581 Costeño Spanish, 454–8 convergence, 504–24 Coupland, Nikolas, 560, 567, 581, 751, 752 definition, 508 Courtney, Ellen, 329 dialect mixing, 292–5, 496–7, 579, Crawford, James, 629, 677 582–94 CREA (Corpus de Referencia del Español language mixing see language mixing Actual), 127 morphosyntactic features, 138–9, creole contact varieties, 418–41, 188–9, 194 446–67, 732 phonological features, 12–13f, 14, 16, discourse-pragmatic factors, 421, 430–7, 66–7, 76–7, 80 439–41 prosodic features, 22–4, 85 lexico-semantic features, 448–50, context 459–62 in historical linguistics, 288 morphosyntactic features, 419–21, phonic context, 57–9, 65–6 429–30, 450–3, 457–8, 466–7 stylistic variation see stylistic variation phonological features, 80, 453, continuity (referential continuity), 430–4 456–7, 458 contrast (switch reference), 313, 419, prosodic features, 86–8, 457 431, 434–7 ritual languages, 453, 458–62, 467, 469n convergence, 385–7, 391n, 504–24, 534–6, Cristína, María Teresa, 252 539, 591 Cristina (TV show), 557 definition, 504–5, 511–13 Cromer, Cindy, 221 , 706, 708, 709–14, cross-dialectal comparisons 716t, 718–19 contact lect vs. reference lect, 525n co-occurrence, 153–4 discourse-pragmatic features, 249–50, Copple, Mary T., 163–4 256–9 copula be, 180–3 morphosyntactic features, 127–44, copula ser / estar, 268–9, 304–5, 307–9, 310 159–64, 172, 179, 192, 429–30 Corder, S. Pit, 304, 307 phonological features, 12, 20, 27, 59–62, Cordero Torres, José María, 477 99–117, 217–21 Cornips, Leonie, 421, 439 prosodic features, 22–4 Coronado Suzán, Gabriela, 568 cross-linguistic comparisons Coronel-Molina, Serafin, 327, 674, 697 child language acquisition, 265, 268–9, corpus analysis, 26, 125 273–7, 278 Corpus de Referencia del Español Actual convergence, 527n (CREA), 127 discourse-pragmatic features, 246–8 Corpus del Español, 289–90 morphosyntactic features, 138–9, 149, Corpus Diacrónico del Español (CORDE), 152t, 156–7, 419–21 289–90 phonological features, 144n Corpus of Early English Correspondence semantic features, 511–13 Sampler (CEECS), 290 CSHC (Corpus Sociolingüístico del Habla de Corpus Sociolinguistic de Castellón, 385 Caracas), 169, 173, 176, 178, 179, 180, Corpus Sociolingüístico del Habla de 182 Caracas (CSHC), 169, 173, 176, Cuban-Americans, 631–2, 635, 731 178, 179, 180, 182 , 77, 78, 626–7 Corrientes Spanish, 21, 75–6 phonological features, 75–6 Cortes Rodríguez, Luis, 494 ritual languages, 453, 459

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Cuevas, Milagros, 561 dialect acquisition, 275–7, 311–12 see also Cummings, Laura, 566 L2 acquisition Cumulative Disadvantage, 208 dialect contact, 579–94 Cunha, Celso, 403, 404 dialect mixing, 292–5, 496–7, 579, 582–94, curriculum design, 612–13, 614–15, 689–91, 717–19 699, 756–8 dialects see specific varieties, e.g. Valencian Cutillas-Espinosa, Juan Antonio, 714 Spanish dialects, comparison of see cross-dialectal Dale, Charles V., 637 comparisons D’Aquino, Giovanna, 173 Diario Popular (newspaper), 367–9 data analysis, 51n, 235–6, 242n, 423, diasporic groups, 629, 737–42, 752, 753–61 520–2 see also Latino identity data collection, 43, 125, 285, 287–90 Díaz-Campos, Manuel, 20, 41, 173, 174, dative case, use of, 194–5, 199n 269, 270, 271 Davidson, Brad, 214, 554 Díaz Peralta, Marina, 189 Dávila, Arlene M., 557 dictionaries, 754, 755–6 Davis, Mike, 652–3 Dieck, M., 457 De Genova, Nicholas, 588–9 differential object marking (DOM), 130–7 de los Heros, Susana, 331 see also objects de Voogd, Katherine B., 555 diglossia, 631–3 see also stable bilingualism deaffrication, 81 diminutives, 274–5, 278 Declaration on the rights of indigenous D’Introno, Francesco, 44, 178, 265–6, 268, peoples (United Nations), 673–4 269–70 decreolization, 463 diphthongization, 12 Del Castillo, N., 452 diphthongs, 29n, 73, 482 Del Valle, J., 753, 755, 756 direct objects, 130–44, 362–3, 507 delateralization, 15, 81 Directions in research: intergenerational Delbecque, Nicole, 197 transmission of heritage languages deletion, 17, 43–4, 64–5, 100–3, 104–5, 106 (2003), 604–5 /s/, 64, 65, 75–6, 189, 232–42, 361, Dirven, René, 197 404, 405 Discépolo, Armando, 76 /ɾ/, 265–70, 404–5 discourse intervocalic /d/, 112–14, 265–70, 720–1 acquisition of group norms, 268–9, prepositions, 507, 510 270–2, 279, 421, 439–41, 498–9 pronouns/clitics, 139–43, 189–90, 193, and code-switching, 496, 539–44 197–8, 362–3, 365 genres, 47–8 vowels, 83, 84 and morphosyntactic variation, 124–5, Delforge, Ann Marie, 14 170–1, 172, 181–3, 192, 193–8 delimitation, 172 discourse markers, 193–4, 330–1 Delvaux, Véronique, 592 in contact varieties, 332–4, 412–13, demographic factors, language 414, 481 maintenance, 628–9, 633–4 in US Spanish, 493–501, 532 demonstratives, 171–2, 194, 210, discrimination, 628–9, 636–8, 737 332, 388 and humor, 646–61 dental consonants, 60f, 61 Discursive Construction Approach (de)queísmo, 177–80, 190–1 (methodology), 209, 214–15 determiners, 332 dissimilation, definition, 65 devoicing, 18–21, 38 Diver, William, 525n vowels, 14 Dixon, Robert M.W., 467, 469n

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Docherty, Gerard, 11, 270, 273–4 teacher education programs, 602, 604, doctors’ attitudes to patients, 553, 554–5 605–6, 614, 690, 695 domains, 339–40, 553–9, 631–3 Edwards, John, 630 definition, 41–2 Spanish, 106, 110 medical interviews, 553, 554–5 El-Madkouri, Mohamed, 484 workplace, 253–60, 337, 554–7, 655 El Salvadorean Spanish, 81, 82 Domestic (Household) Spanish, 655 Elderkin-Thompson, Virginia, 554 , 418–41, 731 Elías-Olivares, Lucía Ernestina, 566 discourse-pragmatic factors, 421, 430–7, elicitation techniques, 27, 45–6, 312, 439–41 314, 593–4 morphosyntactic features, 419–21, elision see deletion 429–30 elites, 555–6, 557–9 phonological features, 15, 77–8 Ellis, Rod, 304, 310, 312 teaching methods, 316 Ellis, Shari, 221 Dorian, Nancy, 565, 635 embedding (language change), 286 Dorleijn, M., 532 emblematic languages, 80, 210, 339–41, Dorta, Josefa, 38, 39 356, 389–90, 397, 400–1, 402, 455–6, dual citizenship, 629, 738–9 477, 478, 723, 729, 734 see also ritual DuBord, Elise, 555, 556 languages Ducar, C., 606 Enbe, Claudia, 23–4, 25f Dumitrescu, Domnita, 131 endangered languages, 568 duration (phonological feature), 17, 75–6 English, 268–9, 270–1, 273–4, 275–7, 586 duration (temporal reference), 154 discourse markers, 494, 499–500 Durkheim, Émile, 215 L2 speakers, 305 and linguistic imperialism, 748–50, 760 Eastern Andalusian, 11, 18, 19f, 62, 114–16, Mock Spanish, 544n, 564, 639, 646–61 715–19, 720 English contact varieties see United States Eckert, Penelope, 125, 207, 208, 231, 632–3 Spanish Economy Principle, 56 English-French speakers, 522 Ecuador English Only Movement, 637, 677 bilingual education, 696–8 English-Spanish speakers, 307–8, 309–10, language policy, 326–7, 336, 674, 697–8 311–12, 314, 315–16 population, 339, 696 Enrique-Arias, Andrés, 382, 383, 385, 387, Ecuadorean Spanish, 329–30, 333 388 education, 260, 314–16, 476, 477–8, 546n, Enríquez, Emilia, 189 569, 635 entonces (discourse marker), 494–7 bicultural/bilingual programs, 336–7, envelope of variation, 151 see also 344n, 357–8, 479, 673–4, 677, variables, control of 686–700, 736 Epalza, Míkel de, 474, 485 communities of practice, 604–6, 608–13, epistemic adverbs, 126–30 614 error analysis, 305, 307 curriculum design, 612–13, 614–15, Ervin-Tripp, Susan, 211 689–91, 699, 756–8 Escalente, A., 459 heritage language students, 598–615 Escobar, Alberto, 328, 329, 332, 333, 340, history of, 325–6, 675 343n immersion programs, 389, 390 Escobar, Anna María, 404 and language shift, 629–30 Espinosa, Aina, 27 and standardization, 601–2, 606–7, estar + adjective, 307–9

614–15 estar + verb-ndo, 152–7, 332, 406–7

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ethnicity, identity markers, 80, 210 Fleischman, Suzanne, 175 see also emblematic languages flexion, 419–21 ethnolinguistic vitality, measurement of, Flores, Juan, 741 335–6 Flores-González, Nilda, 594n ethnoscape, definition, 738 Florida, 630 European Charter for Regional or Minority focus, 157, 333–4, 431 Languages (1998), 671 ser as focalizer, 180–3, 304–5 Euskara (Basque), 671 Fontanella de Weinberg, María Beatriz, 67, evaluation (speaker evaluation), 286 75, 249, 289, 295 evidentiality, 333 foregrounding, 157 Evidentiality Hypothesis, 179 foreign language teaching, 599–603, 610 see exceptional hiatuses, definition, 29n also second language acquisition experimental methods see methodology foreigner talk, 658–9 Extremeño Spanish, 403–4, 414 formal speech, 353 Foulkes, Paul, 11, 269, 270, 273–4, 278 Fabes, Richard, 221 Fox, J., 249 Fairclough, Marta, 315 Fradd, Sandra H., 630 Fairclough, N., 756, 759 frame of reference, 307–8 family, dialect contact in, 579–94 Francis, Norbert, 562 Fasold, Ralph, 628 Frege, Gottlob, 511–12, 513 father-child conversations, 592 Freire, Paulo, 556 Felser, Claudia, 440 Freites, Francisco, 173 Ferdinand II, King of Aragon, 297, 669–70 French, 270, 478 Ferguson, Charles A., 637, 639, 658–9 French contact varieties, 67 Ferguson, James, 738 French-English speakers, 538 Fernández, Joseph, 81–2 frequency, importance in Fernández, Mariela, 517, 582 grammaticalization, 149 Fernández-Juncal, Carmen, 99 , 18–21, 29n, 38, 61–2, 65, 114–16 Fernández Lávaque, Ana María, 330–1 Friedemann, N.S. de, 452 Fernández-Ordóñez, Inés, 288, 296 Fronterizo (Portuñol), 415n Fernández Smith, Gérard, 477 Fuentes, J., 459 Fernández Ulloa, Teresa, 192 Fuller, Janet, 494, 569–70 Fernando II, King of Aragon, 297, 669–70 functional age, definition, 208 see also age Ferraro, Kenneth, 207, 208, 216, 220, differences 224, 225 Functional Hypothesis, 56–7, 189 Figueroa, R. A., 599 funeral rites, ritual languages, 453, 458–62 File-Muriel, R., 454 Furman, N., 600, 603 Filiaci, Francesca, 440 Fuss, D., 729 final consonants see coda consonants future tense, 148–9, 150t, 157–9, 174–5, 191, Finegan, Edward, 45 313, 315 Firestone, Amy, 339 Fischer, John, 270 Gal, S., 730, 755 Fischer, L., 605 Galarza, Iradia, 441 Fishman, Joshua A., 41, 337–8, 599, 607, Galdo Gutiérrez, Virgilio, 326 631, 632, 638, 677 Galician, 399, 671 Fitzpatrick, Joseph P., 580, 587 Galindo, D. Letticia, 566 flaps, 80, 362 Gallois, Cindy, 293 Fleck, Catherine L., 560 Galué, Dexy, 180 Fleischhacker, Heidi, 84 Gambhir, S., 604

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Garcés, Fernando, 697 globalization, 555–6, 558, 559–62, García, D., 615 564–5, 751 García, Érica C., 156, 178, 179, 199n, 525n glottal stop, 66–7, 360–1 García, Isabel, 559 glottalization, 76–7 García, Jesús, 564 Godenzzi, Juan Carlos, 674, 695 García, Ofelia, 517, 561, 567, 582, 637, 638, Goffman, Erving, 214, 215 673, 674, 675, 676, 677, 680, 681, Goicoechea Gaona, María Angeles, 479 693–4, 695, 697 Gold, David, 251 García-Amaya, Lorenzo J., 115 Goldberg, D., 600, 603 García-Mouton, Pilar, 723 Gómez-Devís, Begoña, 113 García-Wiedemann, Emilio J., 114–15 Gómez-Molina, José Ramón, 113, 190 Gardner-Chloros, Penelope, 567 González, S., 615 Garrido, Marisol, 12, 14 González Las, Catalina, 477 Gass, Susan, 310 González Ramos de Benítez, Teresa de Geeraerts, Dirk, 197 Jesús, 357 Geeslin, Kimberly, 304, 307, 308–10, Goodwin, Marjorie, 569 312–13, 314 Gordon, Raymond G., Jr., 687 gemination, 75, 78, 362, 453 Goss, Emily, 494 gender differences, 37–9 Graddol, David, 679 and language shift, 355–6, 561, 739 grammars, 297, 399, 670, 673, 754 see also morphosyntactic variation, 142–3, 174, morphosyntactic variation 175, 178, 182, 190–2, 231 grammaticalization, 148–64, 180 phonological variation, 105–6, 113–14, definition, 149 116, 230–42, 269, 278 Gramsci, Antonio, 748 prosodic variation, 23–4 Granda, Germán de, 63, 295, 353, 354, segregation/separation hypothesis, 358, 452 219–25, 231, 237, 241–2 Green, K., 467 gender (grammatical gender), 420, 507, Greenfield, Lawrence, 631 509–10, 526n Gregory, M.W., 48 generational differences see Grenoble, Lenore, 337 age differences Grimes, Barbara F., 680 Geoffrion-Vinci, Michelle, 500 Grin, François, 635 geographic variation, acquisition of, 275–7, Gringoism / Whiteness, 648, 649–54 see 311–12 also discrimination Gerfen, Chip, 18, 19f Grosjean, F.E., 541, 544n, 638 gerontology, 207–8 see also group identity, 80, 210, 339–41, 356, age differences 389–90, 397, 400–1, 402, 455–6, Getafe Spanish, 109, 114, 117n 477, 478, 501, 555–60, 610–11, Ghailani, Abdellatif, 482, 483, 484 633, 704–23, 731–43 Ghosh Johnson, Elka, 584 and age, 41, 45, 209, 276–7, 293 Giannokouros, Panayotis, 308, 312 Anglos, 646–61 Gilbertson, Greta, 580, 587 definition, 707–8, 717, 728–30, 743n Giles, Howard, 633, 634 diaspora, 629, 737–42, 752, 753–61 Gilman, Albert, 192, 246–7, 252 and language acquisition, 264–72, 276–7 Ginsberg, C., 554 Latinos, 537, 540–4, 546n, 556–60, Girón Alconchel, José Luis, 285 562, 565–7, 628–9, 636–8, Gleich, Utta von, 327, 338 639–40, 675–6, 730, 739–42, 759 glides, 20 national identity, 730, 731–5, 736–7 Global Spanish, 558, 678–81, 751–61 ritual languages, 453, 458–62

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Guaraní contact varieties, 353–70 Haugen, Einar, 296, 567, 668 morphosyntactic features, 358, 362–6 Haverkate, Henk, 126 phonological features, 12–13f, 76–7, 358, Hayakawa, Samuel, 676–7 359–62 Hazen, Kirk, 580, 593, 594 Guaraní language policy, 674, 690–1, 735–7 he cantado, 159–64 Guaraní-Spanish speakers, 357, 358, 359, Heath, Shirley Brice, 637, 639, 674 360–6, 687 Heine, Bernd, 149, 332, 333, 467 Guareschi, Roberto, 679–80 Heinemann, Ute, 381 Guatemalan-Americans, 734 Heller, Monica, 541, 555, 730 Guatemalan language policy, 698–9 Henslin, James M., 628 Gubrium, Jaber, 208 Heritage languages in America (2001), 604 Gudmestad, Aarnes, 304, 309–10, 312–13 heritage speakers, 497, 499–500, 501, 544n Guerrero Ramos, Carlos J., 389 of Arabic, 479, 486 Guevara, Darío, 329 definition, 598–600 Gugenberger, Eva, 340 of Quechua, 335 Guijarro-Fuentes, Pedro, 304, 308–9, 314 teaching of, 598–615 Guirado, Krístel, 169, 178, 179 Hernández, Carmen, 377, 378 Guitart, Jorge, 12, 78 Hernández, José Esteban, 277, 583–4 Guitarte, Guillermo, 67 Hernández-Cabrera, Clara, 111 Gumperz, John, 527n, 539, 563 Hernández-Campoy, Juan Manuel, 220, Gupta, Akhil, 738 706, 709, 710–14, 715, 716t, 717, 719 Gurak, D., 587 Hernández Chávez, Eduardo, 630, 634 Gurlekian, Jorge, 22, 85 Herzog, Marvin I., 55, 57, 286 Gutiérrez, Manuel, 315 Heylen, Kris, 197 Guy, Gregory, 426–7 Heyman, Josiah McConnell, 555, 566 Gynan, Shaw N., 355, 356, 357, 674 hiatuses, 12–14, 29n, 76 Hidalgo, Margarita, 614, 632, 729 haber, 172–4, 385, 722 Hill, Jane, 494, 544n, 561, 562, 563, 564, habitual aspect, 334 638–9, 647, 648, 649–54, 655, 656, Habla Culta de Buenos Aires (HCBA), 131 658, 659 Habla Culta de Madrid (HCM), 131 Hill, Kenneth, 494, 561, 562, 563 Haboud, Marleen, 674, 697–8 Hindi, 527n hacer + English verb, 538–9 Hinskens, Frans, 28 Hagan, K., 546n Hispanidad, 752, 753–61 see also identity Haiman, John, 149 historical linguistics, 283–99, 391n Haitian Creole contact varieties, morphosyntactic features, 153–9, 175–7t, 418–41, 732 178, 387 discourse-pragmatic factors, 421, research questions, 286–7 430–7, 439–41 standardization, 288–9, 295–8 morphosyntactic features, 419–21, terms of address, 246–8 429–30 history, 296–7, 374–5, 669–71, 675, 705–7 “hall of mirrors” effect, 208 Barrancos area, 397–401 Hall, Robert, 669–70 colonial period, 324–6, 356–7, 474–6, 564, Hamel, Rainer Enrique, 560–1, 673, 680, 565, 672–3, 687, 692–3 736, 737, 750–1, 760 History of Afro-Hispanic language, A, 466 Hammond, Robert, 75 Hñähñú (Otomí), 560–1 Hanks, William, 210 Hochberg, Judith, 189 Harris, James, 78 Holm, J., 469n Harris-Northall, Ray, 297 Holmes, Janet, 38

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Holmquist, Jonathan, 83, 231 Index of Global Influence (Engco Model), Holquist, Michael, 563 679 Holstein, James, 208 indexicality, 209, 210–14, 649–61 , 81, 82 indigenous peoples Hopper, Paul J., 149, 157 in colonial period, 324–6, 672–3, 687, horizontal variation, 305–6 692–3 Hornberger, Nancy, 327, 598, 610–11, 668, land rights, 564 669, 688, 689–90, 697 and language policy, 735–7 Household (Domestic) Spanish, 655 and language shift, 560–1, 672–4 Houston Spanish, 582–4 political rights, 326–7, 336, 344n, 673–4, Howard, Rosaleen, 690, 691 687–8, 694–5, 696–7, 698–9, 729 Hualde, José Ignacio, 11, 86, 358, 404 indirect indexicality, 651–2 Hudson, Allan, 630, 634 induction model (language acquisition), Hulk, Aafke, 421, 439 264 humor, and racism, 646–61 industrialization, 631 Humphreys, Jeffrey M., 679 Ingram, David, 586–7 Hunt, Linda M., 555 insertion, 66–7, 76, 84 Huntington, Samuel, 676, 759 Instituto Cervantes, 678, 754, 756–8, 760, hypercorrection, 77, 79, 252 761n hypotheses see theories integration, 378–80 interactional-communicative methodology, identity, 80, 210, 339–41, 356, 389–90, 397, 193–6 400–1, 402, 455–6, 477, 478, 501, intercultural bilingual education, 687, 555–7, 610–11, 633, 704–23, 731–43 688–92, 695, 696–8 and age, 41, 45, 209, 276–7, 293 interdialectisms, 359–66, 375–6 Anglos, 646–61 definition, 294 definition, 707–8, 717, 728–30, 743n interference, 378–80, 439, 440–1, 535–6, diasporic groups, 629, 737–42, 752, 545n 753–61 definition, 378 and language acquisition, 264–72, intergenerational transmission see 276–7 language maintenance Latinos, 537, 540–4, 546n, 556–60, 562, interlanguages, 304–6 see also language 565–7, 628–9, 636–8, 639–40, 675–6, acquisition 730, 739–42, 759 international languages, influence on national identity, 730, 731–5, 736–7 Spanish, 375 see also Global ritual languages, 453, 458–62 Spanish Ifni, 477–8 interrogatives, 140–1, 154, 384 immersion programs, 389, 390 prosodic features, 22–4, 85 immigrants, 474–6, 478, 479–80 interviewer effects, 593–4 and language change, 338–40, 556–7, intervocalic /d/, 81–2, 112–14, 220–4, 633–4 265–70, 716t status of, 555–6, 557–9, 584, 634–7, 676–8, intonation, 22–4, 84–91 734 in L2 speakers, 311–12 imperfect tense, 174 research methods, 26 impersonal constructions, 172–4 intrafamilial contact situations, 579–94 implosives, 99–106 inversion (word order), 429–30

Inca Empire, 323–4 IR a + verbINF, 148–9, 150t, 157–9, 174–5, indeterminacy (temporal reference), 191 160–2, 163–4 Irvine, Judith, 730

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Isabel I, Queen of Castile, 297, 669–70 Kuteva, Tania, 149, 332, 333 Isleños Spanish, 537 Kymlicka, Will, 638 Italian contact varieties, 22, 76 L2 acquisition, 260, 303–16, 439–41 see also Jackendoff, Ray, 208 child language acquisition Jaeggli, Osvaldo, 419 curriculum design, 612–13, 614–15, Jaqaru language, 324 689–91, 699, 756–8 Jenkins, Devin L., 13–14, 538, 634 heritage language students, 598–615 Jenkins, Jennifer, 760 prosodic features, 544n, 563 Jewish Spanish varieties, 68n Laberge, Suzanne, 42, 51n Jiménez, Elena, 20, 38, 40, 217, 223–4 labial consonants, 60f, 61, 360 Jiménez, Tomás, 556, 557 velar-labial alternation, 17, 21 Jiménez-Cano, José María, 220, 709–12 labialization, 80 Johnson, Jacqueline, 584 laboratory research methods see Jones, James Carlton, 353, 354 methodology: laboratory research jopara (language mixing), 356, 358 methods Judeo-Spanish, 474 Labov, William, 10, 25, 28, 36, 38, 39, 43, 45, 55, 57, 98–9, 144n, 151, 187, 193, 207, Kabatek, Johannes, 285 219, 220, 230–1, 252, 264, 269, 285, Kagan, O., 599 286, 287, 306, 567, 580, 586, 590 Kager, René, 69n Ladefoged, Peter, 69n Kahn, D., 75 Lafford, Barbara, 43–4, 305, 307 Kailuweit, Rolf, 383 Laman, K. E., 467 Kaisse, Ellen, 22, 85, 88 lambdacism, 107–9 Kamada, Laurel, 590 Lambert, Wallace E., 635 Kany, Charles, 139, 247 Lamíquiz, Vidal, 188 Kaplan, David, 210 Lance, Donald, 566 Kaplan, Robert B., 668 Langacker, Ronald, 199n, 522 Karmani, Sohail, 749 language acquisition, 263–79, 439–41 Karok language (Karuk), 527n cross-linguistic comparisons, 265, 268–9, Kaüper, Anja, 389 273–7, 278 Keller, G., 546n curriculum design, 612–13, 614–15, Keller, Rudi, 581 689–91, 699, 756–8 Kerswill, Paul, 272, 275, 276, 279, 293, dialect acquisition, 275–7, 278, 586–7, 579, 580, 585, 586 590 Kikongo, 448f, 451, 452, 453, 460t, 461–2, discourse-pragmatic features, 260, 466–7 268–9, 270–2, 279n, 498–500, 501, King, Christy, 127 537 King, Kendall, 274–5, 278, 674, 697 heritage language students, 598–615 King, Ruth, 522 morphosyntactic features, 545n Klee, Carol, 331 prosodic features, 544n, 563 Klein-Andreu, Flora, 157, 192 second language acquisition, 206, Kloss, Heinz, 637–8, 671, 674 303–16, 501 koineization (dialect mixing), 292–5, 496–7, theories, 263–4, 584 579, 582–94, 717–19 language assessment, 625, 626–7 Kovac, Ceil, 268 language attitudes, 335–7, 555–62, 566–7, Kristiansen, Gitte, 197 679–81, 723, 728–9 Kronenfeld, David, 197 Catalan, 380, 389–90 Kroskrity, Paul V., 742 diasporic groups, 629, 737–42

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Guaraní, 356–8 Peninsular , 669–70, 671, 705, Latin American Spanish, 560–2, 730, 753–61 731–5, 737 Peru, 326, 336, 674, 692–3, 694–5, 737 Mock Spanish, 646–61 United States, 623–4, 629, 635–8, 675–8 Palanquero, 455–6, 461 language shift, 556–7, 562–3, 564–70, 585 Quechua, 340–1, 695 Argentina, 479–80 United States Spanish, 557–60, 584, 627, definition, 624–5 628–9, 633, 634–7, 638–40, 731, North Africa, 474 739–42 , 354–6 language attrition, 526n theoretical models, 560–1, 568–9 language change, 55–9, 283–99 United States, 624–40 actuation problem, 286–7, 292 language socialization, 569–70 “change from above”, 38, 106, 219–20, language typology, 284 252, 723 Language vitality and endangerment “change from below”, 38, 142–3, 175, 219 (UNESCO), 335 dialect mixing, 292–5 languages, comparison of see cross- grammaticalization, 148–64 linguistic comparisons and research methods, 27–8, 40–1, 189, languages of administration, 326–7, 399 216, 219–25 languaging, definition, 681n research questions, 286–7 Laosa, Luis, 631–2 role of media, 27–8, 40, 111, 558, 759 Lapesa, Rafael, 296, 474 standardization see standardization Lapidus Shin, Naomi, 441n, 506, 507, 535, universal constraints, 286, 287 545n language contact, definition, 508 see also Las Palmas Spanish, 109, 110, 192 contact varieties Lastra, Yolanda, 175 language domains see domains Lastra de Suárez, Yolanda, 249 language endangerment, 568 lateral consonants, 14–16, 38, 61, 331, 342, language loss, 624 712 language maintenance, 338, 339–40, 357–8, neutralization, 64, 77–8, 107–9 480, 486, 561, 599, 604–5, 607–8, 693 lateralization, 41 see also heritage speakers Latin, 246–7, 290–2, 297–8 definition, 624–5 Latin American Spanish see also specific research methods, 624–40 varieties, e.g. Argentinean Spanish urban vs. rural communities, 631 bicultural/bilingual education, 686–700 language mixing, 356, 358, 395–8, 413–14, history of, 295, 475, 672–3, 687–8 497–8 see also Barraquenho language attitudes, 560–2, 730, 731–5 language planning, 667–81 language planning, 672–4 definition, 668–9 morphosyntactic features, 168–83, Latin America, 672–4 218–19 Peninsular Spain, 669–71 phonological features, 72–91, 218–19, United States, 675–8 731–4 language policy, 335–7, 668–9, 678–81 standardization, 298 Bolivia, 327, 336, 690–2 Latino identity, 537, 540–4, 546n, 556–7, Catalonia, 297 558, 562, 565–7, 628–9, 636–8, colonial period, 324–6, 354, 356–7, 639–40, 675–6, 730, 739–42, 759 see 477–8, 672–3 also United States Spanish Ecuador, 326–7, 336, 674, 697–8 elites, 557–9 and linguistic imperialism, 747–61 and Mock Spanish, 646–61 Paraguay, 356–8, 674, 735–7 Latino in America (TV series), 559

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Latomaa, Sirkku, 632 neutralization, 15, 64, 77–8, 107–9 Lavandera, Beatriz, 123–4, 187, 199n, 217 literature, 546n, 736 Lavandez, Magaly, 734 Moroccan Spanish, 486 Lavoie, Lisa, 17 , 363, 366–9 layering, definition, 149 United States Spanish, 531–2, 540 Le Page, Robert B., 639, 708 liturgical languages, 480, 486 see also ritual learner grammars, 304–6 see also language languages acquisition Livert, David, 583 Lee, J. S., 607 Lliteras, Margarita, 298 legal status, minority languages, 636, lo/Ø variation, 137–43 637–8, 671, 677–8 loan shifts, 532 leísmo, 191–2, 295, 331, 364–6 loan words Leite de Vasconcelos, José, 398, 399–401, in Arabic, 482, 483 403, 405, 412, 413, 414, 416n from Catalan, 379–80, 381 lengthening, vowels, 75–6 from/to English, 494, 506–7, 509–11, Lengua (Palanquero) see Palanquero 513–15, 516–21, 531–2, , 16–17, 29n, 64–5 544n, 658 Leno, Jay, 659 from/to Guaraní, 361, 366 Leonetti, Manuel, 135 nonce vs. established borrowings, 531, leveling, definition, 293 544n Levinson, Stephen C., 256 from Quechua, 329, 330t, 343n Lewis, Anthony, 16–17 locatives, 458, 510–11 lexical borrowing Lodares, Juan Ramón, 297 in Arabic, 482, 483 longitudinal studies, 40, 220, 626, 710 from Catalan, 379–80, 381 López, Luis Enrique, 344n, 686, 687, 688, from/to English, 494, 506–7, 509–11, 689–90, 691, 699 513–15, 516–21, 531–2, 544n, 658 López Morales, Humberto, 39, 41, from/to Guaraní, 361, 366 57, 231, 232 nonce vs. established borrowings, 531, Los Angeles Spanish, 497, 562, 580, 583, 544n 585 from Quechua, 329, 330t, 343n Louisiana Isleños Spanish, 537 lexical identification tasks, 590–1 Lu, Hui-Chan, 308, 312 Libya, 475 Lubbers-Quesada, Margaret, 309 Lima Spanish, 249 Luckmann, Thomas, 212 Limanni, Anna, 12–13f Lugo Bracho, Carlos, 353 Lin, Angel M.Y., 668–9 Luís, Ana R., 408 Lindley Cintra, Luís F., 403, 404 Lukes, Steven, 215 lingua franca, 760–1 see also world lumbalú ritual language, 458–62 languages Luna, David, 543, 565 Linguistic and ethnographic atlas of Lunn, Patricia, 188 (ALEA), 115, 117n Lusin, N., 600, 603 linguistic imperialism, 747–61 definition, 748–9 Maccoby, Eleanor, 221 linguistic marketplace, definition, Macías, Reynaldo, 627 42, 51n Macías, Sergio, 486 Linton, April, 556, 557 Mackey, William F., 378, 625 Lipski, John, 74, 80, 81, 87, 455, 466, 497–8, MacSwan, J., 534 532, 537, 546n, 565, 567, 731 Maddieson, Ian, 69n liquids, 14–16, 38 Madrid Spanish, 722–3

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discourse-pragmatic features, 249 role in language change, 27–8, 40, 111, morphosyntactic features, 190, 192 558, 759 phonological features, 29n, 277 medical domain, 553, 554–5 Mahootian, S., 543–4 Medina, José, 738, 740, 742–3 Makihara, Miki, 210 Medina López, Javier, 192 Malaver, Irania, 174 Medina Morales, Francisca, 298 Mallorcan Spanish, 376, 387, 391n Medina-Rivera, Antonio, 38, 39–40, 41, Malmberg, Bertil, 354 42–3, 45–6, 48, 49, 50t Mannheim, Bruce, 325, 326, 569 “Meet the Garcías” (TV show), 559 Manrique Castañeda, Leonardo, 357 Megenney, William, 76, 80 Mansfeld de Agüero, María Eva, 357 Mejías, Hugo A., 339 Mar-Molinero, Clare, 671, 680, Melguizo, Elisabeth, 115 705, 753, 754, 758, 759 Melià, Bartomeu, 354, 356, 735–7 Marcos, K., 605 Melilla, 474, 477, 480, 482, 486 Marcos Marín, F., 755, 758 Melzi, Gigliana, 274–5, 278 Marín, Diego, 248, 251, 252 men, and language change, 175 Marinescu, Irina, 17 Mendizábal, Nieves, 189, 192 markedness, 58, 62 Mendoza-Denton, Norma, 562 definition, 69n Menéndez Pidal, Ramón, 295 Márquez, P., 615 Menken, Kate, 681n Martin, Carol, 221 MERCOSUR (Mercado del Sur), 736 Martin, Peter, 668–9 methodology, 187–92, 197–8 Martín-Butragueño, Pedro, 55–6, Apparent Time analysis, 219–20 57, 58, 109, 117n, 168, 175, 277 classification of contact phenomena, Martinet, André, 56 381–4, 520–1 Martínez, Glenn A., 555 cognitivist approach, 196–8, 199n Martínez Martín, Manuel, 188 Constraint Approach, 209, 215–24 Mason, Leah, 676 control of variables, 25–6, 38, 49–51, 125, Masullo, Pascual José, 138 151, 169, 441n, 628–38 Mato, Daniel, 674 corpus analysis, 26, 125 Matos Coelho, Adelino de, 397–8 data analysis, 520–1 Matras, Yaron, 395–6 data collection, 43, 125, 285, 287–90 Matthei, Edward, 590 discursive construction approach, 209, Maya and Miguel (TV program), 501 214–15 Mayan contact varieties, 66–7, 80, 562 elicitation techniques, 27, 43, 45–6, 312, Mayan-Spanish speakers, 562, 314, 593–4 698, 729 experimental methods, 9–11, 21, 25–8 Mazzaro, Natalia, 17, 21 historical linguistics, 283–99, 391n McClure, E., 537 and hypothesis formation, 27–8, 151–2, McConnell-Ginet, Sally, 208, 231 216, 220–2 McCullough, Robert E., 634 Indexical Approach, 209, 210–14 McLeish, Megan, 127 interactional-communicative approach, McNair-Knox, Faye, 40, 42, 45, 46–7 193–6 meaning, and morphosyntactic laboratory research methods, 9–11, 25–8 variation, 124–5 language assessment, 625, 626–7 media lexical identification tasks, 590–1 code-switching in, 368–9, 501, 533–4, longitudinal studies, 40, 220, 626, 710 542–4, 557–9 multivariate analysis, 126–7, 131–2, and language attitudes, 636–7, 731–4 154–5, 161, 305–6, 312–14

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methodology (cont’d) language mixing, 356, 358, 395–7, perception tests, 18–20, 21, 27, 589–90 413–14, 497–8 see also Barraquenho quantitative methods, 285–6 Miyajima, Atsuko, 189 reliability, 131 Mock Spanish, 544n, 564, 639, 646–61 sociolinguistic assessment, 625, 627–8 modal verbs, 385, 408 speaker samples, 233–4, 422–3 models spontaneous speech analysis, 25–6 Bell’s model of language as audience statistical analysis, 51n, 235–6, 242n, 423 design, 42, 44–5 surveys, 603 bilingual communities, 560–1, 568–70 task effects, 310, 312, 314, 593–4 dialect contact, 581 written contextualized tasks, 307, 314 Index of Global Influence (Engco Mexican-Americans, 537, 556, 558, 562, Model), 679 565–7, 582–3, 584–5, 629, 630, 631–2, Labov’s model of language variation, 36, 738–9 98–9 Mexican language policy, 629, 673 language acquisition, 263–4, 306 , 560–2 language shift, 560–1 discourse-pragmatic features, 249, Usage-Based Model, 59 257–8, 277 Molina-Martos, Isabel, 192, 720, 721, 722–3 morphosyntactic features, 127–30, Moll, Francesc, 388 137–44, 159–64, 175 monolingual speakers see also Mock phonological features, 17, 38, 80, 277, Spanish 588 access to services, 554–6 prosodic features, 88–91 Arabic contact varieties, 478, 480–1 MexiRicans, 588–94 monolingualism, 623–4, 629, 634–5, 636, Meyer-Scotton, Carol, 633 637–8, 674–5, 676–8, 730 see also Mi lengua (2003), 605 language policy Miami, 630, 632, 636 Montalvo, José, 531 Miami Spanish, 580, 626–7, 635 Montes-Alcalá, C., 545n prosodic features, 22 Montes Giraldo, José Joaquín, 174, 454 Michinowicz, James, 80 Montrul, Silvina, 434, 606–7 migration, 474–6, 478, 479–80 mood, 126–30, 188–9, 309–10, 332, 451–2 diasporic groups, 629, 737–42 Morales, Ampero, 428 and language change, 338–40, 556–7, Morales, E., 540, 546n 633–4 Morales, Juan Evo, 691–2 status of immigrants, 555–6, 557–9, 584, Morales Front, Alfonso, 58 676–8, 734 Moreno, Francisco, 117n Miller, J.L., 541, 544n Moreno de Alba, José, 173, 285 Milroy, James, 284, 286, 287, 293, 296, 298, Moreno-Fernández, Francisco, 55, 61, 62, 560, 714, 717, 718 64, 69n, 192, 285, 481, 482, 483, 484, Milroy, Lesley, 42, 55–6, 293, 296, 485, 706 560, 563 Morgan, Brian, 563 Milton Keynes English, 276 Morgan, Terrell, 20 minority languages, 607–8, 628–34, 636, Morillo-Velarde, R., 720 637–8, 671, 677–8 see also language Morín, José Luis, 567, 638 maintenance Morín Rodríguez, Adela, 192 Mira Mateus, Maria Helena, 403 Moríngo, Marcos A., 359, 366 Misiones Spanish, 75–6 Morocco, 474–5, 477, 478–9, 482, 484 mixing morphosyntactic variation, 168–83, 721 see dialect mixing, 292–5, 496–7 also sociophonetic variation

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cross-dialectal comparisons, 123–44, Navarro, Manuel, 174 159–64, 172, 179 Navarro Tomás, Tomás, 10, 232, 507 cross-linguistic comparisons, 138–9, 149, Navas Sánchez-Élez, María Victoria, 404, 152t, 156–7, 419–21 410 discourse-pragmatic factors, 181–3, Nebrija, Antonio de, 297, 399, 670 190–1, 193–8, 421, 430–7, 439–41 negation, 141–2, 154, 457 and grammaticalization, 148–64, 180 Nelson, Mark, 559 in language acquisition, 304–10, 314–16 Nericcio, William Anthony, 651 linguistic factors, 173–4, 179, 180, Nettle, Daniel, 525n 189–90, 304–5, 308, 313 Neutralization Hypothesis, 124–5 and meaning, 124–5, 170–1, 172, 709, 719 Neutralization-in-Discourse Hypothesis, mood, 126–30, 188 148–50 participle endings, 64–5, 69n, 113 neutralization, liquids, 15, 64, 77–8, and style, 196–8 107–9 Morren, Ronald C., 698 Nevalainen, Terttu, 288, 289, 290 Mortimer, Katherine, 358 , 566 Morton, T., 454, 455 discourse-pragmatic factors, 496 mother-child conversations, 274–5, 278, phonological features, 14, 82, 84 587, 590, 591–2 prosodic features, 88–91 Moya, Juan Antonio, 114–15 New Mexico, 675 Moya, Ruth, 696 New York City Spanish, 174–5, 425, Moya-Corral, Juan Antonio, 718 426–7, 557–8, 559, 580, 626, Mufwene, Salikoko, 581 631–2 Müller, Natasha, 421, 545n conceptual convergence, 504–24 multi-media teaching materials, 315 language attitudes, 582, 638, 731, 741 multivariate analysis, 126–7, 131–2, 154–5, lexico-semantic features, 505–7, 509–11, 161, 305–6, 312–14 513–15, 516–21, 567, 582 Muñoz, Héctor, 560 morphosyntactic features, 515–17, Muñoz Sánchez-Brunete, Javier, 478 519–20, 535, 583 , 708–15, 716t, 720 phonological features, 506, 509, 526n music, 340, 344n, 542 Newport, Elissa, 584 Muysken, P., 539, 544n, 545n newspapers, 367–9, 558, 559 Myers-Scotton, Carol, 567 NFLC (National Foreign Language Center), 603 Narbona, A., 720 Nibert, Holly, 85 nasal consonants, 21, 62, 63, 65, 79–80, 403, Nieto Soria, José Manuel, 297 483 Nieves Oveido, R., 453 syllabic consonants, 83–4 Nikander, Pirjo, 215 weakening, 110–11, 117n nineteenth-century Spanish, 153–9, 298 , 66, 453 Niño-Murcia, Mercedes, 298, 728, 737 Natali, Caroline, 357 no (lo) sé construction, 141–2 National Foreign Language Center nonce borrowings, 531, 544n (NFLC), 603 norteño intonation, 88–91 National Heritage Language Resource nouns, differential object marking, 134–5 Center, 604 see also pronouns national identity, and language, 730, 731–5, Nowikov, N., 721 736–7 Núñez-Cedeño, Rafael, 58 Naturalistic Hypothesis, 56 Nuyoricans, 741 see also New York City Navarrete Gómez, Pablo Rogello, 562 Spanish

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Obeso, Candelario, 80 panhispanic language policy, 753–61 objects, 130–44, 362–3, 507 para-linguistic behavior, definition, 525n Obligatory Contour Principle, 58 para~pa alternation, 169–71, 195–6 obstruents, 78–9, 81–2, 112–14 Paraguay Ochs, Elinor, 650, 651 language policy, 356–8, 674, 735–7 Oesterreicher, Wulf, 285, 289 population, 354–6 official languages, 326–7, 629, 637–8, 674, Paraguayan Spanish, 353–70 676–7, 705, 730 see also language influence of Guaraní, 353–4, 356, 359–66, policy 369–70 Ohala, John, 9, 28 literary texts, 363, 366–9 Ohlson, L., 542 morphosyntactic features, 358, 362–6 Olarrea, Antxon, 404 phonological features, 331, 358, 359–62 , 294–5, 296–7, 298 Paredes, Florentino, 289, 722–3 relative clauses, 176 parents, and dialect mixing, 587, 590, tense / aspect, 153–9 591–2, 593 terms of address, 247 Parodi, Claudia, 583, 585 Oliver Rajan, Julia, 83 Parrish, Betsy, 312 Olson, Dan, 544n participle endings, 64–5, 69n, 113 onset consonants, 72–3, 80–3 past tense, 191, 313 Optimality Theory, 58, 75, 263–4 Patiño Rosselli, C., 452 Oran (Algeria), 482 Patrick, P.L., 469n O’Rourke, Erin, 85, 331, 333 Patten, Alan, 638 Orozco, Rafael, 174–5, 426–7 pattern induction model (language Ortiz, Fernando, 77 acquisition), 264 Ortiz López, Luis A., 418, 428, 429, 439, 441 Patterson, Janet, 270 Otheguy, Ricardo, 425, 426–7, 433, 507, 517, Paulston, Christina B., 629 535, 545n, 582, 583 Pavlenko, Aneta, 681n Otheguy-Zentella corpus (New York City Payne, Arvilla, 275, 279 Spanish), 506, 525n Payrató, Lluís, 378, 379, 382 Otomí (Hñähñú), 560–1 peak alignment, 22, 85–91 Pease-Alvarez, Lucinda, 439, 569 Páez, Mariela M., 629 pedagogy see teaching methods Paffey, D., 754 Pedraza, Pedro, 632 Page, Helan E., 652 peer / parent distinction, 276, 279 Pagliuca, William, 149, 156, 157, 159, 160 Pellicer, Dora, 561, 565 Palacios Alcaine, Azucena, 138, 362–3 Peninsular Spanish Palanquero, 446–67 history of, 291–2, 294–9, 669–71, 705–7, lexico-semantic features, 448–50, 459–62 719–20 lumbalú ritual language, 453, 458–62 L2 speakers, 484–5 morphosyntactic features, 450–3, 457–8, language policy, 669–70, 671, 705, 753–61 466–7 morphosyntactic features, 127–44, phonological features, 453, 456–7, 458 159–64, 187–99, 709, 719, 720, 721 prosodic features, 86, 87–8, 457 phonological features, 12, 16–17, 29n, palatal consonants, 18–20, 60f, 61, 67, 69n, 68n, 98–117, 706–7, 709–14, 716t, 483 718–19, 720–1 palatalization, 63 sociolinguistic variation, 704–23 see also Palo Monte (ritual language), 453, 467, specific varieties, e.g. Valencian 469n Spanish , 87–8, 217, 220 Penner, Heddy, 357

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Penny, Ralph, 57, 284, 286, 292–5, 714 political rights, 326–7, 336, 344n, 629, Pennycook, Alastair, 668 637–8, 673–4, 687–8, 694–5, 696–7, Peracchio, Laura A., 543, 565 729, 738–9 see also language policy perception tests, 18–20, 21, 27, 589–90 Pollán, Celia, 193 Perea, Juan, 636 Pons Bordería, Salvador, 494 Pérez, Hernán, 17 Poplack, Shana, 144n, 159, 270–1, 276–7, Pérez, Lisandro, 636 279, 507, 526n, 531, 534, 537, 538, Pérez, W., 607 541 Pérez-Firmat, Gustav, 540 popular culture, 340, 344n, 368–9, 501, perfect(ive) aspect, 159–64, 191, 332–3, 533–4, 542–4, 565 334, 405–6, 416n population size, and language definition, 159 maintenance, 628–9, 633–4 Perkins, Revere, 149, 156, 157, Porcar, Margarita, 188, 189 159, 160 Porcel, Jorge, 626–7, 639 Peru Portes, Alejandro, 631, 636, 739, 740–1 bilingual education, 692–5 , history of, 397–401 language policy, 326, 336, 674, 692–3, Portuguese contact varieties, 395–415, 416n 694–5, 737 lexico-semantic features, 401, 405–6, 412 population, 339, 341–2, 692, 737 morphosyntactic features, 396–7, 405–12 , 75, 85, 731–4 phonological features, 402–5 Pesqueira, Dinorah, 277 Portuguese-Spanish speakers, 308–9, 310, Peyton, J.K., 604 314 Pfaff, C., 538 Portuñol (Fronterizo), 415n Philadelphian English, 268–9, 270–1, possessives, 333, 363–4, 365, 458 275, 276–7, 496–7, 586 post-alveolar consonants, 20 Phillipson, Robert, 747–50, 759 Potowski, Kim, 495–6, 497, 582, 590–2, 593, phonic system (Spanish), 59–62 see also 606, 741 consonants; vowels Pountain, Christopher J., 289 phonological variation see sociophonetic power relationships, 246–8, 249, 250–60, variation 498–9, 555–7, 561, 633, 655, 656–7 physicians, attitudes to patients, pragmatics 553, 554–5 and code-switching, 496, 539–44 Pierrehumbert, Janet, 28 in contact varieties, 332–4, 430–7 Pineda, Miguel Ángel, 59 and language acquisition, 307–9, 421, Pinker, Steven, 208 439–41, 498–9 Pino-Silva, Juan, 277 and morphosyntactic variation, 181–3, Pinos Puente Spanish, 115, 116 190–1, 193–8, 430–7 pitch accent, 85–91 pre-school children, 268–9 see also children Plaza, Pedro, 688 prenasalization, 453 pluperfect, 332–3 prepositions, 387, 390, 515–16 pluralization, 330, 451, 719 (de)queísmo, 177–80 impersonal constructions, 172–4 omission of, 507, 510 polarity, 141–2, 154 para~pa alternation, 169–71, 195–6 politeness, 42–3, 44–5, 210–14, 246–8 PRESEEA (Proyecto de Estudio child-directed speech, 272–5, 278 Sociolingüístico del Español de tú-usted variation, 192, 194, 210–11, España y de América), 98, 113, 117n, 244–60 175 cross-dialectal comparisons, present perfect, 159–64, 191, 332–3, 249–50, 256–9 405–6, 416n

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prestige, 286, 707–8, 709, 718, 737 see also Putte, Florimon van, 156 stigmatized variants que + RE, 175–7t Castilian Spanish, 398–400, 704–6 Preston, Dennis, 49, 306, 743 Quechua contact varieties, 323–42 Prieto, Pilar, 12, 85 morphosyntactic features, 328–33 primary socialization, definition, 212 phonological features, 14, 328, 331 Principle of Accountability, 151 prosodic features, 22, 85 printing, impact on standardization, 297–8, sociolinguistic features, 334–41 670 Quechua language policy, 674, 690–1, Programa de Lengua Árabe y Cultura 692–3, 694–5, 737 Marroquí, 479 Quechua-Spanish speakers, 324–6, 340–1, progressive aspect, 152–7, 406–7 695 cross-linguistic comparisons, 156–7 queísmo, 178, 180, 190–1 pronouns, 191–2, 194–5, 199n, 295, 313, Quichua language policy, 696–7 331, 332, 362–6, 407–12, 416n, 430–4, Quilis, Antonio, 22 441n–2n, 452–3, 457, 582–3, 743n cross-linguistic comparisons, 419–21 Rabanales, Ambrosio, 177, 178 differential object marking, 134–5 race differences, 42, 569, 582, 638–9, 741 resumptives, 175–7t, 183n racialization, 558–9 subject expression/omission, racism, and humor, 646–61 189–90, 193, 197–8, 423–39, 523, Radatz, Hans-Ingo, 376 535, 545n radio broadcasts, 542 tú-usted variation, 192, 194, 210–11, raising (vowels), 83 244–60 Ramírez, Roberto, 629, 631 pronunciation, and spelling, 292 Ramírez-Parra, María José, 189 propositional direct objects, 137–43 Ramos-Pellicia, Michelle, 584 prosodic variation, 22–5, 57–9, 83, Ramos-Zayas, Ana Y., 588–9 84–91, 483 Rampton, M.B.H., 598 in L2 speakers, 311–12, 544n, 563 Ramsey, Marathon Montrose, 248 research methods, 26 Ranson, Diana, 189, 194 Proyecto de Estudio Sociolingüístico del Rapa Nui-Spanish speakers, 210 Español de España y de América Rathus, Spencer, 638 (PRESEEA), 98, 113, 117n, 175 Raumolin-Brunberg, Helena, 288, 289, 290 Pruñunosa, Manuel, 360, 361, 362 Rawlins, William, 221 pseudoclefts, 180–3 -ré future, 157–9, 174–5, 191 psychological age, definition, 208 see also reading, 292, 601 age differences Real Academia de la Lengua Española, public spaces, and language, 652–3, 739 289, 297, 670, 705, 754, 755–6, 761n Puerto Rican Spanish reallocation, definition, 293–4 attitudes to, 638–9 Recasens, Daniel, 27 discourse-pragmatic features, 210–14 reconceptualization, 516–17, 523 see also morphosyntactic features, 539 conceptual convergence phonological features, 15, 22, 38, 39, 40, reduction, 78, 83 41, 43, 45–6, 76, 77, 78, 216–17, 218, reference and sense, 511–13 220–4, 584, 588 reference lect, definition, 525n gender differences, 232–42 referential continuity, 430–4 see also switch Puerto Ricans, 270–1, 276–7, 494, 537, 559, reference (contrast) 567, 629, 631–2, 638, 675, 731, 741 referential meaning, and morphosyntactic Pufahl, I., 603 variation, 124–5, 170–1, 172

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reflexives, 457, 516–17 Roeper, Thomas, 590, 728–9 Regan, Vera, 305 Rogoff, Barbara, 221 register, 353, 498–500, 501, 541–2, 569–70 Rohena Madrazo, Marcos, 20 Rehner, Katherine, 305 Rojas, Nelson, 268, 269–70 Reid, T.R., 558 Rojas-Primus, C., 459 Reig Alamillo, Asela, 139–43, 144n Romaine, Suzanne, 288, 639, 730 reinforcement, 63, 69n , history of, 290–2 relationship with addressee see address Romera, Magdalena, 388 relative clauses, 177–80, 190–1 Royal Academy (Real Academia de la religious languages, 480, 486, 632 see also Lengua Española), 289, 297, 670, ritual languages 705, 754, 755–6, 761n Renner, V. Jayne, 208 Rubin, Joan, 356 research methods see methodology Rubio, Fernando E., 699 research questions Ruiz Domínguez, María del Mar, 477, 480 bilingualism, 419, 421, 609–15 Ruiz-Martínez, Ana María, 117n Catalan contact varieties, 387–90 Rumbaut, Robert L., 631 heritage language education, 605–8, rural communities, 39, 631 609–15 Rusinovich, Yolanda, 630 language change, 286–7 Ryan, John, 305, 307 Palanquero, 462–7 restructuring, 463 Safir, Kenneth, 419 resumptive pronouns, 175–7t, 183n Safran, William, 628 resyllabification, 74–5, 77–9, 405 Saharawi Spanish see Arabic contact retroflexion, 78 varieties Reyes, I., 539 Said-Mohand, Aixa, 497, 501 Rhodes, N.C., 603 SALAD (Spanish American League rhotic consonants, 14–16, 38, 40, 107–9, Against Discrimination), 636 265–70, 331, 342, 362, 404–5, 483, 712 Salmons, Joseph, 494 lateralization, 41 , 277, 582–4 neutralization, 64, 77–8 Samper, José Antonio, 110 rhythm, and syllable structure, 63 Samper-Hernández, Marta, 111 Ricento, Thomas, 669 Sánchez-López, Laura, 708 Richards, Julia Becker, 698 Sánchez-Muñoz, Ana, 499–500 Rickford, John R., 40, 42, 45, 46–7, 315 Sánchez-Prieto Borja, Pedro, 289 Rimgalia, Bárbara, 252 Sánchez-Walker, Noelia, 440 Rio de la Plata Spanish, 67 Sankoff, David, 42, 51n, 124, 151, 159 Ripoll, Carlos, 673 Sankoff, Gillian, 220, 225 Rissel, Dorothy, 37, 38 Santa Ana, Otto, 558–9, 583, 585, 659 Ritchie, W., 545n Santo Domingo Spanish, 15 ritual languages, 453, 458–62, 467, 469n see Sapir, Edward, 187 also religious languages Saturday schools, 599 Rivarola, José Luis, 295 Saussure, Ferdinand de, 284, 522 Rivera, Klaudia, 567, 638 Sayahi, Lotfi, 478, 480, 481, 482, 483, 484 Roa Bastos, Augustos, 368, 736 Schechter, Sandra R., 560, 569 Roberts, Julie, 268–9, 270, 273, 586, 587, 590 Schelling, Thomas C., 565 Roca, A., 605 Schiffman, Harold F., 672 Rodríguez Alcalá, Hugo, 368 Schiller, Nina Glick, 739 Rodríguez-Louro, Celeste, 434 Schmidt, Lauren, 315–16 Rodríguez Mendoza, Juana, 192 Schneider, Edgar, 289

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schools, 336–7, 344n, 357–8, 479, 673–4, Shafto, Meredith, 208, 219 677, 686–700 shame, 640 in colonial period, 325–6 Shappeck, Marco, 329 Schreffler, Sandra, 582 Shenk, Elaine, 740 Schwartz, Adam, 655, 656, 658 Shih, Chilin, 85 Schwegler, Armin, 86, 454, 455, 457, 459, Shipibo people, 739 465, 467 Shohamy, Elama, 669 Schwenter, Scott, 127, 131, 138–9, 159, 160, Sichra, Inge, 344n, 686, 688, 691 178–9, 190 SIL (Summer Institute of Linguistics), Scipione, Ruth, 483 686, 688, 693 second dialect acquisition, 275–7, 278, silencing, 734 586–7 Silva-Corvalán, Carmen, 41, 125, 159, second language acquisition, 206, 303–16, 176–7t, 187, 231, 430, 433, 439, 440, 439–41 497, 535, 562, 638 curriculum design, 612–13, 614–15, Simonet, Miquel, 16, 22 689–91, 699, 756–8 simplification, 386–7, 484–5, 505–7, 509–11, discourse-pragmatic features, 718 499–500, 501 definition, 294 heritage language students, 598–615 Sinner, Carsten, 375, 377, 378, 379, prosodic features, 544n, 563 381, 385 secondary socialization, definition, 212 Sipakapense Maya, 562 Sedano, Mercedes, 39, 159, 168, 171–2, situation effects, 45–6 173, 174, 181–3 Smith, Andrea, 564 segmental variation see consonants; vowels Smith Cairns, Helen, 441n segregation/separation hypothesis, so (discourse marker), 494–8 219–25, 231, 237, 241–2 social age, definition, 208 see also age Seidlhofer, Barbara, 760 differences semantic transfer, 381 social frameworks, definition, 214–15 semantic variation, in contact varieties, Social Identity Theory, 731 332–3 see also lexical borrowing social markers see also age differences; semivowels, 73, 78–9 class differences; sex differences sense and reference, 511–13 code-switching see code-switching sequential bilingualism, 436–7 in historical linguistics, 288 ser (as focalizer), 180–3, 304–5 morphosyntactic variation, 142–3, 172, Serrano, María José, 160, 187–8, 189, 190–1, 173–4, 190–2, 722 194, 195–6, 197, 199n peer / parent distinction, 276 setting, effect on speech, 45–6 phonological variation, 37–43, 75–6, settler states, and language shift, 564–7 105–6, 108–9, 111, 113–14, 116, 583–4, seventeenth-century Spanish, 153–9, 247, 714, 720 297–8 internal vs. external factors, 49, 50t Sewell, William, 214 stigmatized variants, 39, 75–6, 77–8, sex differences, 37–9 79, 80, 731–4 and age differences, 219–25 power relationships, 246–8, 249, 250–60, and language shift, 355–6, 561, 739 498–9, 555–7, 561, 633, 655, 656–7 morphosyntactic variation, 142–3, 174, prosodic variation, 86 175, 178, 182, 190–2 social networks, definition, 42 phonological variation, 105–6, 113–14, socialization, 212, 569–70 116, 269, 278 sociation, definition, 215 prosodic variation, 23–4 sociocultural level, 106, 108–9, 111

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socioeconomic status see class Spanish-English speakers, 278–9, 315, differences 340–1, 537, 540–4 sociolinguistic assessment, 625, 627–8 Chicago, 496–7, 580t, 584, 588–94 sociolinguistics, and historical linguistics, class differences, 634–5 285–99 Los Angeles, 497, 562, 580, 583, 585 sociophonetic variation, 9–29, 36–51, Miami, 22, 580, 626–7, 630, 632, 636 55–69, 72–91, 706–7, 709–14, 716t, New York, 174–5, 425, 426–7, 494, 506–7, 718–19, 720–1 see also 510–11, 513–19, 526n, 580, 582, 583, morphosyntactic variation 626, 638 accommodation see accommodation Philadelphia, 270–1, 276–7 in child language acquisition, 263–79 Spanish for native speakers (SNS) education in code-switching, 534–5, 544n (2004), 605 cross-dialectal comparisons, 12, 20, 27, Spanish-Guaraní speakers, 357, 358, 359, 59–62, 99–117, 217–21 360–6 definition, 11, 265 Spanish L2 speakers, 260, 303–16 in L2 speakers, 311, 314–16 Spanish monolingual speakers, access to and language change, 55–9 services, 554–6 linguistic factors, 49, 50t, 100–5, 108, 110, Spanish Royal Academy (Real Academia 113, 506 de la Lengua Española), 289, 297, phonic system (Spanish), 59–62 670, 705, 754, 755–6, 761n social factors, 37–43, 105–6, 108–9, 111, speaker-addressee relationship, 42–3, 44–5, 113–14, 116, 583–4 210–14, 246–8 stigmatized variants, 39, 75–6, 77–8, child-directed speech, 272–5, 278 79, 80, 731–4 Spears, A.K., 458, 469n stylistic factors, 43–9 specificity, 131, 135–6, 137 and syllable structure, 62–5, 72–84 Specker, Elizabeth, 501 Solé, Yolanda, 248, 249 spelling, 291–2, 670, 756 see also writing solidarity and power relationships, 246–8, Guaraní, 356, 357–8 249 Quechua and Aymara, 694 Solomon, Julie, 494 Spolsky, Bernard, 668, 669 Soquet, Alain, 592 spontaneous speech, laboratory analysis Sorace, Antonella, 440 of, 25–6 Sosa, Juan Manuel, 44, 85, 265–6, 268, stable bilingualism, 339–41, 413, 631–3 269–70 standardization, 541, 669–70, 671, 673, 694 sound change see language change; definition, 296, 704–5 sociophonetic variation and education, 601–2, 606–7, 614–15 Southwestern (US) English, 649–61 Latin American Spanish, 731–9 Southwestern (US) Spanish, 565–7 and linguistic imperialism, 747–61 language maintenance, 561, 564, Peninsular Spanish, 704–23, 754, 755–6 631–2 role of media, 27–8, 558 morphosyntactic features, 538, 539 written texts, 288–9, 295–8, 357–8, 670, phonological features, 28n 714 , 540, 544n, 546n, 567, 652, 677, Standards for foreign language learning 742, 759 see also United States (ACTFL 1996), 600, 603 Spanish Stanford, James, 276, 279, 586 Spanish American League Against statistical analysis, 51n, 235–6, 242n, 423 Discrimination (SALAD), 636 Status Axiom (Preston), 49 Spanish-Arabic speakers, 476–80, 481–3 Stavans, I., 544n, 759 Spanish-Catalan speakers, 189 Stein, Rob, 633

bindex.indd 789 5/26/2015 12:24:01 PM 790 Index

stigmatized variants, 39, 75–6, 77–8, 79, 80, definition, 72–3 731–4 and intonation, 84–91 prosodic features, 86 syntax see morphosyntactic variation stops, 16–17, 29n, 360, 483 deletion, 44 Tabouret-Keller, A., 639, 708, 712, 717, 718, insertion, 66–7, 76 723 prenasalization, 453 tag-switches, 379, 389, 532 strengthening, 20, 331 Tagliamonte, Sali, 159 stress, and vowel quality, 65, 83 Talimatine, Mohand, 477 stress-timing, 83 tap-trill contrast, 15 structuralism, 56 Tarkki, Pekka, 479, 481, 482, 483, 484 students, 260 Tarone, Elaine, 304, 312, 315 Style Axiom (Bell), 49 task effects, 310, 312, 314, 593–4 stylistic variation, 43–9, 498–500, Taylor, Donald M., 633, 634, 635 501, 720 teachers, professional development, 602, child-directed speech, 272–5 604, 605–6, 614, 690, 695 in children, 268–9, 270–2, 279n, 498–9 teaching methods, 260, 314–16 and code-switching, 563 bilingual programs, 357–8 definition, 270 heritage language students, 598–615 formal speech, 353 teenagers, 41, 45, 219, 220–4 Suárez, D., 607 acquisition of group norms, 276–7, 315–16 Suárez, Guillermina, 169 role in language change, 293 Suárez-Orozco, Carola, 569 terms of address, 211–14 Suárez-Orozco, Marcelo M., 629 television shows, and language attitudes, subject expression/omission, 189–90, 193, 501, 557, 559, 731–4 197–8, 423–39, 523, 535, 545n Spanish, 188, 189, 191, 192, 194 subjunctive mood, 126–30, 188–9, 309–10, tense / aspect, 127, 148–64, 313, 334, 451–2 332 see also mood subordinate clauses, 177–80, 190–1 future tense, 148–9, 150t, 157–9, 174–5, substrate influences 191, 315 Guaraní contact varieties, 359–70 perfect(ive) aspect, 159–64, 191, 332–3, Palanquero, 448f, 451, 452, 453, 460t, 405–6, 416n 461–2, 465, 466–7 progressive aspect, 152–7, 406–7 Sui people (China), 276, 279, 586 terms of address see address Summer Institute of Linguistics (SIL), 686, Terrell, Tracy, 75, 80, 103, 159 688, 693 Teschner, R.V., 601 Suñer, Margarita, 136, 138 Texan Spanish, 563 suprasegmental variation, 22–5, 57–9, 83, textbooks, 601, 602 see also writing 84–91, 483 theories in L2 speakers, 311–12 age and aging, 207–9 research methods, 26 Assimilatory Hypothesis, 56 surveys, 603 Bell’s model of language as audience Swain, Merrill, 314, 315 design, 42, 44–5 switch reference (contrast), 313, 419, 431, Bell’s Style Axiom, 49 434–7 borderlands theory, 566–7, 630 syllabic consonants, 83–4 classification of contact phenomena, syllable structure, 62–5, 72–91 see also coda 381–4, 497–8, 520–2, 544n, consonants; onset consonants; 568–70, 581 vowels code-switching behaviors, 536–7

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Cognitive Grammar, 522 Toscana Mateus, Humberto, 328 Compensatory Hypothesis, 69n transition (language change), 286 Connectionist Model, 306 transitivity, and object deletion, 140–1 Economy Principle, 56 translanguaging, 681 Evidentiality Hypothesis, 179 Travis, Catherine, 494–5 Functional Hypothesis, 56–7, 189 Tricker, Deborah, 379 Index of Global Influence (Engco Trudgill, Peter, 292–5, 581, 709, 712, 714, Model), 679 719 Labov’s model of language variation, 36, Tse, Sou-Mee, 586–7 98–9 tú-usted variation, 192, 194, 210–11, 244–60 language acquisition, 263–4, 306, 584 Tucson (Arizona), 564, 566 language shift, 560–1 Tummers, José, 197 Naturalistic Hypothesis, 56 Tunisia, 475 Neutralization Hypothesis, 124–5 Tuominen, Anne, 635 Neutralization-in-Discourse Hypothesis, Turner, Frederick Jackson, 566 148–50 Tuten, Donald N., 288, 289 Obligatory Contour Principle, 58 Tyneside English, 273–4 Optimality Theory, 58, 75, 263–4 typology, 284 pattern induction model, 264 phonic variation and change, 55–9 Uber, Diane R., 245 Preston’s Status Axiom, 49 Ullman, Char, 555, 556 Principle of Accountability, 151 UN Declaration on the rights of indigenous segregation/separation hypothesis, peoples, 673–4 219–25, 231, 237, 241–2 UNESCO (Ad Hoc Expert Group on Social Identity Theory, 731 Endangered Languages), 335, 337 structuralism, 56 United States, language planning, 675–8 Usage-Based Model, 59 United States Spanish, 174–5, 315, 340–1, “Third Wave” studies, 125 see also 425, 426–7, 554–60, 561, 562–3, methodology 564–70, 759 see also specific varieties, Thomas, Brooke, 652 e.g. New Mexican Spanish Thomas, Erik, 26 class differences, 634–5 Thomason, Sarah G., 631 code-switching, 530–44 Thompson, Sandra A., 157 conceptual convergence, 504–24 Thon, Sonia, 76, 360 dialect contact, 579–81, 582–6, 587–94 Thorne, Barrie, 221 discourse-pragmatic features, 493–501, Tienda, M., 601 532, 537–8, 539–44 Timm, L.A., 538 language attitudes, 557–60, 584, 627, Tippets, Ian, 131, 137 628–9, 633, 634–7, 638–40, 675–8, Tobin, Yishai, 23–4, 25f 739–42 tolerance, constitutional right to, 637–8 lexico-semantic features, 531–3 Tollefson, James W., 668 literary texts, 531–2 topic shifting, 46–7 maintenance vs. shift, 585, 623–42 Toribio, A.J., 534, 535, 536, 540, 732 Mock Spanish see Mock Spanish Torreira, Francisco, 29n morphosyntactic features, 538–9, 582–3 Torres Cacoullos, Rena, 39, 152–3, 157, 159, phonological features, 534, 583–5 160 universals, and constraints on change, 287 Torres, Lourdes, 494, 495–6, 497, 543, 562, urbanization 563, 582 and language change, 338–41, 739 Torres-Ruiz, Araceli, 559 and language shift, 355–6, 631

bindex.indd 791 5/26/2015 12:24:01 PM 792 Index

Urciuoli, Bonnie, 546n, 559, 639, 659, 676 Voice Onset Time (VOT), 534, 544n Urrutia, Hernán, 188, 192 von Gleich, Utta, 686, 697 Uru language, 342n vos (pronoun), 245, 247–8 , 76 vowels, 11–14, 59, 60t, 99, 361, 402–3, US Spanish see United States Spanish 481–2, 708, 710f, 712, 719 Usage-Based Model, 59 articulation of, 17, 264 consonantization, 18–20 Valderrama Martínez, Fernando, 478 cross-linguistic comparisons, 144n Valdés, Guadalupe, 500, 536, 563, 598, deletion, 83, 84 599–600, 601–2, 607, 608, 611–13, devoicing, 14 615, 640 diphthongization, 12 Valdés Bernal, Sergio, 730 hiatuses, 12–14, 29n Valdés-Fallis, G., 601 insertion, 84 Valdez, María Luz, 343n lengthening, 75–6 Valdman, Albert, 315 quality, 28n, 66 Valencian Spanish, 192, 376–7, 380, 383 reinforcement, 69n Valentín-Márquez, Wilfredo, 76 and stress, 65, 83 Valladolid Spanish, 192 and syllable structure, 62–3, 64, 66, 73, Valle, José del, 296 83, 84 Vallverdú, Francesc, 297 weakening, 65, 69n, 331 Vann, Robert, 388 VanPatten, Bill, 305 Waltermire, Mark, 415n Varbrul analysis, 51n Wang, S., 598, 610–11 Varela, Fabiola, 99 Warren-Leubecker, Amye, 274, 278 Varga, Renata, 270 Watt, Dominic, 270, 273–4 variables, control of, 25–6, 38, 49–51, 125, weakening, 63–5, 69n, 77–8 151, 169, 441n, 628–38 /s/, 99–106, 311 velar consonants, 60f, 61 nasal consonants, 110–11, 117n labial-velar alternation, 17, 21 stops, 16–17, 29n velarization, 79–80, 111 vowels, 65, 331 Velázquez-Castillo, Maura, 363–4 Weber de Kurlat, Frida, 249–50 Velleman, Shelley, 264 Weber, Frida, 249–50, 251 Veloska Lynch, Ljpka, 421, 440 Weinreich, Uriel, 55, 57, 286, 341, 378, 382, Veltman, Calvin, 627, 633 508, 535, 541 Venezuelan Spanish Weitspekan language (Yurok), 527n morphosyntactic features, 169–74, Western Andalusian, 706, 707, 719 176–7t, 178, 179–80, 182–3 Western Sahara, 477–8 phonological features, 44, 78, 265–70, Whaley, Lindsay, 337 271 Whiteness / Gringoism, 648, 649–54 see vertical variation, definition, 305 also discrimination Vicenté, Ángeles, 476, 485 Whitley, Stanley, 18–20 Vida-Castro, Matilde, 706 Widdison, Kirk, 18 Vihman, Marilyn, 264 Wiedemann, Emilio G., 718 Villa, Daniel, 315 Williams, Ann, 580, 586 Villena, Juan Andrés, 115 Williams, Lynn, 720 Villena-Ponsoda, Juan Andrés, 706, 707, Willis, Erik, 15, 28n 717, 718 Winford, Donald, 341, 469n, 508 vocabulary, in L2 acquisition, 310–11 Winke, P., 605 vocalization, 78–9 Wölck, Wolfgang, 338, 340, 343n

bindex.indd 792 5/26/2015 12:24:01 PM Index 793

Wolf, Clara, 20, 38, 40, 217, 223–4 United States Spanish, 531–2, 540, 545n, Wolff, Kurt, 215 601 Wolford, Tonya E., 563 written contextualized tasks, 307, 314 women, and language change, 142–3, 219, 230–2, 236–8, 239, 240–1, 739 Yang, Lijun, 580, 587 Woolard, Kathryn A., 563, 567, 755 yeísmo, 217, 721 Woolsey, Daniel, 304, 307 Yépez, María, 138 word boundaries, perception of, 82 Young, Richard, 305 word order, 333–4 Yucatan Spanish, 80 clitic placement, 407–12, 416n Yurok language (Weitspekan), 527n subject-verb inversion, 429–30 workplace, 253–60, 337, 554–7, 655 Zagona, Karen, 429 world languages, 558, 678–81, 747–61 see Zavala, Virginia, 739 also English Zentella, Ana C., 425, 426–7, 433, 526n, Wright, Roger, 289, 290–2 537, 540, 541, 545n, 546n, 554, Wright, Sue, 670 563, 565, 567, 582, 583, 626, 629, writing, 285, 287–99, 326, 546n, 670, 714 632, 636, 637, 647, 660, 661, Guaraní, 356, 357–8, 736 730, 731–2, 734, 742 Moroccan Spanish, 486 Zubritskaya, Katya, 58 Paraguayan Spanish, 363, 366–9 Zuckerman, Jessica, 127 Quechua and Aymara, 694 Zyzik, Eve, 310

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