Unconstitutional Deportation of Mexican Americans

UNCONSTITUTIONAL DEPORTATION OF MEXICAN AMERICANS

I feel that that this country should have history of others, exclusion of the historical intolerance and suspicion aimed at citizens done something for its citizens instead experience of the other is still apparent in of Middle Eastern origin following the of getting rid of them the way they did. many social science textbooks adopted by destruction of the World Trade Center and The American government said, ‘Let’s local and state boards of education. the Pentagon on September 11, 2001. Thus, get rid of the Mexicans since they’re the closest to their native lands.’ (Castañeda, This article will explore the topic of the work of educators is to teach children 1972) the unconstitutional deportation of Mexi- about the mistakes made by our citizens can Americans (American born citizens) and government during social, politial, Introduction during the 1930s and advocate for its economic, and war crises. Teaching about inclusion in elementary and secondary these violations can help create a more just Many educators are committed to social studies curricula, especially through and accepting pluralistic society so that multicultural education and are constantly the use of family history and oral history. such acts are never committed again. seeking an inclusive curriculum voicing Actual quotes from oral history interviews the diversity of the many cultural groups conducted by the author and others are in- Unconstitutional Deportation in the United States. The inﬂ uential work cluded here. This deportation is estimated of Mexican Americans of James Banks (1981, 1997, 2001) has to have involved 1-2 million people across encouraged a generation of educators to the United States, with the majority of in the 1930s design a multicultural curriculum. individuals involved being American born The Great Depression was the most Yet while this task remains an im- (Balderrama, Rodríguez, 1995). severe economic catastrophe of the twen- portant goal for all educators so students American history regrettably has tieth-century with vast unemployment may develop an understanding of their other examples of intolerance and the and underemployment. Mexicans and own history as well as a respect for the violation of the constitutional rights of Mexican Americans in the United States various ethnic groups, such as the intern- were especially vulnerable during this time Christine Valenciana is an assistant professor ment of Japanese Americans in relocation of social and political as well as economic in the Department of Elementary and Bilingual camps during World War II and the forced crisis. State governments passed legisla- Education at California State University, Fullerton, relocation of Native Americans to reserva- tion prohibiting the employment of aliens Fullerton, California. tions. More recently, we have seen acts of on work projects ﬁ nanced by government

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 4 DURING THE 1930S:

A Family History & Oral History

By Christine Valenciana

funds. Many private companies and indus- lived in the United States for decades along but also were culturally American. Mexico tries also adopted an anti-Mexican policy with their American-born children (Exami- was at best an ancestral home. Nevertheless, in their hiring practices. nation of the Unconstitutional Deportation Mexican and Mexican American families These policies had a profound impact and Coerced Emigration of Legal Residents were desperate for work. Thus, many were on the Mexican population, because the and U.S. Citizens of Mexican Descent, 2003; coerced into migrating to Mexico by offers of larger American society regarded “all Mexi- Balderrama & Rodríguez, 1995). This policy cheap one-way train tickets. Other Mexican cans as Mexicans.” There was no distinction was presented as a way to stop a draining of American families became so desperate that between Mexican Nationals and American government funding and to rid the country they went on their own in old trucks and citizens of Mexican descent. So employ- of those who were not “real” Americans. cars to remote areas of Mexico. The Mexican ment was especially diffi cult to obtain for American government leaders and government also enticed families with invi- Mexican Americans as well as Mexicans. American society embarked on the policy tations to develop the Mexican hinterland The federal government during the of repatriation while refusing to recognize (Balderrama & Valenciana, 2004a; Balder- Herbert Hoover Administration also key historical factors about the Mexican rama & Rodríguez, 1995). These experiences conducted widespread pubic roundups or presence in the United States. Mexican have been poignantly told in oral history raids in search of “aliens” perceived to be immigration during the early part of the interviews such as the following: taking jobs away from American citizens. 20th century had provided essential labor Nosotros, con diez otras familias fuimos These raids created fear and anxiety in the throughout the United States. Many of de San Pedro hasta aquí en troques. No Mexican population. these Mexican immigrants had been living habia carretera desde Ensenada. No However, the greatest challenge for in the United States for as long as twenty- habia nada aquí. the Mexican American community was the fi ve years and their families had become We, along with ten other families left local campaign by private companies and fi rmly rooted in the economy, life style, and from San Pedro [San Pedro, California], public welfare agencies of “repatriation.” culture of American society. Most of the in trucks, to here [Punta San Ysidro, Baja “Repatriation” was a propaganda term children of these immigrants were born California, Mexico]. There was no road created by the local agencies to mask the and raised in the United States, with the from Ensenada. There was nothing here. unconstitutional deportation of Mexicans, majority experiencing public education. (Balderrama & Valenciana, 2004a) many who were legal residents and had They were Americans not just by birth

SPRING 2006 5 Especially important for educators is where she got the money for the stamps. I used to miss the states so much! I the experience of elementary and secondary (Valenciana, 2003b) would cry every night because I was real lonely…I would write to my sister and school age children who were expelled to a In Mexico they were then forced to learn land which they had never known and fre- I told her about my problem. I still had Spanish, in order to survive and continue hopes of coming to my country. This was quently encountered living conditions more their education: in 1951 that I came back to the states. harsh than their American home (Balder- She sent me the fare from Gómez Palacio rama & Rodríguez, 1995). The interviewee We had to be tutored by a lady that lived to Colton [California]. The immigration below explains the way that women had to right next to one of my relatives when we people came on the train and asked all cart water to do everyday tasks which had were in Mexico. I guess she understood tourists to please take out their passports English because she tutored us. We used and all your other papers…I told him previously been done in a house with run- to speak to her in English and she used to ning water and a washing machine: [immigration offi cial] that I was to meet speak Spanish to us. She taught us how my sister who was waiting for methe next In the center of this mesón [inn] there was to learn Spanish, and then we started day. I had my papers, everything…my a noria which is a long well. To get the going to schools wherever we were living. birth certifi cate…that was it… to prove water out of the noria you had to turn the We didn’t understand Spanish. We didn’t that I was born here in the states. (Mar- handle around and around to raise the know how to read or write it. We spoke tinez-Southard, 1971) bucket. That’s the way I used to pump the a little Spanish, but not enough I don’t water out so I could do my washing. It was think. (Castañeda, 1972) Even though they had the legal right to return to the United States many had a tough life and it was twelve trips back Many families only survived by and forth to carry the water. That was forgotten English and were faced with re- relying on relatives for shelter and food. about fi ve blocks that I had to go. I never learning the language of their elementary Mexico also was experiencing the Great did learn to carry water on my head. I and secondary school days in the United Depression and resources were already carried it Chinese style. Later when we States. Due to their limited education their moved to the ranch it was the same situ- limited. Families were often forced to live options for employment were severely ation. There wasn’t dirt but sand that I in unwelcoming circumstances: had to walk over and that was really hard. affected. However, many returned home (Martinez-Southard, 1971) I remember when we got to my grandma’s to the United States during World War house…there was a lot of commotion…my II to join the war effort by serving in the Many were accustomed to urban life and mother was telling me to hurry up and eat American armed forces and working in war because we were impos- were suddenly thrust into a largely rural industries on the home front: environment where there was no running ing. My grand- water such as the situation described above. mother w a s Although I regretted what the American real nice but my Many children were forced into child labor government did to me and my family…I father’s sisters… am an American. I wanted to serve my for survival and school became a luxury that they used t o call country. So I went to serve my county their families could not afford. me pocha [Term for from 1943-1946. (Balderrama, Valenci- Mexican Americans often used by Mexi- We had to walk approximately fi fteen to ana, 2004b) cans in a derogatory way]. (Valenciana, twenty miles to school. I resented the way 2003a) Recently, American history’s dark chap- we were taken from the United States and ter of unconstitutional deportation of taken to Mexico and we had to struggle There was little to assist the repatriates Mexican Americans has received public to live in a place where we had nothing. and their American born children (Balder- (Balderrama & Valenciana, 2004b) attention with media coverage and leg- rama & Rodríguez, 1995). islative action. Children who had already begun school “Repatriados” became a word of dis- in the United States had their education dain by many Mexicans resentful of their severely interrupted: presence and fearful of what affect this Socio-Political Action would have on their livelihoods (Balder- and Media Coverage in Behalf This was a setback for us. I could have rama & Rodríguez, 1995). The following gone to school, my family, my brothers of Unconstitutional and sisters and I had a better life here. interviewee sadly explains the sting of Deportation Survivors I only went to school for 2½ years. We feeling unwanted in a foreign land: were living with my grandmother and On July 15, 2003, the California State This family that we lived with had six aunt and they didn’t want us living there children, three girls, then three boys. The Senate conducted public hearings on un- anymore. (Valenciana, 2003a) oldest boy used to call me, repatriada. I constitutional deportation and coerced Some families moved to such remote areas don’t think that I felt that I was a repa- emigration of Mexicans and Mexican where there were no schools. Language triada because I was an American citizen. Americans. The hearings have resulted (Castañeda, 1972) usage and preference also played an im- in pending legislation to establish a com- mission investigating repatriation and portant role. Young people with limited education were to extend the statute of limitations for In the United States children of Mexi- locked into the poverty economy of Mexico. submission of suits by survivors. can descent were punished for speaking Many of these young people longed to MALDEF, the Mexican American Legal Spanish at school and consequently spoke return to their home of birth, the United Defense and Education Fund, also fi led the little if any Spanish (Hendricks, 1975; States and did so as long as they had proof law suit of Emilia Castañeda vs. the State González, 1990). These children were of their American birth ( Castañeda, 1972; of California, Los Angeles County, and the educated in English and almost without Balderrama & Valenciana, 2003; Valenci- Los Angeles Chamber of Commerce in behalf exception read and wrote in that language ana, 2003a). In the following interview, of repatriation program survivors. In ad- exclusively: this young woman who left Riverside, dition, efforts are underway sponsored by California, when she was sixteen years old My sister and I would write to each other Congresswoman Hilda Solis to introduce explains how her desire to return home to in English. My sister would send me let- similar legislation at the federal level. ters from Mexico although I don’t know the United States was fi nally realized:

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 6 Moreover, the hearings and law suit Hoover and Franklin Delano Roosevelt to However, the best teaching tools might have resulted in extensive newspaper, ra- combat the economic crisis. be the incorporation of oral history testi- dio, and television coverage (Jones, 2003; 11.6.3 Discuss the human toll of the De- mony by survivors. Segments of oral history Amador 2003, Rodriguez, 2003; News Hour pression, natural disasters and unwise interviews appear in Decade of Betrayal, with Jim Leher, 2003; Magagnini, 2003). agricultural practices and their effects however, the most extensive collection is at The forced expulsion of Mexican Americans on the depopulation of rural regions and the Center for Oral and Public Policy Cen- is now receiving for the fi rst time sustained on political movements of the left and ter, California State University, Fullerton. public attention in the Mexican American right, with particular to the Dust Bowl Moreover, oral history sources are community and larger American society. refugees and their social and economic forthcoming from many survivors and their impacts on California. (California Depart- Teachers can introduce students to this ment of Education, 2000, p.153) families, because some families are recog- topic by using some of the above-mentioned nizing that the survivors are senior citizens secondary sources in social studies and It is therefore imperative that the primarily in their 70s and 80s. They do not language arts classes in the elementary as adoption of future textbooks give attention want this history to die with this genera- well as secondary classroom. These sources to unconstitutional deportation of Mexican tion, as stated by Ignacio Piña in an oral provide excellent sources for content area Americans. Inclusion of unconstitutional history interview: “Let people know what reading and critical discussions as well as deportation explicitly stated in the state happened and see what the government did other language arts activities and can be content standards would also address the wrong” (Balderrama & Valenciana, 2003). related to state content area standards. goals of multicultural education as out- Elementary and secondary teachers lined by Banks (1981, 1997, 2001, 2003). might consider joining in documenting Towards Inclusion unconstitutional deportation by assigning in Social Studies Curriculum Family and Oral History oral history projects whereby students can conduct first-hand primary research on and Multicultural Education Probably the most important reason for this important topic with family members. inclusion of unconstitutional deportation of Even though unconstitutional deporta- Oral history is a vastly underused teaching Mexican Americans in our curriculum has tion of Mexican Americans has been receiv- strategy that helps students learn a power- been the growing number of ing increasing public attention especially ful research strategy for uncovering the his- survivors and their fami- in California, a sample of social studies tory of their families and communities and lies. These f a m ilies textbooks for the State of California re- also facilitates the development of language have come forward to veals that many make no specifi c mention arts including listening, speaking, reading, share their respective of this important historical fact. However, and writing. Students will gain fi rst-hand experiences in pub- one simply states, “Many Mexican immi- knowledge of this event by hearing the lic forums and to the grants were sent back to Mexico” (Stuckey voices of survivors and their families. Stu- media: “We would like, & Salvucci, p. 774), thereby not recognizing dents can gain valuable writing experience at least, an apology, a the deportation of U.S. citizens. by writing about their interviewees’ stories public apology” (Jimenez, Expul- Furthermore, this exclusion is ap- while giving them a voice. sion of U.S. Citizens, 2003). They hope that parent in texts adopted for the fourth An excellent way to gather family the injustice of unconstitutional deporta- grade as well as eighth grade classes in histories related to unconstitutional de- tion will be recognized (Examination of the History of the United States. However, the portation is by teaching students simple Unconstitutional Deportation, 2003). This expulsion of American citizens of Mexican interview strategies for conducting family wish and sentiment is made clear: descent can be taught in accordance with and community oral history. I begin with California History-Social Science Content I want to let people know what happened “3 Step Interview” as explained by Kagan Standards for fourth grade specifi cally: and see what the government did wrong. (1994) in his teacher-friendly publication I do not want money. (Balderrama, Valen- Cooperative Learning. I have successfully 4.4.3 Discuss immigration and migration ciana, 2003) used this strategy with elementary school to California between 1850 and 1900, students, secondary school students, and including the diverse composition of those In seeking justice for the violation of who came; the countries of origin and the rights of Mexican Americans citizens, my teacher education students. their relative locations; and confl icts and they also have emerged as a teaching Within a matter of minutes students accords among the diverse groups; resource. Their respective actions have can learn how to interview another student, practice during class, and then formulate 4.4.4. Describe rapid immigration, inter- important implications fulfi lling the call questions for simple interviews on various nal migration, settlement and the growth of James Banks’ for social justice and of towns and cities (e.g., Los Angeles); the study of history as it relates to many informal and academic topics. Teachers can diverse groups. Moreover, awareness can then work with students to formulate more 4.4.5 Discuss the effects of the Great De- contribute to understanding the history of questions for an oral history interview of a pression, the Dust Bowl, and World War family member. Teachers can play oral his- II on California. (California Department a growing ethnic group for all elementary tory interviews for students to hear which of Education, 2000, p. 62-63) and secondary school children. Other resources include the few are available through university and local Moreover, the eleventh grade History printed secondary sources, especially oral history collections. Social Science Content Standard also Balderrama and Rodríguez (1995), which In addition, teachers can log onto provides an opportunity for the teaching is quite appropriate for high school stu- various websites for information for of unconstitutional deportation: dents. On the other hand, the media, both teaching students about simple oral history strategies suitable for elementary 11.6.2 Understand the explanation of the television and public radio, has produced principal causes of the Great Depression some signifi cant yet short discussions of and secondary teaching. Some outstand- and the steps taken by the Federal Re- unconstitutional deportation (News Hour ing websites through the Library of serve, Congress, and Presidents Herbert with Jim Leher, 2003). Congress provide a wealth of knowledge

SPRING 2006 7 for teaching students about oral history, boards of education for important policy Latino ‘repatriation’ drive in 30s. The Los important oral history projects, and ac- changes in the curriculum. Angeles Times, pp. B1 & B9. tual interviews such as Learning Page, The developing awareness and activity Jones, G. (2003, July 16). Reparations sought Veteran’s Project, Voices from the Dust among survivors, their families, educators, for ‘30s expulsion program. The Los Angeles Times, p. B8. Bowl, Voices from the Days of Slavery, and the Mexican American community, Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San and the American and Folklife Center. along with the media and larger Ameri- Clemente, CA: Resources for Teachers. Monographs such as Oral History can society, are “educating citizens in a Leal, F. (2003, July 19). Memories of ‘great in- Projects in Your Classroom and Doing Oral multicultural society” (Banks, 1997). It is justice’ kept alive. Orange County Register, History: A Practical Guide are excellent multicultural education at its best. Most pp. L1-L2. teacher resources for helping students importantly, these developments have Magagnini, S. (2003, July 16). 1 million of conduct interviews with family and com- given voice to people previously unheard Mexican descent paid heavy price. The Sac- munity members. Administrators can and by the vast majority of Americans. ramento Bee, pp. A1 & A14. Ritchie, D.A. (2003). Doing oral history: A prac- should support teachers in their endeavors Their experiences are yet to be heard tical guide. New York: Oxford University to document this particular topic as part of by most Mexican American as well as other Press. family history. Family history through oral students. The inclusion of unconstitutional The Library of Congress Learning Page. http:// history can be a part of the school’s fam- deportation of Mexican Americans of the lcweb.loc.gov/learn/ ily outreach. A bibliography of the above 1930s must take its rightful place in the Veterans History Project. http://www.loc.gov/ sources is included below. curriculum and history which all students folklife/vets/ Both elementary and secondary and citizens learn in order to promote a Voices from the Dust Bowl. http://memory. loc. teachers can use the secondary sources truly democratic, diverse, inclusive, and gov/ammem/afctshtml/tshome.html Voices from the Days of Slavery. http://memory. of recent and current media coverage, compassionate society. loc.gov/ammem/vfshtml/ particularly newspaper articles including Family history can and should be Wood, L.P. (2001). Oral history projects in your but not limited to: Los Angeles Times, July part of our inclusive multicultural history. classroom. Order through: Oral History As- 15, 16, 2003; La Opinión, July 13, 14, and Hopefully, it also will assist in stopping sociation, Dickinson College, P.O.Box 1773, September 15, 2003; The Guardian, July more acts of intolerance and violation of Carlisle, PA 17013. This book is described at: 17, 2003; Sacramento Bee, July 16, 2003; civil and human rights in American society www.dickinson.edu. organizations/oha San Jose Mercury News, July 18, 2003; and especially today when threats of terrorism Orange County Register, July 19,2003. are endangering civil rights. References By using the above mentioned primary Amador, L. (2003, September 14). Buscan crear and secondary sources, students and teach- commisíon para investigar deportaciones ers will involve themselves in dynamic masivas de mexicanos. La Opinión, pp. 3A curriculum development and acquaint & 4A. students with oral history through inter- Arredondo, M. L. (2003, July 16). Deportados de- viewing family and community members. mandan justica. La Opinión, pp. 1A & 8A. Such instruction has many possibilities Balderrama, F.E. & Rodríguez, R. (1995). De- for students and educators to take action cade of betrayal: Mexican repatriation in the as suggested by Banks (1981, 1997, 2001). 1930s. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press. Balderrama, F. E. & Valenciana, C. (Interview- Toward Inclusion ers) (2003). Oral history interview with Igna- of Unconstitutional cio G. Piña. (Microcassette Recording) Balderrama, F. E. & Valenciana, C. (Interview- Deportation Bibliography ers) (2004a). Oral history interview with Educators can advocate for the speciﬁ c Ramona Rios. (Microcassette Recording) for Teachers Balderrama, F.E. & Valenciana, C. (Interview- inclusion of this topic in local and state cur- ers) (2004b). Oral history interview with riculum. As mentioned previously, current American Folklife Center, The Library of Con- gress. http://www.loc.gov/folklife Ruben Jimenez. (Microcassette Recording) California history-social science contents Amador, L. (2003, September 14). Buscan crear Banks, J.A. (1997). Educating citizens in a are written so that the teaching of mass commisíon para investigar deportaciones multicultural society. New York: Teachers expulsion of American citizens is an option. masivas de mexicanos. La Opinión, pp. 3A College Press. Yet educators along with survivors, their & 4A. Banks, J.A. (2001). An introduction to multi-cul- families, and their communities also can Amador, L. (2003, July 13). El riesgo de ser tural education. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. demand that particular content standards mexicano. La Opinión, pp. 1A & 8A. Banks, J.A. (1981). Multiethnic education: Theo- Arredondo, M. L. (2003, July 13. Caso: Deporta- ry and practice. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. directly address this topic. The California Banks, J.A. & Banks McGee, M.A. (Eds.). (2003). Federation of Teachers recently adopted dos. La Opinión, pp. 1A & 8A. Balderrama, F.E. & Rodríguez, R. (1995). De- Handbook of research on multicultural edu- a resolution calling for such action on cade of betrayal: Mexican repatriation in the cation. New York: Macmillan. unconstitutional deportation of Mexican 1930s. Albuquerque, NM: University of New California Department of Education. (2000). Americans during the 1930s: Mexico Press. History social-science framework for Cali- fornia public schools. Sacramento, CA: Cali- Be it further resolved that the CFT advo- Castañeda de Valenciana, E. (Interviewee) (1972). Oral history interview by Christine fornia Department of Education. cate for the adoption in California Social California Federation of Teachers. (2004). Studies Curricula information about this Valenciana. Fullerton, CA: California State University, Fullerton, Center for Oral and Unknown history: Deportation of Mexican little known history… (California Federa- Americans. California Federation of Teach- tion of Teachers, Policy 34.04, 2004) Public History. Deportaciones masivas: Se busca justicia. (2003, ers Convention, Los Angeles. (Policy 34.04). Social justice action by educators such as July 13). La Opinión, pp. 1A & 3A. Burbank, CA: California Federation of Teachers. this can also be taken to local and state Jones, G. (2003, July 15). Apology sought for

MULTICULTURAL EDUCATION 8 Castañeda de Valenciana, E. (Interviewee) Latino ‘repatriatiopn’ drive in 30s. The Los dom. Austin, TX: Holt Rinehart & Winston. (1972). Oral history interview by Christine Angeles Times, pp. B1 & B9. Valenciana, C. (Interviewer). (2003a). Oral Valenciana. Fullerton, CA: California State Kagan, S. (1994). Cooperative learning. San history interview with María Ofelia Acosta. University, Fullerton, Center for Oral and Clemente, CA: Resources for Teachers. (Microcassette Recording) Public History. Leal, F. (2003, July 19). Memories of ‘great in- Valenciana, C. (Interviewer). (2003b). Oral Examination of the unconstitutional deportation justice’ kept alive. Orange County Register, history interview with Carmen Martinez- and coerced emigration of legal residents and pp. L1 & L2. Monroe. (Microcassette Recording) U.S. citizens of Mexican descent. Committee Magagnini, S. (2003, July 16) 1 million of on Citizens Participation, California State Mexican descent paid heavy price. The Sac- Senate, July 15, 2003. ramento Bee, pp. A1 & A14. González, G.G. (1990). Chicano education in Martínez-Southard, T. (Interviewee). (1971). the era of segregation. Philadelphia: Balch Oral history interview by Christine Va- Institute. lenciana. Fullerton, CA: California State Hendricks, I.G. (1975). Final report: Public policy University Fullerton, Center for Oral and toward the education of non-white minority Public History. group children in California, 1849-1970. Public Broadcasting System. (2003, November National Institute of Education Project No. 27). News hour with Jim Leher. [Televisions NE-G-00-3-0082. Riverside, CA: University Broadcast]. New York and Washington, DC: of California, Riverside. Public Broadcasting System. Jimenez, R. (Interviewee). (2003). Expulsion of Rodriguez, J. (2003, July 18). A sad chapter U.S. citizens. DVD created by the Ofﬁ ce of in U.S.-Mexican history. San Jose Mercury California State Senator Joseph Dunn. News. Jones, G. (2003, July 15). Apology sought for Stuckey, S., & Salvucci, L.K. (2000). Call to free-

All artwork is by Rini Templeton, whose spirited and revolutionary images continue to speak for social progress. Courtesy of Rini Templeton Memorial Fund.

SPRING 2006 9