Aristotle observed it, and Karl von Frisch was awarded the Nobel Prize for explaining it: the waggle dance – a dance used by honeybees to communicate the location of food sources. CULTURE & SOCIETY_History of Science

Dancing with Bees

With his lederhosen and white hair, the elderly man looked well groomed. Countless generations of pupils were shown the educational films in which zoologist Karl von Frisch explained the dances of honeybees. His research on these insects and their behaviors earned him fame and renown throughout the world. Tania Munz from the Max Planck Institute for the History of Science in Berlin is researching von Frisch’s life as part of a project on scientific observation.

TEXT TINA HEIDBORN

he man whistled and the fish What von Frisch discovered in the mid- search – and this is demonstrated by the swam over to him: fish were 1940s was a source of fascination, and fact that his studies are still cited today,” among Karl von Frisch’s fa- not only to his fellow researchers. “Von she says. As a sensory physiologist, von vorite experimental animals – Frisch gave many public lectures in Frisch had been focusing since the 1920s particularly a blind bullhead schools and other educational institu- on questions concerning sensory per- T catfish called Xaverl. Von Frisch had tions. For example, I found a letter in ception in animals, such as: Can fish or Xaverl so well trained that he swam the archive from a school asking the bees hear sounds? Can bees distinguish over to the scientist when he whistled scientist to come and give a lecture. between colors, smells, and tastes? softly, proving that fish can hear. But He had already visited the school the even more than fish, von Frisch liked previous year. Von Frisch wrote in re- TAIL WAGGLING AS bees. “The waggle dance looks comical. sponse to the renewed invitation that A DISTANCE INDICATOR But it is not really comical, it is incred- he’d already presented on the bees and ibly interesting. It is one of the most now could give a lecture on fish – also For his experiments, Karl von Frisch amazing occurrences in the insect a fascinating topic. The school replied developed an ingenious marking sys- world. And that’s saying a lot,” he once that that would, no doubt, be very in- tem with which he was able to track commented, looking back on his work. teresting, but could he please speak individual bees within a swarm. This The decoding of the waggle dance about the bees,” reports Tania Munz. enabled him to explore the meaning of the honeybee earned the behavioral The American researcher, who also and purpose of the so-called bee danc- biologist the Nobel Prize in 1973, along holds Swiss citizenship, arrived at the es that had already been noted by with a huge amount of general interest. topic of her book through von Frisch’s Aristotle. Von Frisch postulated that “The hype was enormous,” says histo- Nobel Prize acceptance speech. “I found honeybees convey information about rian of science Tania Munz, who is cur- the experiments fascinating. Von Frisch food sources to their fellow bees rently working on a book about Karl worked with great care, precision and with the help of certain round and

Illustration: SPL-Agentur Focus von Frisch. creativity. He simply conducted good re- waggle dances. >

2 | 10 MaxPlanckResearch 75 CULTURE & SOCIETY_History of Science right)

Food source Food source

40°

Hive Hive

40°

Animal polar coordinates: The angle to the beehive and the waggle movement indicate the direction and distance of the food source.

When they return from an abundant the bee shakes its hindquarters back sects can communicate so brilliantly, r Farbensinn und Formensinn der Bienen, Zoologische Jahrbücher, Abteilung für Allgemeine Zoologie Physiologie, 1915 (bottom food source that is no more than 100 and forth (“waggles”) indicates the dis- what were the implications for the per- meters away, they inform the other tance to the food source. ceived difference between animals and bees with a round dance. If the food is humans? For centuries, language had further away, the successful bee wag- THE FOURTH INSULT been the sole preserve of humans (at gle dances for hive mates in the shape TO HUMANITY? least as far as humans were concerned). of a figure of eight: starting with a It was seen as the boundary that divid- straight line, followed by a semicircle, “The discovery that animals could ed homo sapiens from the other living another straight line and a semicircle communicate in such detail and, more- organisms on earth. Von Frisch’s find- in the opposite direction. The angle over, symbolically caused a sensation,” ings eroded this self-image. the bee assumes in the hive in relation says Munz. “However, von Frisch’s dis- But Karl von Frisch’s research did to gravity corresponds to the angle to covery also brought up some serious not meet with universal acceptance. the sun that the bee flew on its path to questions about the self-image of hu- Criticism was expressed even before he the feeding place. The speed at which mans. If even such lowly animals as in- was awarded the Nobel Prize, in partic- ular by American biologist Adrian Wen- ner. Wenner firmly believed that the bees conveyed information in their dances, but he questioned the signifi- cance of this information. According to Wenner, the smell of a food source was the sole factor in determining whether a bee would find it or not. The informa- tion conveyed by the dances was not used, and even ignored. “Karl von Frisch was over 80 when this debate began,” says Tania Munz. “He had produced enormous volumes The round and waggle dances (above) provide of data and studies, he had a lot of stu- information about nearby and distant food sources. On the right, an experimental dents, and was no longer actively in- setup with which Karl von Frisch proved that volved in empirical research at the

honeybees could see color. time.” But thanks to his extensive and Image from: Karl von Frisch, Erinnerungen eines Biologen, Springer, 1957 (top and bottom left); image De

76 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 10 rigorous studies and the support of numerous international colleagues, he was able to hold his own in the dispute. And of course the awarding of the No- bel Prize also gave von Frisch’s cause a huge boost. The debate concerning the informa- tion content of the honeybee dances is still ongoing today. A perennial source of controversy among the bee research fraternity, it has remained a focus of debate for decades. Just late last year, a scientist revisited the topic in an article in the German newspaper SÜDDEUTSCHE ZEITUNG: Jürgen Tautz, a biologist from Würzburg, explained that bees cannot locate a non-smelling food source with the help of the waggle dance alone, and that Karl von Frisch overestimated the significance of location information in the waggle dances.

AN EXCHANGE OF SCIENTIFIC BLOWS

With this article, Tautz joined the end- less ranks of von Frisch critics – and promptly garnered strong disagreement from his own sphere. For example, Ran- dolf Menzel, a colleague from Berlin, immediately insisted that the bee danc- es contain an abundance of important information and fulfill a significant mo- tivational and instructive function. In this recently kindled exchange of blows, Karl von Frisch at the microscope in 1942. Frisch, who had a Jewish grandmother, was able the focus of the debate involves the hu- to continue working during the National Socialist era in Germany because his research man interpretation of the animal dance. played a role in the fight against the Nosema infestation of bees. Above all, von Frisch’s work Historian Tania Munz observes the generated important impetus for research in communication. dispute with scholarly interest, but without taking sides. “I am not a bee re- searcher and I cannot settle the argu- ner and currently being brought into “During the National Socialist era, it ment,” she stresses. What is certain is play: she deems the claim made by was discovered that von Frisch had a that bee communication is extremely Wenner and his successors to the effect Jewish grandmother. As a result, the Na- complex and the last word in this de- that von Frisch himself was clearly zis wanted to force him out of the uni- bate has not yet been heard. Munz can, more cautious in the statements he versity system. However, many people however, appreciate the dispute in the made in the 1920s and 1930s to be un- expressed their support for him. And context of the developments that have fair. Karl von Frisch did not assemble von Frisch himself argued that his re- taken place in recent decades. As a his- his final theory until the mid-1940s. At search could help in fighting the Nose- torian of science, she sees the current de- that time, he recanted his earlier find- ma infestation that posed a threat to the bate as an interesting replay of the dis- ings and developed what would be- bee populations in the early 1940s,” pute between Wenner and von Frisch in come his final version of the meaning says Munz. As the bees were the most the 1960s and 1970s. of the bee dances. important crop pollinators, the Nazis Nevertheless, Munz vehemently de- The Max Planck researcher is also viewed von Frisch’s work as making an fends von Frisch on one point of criti- able to position von Frisch’s interest in important contribution to maintaining

Photo: Ullstein bild cism originally raised by Adrian Wen- bees in a broader historical context. the German population’s food supply.

2 3 2 | 10 MaxPlanckResearch 77 CULTURE & SOCIETY_History of Science

» The examination of the core questions underlying serious research intensified as a result of von Frisch’s work: How does one carry out research without becoming personally involved? How can animals be observed with maximum objectivity? And is this even possible or, indeed, desirable? How can scientists avoid the traps of anthropocentrism and anthropomorphism? These questions, too, must be understood in their specific historical contexts.

Consequently, he was allowed to con- research intensified as a result of von “The field of observation could now be tinue researching and even received of- Frisch’s work: How does one carry out organized with the help of maps,” ex- ficial state funding for his work. research without becoming personally plains Güttler. As a result, reports the Von Frisch’s work in a different involved? How can animals be ob- scientist, the object of scientific obser- field, that of communication science, served with maximum objectivity? And vation was molded into a particular would take on a significance that out- is this even possible or, indeed, desira- form – a form that was not freely in- weighed that of the German Reich’s ble? How can scientists avoid the traps vented, but that emerged from the ob- honey production. His insights and ex- of anthropocentrism and anthropo- servations and became increasingly es- periments inspired other scientists to morphism? tablished as a kind of yardstick. engage with questions concerning ani- However, the maps that Alexander mal communication. By way of back- FOCUS ON THE HISTORY von Humboldt developed are now ground information, Tania Munz men- OF OBSERVATION obsolete: they are too abstract and tions that, from the perspective of the extensive. Today we know that the history of science, research on commu- The fact that research is also subject distribution of plants is influenced by nication became a prominent global to trends and occasionally undergoes more factors than those that von trend after the Second World War. changes in direction is one of the phe- Humboldt identified: temperature and Computer scientists and cyberneticists nomena historians of science study. soil conditions are not the only factors studied it in the context of artificial in- Tania Munz’s work on Karl von Frisch that play a role here, as he claimed. telligence, and a short time later, Noam is part of a larger project entitled “The After von Humboldt’s death, the the- Chomsky’s deep grammar theories rev- History of Scientific Observation” that ories of evolution altered the view of olutionized the world of linguistics. Munz and her colleagues at the Max the maps. The occurrence of plants In laboratories all over the world, Planck Institute for the History of Sci- and plant communities observed at scientists started to hang on the lips ence are currently working on. the time was increasingly viewed as and mandibles of bees, monkeys, birds, Doctoral student Nils Güttler, for a result of historical processes, such whales and dolphins in an attempt to example, is working on the develop- as migration. study their languages. The chimpanzee ment of plant geography starting in “The perspective from which I con- Washoe, who learned over 30 symbols the 18th century. “The main question sider an object is crucial,” says Güttler. from a sign language, emerged as the the project addresses concerns how And this changes frequently during star of this research circus. scientists identify and stabilize an ob- the course of the history of science. However, it was not exclusively the ject of investigation,” he explains. The Science historians refer to the “period fascination with Karl von Frisch’s work question as to how plants are distrib- eye,” the particular perspective of a that inspired emulation. Tania Munz uted across the earth encompasses a certain historical research generation sees in the enormous interest shown vast, almost impenetrable study area: or epoch. Accordingly, Alexander von in this field a countermovement to the entire globe. The question came Humboldt had a different perspective the dominance of behaviorism. “People into focus with explorers and their on plant geography than that of to- had had enough of behaviorism. It had explorations during the 19th century, day’s scientists. forbidden them from commenting on in particular with Alexander von Tania Munz has been aware of this anything that went beyond what was Humboldt. A form of representation historicist dimension of scientific re- strictly observable behavior,” she says. that would influence the discipline search since her work on Charles Dar- At the same time, the examination of thereafter, the geographical map, de- win, the subject of her master’s thesis.

the core questions underlying serious veloped as a result. Today’s scientists would no longer work Photos: SPL-Agentur Focus (top right, 2), MPI for the History of Science (right)

78 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 10 Image from: Karl von Frisch, Über die ´Sprache der Bienen´: Eine tierpsychologische Untersuchung, Zoologische Jahrbücher, Abteilung für Allgemeine Zoologie und Physiologie, Vol. 40, 1923, Table 1 (bottom) first timetoidentifyindividual beesin itmadepossibleforthe observation: ated completelynewpossibilities for marking systemhedevisedfor beescre- basis ofKarlvonFrisch’s work. The tion canalsobedemonstrated onthe often evolvingpossibilitiesforobserva- dard didnotexistatthetime.” sented asscientificsources. Thatstan- anecdotes todayandcouldnotbepre- These wouldprobablybedescribedas leagues whoheviewedasreliable. information heobtainedfromcol- differing sources. Forexample,heused also amassedinformationfromwidely not onlyuseddifferentmethods,he did,shesays.“Darwin the wayDarwin 2 1 The importanceofchangingand Beeresearcher Karlvon Frisch(1886to1982). Achievinggroundbreaking newinsightswithoutthehelpofsophisticatedtechnology: ofbeeswithtiny dabsofpaintandwasabletoidentifyeachindividualwiththis low-techprocess. 3 Thehistoricalmodelonwhichthemoderntechnologyisbased:Karlvon Frischmarkedhundreds dashes(topright). track appearsonthescreen Themarkedinsect’s asalineofshort 2 Researchers cantrack theflightofinsectstoday withthehelpofatiny radio transmitter (topleft). 1 sources. However, thankstothedevel- the hiveandatdifferentfood novation andnewwaysof thinking Frisch’s beeresearch alsoshowsthatin- Frisch’s colleagues.“However, Karlvon wooden beesdevelopedby oneof compared withtheartificial forward of programmablerobotbees –astep Technology nowalsoenables theuse ON ASIMPLEPROCESS SUCCESS BASED help ofradiotransmitters. bees inflight,forexamplewiththe in theirmethods.Theycanalsotrack bee researchers arefarmoreadvanced opment ofnewtechnologies,today’s 3 ground outsidewascovered insnow ence hall,eveninwinter when the could presentthebeesin confer- ists andPhysicians.Thismeant thathe ing oftheGermanSociety Natural- entist toshowafilmatthe1924 meet- research. “Von Frischwasthefirstsci- particularly inthepresentationofhis ample, hemadeuseoffilmrecordings, new technologiesandprocesses.Forex- na in1886,wascompletelyopento gain inknowledge. cedure, andyetityieldedanimmense have tobeclassifiedasalow-techpro- marking ofthebeesbyhandwould advanced technology,” saysMunz.The and lookingatthingsdonotdependon Von Frisch,whowasborninVien- 2 | 10 MaxPlanckResearch MaxPlanckResearch 79 CULTURE & SOCIETY_History of Science

ng » By a happy stroke of fate, I was born with a love of the animal world. This was a source of some discomfit to my parents.« Wis ng R

Karl von Frisch felt at home with animals, even as a child. Even at a ripe old age, the zoologist, behavioral scientist and sensory physiologist inspected the bee hive A constructed specially for his research. and the bees were dozing in the hive. Needless to say, that made quite an im- pression,” reports Tania Munz. For Karl von Frisch, the observation of bee dances and other animal phe- nomena was a lifelong preoccupation. The love of different animal species was something he acquired in his childhood home. As a child, he kept an entire zoo, reportedly consisting of 170 wide-rang- ing animal species that he observed with passion. His father, a renowned surgeon, would have preferred his son to have followed in his professional footsteps. Frisch thus first studied med- icine before switching to zoology. As the scientist himself put it, ob- serving animals was something he simply could not resist. “Every frog in- terested me more than my school work,” he once reminisced. “By a hap- GLOSSARY py stroke of fate, I was born with a love of the animal world and a delight in Anthropocentrism Nosema the observation of their living impuls- The view whereby humans see them- Nosema disease (also known as nosemosis) is a es. This was a source of some discom- selves as the focus of worldly reality. disease of the honeybee caused by the zygomycete species Nosema apis and Nosema ceranae. Nosema Anthropomorphism fit to my parents. The fact that, despite is the most common disease of mature bees and is The assignment of human character- this, they fostered my inclination in highly contagious. istics to animals, gods or natural every way was decisive in terms of my elements. Mandibles future profession.” The typical mouthparts of the arthropods belonging Behaviorism to the Mandibulata clade. They consist mainly of a He continued: “Animals of all kinds A theoretical position that assumes strong lower jaw and are suited to the biting and – bought, as gifts, caught by me – were that the behavior of humans and chewing of plant and animal foods or as a gripping animals can be studied using a permanent guests in my nursery. My device for the transport or manipulation of objects. mother also liked to have a cheerful scientific method that focuses only on external manifestations and Sensory physiology bird, usually a blue tit, around during behaviors. Behaviorism was estab- The study of seeing, hearing, feeling, smelling, tast- the bleak winter months. It was al- lished in the early 20th century ing, and the sense of balance. The main focus of the lowed to fly around the room, giving it and became popular in the 1950s, science is on the different mechanisms that convert its freedom in the spring. I quickly in particular through the work of physical stimuli, such as light or sound waves or learned from my mother to see animals Burrhus Frederic Skinner. chemical signals, into electrical signals.

as sentient beings.” Photos: Getty Images (left), image from: Karl von Frisch, Tanzsprache und Orientierung der Bienen, 1965 (right, 2)

80 MaxPlanckResearch 2 | 10