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ISSN: 2347-7474 International Journal Advances in Social Science and Humanities Available Online at: www.ijassh.com

CASE STUDY

Fascism and : The Similarities and Differences Examined

Richard Adewale Elewomawu Kogi State College of Education, Ankpa, Kogi State. Nigeria

Abstract

Fascism was a system of that reigned in Europe between the First and Second World . It was a far-right form of government which was characterized by extreme , racial , promotion of violence and , gender discrimination against women, and an unapologetic hatred for . The most notorious regimes that practiced fascism were in Italy and of Germany (as Nazism). Although, there were other regimes and movements in Spain, Croatia, Hungary, and Britain and so on, none of there was as vibrant, feared and influential as Mussolini and Hitler. There has been a strong and ceaseless debate among historians about whether fascism as practiced in Italy under Mussolini could be described as the same with the Nazism practiced in Germany under Hitler. This research examined the similarities and differences, if any, between Mussolini’s fascism and Hitler’s Nazism with considerable study of the assertions of scholars on the debate.

Keywords: Fascism, Nazism, Similarities, Differences. Introduction Fascism was an extreme right-wing form of exultation of the state, Nietzeschean ideas, government that existed after the First sorelian conception of the role of myth, World War majorly in Italy under Benito imagery of the great man and the genius- Mussolini and in Germany under Adolf Hitler turned explicitly antidemocratic. It is anti- (as Nazism). Fascism is a concept that has liberal, anti-parliamentarian, anti-marxist contentiously defile definition. Attempts at and particularly anti-communist, not defining or explaining it has led to scholars committed to a conservative continuity, a describing what it is not rather than what it clerical, partly anti-bourgeois and anti- is.1 The Marxist schools of thought see it as a capitalist, Romanization of the peasants, product of and a manifestation of artisans and the soldiers.3 There has been its decline. Some others describe it as a contentious debate among historians as to bunch of nonsense based upon "an ill-sorted the similarities and differences between hodge-podge of ideas".2 Another group of and German Nazism. Richard historians such as Griffin, Eat well Thurlow sees "no Siamese twins"4 in the two, acknowledges the ideological content of while Zeev Sternhell emphasises the '' fascism describing it as nationalistic response of Nazism and the 'State' focus of fascism. to the ideological internationalism of But some historians emphasise the Marxism, by linking with other ideological similarities. For instance, Roger Eat well traditions of the - romantic describes the two as a "holistic national irrationalism, social , Hegelian ‘Third Way"5 while Roger Griffin argues on

3 1 J. Linz, The Crisis of After the First World J. Linz, The Crisis, p.178

War, in R. Griffin, ed., International Fascism; Theories, 4 Causes and the New Consensus, (Arnold, London, 1998), R. Thurlow, Fascism and Nazism – No Siamese Twin, p.179 Patterns of , Vol. 14, Issue 1, 1980, (http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/0031322 2 See, for instance, H. Trevor-Roper, 'The Phenomenon of X.1980.9969545?journalCode=rpop20) p. 1 Accessed on Fascism' in S. Woolf, ed., European Fascism, (London. 5/4/2017 1970) p. 19; K. Passmore, Fascism: A Very Short Introduction, (Oxford, 2014), p. 51; and R. Griffin, The 5 R. Eatwell, Fascism: A History, (Pimlico London, 2003), Nature of Fascism, (Routledge London, 1996), p. 74 p. 79

Richard Adewale Elewomawu| Jan 2018| Vol.6 | Issue 01 |01-07 1 Available online at: www.ijassh.com 'generic' fascism characterized "polygenetic The promises of territories in Turkey and ultra-nationalism and national rebirth".6 Germany were not fulfilled. German territory This study attempts to examine the various was dismembered, and her colonies shared views and it finds out that fascism and amongst the Allied Powers with heavy Nazism are similar except that Nazism was reparation of 33 billion dollars imposed on built on the foundation of racism which is not Germany. Germans and Italians resented the the case in Italy. terms of the treaty blaming their incumbent for the problems. The economic Fascism originated from the Italian word crisis that followed the end of the War led to (plural is fasci) meaning 'bundle'. unprecedented unemployment and food Politically, it means 'Union' or 'League'. It shortage in both countries. Series of coalition was first adopted by a revolutionary government in Italy created political syndicalist called 'fasciazionerevoluzionaria' instability as policies were inconsistent while in the late 1914. This was revived by inflation soared amidst lack of basic Mussolini on 23rd March 1919 when he necessities. The rising influence of organised a group of World War One with the Bolshevik in veterans who later called themselves 'fasci di Russia was also a factor in the rise of fascism Combattimento'.7 It adopted as symbol some and Nazism. Hatred for socialism, which ancient Roman fasces - an axe bound in rods. ironically, Mussolini and Hitler once revered, Benito Mussolini was a World War One motivated them to violently attack socialists. veteran who got injured in the war and With all these problems King Vittorio returned home to continue his journalism. Emanuele who was already dissatisfied with The movement was transformed into the performance of the post war governments . Like Mussolini, Adolf invited Mussolini to form a new government Hitler was a World War One veteran. He was by the end of 1922. Similarly, in Germany, a runner, which was a dangerous job but he President Hindenburg appointed Hitler as did it enthusiastically. He joined the German Chancellor in January 1933. The March on Workers’ Party which he changed to National Rome claim by fascists was a fallacy and the Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazi Munich Putsch took Hitler to jail.9 The Party) in April 1920. Both of them rose to the promise of 'Risorgimento', that is, a rank of NCO in the Army but ended up on regeneration of the fatherland, national the wrong end of the war as Germany was renewal, new man, eternal Rome, super- defeated while Italy was not able to gain any individual reality by the fascists made significant 'spoils of war'. They had a humble fascism appealing to the people. Hitler also and socialist background and were both promised the restoration of the German ardent admirers of Nietzsche, right-wing , recapture of German territories nationalist elite.8 The outcome of the war was and obliteration of communism to gain the a serious frustration for both. However, they confidence of Germans. both seized the ‘opportunity ‘within the despair and unemployment to stir up One significant element that was critical to nationalistic feelings amongst the people of the success of fascism was the use of violence. Italy and Germany. It was almost legitimized by the regimes. Violence was used in attaining power and it Both Mussolini and Hitler were desperate to was used to hold on to power. Mussolini gain power. Mussolini was hungry for power believed that violence was necessary to and accepted whatever compromises he acquire political goals. The fascist party in believes were necessary to achieve the goal. Italy created 'Squarest' headed by 'Ras' who Some salient and similar issues had aided were local leaders with diverse backgrounds fascists to rise to power in both countries. but with a common belief that ‘ now There was serious discontent about the require the violent suppression of opposition’. treaty of Versailles. Only Southern Tyrol and The squad comprised of mostly men of action, Trentino were seeded to Italy after the War. not thinkers, who believed that they were nationalist and anti-socialists. Some joined 6R. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism, (Routledge London, because of the violence and criminal 1996) p.74

7R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 43 9 R. Paxton, The Anatomy of Fascism, (Penguin London, 8Ibid., p. 44 and p. 115 2004), p. 87

Richard Adewale Elewomawu| Jan 2018| Vol.6 | Issue 01 |01-07 2 Available online at: www.ijassh.com opportunities it offered.10 They were reviving fascist radicalism as he gradually transformed into State guards after fell under the influence of Hitler.15 In Mussolini got to power and funded with state contrast to Italy, Sternhell, Passmore, Griffin funds. 288 people were killed in 1920 with and Thurlow claim that racialism (the Aryan 172 socialist deaths.11 The total casualty race) was the guiding principle of Nazism.16 figures in Italy between 1920 and 1922 was Biological racism permeated all aspects of between five to six hundred fascists and two domestic and foreign policy of Nazism. thousand anti-fascists and non-fascists, Andrew Heywood corroborated this claim followed by another one thousand of the with the views of Joseph Gobineau who later.12 In Germany, there was no difference, stated that "the Aryans of Germany were the the SA harassed opponents on the street '' responsible for all mercilessly. There were 69 political murders whether in art, music, literature, philosophy during the March 5th, 1933 election or political thoughts while others races could campaign. While 103 people were killed and only utilise the initiatives of Aryans but the hundreds wounded prior to that. They setup Jews were destroyers of ".17 And wild concentration camps where 'enemies' Hitler argued that the German nation must were incarcerated and tortured in a maintain the racial purity of the Aryan race microcosm of that followed. in order to maintain the dominance over Passmore claims that although before they other races especially the Jews. This came to power, the Nazis were far less violent informed the ‘ programme’ against than the fascists had been, they proved 'the unfit' and the unprecedented terror incalculably more violent afterwards.13 against the Jews in what was regarded as '', the extermination of Jews Racism was an issue that existed in both and destruction of their properties in Italy and Germany but the way it played out November 1939. in Germany has made many scholars doubt whether fascism and Nazism could be Furthermore, both fascist Italy and Nazi grouped together as 'fascist'. Eat well asserts Germany emphasized allegiance to State and that racism (precisely anti-Semitism) was not Party control but the degree varied. Eat well a major feature of the early fascist presents it as a crucial difference where movement. Anti-Semitic decrees were only Italian fascism tended to worship the state, introduced in 1938.For example, a Jew, Aldo while Nazism often elevated the party above Fenzi held a government post and a Seat in the state.18 Paxton corroborated this the Grand Council, and by mid-1930s about assertion claiming that Mussolini wand up one in three adult Jew were members of with the state because he was afraid of the PNF.14 Anti-Semitism in Italy was far less local 'Ras' and their squadristi. Heywood also virulent than that of the Nazis because 80% argues that fascism was an extreme form of of Jews survived in Italy. The King, Catholic Statism but Nazism did not venerate the Church and armed forces were opposed to it. state as it was only a "means (vessel) to an In fact, Mussolini had a Jewish mistress, end". According to Passmore, the party in Margareta and he ridiculed biological racism Italy was turned into an inflated parallel as merely a feeling. Passmore argues that racist laws in Italy were introduced as much 15 in a spirit of as in emulation of Ibid., p. 86 Nazism. In corroborating this, Eatwell opines 16See, K. Passmore, Fascism, p. 108; R. Griffin, The that Mussolini introduced anti-Semitism in an attempt to launch a "second revolution" of Nature, p. 111; Z. Sternhell, 'Fascist Ideology' in W. Laqueur, ed., Fascism: A Reader’s Guide (Harmondsworth, 1979), p.328 10R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 55 17A. Heywood, Political : An Introduction, 11C. Duggan, Fascist Voices, An Intimate History of (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Sy8hDgAAQBAJ& Mussolini’s Italy, (Vintage, 2013), p. 43 pg=PA209&lpg=PA209&dq=andrew+heywood+fascism& 12R. Paxton, The Anatomy, p. 95 source=bl&ots=G2ZMhAdiuP&sig=Egwmwjhl1rlj9soplWI 5lUTiQkc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiC3tatxo3TAhUBD 13K. Passmore, Fascism: A Very Short Introduction, sAKHZr8CLoQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=andrew%20hey (Oxford, 2014) p. 57 wood%20fascism&f=false), p.212, Accessed on 5/4/2017.

14R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 85 18R. Eatwell, Fascism…, p. 146

Richard Adewale Elewomawu| Jan 2018| Vol.6 | Issue 01 |01-07 3 Available online at: www.ijassh.com bureaucracy and a party card became a Croatia, and in Norway. prerequisite of advancement in the state Others include Leon Degrelle and the ‘Rexist’ service. While in Germany, the civil service party in Belgium, FerencSzalasi and the was purged and the installation of the party ‘Arrow Cross’ party in Hungary, Anton and '' became parallel Mussert and the ‘National Socialist administration as the personnel were Movement’ in Holland, and Arnold Lease and recruited on the bases of ideology and service the ‘’ in Britain. to the party.19 Hitler emphasized this in when he said "the State is only a Furthermore, the romance between fascism means to an end. Above all, it must preserve and the Catholic Church was evident in both the existence of the race. We must make a Italy and Germany. While the influence of clear-cut distinction between the vessel and the Catholic Church was strong in Italy, the contents. The State is only the vessel and Hitler was less influenced. Eat well and the race is what it contains".20 Duggan assert that even though Mussolini was an atheist and anti-Catholic Church One other similar feature of fascism and with preference for Islam,24 The Vatican Nazism was the obsession with war and played a crucial role in the consolidation of expansionism. Eat well argues that Mussolini fascism in Italy. Mussolini got the support of supported war because he wanted to build some openly fascist priests called 'Clerico- bridges with the military leadership and to fascists'. In return, Mussolini adopted transform his country and capture the minds policies that were favorable to the Church of the masses.21 In the same vein, Passmore like rescue of the Catholic bank of Rome, asserts that fascists had always seen the measures against abortion and contraception. conquest of additional territory as the best Symbolically, Mussolini married Donna in means to resolve economic problems, and the church ten years after the civil marriage. regarded war as intrinsically good for the The relationship with the church was nation.22 The Italian invasion of Abyssinia cemented in 1929 with the signing of the (present Ethiopia) in 1935 is a testament to 'Lateran Pacts' which gave the Vatican this. Mussolini believed that "war brings up sovereign independence, financial to their highest tension all human energies compensation for losses suffered as a and puts the stamp of nobility upon the consequence of the Unification of Italy.25 In people who have the courage to meet it. I do all, Mussolini benefitted more domestically not believe in perpetual ; I find it and globally because his association with the depressing and a negation of all the church made him more popular and adored fundamental viruses of man”. Like Mussolini, by the people. In Germany, it was not so rosy Hitler was passionately interested in for the Church. Paxton and Eat well argue expansionism. He had always regarded the that Hitler and the Catholic Church signed a acquisition of '' and the 'Concordat' in July 1933, which gave support elimination of race enemies and Bolshevism to Nazism and full freedom to the Catholic as essential to the establishment of a Church but almost immediately, the Nazis harmonious .23 War was used by both began to go back on the agreement Hitler and Mussolini to mobilise the principally by harassing priests who were continued support and affection of the presumed hostile.26 The Catholic Church population. And the two regimes gave both responded with an overt attack on Nazism. financial and ideological support to other The courtship between the Catholic Church European fascist regimes and movements in and fascism was because Pope Pius XI had 1930s.examples of such include General the conviction that communism was worse Franco of Spain, Marshall Petain in Vichy than Nazism.27 However, it is not surprising France, Ante Pavelic and the Ustasha in that the relationship fell apart because

19K. Passmore, Fascism…, p. 64 24 See, R. Eatwell, Fascism, 76; and C. Duggan, Fascist 20A. Heywood, Political Ideology…, p. 207 Voices, p. 81

21R. Eatwell, Fascism…, p. 45 25R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 75

22K. Passmore, Fascism, p. 53 26Ibid., p. 152

23 Ibid., p. 66 27R. Paxton, The Anatomy, p. 108

Richard Adewale Elewomawu| Jan 2018| Vol.6 | Issue 01 |01-07 4 Available online at: www.ijassh.com racism and Catholic doctrines cannot dwell government ended.32 Similarly, Eat well together. claims that after the fourth attempt to assassinate Mussolini in 2 years, a series of The irony of fascism that continues to exceptional decrees were passed in November surprise people is a massive support received 1926, which banned all remaining formal from women despite the chauvinistic opposition and established a special tribunal discrimination against them.28 Mussolini for the defense of the state.33 Griffin argues regarded women as "incapable of that the establishment of in synthesizing anything, of combining different Germany was swift, starting with Emergency ideas into higher form. He proclaimed that Decree which suspended the Weiner their natural role was caring for a new Constitution. And by July 1933, law against generation of warriors.29 Several policies the Establishment of political parties was were introduced to push women back into passed and Germany became officially a one- home. There were restrictions on the use of party state. contraception. Eatwell claims that taxes and subsidies were introduced to encourage Even though Mussolini introduced the term marriage and having more children; taxes on and measures of 'totalitarian', Eat well and bachelors, employment discrimination in Griffin assert that the Nazis sought a far favor of family men, 1938 law restricted more totalitarian control of culture than the females to 10% of the workforce.30 Although Italian fascism.34 Hitler was more rigid and women suffered employment discrimination ruthless while using terror indiscriminately. during the interview war years due to After crushing the 'SA' (Night of the long economic recession and conservative knives), Hitler empowered the 'SS' and made reactions, but the policies under Mussolini the army swear personal oath of loyalty to was basically a fundamental ideological him. There is a consensus on how totalitarian position. The discrimination against women both regimes were. Eat well argues that in under Hitler was also very deliberate. In the practice, Italian differed public sector, married women were often significantly from the academic model dismissed to make way for men. Although because many departments owed much to women employment increased during the chance, or the specific political and economic Second World War, the vast majority of jobs needs of the moment. And considerable taken were menial and poorly paid. Marriage power remained in the hands of the King, the was encouraged with a system of loans where Catholic Church and business, though none over one million were given out to 'happy of them ultimately could control the regime. Aryan couples' between 1933 and 1938. The In Germany, with the death of President loans could be repaid by producing offspring, Hindenburg, Hitler combined the roles of the each one annulling a quarter of the debt. Head of State and Chancellor. As Family allowances and changes to income tax domineering as Hitler was, Griffin asserts in favor of larger families were introduced.31 that the 'Total State' control was not as Yet a lot of women still adored Hitler and totalitarian as claimed. Hitler could actually Mussolini. be described as a 'weak dictator' as he was constraint by the system he Both fascism and Nazism survived through created.35Although, both Hitler and dictatorship. Both hated opposition and Mussolini were immensely totalitarian, the eliminated all forms of dissenting views. Pass extreme powers were shared with other more claims that in January 1925, Mussolini institutions such as Catholic Church, King declared total fascist regime which set in his (in Italy) and (in Germany). dictatorship reign. At the end of the year political opposition was banned, freedom of One of the most noteworthy features that the press ceased, and election of local aided the sustainability of fascism and Nazism was the extensive use of

28R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 135 32 K. Passmore, Fascism, p. 51

29Ibid., p. 82 33R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 84

30Ibid., p. 82 34 Ibid., p. 164

31Ibid., p. 162 35R. Griffin, The Nature, p. 106

Richard Adewale Elewomawu| Jan 2018| Vol.6 | Issue 01 |01-07 5 Available online at: www.ijassh.com and leader-worship. Griffin, Eat well, Pass sense that a vast movement was aloof more, Paxton, Stern hell and others heralding a new era in Germany's history".40 acknowledge the overwhelming use of propaganda in both states. Although a full But was fascism a revolution? Historians propaganda ministry was not to be have diverse views on this question. Eat well established until 1935 in Italy, El (The and Pass more is emphatic in their 'No' as leader, as Mussolini was called), had always the answer. Eat well asserts that there were demonstrated strong interest in style and a degree of compromises and pragmatism as manipulation. He was a master of crowd such "there was no fascist or Nazi manipulation. He was often found being revolution".41 Corroborating this is Passmore photographed with peasants at sporting who submits that even though it destabilized events and revealing muscular torso at existing power structure, fascism or Nazism seaside and hailed as 'Mussolini-the-leader' was never . In a contrary view, and 'Man-of-the-people'. Eat well describes Griffin concludes that even though this as 'charismatic '.36Tullio polygenetic core ensured that it was not Cianetti described "Mussolini as the' new reactionary, but fascism was a revolution.42 man' who will be the future leader of a great However, Paxton presents a pluralistic view. European democracy that will spread from He claims that fascism was "revolution in it’s Rome to Moscow via Berlin".37 To achieve radically war conceptions of citizenship, of this, panoply of organizations like 'Ballila' the way individuals participated in the life of were set up to indoctrinate young people the community. But fascism was counter- particularly for boys of 8 to 14 years. Girls revolutionary with respect to such traditional had 'Piccole Italiane'. Activities included projects of the left as individual liberties, drills and carrying toy guns while girls were human , due process, and international allowed only bows and arrows. Eat well peace".43 submits that "by 1930s, five million young It is only too easy to conclude that fascism in people had been indoctrinated in a drive practice was nothing more than a tool of towards conformity and ”.38 The reaction, or a vehicle for opportunism and first new government department created by nihilism. It compromises out of desperation Hitler after assuming office was the ministry for power: fascism as both 'law-abiding and of public enlightenment and propaganda law-breaking', 'aristocratic and democratic', under the leadership of . It 'conservative and progressive'. There was as was responsible for transforming Germans much rivalry as emulation between Nazis into Nazis. Eat well acknowledges that and fascists. Many fascists felt quite critical "Goebbels brilliantly choreographed funeral of Nazism and many Nazis felt ambivalent of Nazi activists who had been killed in towards Mussolini and his movement. The clashes with the Left to appeal both to Nazis and fascists came to power lacking religious sentiments sacrifice and martyrdom clear plans in many areas, created a new and to a more pathologically war-oriented political consciousness, a nation united sense of brotherhood.39 (HY) around a sense of German racial identity and organization was created in 1920 for Risorgimento respectively. Fascism and by 1939; they had become (including Nazism) was less pluralistic, about 7 million. Griffin concludes that "well- ambiguous, and basically spontaneous, coordinated posters and leaflet campaigns, slightly ideological, more inclusive than the invention of political rituals, and the militarism, not liberalistic, pretentiously holding of mass rallies were carefully democracy, no freedom, less conservative, designed not merely to impress Nazi slogan and more change oriented. None of the on the public but to generate the cumulative imitators of fascism were identical to the original. Fascism in Italy and Nazism in Germany virtually had similarities through

36R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 73 40R. Griffin, The Nature, p. 96 37TullioCianetti was a fascist syndicalist and later minister 41R. Eatwell, Fascism, p. 167 under Mussolini. See, C. Duggan, Fascist Voices, p. 53 42R. Griffin, The Nature, p. 111 38R. Eatwell, Fascism, p.83 43R. Paxton, The Anatomy, p. 147 39 Ibid., p. 132

Richard Adewale Elewomawu| Jan 2018| Vol.6 | Issue 01 |01-07 6 Available online at: www.ijassh.com and through. The difference is the degree of totalitarianism, propaganda were extremely implementation of the features. Under Hitler, enforced, and even though in lesser degree, issues such as racialism, dictatorship, they also existed in Mussolini’s Italy [1-10]. References 1 Griffin Roger ed (1998) International Fascism; Theories, Causes and the New

Consensus, Arnold, London. 6 Paxton Robert (2004) the Anatomy of 2 Trevor-Roper H (1970)'The Phenomenon Fascism, Penguin London. of Fascism' in S. Woolf, ed., European Fascism, London. 7 Duggan Christopher (2013) Fascist Voices, An Intimate History of 3 Thurlow, Richard, Fascism and Nazism- Mussolini’s Italy, Vintage. No Siamese Twin, (http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10. 8 Pass more Kevin (2014) Fascism: A Very 1080/0031322X.1980.9969545?journalCo Short Introduction, (Oxford. de=rpop20)Accessed on 23/07/2017. 9 Laqueur ed (1979) Fascism: A Reader’s 4 Eat well Roger (2003) Fascism: A Guide Harmonds worth. History, Pimlico London. 10 Heywood, Andrew, Political Ideologies: 5 Griffin Roger (1996) the Nature of An Introduction. Fascism, Rout ledge London. (https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=Sy8 hDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA209&lpg=PA209&

dq=andrew+heywood+fascism&source=b l&ots=G2ZMhAdiuP&sig=Egwmwjhl1rlj 9soplWI5lUTiQkc&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0

ahUKEwiC3tatxo3TAhUBDsAKHZr8C LoQ6AEIRDAH#v=onepage&q=andrew %20heywood%20fascism&f=false),

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