UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO The Nostalgia of Change: A History of Mexican Return Migration to Acámbaro, Guanajuato, 1930-2006 A dissertation submitted in partial satisfaction of the requirements for the degree Doctor of Philosophy in History by Jesús Pérez Varela Committee in charge: Professor Michael Monteón, Chair Professor David Gutierrez, Co-Chair Professor Luis Alvarez Professor Everard Mead Professor Nancy Postero Professor Daniel Widener 2010 Copyright Jesús Pérez Varela, 2010 All rights reserved. The dissertation of Jesús Pérez Varela is approved, and it is acceptable in quality and form for publication on microfilm and electronically: __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ __________________________________________ Co-Chair __________________________________________ Chair University of California, San Diego 2010 iii Dedication To the memory of Peter McNee, Mary Walsh, Mariano Varela, Aureliana Cervantes, and Romana Sánchez. iv TABLE OF CONTENTS Signature Page .……………………………………………………………………....iii Dedication Page……………………………………………………………………….iv Table of Contents .…………………………………………………………………….v List of Figures………………………………………………………………………….vi List of Tables…………………………………………………………………………..viii Map……………………………………………………………………………………..ix Acknowledgements …………………………………………….……………………..x Vita ………………………………………………………………………………….....xiii Abstract …………………………………………………………………………….....xv Introduction …………………………………………………………………………... 1 Chapter One: The Study of Return Migration A Brief Synopsis ………………………………………………………….......12 Chapter Two: Mexican Repatriation: The Fear of Return……………...………… 32 Chapter Three: A New Welcome: The Bracero Era …..…………………………..75 Chapter Four: Ni de Aqui, Ni de Alla: From Neither Here or Nor There………………………………………......121 Chapter Five: “Cholismo” and the Emergence of Chicano Gang Culture in Acámbaro ………………………………………………...152 Conclusion …………………………………………………………………………...193 References ……………………………………………………………………..........202 v LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1: Map of Acámbaro, Guanajuato ...…………………………………….3 Figure 2: Bronze Figure of Miguel Hidalgo Y Costilla….………………………5 Figure 3: Anti Chinese Letter…………………………………………………....74 Figure 4: Bracero being checked by a U.S. Inspector.……………………...92 Figure 5: Bracero being Fumigated with DDT………………………………...93 Figure 6: An Insured Bracero…………………………………………………...98 Figure 7: A Bracero Camp……………………………………………………..100 Figure 8: A Bracero cook……………………………………………………….100 Figure 9: A Bracero Camp……………………………………………………...101 Figure 10: “Boots and Sandals”…………………………………………………111 Figure 11: A return migrant’s home…………………………………………….136 Figure 13: A Halloween and Day of the Dead stand………………………….145 Figure 14: Mexican Children trick o treating in Acámbaro……………………145 Figure 15: Graffiti in Teotilan del Valle, Oaxaca……………………………....154 Figure 16: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….166 Figure 17: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….167 Figure 18: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….167 Figure 19: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….167 Figure 20: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….173 Figure 21: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….173 Figure 22: Graffiti………………………………………………………………….174 vi Figure 23: Graffiti………………………………………………………………..175 Figure 24: Two Cholos………………………………………………………….181 Figure 25: Novedades Aztlan…………………………………………………..182 Figure 26: A cholo stand at the Mercado Hidalgo……………………………182 Figure 27: The Nostalgia of Change…………………………………………..193 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1: Immigration to Mexico from 1911-1923……………………………..70 Table 2: How Mexican braceros would spend their money………………..128 Table 3: Number of undocumented persons apprehended, 1951-1964…113 Table 4: Mexican emigrants living in the U.S., 1960-2006………………...121 Table 5: Emigration to Guanajuato…………………………………………...123 viii Map of Mexico Source: Pickatrail.com ix ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The song “Truckin,’” by the Grateful Dead, perhaps best represents my experience at UCSD: “Lately it occurs to me, what a long, strange trip it's been.” This process has been a long, strange and hard trip. I quite honestly never imagined I would get this far in academia. I come from a place where academic opportunities are limited and these outcomes just don’t happen. I have been lucky enough along the way to receive support over the years from many, many people who I wish to thank here. If it were not for their guidance and motivation, none of this could have been possible. Thanks first and foremost to my chair, Dr. Michael Monteón, whose guidance, advice, editing suggestions, and patience was essential. My Co-Chair Dr. David Gutierrez helped me in very tough moments of my academic journey and was a big influence in undertaking the challenge of a Ph.D., inspiring me with Walls and Mirrors to be more critical on historical issues. Dr. Luis Alvarez’s advice helped me through several tough moments and is a role model in helping students through this process. Dr. Daniel Widener’s advice on how to survive graduate school was also essential. Dr. Everard Mead taught me what a young professor can achieve and his pedagogical style is a model to follow as he makes classes both challenging and enjoyable. And huge thanks to Dr. Nancy Postero, who came to my rescue in the week of my defense and to whom I will always be grateful. Other faculty and staff members at UCSD have also been fundamental to my experience. My friend and former UCSD professor Dr. David Luft showed me x the skill of balancing academia with a normal life. Dr. Christine Hunefeldt always expressed human concern and support of what I was doing. Dr. Paul Pickowicz and Dr. Pamela Radcliff allowed me to be the Head TA of the department. Latin Americanist bibliographer, Karen Lindvall-Larson was always there when I needed her. Dr. Rosalind Streichler, Director of the Center for Teaching Development taught me fundamental pedagogical methods. To the great staff who showed me the ins and outs of the history department—Carol Larking, Danielle Swenson, Nadyne Nawar, and Maureen McCormack—thank you! Thanks also to my colleagues, cuates, and their families who were there in good and tough moments on this strange trip. Thanks to my mentor and friend, Dr. Miguel La Serna and my compadre Dr. Zacarias Brittsan. To Dr. Tinoco and his family for their friendship and hospitality. To Dr. Stephanie Moore, Dr. Suzana Martinez, Chris Wisniewski, Gloria Gandara, Sara Sanders, Barbara Zepeda, Ricardo Fagoaga, Emily Montgomery, Sjahari Pullom, Todd Welker, Gloria Kim, Jed Mularski, Megan Strom, Alicia Ratterree, Guillermo Gallardo, Angela Morrill, and Jimmy Patiño for their friendships. Regardless of what field we were in and who was ahead of whom in the program, at the end we were all in the same boat. The research of this dissertation ran into several obstacles, namely not having an archive in Acámbaro, Guanajuato. I am grateful to the current archivists, Licenciado José Luis Marcos Pérez Piña and Lincenciada Anahi Bocanegra Solorio, who kept digging under piles of paper underneath the local soccer stadium and in old government warehouses in order for me to have access to archival materials. Thanks to a generous grant by the Apoyo al xi Desarrollo de Archivos y Bibliotecas de México (ADABI) we were able to rescue the archive and now Acámbaro has an archive available to the public and researchers. I would also like to thank the government of the former mayor of Acámbaro César Larrondo Díaz who facilitated access and the process for the archive to exist. In Mexico City I would like to thank Othon Nava who helped guide me through the Archivo General de la Nacion (AGN). Thanks also to the Secretaria de Relaciones Exteriores (SRE) and the Archivo de Lerdo de Tejada and their staff for helping me in to look for material relevant to this project. Many, many thanks to the Fagoaga family for their kind hospitality while doing my research in Mexico City. I also want to thank my family, whose immigration history propelled me to explore this topic and look at history from a personal perspective. My father Antonio Pérez Sanchez and my mother Esther Varela Cervantes and my ten siblings histories inspire this project. Thanks to the McNee family, especially my suegra Dolores, who was there for us in every moment of our academic journey. To Kevin and Debbie McNamara whose family always made us feel at home, especially every Sunday. Finally, I want to thank my wife Alison McNee and my two sons Mariano and Cuauhtémoc. Without their love, patience, motivation, and sacrifices, this would have never been achieved. This is dedicated to you. xii VITA 1997 B.A., Interdisciplinary Studies Emphasis on Mexico, Latin American, and Chicano History California State University, Fresno 2001-2002 Foreign Language Area Studies Fellowship San Diego State University M.A. in Latin American Studies Emphasis on Mexico. San Diego State University Hubert Herring Award for Best Master’s Thesis The Pacific Coast Council of Latin American Studies 2002-2004 Teaching Assistant, Department of History University of California, San Diego 2003-2004 Foreign Language Area Studies Fellowship San Diego State University Foreign Language Area Studies Fellowship Oaxaca, Mexico San Diego State University 2006 Dissertation Writing Fellowship Center for Latin American and Iberian Studies University of California, San Diego 2007 Research Grant Center for Study and Race and Ethnicity University of California, San Diego Teacher Assistant, Department of History University of California,