Introduction

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Notes

Introduction

1 V. Bartlett, Nazi Germany Explained (London: Victor Gollancz, 1933), p. 9; G. R. Stirling Taylor, ‘Review of The Cambridge Ancient History, Vol. X: The Augustan Empire 44 B.C.–A.D. 70’, English Review, 61 (1935) 629. 2 Cited in H. Fein, Accounting for Genocide: National Responses and Jewish Victimization during the Holocaust (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1984), p. 4. 3 F. Borkenau, The New German Empire (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 132. 4 H.-J. Gamm, Der braune Kult: Das Dritte Reich und seine Ersatzreligion. Ein Beitrag zur politischen Bildung (Hamburg: Rütten & Loening Verlag, 1962), p. 63. 5 G. Norlin, Hitlerism: Why and Whither? (London: Friends of Europe, 1935), p. 5. Cf. H. G. Alexander, ‘Whither Germany? Whither Europe?’, Contemporary Review, 144 (1933) 662: ‘the pagan faith that has brought a new hope to Germany’; E. W. D. Tennant, ‘Hitler’, in The Man and the Hour: Studies of Six Great Men of Our Time, ed. A. Bryant (London: Philip Allan, 1934), p. 138: ‘in Hitlerism the Germans have found a new religion’; Rev. E. Quinn, ‘The Religion of National Socialism’, Hibbert Journal, 36 (1938) 444–5: ‘The real religion of National Socialism consists in Germanism.’ 6 See especially M. Burleigh, The Third Reich: A New History (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 2000); and R. S. Wistrich, Hitler and the Holocaust (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 2001); see also H.-J. Schoeps and M. Ley, eds., Der Nationalsozialismus als politische Religion (Bodenheim: Syndikat, 1997); C.-E. Bärsch, Die politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus: Die religiöse Dimension der NS-Ideologie in den Schriften von Dietrich Eckart, Joseph Goebbels, Alfred Rosenberg und Adolf Hitler (Munich: Wilhelm Fink, 1998); P. Burrin, ‘Political Religion: The Relevance of a Concept’, History & Memory, 9, 1–2 (1997) 321–49. For interesting comparisons see E. Gentile, The Sacralization of Politics in Fascist Italy (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), and K. Clark, Petersburg: Crucible of Cultural Revolution (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1995), chapter 11: ‘The Sacralization of Everyday Life’. 7 M. A. Bernstein, Foregone Conclusions: Against Apocalyptic History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994). See also the introduction to chapter 2 below. 8 On evil as part of what makes us human rather than as a ‘transcendental’ concept, see J.-L. Nancy, The Experience of Freedom, trans. B. McDonald (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1993). 9 J. Katz, ‘Was the Holocaust Predictable?’, in The Holocaust as Historical Experience, eds. Y. Bauer and N. Rotenstreich (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), p. 24. 10 Ibid. 11 Ibid., p. 25. 12 R. Muhs, The Brownshirts in Britain (forthcoming). 13 For the classic account, see R. West, The Meaning of Treason (London: Virago, 1982 [1949]). See also A. Weale, Renegades: Hitler’s Englishmen (London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson, 1994). 193 194 Notes

14 See the letters to Lorimer in Lorimer papers, MSS Eur.F177/51 and F177/52, especially letters from Muriel Whitehouse, Principal of Arley Castle School, 3 February 1939 (F177/51), and Sir Henry Strakosch, 22 May 1939 (F177/52). See also the reviews of What Hitler Wants in F177/53. The reviewer for Time and Tide suggested that a benefactor of the Nuffield type should distribute 20 million copies of Lorimer’s book to British households. 15 L. L. Jones, ‘Fifty Years of Penguin Books’, in Fifty Penguin Years (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985), pp. 28, 30. 16 N. Joicey, ‘A Paperback Guide to Progress: Penguin Books, 1935–c.1951’, Twentieth Century British History, 4 (1993) 41. 17 On the concept of the ‘reading public’, see R. Williams, ‘The Growth of the Reading Public’, in The Long Revolution (London: Chatto & Windus, 1961), pp. 156–72. See also R. Chartier, On the Edge of the Cliff: History, Language, and Practices, trans. L. G. Cochrane (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1997). 18 J. McAleer, Popular Reading and Publishing in Britain 1914–1950 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 59. 19 S. Wichert, ‘The British Left and Appeasement: Political Tactics or Alternative Policies?’, in The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement, eds. W. J. Mommsen and L. Kettenacker (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983), p. 125. 20 S. Samuels, ‘The Left Book Club’, Journal of Contemporary History, 1, 2 (1966) 84. 21 G. Orwell, ‘Review of Searchlight on Spain by the Duchess of Atholl’, New English Weekly (21 July 1938), reprinted in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume 1: An Age Like This 1920–1940, eds. S. Orwell and I. Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 383. Also cited in Joicey, ‘A Paperback Guide’, p. 37. Orwell also noted of the LBC (Collected Essays, p. 397), that ‘Here you have about 50,000 people who are willing to make a noise about Spain, China etc. and because the majority of people are normally silent this gives the impression that the Left Bookmongers are the voice of the nation instead of being a tiny minority.’ 22 Williams, The Long Revolution, p. 170. 23 Arnold Hyde to Emily Lorimer, 30 April 1939, Lorimer papers, MSS Eur.F177/51. 24 See my Breeding Superman: Nietzsche, Race and Eugenics in Edwardian and Inter-war Britain (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002) for the argument that British fascism meant more than the BUF and was not confined to the arena of high politics. 25 R. Griffiths, An Intelligent Person’s Guide to Fascism (London: Duckworth, 2000). 26 Cf. D. LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001), for the idea of the ‘carnivalesque’ in explaining the Holocaust. See also my article ‘Genocide as Transgression’, European Journal of Social Theory, 6 (2003). 27 D. Renton, Fascism: Theory and Practice (London: Pluto, 1999). 28 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 15. 29 J. A. Cole, Just Back from Germany (London: Faber & Faber, 1938), p. 328. 30 M. M. Green, Eyes Right! A Left-Wing Glance at the New Germany (London: Christophers, 1935). I discuss this book further later on. 31 M. Hermant, Idoles allemandes (Paris: Éditions Bernard Grasset, 1935); D. Guérin, The Brown Plague: Travels in Late Weimar and Early Nazi Germany, trans. R. Schwartzwald (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1994); E. Levinas, ‘Reflections on the Philosophy of Hitlerism’, Critical Inquiry, 17 (1990) 63–71; W. Benjamin, ‘Theories of German Fascism: On the Collection of Essays War and Warrior, edited by Ernst Jünger’, New German Critique, 17 (1979) 120–8. Notes 195

32 B. Crick, ‘Introduction’ to B. Granzow, A Mirror of Nazism: British Opinion and the Emergence of Hitler 1929–1933 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1964), pp. 20–1. 33 A. Schwarz, ‘British Visitors to National Socialist Germany’, Journal of Contemporary History, 28 (1993) 505. 34 A. Kolnai, ‘Pacifism Means Suicide’, The Nation, 148, 4 (21 January 1939) 87. 35 Kolnai to Béla Menczer, 18 August 1938. All Kolnai correspondence cited is in the possession of Dr Francis Dunlop. 36 Jászi to Laski, 21 July 1933. 37 Kolnai, ‘Pacifism Means Suicide’, p. 88. 38 A. Kolnai, The Pivotal Principles of NS Ideology (handwritten ms, 1939), p. 3, in possession of Francis Dunlop. 39 Draft manifesto of Defence of Freedom and Peace, Steed Papers, Add. 74114/4. 40 Steed to A. H. Richard, Steed Papers Add. 74114/52. 41 R. Griffin, ‘The Primacy of Culture: The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consensus within Fascist Studies’, Journal of Contemporary History, 37 (2002) 21–43. 42 D. D. Roberts, A. de Grand, M. Antliff and T. Linehan, ‘Comments on Roger Griffin, “The Primacy of Culture: The Current Growth (or Manufacture) of Consensus within Fascist Studies”’, Journal of Contemporary History, 37 (2002) 266. 43 Ibid., p. 260. 44 Ibid., p. 272. 45 R. Griffiths, Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany 1933–39 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 53. 46 Kolnai to Irene Grant, 8 May 1934. 47 See also R. Bessel, ed., Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996). 48 E. Lengyel, Hitler, rev. edn. (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1933 [1932]), p. 239. 49 G. Orwell, ‘London Letter to Partisan Review’, Partisan Review (March–April 1942), reprinted in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume 2: My Country Right or Left 1940–1943, eds. S. Orwell and I. Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 213–14.

Chapter 1

1 B. Brecht, ‘The Anxieties of the Regime’, in Poems 1913–1956 (London: Methuen, 1987), p. 296; A. Kolnai, ‘The Pivotal Principles of NS Ideology’ (MS, 1939), p. 2. 2 G. Benn, ‘Excerpt from Double Life’, in Primary Vision: Selected Writings, ed. E. B. Ashton (New York: New Directions, 1971), p. 138. 3 For example, G. Benn, ‘Answer to the Literary Emigrants’, in ibid., pp. 46–53. Cf. B. Weisbrod, ‘Military Violence and Male Fundamentalism: Ernst Jünger’s Contribution to the Conservative Revolution’, History Workshop Journal, 49 (2000) 69–94; A. Huyssen, ‘Fortifying the Heart – Totally: Ernst Jünger’s Armored Texts’, in his Twilight Memories: Marking Time in a Culture of Amnesia (New York: Routledge, 1995), pp. 127–43. 4 H. Arendt, ‘Fernsehgespräch mit Thilo Koch’, in Ich will verstehen: Selbstauskünfte zu Leben und Werk, ed. U. Ludz (Munich: Piper, 1996), p. 40. 5 See D. Renton, ‘Fascism is More than an Ideology’, Searchlight, 290 (August 1999) 24–5; and R. Grifﬁn’s reply, ‘Fascism is More than Reaction’, Searchlight, 196 Notes

291 (September 1999) 24–5. See also Renton’s comments in Fascism: Theory and Practice (London: Pluto Press, 1999). 6 H. Rauschning, Germany’s Revolution of Destruction, trans. E. W. Dickes (London: William Heinemann, 1939), originally published as Die Revolution des Nihilismus (Zurich & New York: Europa Verlag, 1938). Rauschning’s ‘records’ of his conversations with Hitler have long been regarded by historians with suspicion, yet recent research suggests that Rauschning did have at least several discus- sions with Hitler. See J. Hensel and P. Nordblom, eds., Hermann Rauschning: Materialien und Beiträge zu einer politischen Biograﬁe (Warsaw: Erich-Brost- Stiftung in der Friedrich-Ebert-Stiftung, 2002). My thanks to Stefanie Peter for this reference. 7 R. Girard, The Scapegoat, trans. Y. Freccero (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986), p. 103. 8 H. Brown, ‘Hitler or the Junkers’, Fortnightly Review, 133 (1933) 278. See also his ‘Germany in Revolution’, Fortnightly Review, 133 (1933) 441–52, where Brown argued that ‘a reign of terror has been in operation which will eventually become recognized as one of the ugliest in recent European history’ (p. 444). 9 Of course, a risky undertaking. But for the argument, in a different context, that such complicity is necessary in opposition, see M. Sanders, Complicities: The Intellectual and Apartheid (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 2002). 10 On this problem, see D. Diner, ‘Historical Understanding and Counterrationality: The Judenrat as Epistemological Vantage’, in Probing the Limits of Representation: Nazism and the ‘Final Solution’, ed. S. Friedländer (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1992), pp. 128–42. 11 See, for example, J. Cohen, Interrupting Auschwitz: Art, Religion, Philosophy (London: Continuum, 2003); D. Stone, ed., Theoretical Interpretations of the Holocaust (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001); E. J. Bellamy, Affective Genealogies: Psychoanalysis, Postmodernism, and the ‘Jewish Question’ after Auschwitz (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1997); M. Blanchot, The Writing of the Disaster, trans. A. Smock (Lincoln, NB: University of Nebraska Press, 1986); P. Lacoue-Labarthe and J.-L. Nancy, ‘The Nazi Myth’, Critical Inquiry, 16 (1990) 291–312; T. W. Adorno, Negative Dialectics, trans. E. B. Ashton (London: Routledge, 1990). 12 See, for example, M. H. Nielsen, ‘Re-enactment and Reconstruction in Collingwood’s Philosophy of History’, History and Theory, 20 (1981) 1–31; D. Boucher, ‘The Signiﬁcance of R. G. Collingwood’s Principles of History’, Journal of the History of Ideas, 58 (1997) 309–30; J. Van Der Dussen, ‘Collingwood’s “Lost” Manuscript of The Principles of History’, History and Theory, 36 (1997) 32–62. 13 See B. Malinowski, ‘The Deadly Issue’, Atlantic Monthly (December 1936). Malinowski’s many lectures in the United States in the late 1930s and early 1940s on the danger posed by totalitarianism, in which he spoke of ‘Nazi magic’, were published after his death by his wife as Freedom and Civilization (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1944). I will deal with Malinowski’s understanding of Nazism in a future study. 14 R. G. Collingwood, ‘Fairy-Tales, III: The Historical Method’ (Collingwood MS, 1936–37, Bodleian Library, Oxford), pp. 3–4, cited in F. Lobont, ‘From Re-enactment of Emotions to Psychohistory: A Collingwoodian Approach to the Holocaust’, Revista de Psihologie Aplicata˘, 2, 2 (2000) 102. Lobont is one of the few scholars to take seriously Collingwood’s claim in his unpublished manuscripts on folk-tales and anthropology that the theory of re-enactment can be applied to the ‘irrational’. Notes 197

15 D. Boucher, The Social and Political Thought of R. G. Collingwood (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989), p. 61. 16 R. G. Collingwood, An Autobiography (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1999). p. 167. 17 R. G. Collingwood, ‘The Prussian Philosophy’ (1919), in Essays in Political Philosophy, ed. D. Boucher (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1989), p. 205. 18 G. K. Chesterton, The End of the Armistice (London: Sheed & Ward, 1940); N. Henderson, The Failure of a Mission: Berlin 1937–1939 (London: Hodder and Stoughton, 1940), p. 14; J. H. Jackson, ‘Hitler and Treitschke’, National Review, 110 (1938) 190–4, argued that Hitlerism was rooted in Bismarck’s Germany. There are many other such examples; for reasons why, see D. Diner’s suggestive comments in ‘Varieties of Narration: The Holocaust in Historical Memory’, in his Beyond the Conceivable: Studies on Germany, Nazism, and the Holocaust (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2000), pp. 175–6. 19 R. G. Collingwood, ‘Fascism and Nazism’, in Essays in Political Philosophy, pp. 191–2. 20 R. G. Collingwood, ‘The Utilitarian Civilization’, in ibid., p. 197. 21 Collingwood, ‘Fascism and Nazism’, pp. 189–90. 22 Ibid., p. 192. 23 R. G. Collingwood, ‘Modern Politics’, in Essays in Political Philosophy, pp. 184–6. 24 R. G. Collingwood, The New Leviathan, or Man, Society, Civilization and Barbarism, ed. D. Boucher, rev. edn. (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1992), p. 342. Further references in the text. 25 The reference to German herd-worship means that Collingwood’s condemnation of Nietzsche is rather ironic, for Nietzsche indicted the Germans on the same grounds. See ‘The Prussian Philosophy’, p. 203. 26 See A. Szakolczai, ‘Norbert Elias and Franz Borkenau: Intertwined Life-Works’, Theory, Culture and Society, 17 (2000) 45–69. On Borkenau’s relationship with the Frankfurt School, see M. Jay, The Dialectical Imagination: A History of the Frankfurt School and the Institute of Social Research, 1923–1950 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973), passim. 27 R. Lowenthal, ‘Introduction’ to F. Borkenau, End and Beginning: On the Generations of Cultures and the Origins of the West (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 5. 28 See, for example, ‘Zur Soziologie des Faschismus’, Archiv für Sozialwissenschaft und Sozialpolitik, 68 (1933) 513–47, and the chapter on ‘Fascism’, in Pareto (London: Chapman and Hall, 1936). 29 Szakolczai, ‘Norbert Elias and Franz Borkenau’, p. 64. 30 Lowenthal, ‘Introduction’, p. 6. 31 Borkenau, Pareto, p. 214. See also F. Borkenau, Der Übergang vom feudalen zum bürgerlichen Weltbild: Studien zur Geschichte der Manufakturperiode (Paris: Alcan, 1934). 32 F. Borkenau, ‘After the Atom: Life Out of Death or Life after Death?’ (1947), in Borkenau, End and Beginning, pp. 437–48; ‘Will Technology Destroy Civilization?’, ibid., p. 458. 33 F. Borkenau, The Totalitarian Enemy (London: Faber and Faber, 1940), pp. 233–4. See also Borkenau’s review of Marx by K. Korsch, in the Sociological Review, 30, 1 (1939) 117–19. 34 See the essays in I. Kershaw and M. Lewin, eds., Stalinism and Nazism: Dictatorships in Comparison (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997). See also B. Lange-Enzmann, Franz Borkenau als politische Denker (Berlin: Duncker & Humblot, 1996). 198 Notes

35 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 216. 36 F. Borkenau, Austria and After (London: Faber and Faber, 1938). 37 Ibid., p. 15. Further references in the text. 38 F. Borkenau, ‘The German Problem’, Dublin Review, 209, 419 (1941) 196. 39 G. Orwell, ‘Review of The Totalitarian Enemy by F. Borkenau’, Time and Tide (4 May 1940), reprinted in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume 2: My Country Right or Left 1940–1943, eds. S. Orwell and I. Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 40, 42. 40 V. Gollancz, ‘The Most Important Book the Club Has Issued’, Left Book News, 25 (May 1938) 790–1. 41 J. Lewis, ‘Review of The War Against the West’, Left News, 25 (1938) 805; idem., The Left Book Club: An Historical Record (London: Victor Gollancz, 1970), pp. 91, 85. Steed would go on to write the foreword to The War Against the West. 42 Orwell, ‘Review of The Totalitarian Enemy’, p. 40. 43 G. McCulloch, ‘“Teachers and Missionaries”: The Left Book Club as an Educational Agency’, History of Education, 14, 2 (1985) 150 (social control); S. Hynes, The Auden Generation: Literature and Politics in England in the 1930s (London: Pimlico, 1992), pp. 211–12 (propaganda); B. Reid, ‘The Left Book Club in the Thirties’, in Culture and Crisis in Britain in the Thirties, eds. J. Clark, M. Heinemann, D. Margolies, and C. Smee (London: Lawrence & Wishart, 1979), pp. 195–6 (cheap books). For a more positive assessment, see S. Samuels, ‘The Left Book Club’, Journal of Contemporary History, 1, 2 (1966) 65–86; G. B. Neavill, ‘Victor Gollancz and the Left Book Club’, The Library Quarterly, 41, 3 (1971) 197–215. Neavill argues (214) that the LBC ‘remained, on the whole, a serious educational movement and did not degenerate into a simple propaganda machine’. 44 A. Kolnai, Twentieth-Century Memoirs, Archive of King’s College, London: MV29/8, p. 12. His conversion occupies a substantial section of the memoir. 45 See L. Congdon, Exile and Social Thought: Hungarian Intellectuals in Germany and Austria, 1919–1933 (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1991), pp. 233–53. Congdon calls Kolnai’s position ‘concrete conservatism’ (p. 248). 46 His early important publications were on Ethical Value and Reality (1927) and Sexual Ethics (1930). Kolnai is still best known as an ethical philosopher: see Ethics, Value and Reality, eds. F. Dunlop and B. Klug (London: The Athlone Press, 1977). 47 A. Kolnai, ‘Fascismus und Bolschewismus’, Der Deutsche Volkswirt (25 October 1928) 206–13. 48 Kolnai to Irene Grant, 11 April 1932; 15 July 1933. All Kolnai’s correspondence cited is in the possession of Francis Dunlop. 49 F. Dunlop, Life and Thought of Aurel Kolnai (Aldershot: Ashgare, 2002), p. 137. 50 See also Kolnai [as Dr A. von Helsing], ‘Marxistisches und Liberalistisches im Nationalsozialismus’, Der Christliche Ständestaat (24 June 1934) 4–7; idem., ‘Die Aufgabe des Konservatismus’, Oesterreichische Volkswirt (28 July 1934) 943–6. 51 A. Kolnai, ‘Die Credo der neuen Barbaren’, Oesterreichische Volkswirt, 24, 49 (3 September 1932) 1174. 52 Kolnai’s friend and correspondent Irene Grant, whom he had got to know in Vienna, was involved in the English Christian Socialist revival. See Dunlop, Life and Thought, p. 131. 53 Kolnai to Grant, 11 December 1934. See also Kolnai’s letter of 16 January 1935, expressing his amusement at becoming a British taxpayer following receipt of an advance from Gollancz. Notes 199

54 Kolnai to Elizabeth Gémes, 20 March 1936. 55 Kolnai to Grant, 30 November 1934, cited in Dunlop, Life and Thought, p. 145. 56 I use the term advisedly. In his fascinating article on disgust (1929), Kolnai argued that disgust arises from the proximity of an object that simultaneously terrifies and allures us, disturbing one’s being. Among the symptoms of ‘ethical disgust’ Kolnai lists ‘Lebensplus’ (‘extra-vitality’), which, he says, often implies a ‘decay of moral substance’. See A. Kolnai, ‘Der Ekel’, Jahrbuch für Philosophie und phänomenologische Forschung, 10 (1929) 515–69, and Dunlop, Life and Thought, pp. 123–5. 57 A. Kolnai, The War Against the West (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 57. Further references in the text. 58 Here Kolnai recalls John Dewey, who, in his ‘The Ethics of Democracy’ (1888), argued that democracy ‘means that personality is the first and final reality’. The essay is reprinted in L. Menand, ed., Pragmatism: A Reader (New York: Viking Books, 1997), pp. 182–204, here at p. 199. 59 Cf. D. LaCapra, Writing History, Writing Trauma (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2001). 60 See also Kolnai, ‘Der Sinn des Rassenwahnes’, Oesterreichische Volkswirt (17 March 1934) 539 for a similar argument: ‘When the interest of the Volk demands it, Shakespeare and Rabelais can be German, Haeckel or Ebert un- German, Hungarians Aryans, the Japanese Europeans, the Jews Asiatics, and Jesus of Nazareth Germanic.’ 61 Kolnai, Pivotal Principles, p. 1. Further references in the text. 62 Should one be reminded here of Heidegger’s infamous statement concerning the ‘inner greatness’ of the National Socialist movement, one should note Kolnai’s article, written under the pseudonym Dr A. von Helsing, ‘Heidegger und der Nationalsozialismus’, Der Christliche Ständestaat (17 June 1934) 5–7, in which (p. 5) he accuses Heidegger of being ‘a prophet, visionary and inspiration of the Third Reich’. 63 Kenneth Muir to Gollancz, 12 September 1946, Gollancz Archive MSS157/3/LB/1/61. 64 Kolnai to Grant, 16 January 1939. 65 Dunlop, Life and Thought, p. 249. It is important to note that earlier Kolnai had written, in a rather different vein, that ‘it does make a slight difference who “wins” and who “loses” the [Spanish civil] war’. See ‘Pacifism Means Suicide’, The Nation, 148, 4 (21 January 1939) 87. 66 See, for example, ‘Bellocs Vision vom Sklavenstaat: Wirkungen des Kapitalismus – Wege zu seiner Überwindung’, Schönere Zukunft?, 4, 6 (4 November 1928) 116–18; ‘G.K. Chesterton’, Der Christliche Ständestaat (28 June 1936) 619–21. 67 A. Kolnai, ‘Three Riders of Apocalypse: Communism, Naziism and Progressive Democracy’, Appraisal, 2, 1 (1998) 7 [orig. c.1950]. See also Kolnai, ‘Notes sur l’utopie réactionnaire’, Cité libre (Montreal), 13 (1955) 9–20; idem., ‘La mental- ité utopienne’, La Table ronde (September 1960) 62–84. Borkenau too became a Cold Warrior, though this is less surprising in an ex-communist; see his European Communism (London: Faber and Faber, 1953). 68 Kolnai, Twentieth-Century Memoirs, pp. 72–3, 77. 69 Ibid., p. 82. 70 K. Polanyi, ‘The Essence of Fascism’, in Christianity and the Social Revolution, eds. J. Lewis, K. Polanyi and D. K. Kitchin (London: Victor Gollancz, 1935), pp. 359–94, here at p. 359. Further references in the text. 200 Notes

71 See J. Rogozinski, ‘Hell on Earth: Hannah Arendt in the Face of Hitler’, Philosophy Today, 37, 3 (1993) 257–74, for a discussion of this concept. See also my ‘Ontology or Bureaucracy? Hannah Arendt’s Early Interpretation of the Holocaust’, European Judaism, 32, 2 (1999) 11–25. 72 See R. Albrecht, ‘F.A. Voigts Deutschlandberichte im “Manchester Guardian” (1930–1935)’, Publizistik: Zeitschrift für Kommunikationsforschung, 31, 1–2 (1986) 108–17; Angela Schwarz, Die Reise ins Dritte Reich: Britische Augenzeugen im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland (1933–1939) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993), p. 304 n. 33. 73 F. A. Voigt, Unto Caesar (London: Constable & Co., 1938), pp. 37, 51. Further references in the text. 74 Cf. G. G. Germain, ‘The Revenge of the Sacred: Technology and Re-enchant- ment’, in The Barbarism of Reason: Max Weber and the Twilight of Enlightenment, eds. A. Horowitz and T. Maley (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1994), p. 257: ‘[Jacques] Ellul suggests that the tension between man’s need for mystery and his inability to satisfy this need in a disenchanted world has been reconciled through the imputation of a sense of the sacred onto the source of demystiﬁcation, that is, onto disenchanting science itself. … technique enchants us and holds us in its sway.’ Weber, of course, ﬁrmly denied that science and technology could serve this purpose. 75 Borkenau, Pareto, p. 211. 76 C. Schmitt, Political Theology: Four Chapters on the Concept of Sovereignty, trans. G. Schwab (Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1988 [1922]). 77 Kolnai, The War Against the West, p. 193. 78 Ibid., pp. 315–16. Cf. pp. 487–8. 79 Ibid., p. 447. 80 Kolnai, Twentieth-Century Memoirs, p. 45. 81 See the 34 volumes of Voegelin’s Collected Works (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998). 82 D. J. Levy, The Measure of Man: Incursions in Philosophical and Political Anthropology (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1993), p. 35. 83 E. Voegelin, Die politischen Religionen (Munich: Wilhelm Fink Verlag, 1996 [1938]). For developments of the concept, see J. L. Talmon, The Origins of Totalitarian Democracy (London: Mercury Books, 1961); idem., Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarization in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick: Transaction Publishers, 1991); K. Vondung, Magie und Manipulation: Ideologischer Kult und politische Religion des Nationalsozialismus (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1971); G. L. Mosse, The Nationalization of the Masses: Political Symbolism and Mass Movements in Germany from the Napoleonic Wars through the Third Reich (Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press, 1991 [1975]); U. Tal, ‘On Structures of Political Theology and Myth in Germany Prior to the Holocaust’, in The Holocaust as Historical Experience, eds. Y. Bauer and N. Rotenstreich (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), pp. 43–74; J. A. Goldstein, ‘On Racism and Anti-Semitism in Occultism and Nazism’, Yad Vashem Studies, 13 (1979) 53–72; H. Maier, ‘“Totalitarismus” und “Politische Religionen”: Konzepte des Diktaturvergleichs’, Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte, 43 (1995) 387–405; M. Ley and J. H. Schoeps, eds., Der Nationalsozialismus als politische Religion (Bodenheim: Syndikat, 1997); P. Burrin, ‘Political Religion: The Relevance of a Concept’, History & Memory, 9 (1997) 321–49. 84 E. Voegelin, The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, Volume 3: The History of the Race Idea from Ray to Carus, trans. R. Hein, ed. K. Vondung (Baton Rouge: Louisiana State University Press, 1998 [1933]), pp. 22, 24, 25. Notes 201

85 E. Voegelin, ‘The Growth of the Race Idea’, Review of Politics, 2, 3 (1940) 283–317. For further statements of Voegelin’s position during the war, see ‘Some Problems of German Hegemony’, The Journal of Politics, 3, 2 (1941) 154–68, and ‘Nietzsche, the Crisis and the War’, The Journal of Politics, 6, 2 (1944) 177–212. 86 On Bataille see R. Wolin, ‘Left Fascism: Georges Bataille and the German Ideology’, Constellations, 2 (1996) 397–428; H. Mayer, ‘Georges Bataille et le fascisme: souvenirs et analyse’, Cahiers Georges Bataille (1986) 81–93; A. Stephens, ‘Georges Bataille’s Diagnosis of Fascism and Some Second Opinions’, in The Attractions of Fascism: Social Psychology and the Aesthetics of the ‘Triumph of the Right’, ed. J. Milfull (Oxford: Berg, 1990), pp. 77–99. 87 See, for example, Jay, The Dialectical Imagination, p. 267; H. Reinicke, ed., Revolution der Utopie: Texte von und über Ernst Bloch (Frankfurt am Main: Campus Verlag, 1979). 88 E. Bloch, ‘Preface to the 1935 Edition’, in Heritage of Our Times, trans. N. and S. Plaice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991), p. 2. Further references in the text. 89 A. Rabinbach, ‘Unclaimed Heritage: Ernst Bloch’s Heritage of our Times and the Theory of Fascism’, New German Critique, 11 (1977) 6. 90 Ibid., p. 8. 91 Ibid., p. 12. 92 See, for example, H. Arendt’s comments in ‘The Concentration Camps’, Partisan Review, 15 (1948) 763. 93 G. Bataille, ‘The Psychological Structure of Fascism’, in Visions of Excess: Selected Writings 1927–1939, ed. A. Stoekl (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1985), p. 156. On Bataille’s theories of ‘sovereignty’ and ‘excess energy’, see ‘The Notion of Expenditure’, in Visions of Excess, pp. 116–29, and The Accursed Share: An Essay on General Economy. Volume I: Consumption, trans. R. Hurley (New York: Zone Books, 1991). 94 I have dealt with Bataille’s theory of fascism in more detail in ‘Georges Bataille and the Interpretation of the Holocaust’, in Theoretical Interpretations of the Holocaust, ed. D. Stone (Amsterdam: Rodopi, 2001), pp. 79–101. 95 See, for example, the discussion of a seminar paper given by Borkenau on 20 November 1936. Malinowski papers, MALINOWSKI/SEM/15. 96 For more details, see P. Schöttler, ‘Einleitung. Lucie Varga: eine österreichische Historikerin im Umkreis der “Annales” (1904–1941)’, in L. Varga, Zeitenwende: mentalitätshistorische Studien 1936–1939, ed. P. Schöttler (Frankfurt/M: Suhrkamp Taschenbuch Verlag, 1991), pp. 13–111; R. Stade, ‘“In the Immediate Vicinity a World Has Come to an End”: Lucie Varga as an Ethnographer of National Socialism – A Retrospective Review Essay’, in Excluded Ancestors, Inventible Traditions: Essays Toward a More Inclusive History of Anthropology, ed. R. Handler (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 2000), pp. 265–83 (History of Anthropology, 9). 97 L. Varga, ‘Die Entstehung des Nationalsozialismus: Sozialhistorische Anmerkungen’, in Zeitenwende, p. 131. 98 Ibid., p. 121. Cf. E. Lengyel, Hitler, rev. edn. (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1933), p. 235: ‘The majority of Hitler’s followers are men and women who have lost their spiritual anchorage. … To them civilization is no longer a protection, but a menace.’ It is worth here noting the warning of Theodore Abel, who noted that ‘Although the evidence leads us to the recognition of discontent as a necessary factor in the Hitler movement, it would be fallacious to regard it as a sufﬁcient explanation of what happened in Germany. … The function of discontent in regard to a social movement is, therefore, limited. It sets the 202 Notes

conditions which make a movement possible, but it does not at the same time determine its special features, nor does it by itself determine its success.’ See Why Hitler Came into Power: An Answer Based on the Original Life Stories of Six Hundred of His Followers (New York: Prentice-Hall, 1938), pp. 171–2. 99 Ibid., pp. 122–3. 100 L. Varga, ‘Luther, die Jugend und der Nazismus’ and ‘Über die Jugend im Dritten Reich’, both in Zeitenwende, pp. 138–41 and 142–5. 101 R. Dell, Germany Unmasked (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1934), pp. 142–3. 102 R. Dell, ‘The British Fascist Case’ and an untitled article, Dell papers, 5/6/6 and 5/6/61. 103 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 216. 104 V. Gollancz, Is Mr Chamberlain Saving Peace? (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), pp. 30–1. 105 L. Lewisohn, ‘The Revolt against Civilization’, in Nazism: An Assault on Civilization, eds. P. Van Paasen and J. W. Wise (New York: Harrison Smith and Robert Haas, 1934), p. 144. 106 F. L. Schuman, The Nazi Dictatorship: A Study in Social Pathology and the Politics of Fascism, 2nd edn. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1936), p. 505. 107 Collingwood, ‘The Prussian Philosophy’, p. 206.

Chapter 2

1 E. Henri, Hitler over Russia? The Coming Fight Between the Fascist and Socialist Armies (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1936), p. vi; J. L. Spivak, Europe under the Terror (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936), p. 92; G. Sacks, The Intelligent Man’s Guide to Jew-Baiting (London: Victor Gollancz, 1935), p. 154. 2 C. B. Hoover, Germany Enters the Third Reich (London: Macmillan and Co., 1933), p. 212. 3 See B. Weisbrod’s articles: ‘Violence and Sacrifice: Imagining the Nation in Weimar Germany’, in The Third Reich Between Vision and Reality: New Perspectives on German History 1918–1945, ed. H. Mommsen (Oxford: Berg, 2001), pp. 5–21; ‘Military Violence and Male Fundamentalism: Ernst Jünger’s Contribution to the Conservative Revolution’, History Workshop Journal, 49 (2000) 69–94; ‘The Crisis of Bourgeois Society in Interwar Germany’, in Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany: Comparisons and Contrasts, ed. R. Bessel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), pp. 23–39. See also P. Fritzsche, Germans into Nazis (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998). 4 See, for example, B. Granzow, A Mirror of Nazism: British Opinion and the Emergence of Hitler 1929–1933 (London: Victor Gollancz, 1964); A. Sharf, The British Press and Jews under Nazi Rule (London: Oxford University Press, 1964); F. Gannon, The British Press and Germany 1936–1939 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1971); B. Wasserstein, Britain and the Jews of Europe 1939–1945 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1988); T. Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination: A Social and Cultural History (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994). The literature on appeasement is too large to list. 5 See A. Schwarz, Die Reise ins Dritte Reich: Britische Augenzeugen im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck und Ruprecht, 1993). 6 Related works here include J. Rose’s methodologically innovative work, The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes (New Haven: Yale University Press, 2001) and, idem., ed., The Holocaust and the Book: Destruction and Preservation (Amherst, MA: University of Massachusetts Press, 2001). Notes 203

7 Rose, The Intellectual Life of the British Working Classes, p. 4. We await a history of the book analysis of responses to Nazism in Rose’s sense. 8 J. Katz, ‘Was the Holocaust Predictable?’, in The Holocaust as Historical Experience, eds. Y. Bauer and N. Rotenstreich (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1981), pp. 26, 25. 9 See M. A. Bernstein, Foregone Conclusions: Against Apocalyptic History (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1994), pp. 1–8, e.g. p. 3: ‘Sideshadowing’s atten- tion to the unfulfilled or unrealized possibilities of the past is a way of disrupt- ing the affirmations of a triumphalist, unidirectional view of history in which whatever has perished is condemned because it has been found wanting by some irresistible historico-logical dynamic.’ 10 On determinism and philosophy of history see my Constructing the Holocaust: A Study in Historiography (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003). 11 F. E. Jones, In My Time: An Autobiography (London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 1983), p. 52. 12 Sarolea to M. Corbin, French Ambassador, 19 December 1939, Sarolea papers, Sar. Coll. 65. To Hilaire Belloc he wrote (12 March 1940): ‘On looking over some of the volumes I published dealing with the Prussian problem, I find that there are many chapters which are as true to-day as they were twenty-five years ago and some, indeed, might have been written yesterday.’ Sar. Coll. 139. 13 R. Freund, Zero Hour: Policies of the Powers (London: Methuen & Co., 1936), p. 1. Cf. 3rd edn. (1937), p. vii. 14 E. Durkheim, The Elementary Forms of Religious Life; E. Nolte, The Three Faces of Fascism; on community and fascism-as-immanence, see J.-L. Nancy, The Inoperative Community, trans. P. Connor et al. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991); M. Blanchot, The Unavowable Community, trans. P. Joris (Barrytown, NY: Station Hill Press, 1988); D. Stone, ‘Homes without Heimats? Jean Améry at the Limits’, Angelaki, 2, 1 (1995) 91–100. 15 Hitler cited in R. Florian, ‘The Antonescu Regime: History and Mystification’, in The Tragedy of Romanian Jewry, ed. R. L. Braham (New York: The Rosenthal Institute for Holocaust Studies, 1994), p. 80. 16 Cited in E. Voegelin, Hitler and the Germans. The Collected Works of Eric Voegelin, Vol. 31, trans. and ed. D. Clemens and B. Purcell (Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1999), p. 141. As Voegelin correctly goes on to note (p. 142). Hitler confuses Heraclitus with social Darwinism. 17 ‘A Former German Diplomat’, Hitler – Germany and Europe (London: Friends of Europe, 1933), p. 13. See also the similar arguments put forward in other Friends of Europe publications, for example, J. L. Garvin, Hitler and Peace (1933); W. Steed, The Future in Europe (1933); G. Norlin, Hitlerism: Why and Whither? (1935); Germany’s Foreign Policy as Stated in Mein Kampf by Adolf Hitler (1936), especially the foreword by the Duchess of Atholl. 18 R. Dell, Germany Unmasked (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1934), pp. 101, 103–4. 19 ‘Germanicus’, Germany: The Last Four Years. An Independent Examination of the Results of National Socialism (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1937), p. 92. 20 M. Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain 1914–1945: The Defining of a Faith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980). 21 E. Rathbone, War Can be Averted (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938). 22 E. Henri, Hitler Over Europe?, trans. Michael Davidson (London: Dent and Sons, 1934), pp. 127–8. 23 The most important empirical refutation of the ‘big business’ thesis is H. A. Turner, Jr., German Big Business and the Rise of Hitler (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1985). For a historiographical discussion, see C. Kobrak and A. H. 204 Notes

Schneider, ‘Big Business and the Third Reich’, in The Historiography of the Holocaust, ed. D. Stone (Basingstoke: Palgrave, forthcoming). 24 Hoover, Germany Enters the Third Reich, p. 212. 25 H. R. Knickerbocker, Will War Come in Europe? (London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1934), p. 251. 26 R. Pascal, The Nazi Dictatorship (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1934), pp. vii, 268. 27 J. Strachey, The Menace of Fascism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1933), pp. 130, 43. 28 P. Van Paasen, ‘The Danger to World Peace’, in Nazism: An Assault on Civilization, eds. P. Van Paasen and J. W. Wise (New York: Harrison Smith and Robert Haas, 1934), pp. 215–16. 29 J. Strachey, ‘Collective Security’, Left Book News, 2 (June 1936) 21. 30 J. Lewis, The Left Book Club: An Historical Record (London: Victor Gollancz, 1970), p. 106. 31 G. D. H. Cole, The People’s Front (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937), p. 151. 32 F. L. Schuman, The Nazi Dictatorship: A Study in Social Pathology and the Politics of Fascism, 2nd rev. edn. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1936), p. 351. 33 L. Stowe, Nazi Germany Means War (London: Faber and Faber, 1933), p. 72. 34 E. Grigg, MP, Britain Looks at Germany (London: Nicholson and Watson, 1938), p. 51. 35 D. Woodman, Hitler Rearms: An Exposure of Germany’s War Plans (London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1934), pp. 1, 239, 297, 9, 106. 36 A. Müller, Germany’s War Machine, trans. A. H. Marlow (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1936), pp. 1, 24. On the importance of ‘Motorisierunspolitik’ for the German economy, see R. J. Overy, War and Economy in the Third Reich (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1994), p. 7. 37 F. E. Jones, The Battle for Peace (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 30. Jones was elected a Labour MP in 1945, and was also a member of the British War Crimes Executive; see Jones’ article, ‘The Law and Fascism’, New Statesman and Nation, Part I (13 December 1947) 467; Part II (20 December 1947) 486. 38 S. H. Roberts, The House that Hitler Built (London: Methuen Publishers, 1937), pp. 362–3. 39 A. G. Bonnell, ‘Stephen H. Roberts’ The House That Hitler Built as a Source on Nazi Germany’, Australian Journal of Politics and History, 46 (2000) 20. 40 A. Meusel, Germany’s Foreign Policy (London: Germany Today, 1939), p. 68. 41 K. Heiden, One Man Against Europe (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 83. Cf. H. Ripka, Munich: Before and After, trans. I. Sˇindelhová and E. P. Young (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), p. 484. 42 R. W. Seton-Watson, Britain and the Dictators: A Survey of Post-War British Policy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1938), p. 303. 43 J. K. Pollock, The Government of Greater Germany (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1938), p. 192. 44 F. Ermarth, The New Germany: National Socialist Government in Theory and Practice (Washington, DC: Digest Press, 1936), pp. 172, 184. 45 A. Kolnai, The War Against the West (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 413. 46 Borkenau, The New German Empire, pp. 24, 25, 27. 47 Ibid., pp. 11, 25. 48 P. and I. Petroff, The Secret of Hitler’s Victory (London: The Hogarth Press, 1934), pp. 125–6. 49 W. Necker, Nazi Germany Can’t Win: An Exposure of Germany’s Strategic Aims and Weaknesses, trans. E. Fitzgerald (London: Lindsay Drummond, 1939), p. 153. Notes 205

50 S. G. Duff, ‘The Cost of Munich’, in Germany: What Next?, ed. R. Keane (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 90. See also Duff’s articles in the Contemporary Review: ‘Germany and Czechoslovakia’, 153 (1938) 182–9; ‘The Czechs and the Crisis’, 154 (1938) 669–76; ‘The Fate of Czechoslovakia’, 155 (1939) 522–9 for her consistently anti-appeasement stance. 51 G. Reimann, Germany: World Empire or World Revolution (London: Secker and Warburg, 1938), p. 146. 52 H. Rauschning, Germany’s Revolution of Destruction, trans. E. W. Dickes (London: William Heinemann, 1939), p. 194. 53 G. Tabouis, Blackmail or War, trans P. Selver (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1938), p. 217. 54 H. Brown, ‘Hitler’s Age of Heroism’, Contemporary Review, 143 (1933) 536. 55 O. Dutch, Germany’s Next Aims (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1939), p. 11. Dutch was not, however, a pro-Nazi. Although he believed that Hitler did not want war, but simply threatened it to win his goals, he argued that a German peace would be ‘a peace for the dead only, for the dead in body as well as the dead in spirit’ (p. 15), attacked British politicians for being more afraid of Bolshevism than of Fascism (pp. 231–3) and noted ﬁnally that ‘there is at the present time no other means but the one employed so successfully by the dicta- tor states themselves [to avoid war]: the threat of brute force’ (p. 270) a position that provides an interesting point of comparison with that of G. D. H. Cole. 56 W. Lewis, Hitler (London: Chatto & Windus, 1931), pp. 47–8. 57 W. Lewis, The Hitler Cult (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1939), pp. vii, 100. 58 G. N. Shuster, Strong Man Rules: An Interpretation of Germany Today (New York/London: D. Appleton–Century Company, 1934), pp. 82–3. On Shuster, see also chapter 4. 59 J. Duncan, What I Saw in Germany (London: The Churchman Publishing Co., n.d. [1936]), p. 131. 60 J. Gloag, Word Warfare: Some Aspects of German Propaganda and English Liberty (London: Nicholson and Watson, 1939), p. 110. Gloag was the Public Relations Director of the Timber Development Association 1936–38. 61 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 9. 62 S. Erckner, Hitler’s Conspiracy Against Peace, trans. E. Burns (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937), pp. 7–8. 63 Jones, The Battle for Peace, p. 13. 64 Mowrer, Germany Puts the Clock Back, p. 248. 65 W. Steed, The Meaning of Hitlerism (London: Nisbet & Co., 1934), p. xxx. See also Steed’s articles in the Contemporary Review: ‘Whither?’, 144 (1933) 1–14; ‘Peace or War: Is There a British Policy?’, 144 (1933) 641–50; ‘The Outlook in Central Europe’, 145 (1934) 513–21; ‘British Interests’, 153 (1938) 385–95; ‘What of British Policy?’, 155 (1939) 641–50, ‘War for Peace’, 156 (1939) 513–23, in which Steed’s increasingly shrill attacks on the British government’s inaction can be followed. 66 Steed to Churchill, 20 June 1936, Steed papers, Add. 74114/7. 67 H. F. Armstrong, Europe Between Wars? (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1934), p. 11. 68 C. Cunningham, Germany To-day and Tomorrow (London: John Heritage The Unicorn Press, 1936), pp. 29–30. See also Cunningham, ‘German Political Expansion’, Fortnightly Review, 139 (1936) 187–93. 69 H. Lichtenberger, The Third Reich, trans. K. S. Pinson (London: Duckworth, 1938), pp. 139–40. See also Lichtenberger, ‘Nietzsche and the Present Crisis of 206 Notes

Civilisation’, Hibbert Journal, 34 (1936) 321–30. On Lichtenberger’s Nietzscheanism, see my Breeding Superman, p. 71. 70 H. P. Greenwood, The German Revolution (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1934), pp. 270, 273. See also Greenwood’s articles in the Contemporary Review: ‘England and Germany’, 153 (1938) 139–47, in which he argued that a stronger Germany meant a better hope for peace; ‘Germany and England’, 154 (1938) 1–8, in which he argued that war was not inevitable and that Germany was not aiming at world domination; ‘Germany after Munich’, 154 (1938) 523–31, in which he claimed that Chamberlain’s opponents were making war inevitable, and that Britain needed strength in spirit, not just in arms. 71 P. Gibbs, European Journey (London: William Heinemann, 1934), p. 320. On Roberts and Gibbs, see Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 49–50, and chapter 4 below. 72 T. P. Conwell-Evans, ‘Germany in July-August’, Nineteenth Century and After, 120 (1936) 416. Cf. idem., ‘Impressions of Germany’, Nineteenth Century and After, 115 (1934) 72–82; ‘Between Berlin and London’, Nineteenth Century and After, 119 (1936) 57–68 for a similar argument. Conwell-Evans had taught history at the university in Königsberg in the academic year 1932–33. 73 R. Garbutt, Germany: The Truth (London: Rich & Cowan, 1939), p. 214. 74 N. Hillson, I Speak of Germany: A Plea for Anglo-German Friendship (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1937), p. 110; Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 267–8. 75 R. Hughes, The New Germany (London: Athenaeum Press, 1936), p. 24. Hughes had been a lecturer in French Literature at King’s College, London, until 1933, and then became a freelance journalist. 76 W. E. D. Allen, ‘The Fascist Idea in Britain’, Quarterly Review, 261 (1933) 232. 77 M. M. Green, Eyes Right! A Left-Wing Glance at the New Germany (London: Christophers, 1935), pp. 141, 157. 78 Duncan, What I Saw in Germany, p. 124. 79 As M. George notes in The Hollow Men: An Examination of British Foreign Policy Between the Years 1933 and 1939 (London: Leslie Frewin, 1967), p. 55: ‘it is demonstrably true that animus against the French was one of the most common of Conservative expressions and that that hostility was increasingly accompanied by warm gestures of friendship for the Germans.’ See, for example, R. Chance, ‘Does Germany Mean War?’, Fortnightly Review, 136 (1936) 74: ‘Why should we not have the courage to accept Germany as an equal, treat her as a friend, which she desires to be, and tell the French firmly that with all their natural concern over security, they have failed to understand the real spirit of the German people?’ 80 W. A. Philips, ‘Germany and Europe’, Nineteenth Century and After, 120 (1936) 269. 81 E. Taverner, These Germans (London: Seeley, Service & Co., 1937), p. 229. 82 A. P. Laurie, The Case for Germany: A Study of Modern Germany (Berlin: Internationaler Verlag, 1939), p. 90. 83 See Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 363–7. 84 C. W. Domville-Fife, This is Germany (London: Seeley Service & Co., 1939), p. 278. 85 A. Leese, The Mass Madness of Sept. 1938 and its Jewish Cause (London: The Imperial Fascist League, 1938), pp. 3–4. See also G. L.-F. Pitt-Rivers, The Czech Conspiracy: A Phase in the World-War Plot (London: The Boswell Publishing Co., 1938). Notes 207

86 J. Wolf, Some Impressions of Nazi Germany (London: The Golden Eagle Publishing Co., 1934), pp. 56, 75. 87 A. L. Kennedy, Britain Faces Germany (London: Jonathan Cape, 1937), pp. 155, 176, 177. Kennedy had long held the view that Versailles had augmented the rise of Nazism, noting in his diary on 25 July 1930 that ‘Eventually a great nation cannot be kept down by servitudes of this sort imposed on Ger[many] by the Treaty of Versailles.’ See G. Martel, ‘Introduction’ to The Times and Appeasement: The Journals of A. L. Kennedy, 1932–1939, ed. G. Martel (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000), p. 8. 88 Laurie, The Case for Germany, p. 47. 89 C. Sidgwick, German Journey (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1936), pp. 279–80. 90 Duncan, What I Saw in Germany, p. 131. 91 J. Brown, I Saw for Myself (London: Selwyn and Blount, n.d. [1935]), p. 77. Brown was a journalist and active member of the Labour Party. 92 G. E. O. Knight, In Defence of Germany (London: Golden Eagle Press, 1933), p. 19. 93 O. Keun, Darkness from the North: An Essay in German History (London: H. & E. R. Brinton, 1935), p. 31. 94 Vigilantes, Why the League Has Failed (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 51. 95 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 13. 96 Vigilantes, Why the League Has Failed, pp. 63, 81. Cf. the arguments of W. A. Rudlin, The Growth of Fascism in Great Britain (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935); G. T. Garratt, The Shadow of the Swastika (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938). See chapter 6 below. 97 Sir A. Willert, The Frontiers of England (London: William Heinemann, 1935), pp. 311–12. 98 Jones, The Battle for Peace, p. 306. 99 Tabouis, Blackmail or War, p. 8. 100 F. A. Voigt, Unto Caesar (London: Constable & Co., 1938), pp. 197, 275. See also J. C. Johnstone, Germany: Hammer or Anvil? (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1939). 101 N. Joicey also notes that ‘The spiritual despair of Europe in the face of fascism was a recurring theme in many of the political [Penguin] Specials.’ Joicey, ‘A Paperback Guide to Progress’, p. 47. 102 L. T. Mowrer, Journalist’s Wife (London: William Heinemann, 1938), p. 349. 103 Duff, ‘The Cost of Munich’, p. 97. 104 For two insightful essays among the many on the nature of appeasement, see R. A. C. Parker, ‘The Failure of Collective Security in British Appeasement’, and R. Douglas, ‘Chamberlain and Appeasement’, both in The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement, eds. W. J. Mommsen and L. Kettenacker (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 22–9 and 79–88. Parker’s claim that ‘For suc- cessive makers of British policy, collective security as conciliation of Germany was preferred to collective security as resistance to Germany’ (p. 27), and Douglas’s claim that ‘As the British Ambassador to Berlin, Sir Nevile Henderson, had pointed out, there was an argument – even on Nazi premises – that Hitler only wished to rule over Germans, and was content to leave other peoples to their own devices. If that was the case, then a peaceful agreement might be possible’ (p. 85) are borne out by the thrust of the books I analyse here, despite the large number of pro-German publications arguing that Britain was provoking Germany into war. See also Parker’s books, Chamberlain and Appeasement: British Policy and the Coming of the Second World War (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993) and Churchill and Appeasement (London: Macmillan, 2000). 208 Notes

105 See, for example, W. W. Coole and M. F. Potter, eds., Thus Spake Germany (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1941). 106 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 75. 107 Erckner, Hitler’s Conspiracy Against Peace, pp. 262–3. 108 Hans Frank, 23 April 1940, in J. Noakes and G. Pridham, eds. Nazism 1919–1945: A Documentary Reader. Volume 3: Foreign Policy, War and Racial Extermination (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1988), p. 990. 109 Jones, The Battle for Peace, p. 53. 110 Necker, Nazi Germany Can’t Win, p. 175. 111 Voigt, Unto Caesar, pp. 185–6. 112 Erckner, Hitler’s Conspiracy Against Peace, pp. 234–5. 113 Lichtenberger, The Third Reich, p. 85. 114 Erckner, Hitler’s Conspiracy Against Peace, p. 109. 115 Cunningham, Germany To-day and Tomorrow, p. 311. The Marquess of Londonderry, Ourselves and Germany (London: Robert Hale, 1938), pp. 173–4. 116 Borkenau, The New German Empire, p. 36. See also M. Michaelis, ‘World Power States or World Dominion? A Survey of the Literature on Hitler’s “Men of World Dominion” (1937–1970)’, The Historical Journal, 15 (1972) 331–60; M. Hauner, ‘Did Hitler Want a World Dominion?’, Journal of Contemporary History, 13, 1 (1978) 15–32. 117 Stowe, Nazi Germany Means War, pp. 65–6. 118 Henri, Hitler over Europe?, p. 127. 119 Colonel G. F. B. Turner, Germany. Her Aspirations: Colonial Claims and Armaments (London: The Covenant Publishing Co., 1938), p. 18. 120 Erckner, Hitler’s Conspiracy Against Peace, p. 168. 121 Rauschning, Germany’s Revolution of Destruction, p. 194. 122 Necker, Nazi Germany Can’t Win, p. 353. 123 Ermarth, The New Germany, p. 184. 124 Cunningham, Germany To-day and Tomorrow, p. 335. 125 Necker, Nazi Germany Can’t Win, p. 353. 126 Jones, The Battle for Peace, p. 350. 127 P. Tabor, The Nazi Myth: The Real Face of the Third Reich (London: Pallas Publishing Co., 1939), p. 30. 128 J. Gunther, The High Cost of Hitler (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1939), p. 39. The book is made up of radio broadcasts made between July and September 1939. 129 L. Blake, Hitler’s Last Year of Power (London: Andrew Dakers, 1939), pp. 5, 115. Despite the basic premise of this book being proven wrong within weeks of its publication, Blake had the audacity to publish, in 1940, a book predicting the imminent end of the war; see The Last Year of the War and After (London: Andrew Dakers, 1940). 130 L. P. Thompson, Can Germany Stand the Strain? (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939), p. 11. 131 Tabouis, Blackmail or War, p. 204. 132 See P. Levine, ‘Swedish Neutrality during the Second World War, Tactical Success or Moral Failure’, in European Neutrals and Non-Belligerents during the Second World War, ed. N. Wylie (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002). 133 R. Keane, ‘Introduction’ to Germany: What Next? (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 15. 134 Henri, Hitler Over Russia?, p. 29. Further references in the text. 135 See, for example, B. Arnold and H. Hassmann, ‘Archaeology in Nazi Germany: The Legacy of the Faustian Bargain’, in Nationalism, Politics, and the Practice of Notes 209

Archaeology, eds. P. L. Kohl and C. Fawcett (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1995), pp. 70–81; W. J. McCann, ‘“Volk und Germanentum”: The Presentation of the Past in Nazi Germany’, in The Politics of the Past, eds. P. Gathercole and D. Lowenthal (London: Routledge, 1990), pp. 74–88; B. Arnold, ‘The Past as Propaganda: Totalitarian Archaeology in Nazi Germany’, in Contemporary Archaeology in Theory: A Reader, ed. I. Hodder (Oxford: Blackwell, 1996), pp. 549–69. 136 E. Bloch, ‘Rough Night in Town and Country’ (1929), in Heritage of Our Times, trans. N. and S. Plaice (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1991), p. 53. 137 O. Bartov, Hitler’s Army: Soldiers, Nazis, and War in the Third Reich (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991); idem., ‘German Soldiers and the Holocaust: Historiography, Research and Implications’, History & Memory, 9 (1997) 162–88; H. Heer and K. Naumann, eds., War of Extermination: The German Military in World War II (Oxford: Berghahn, 2001); W. Manoschek, ed., Die Wehrmacht im Rassenkrieg: Der Vernichtungskrieg hinter der Front (Vienna: Picus Verlag, 1996). 138 C. Hamilton, Modern Germanies as Seen by an Englishwoman. With a Postscript on the Nazi Regime (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1933), p. 269. 139 J. Steel, Hitler as Frankenstein (London: Wishart & Co., 1933), p. 173. 140 For a number of different examples of this phenomenon, see J. Bergman, ‘Soviet Dissidents on the Holocaust, Hitler and Nazism: A Study of the Preservation of Historical Memory’, Slavic and East European Review, 70 (1992) 477–504; R. Samuel, Theatres of Memory, vol. I: Past and Present in Contemporary Culture (London: Verso, 1994); A. Shapira, ‘The Holocaust: Private Memories, Public Memory’, Jewish Social Studies, n.s. 4, 2 (1998) 40–58; M. Richards, A Time of Silence: Civil War and the Culture of Repression in Franco’s Spain 1936–1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998); K. Verdery, The Political Lives of Dead Bodies: Reburial and Postsocialist Change (New York: Columbia University Press, 1999); R. Moeller, War Stories: The Search for a Usable Past in the Federal Republic of Germany (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2001); R. Rein, ed., Spanish Memories: Images of a Contested Past, special issue of History & Memory, 14 (2002). See also my ‘Broadening German Memory’, Patterns of Prejudice, 37 (2003) 87–98. 141 F. E. Jones, The Attack from Within: The Modern Technique of Aggression (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 201. ‘Cato’, Guilty Men (London: Victor Gollancz, 1940). 142 I. Deák, J. T. Gross and T. Judt, eds., The Politics of Retribution in Europe: World War II and its Aftermath (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000). 143 See G. Best’s interesting review article, ‘Heiling Hitler’, London Review of Books (21 June 2001): 13–14. 144 Hoover, Germany Enters the Third Reich, pp. 216–17. 145 Jones, The Battle for Peace, p. 351. 146 D. Thompson, Europe Cries to Germany, reprinted from the New York Herald Tribune (13 October 1939), n.p. [1]. 147 W. Zukerman, The Jew in Revolt: The Modern Jew in the World Crisis (London: Martin Secker and Warburg, 1937), p. 26. 148 Voigt, Unto Caesar, p. 69.

Chapter 3

1 R. H. B. Lockhart, Guns or Butter: War Countries and Peace Countries of Europe Revisited (London: Putnam, 1938), p. 342. Lockhart was the author of the 210 Notes

Evening Standard’s ‘Londoner’s Diary’ 1928–37; during the war he was Undersecretary of State in the Foreign Office and Leader of the Political Warfare Executive. 2 M. Dodd, My Years in Germany (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), pp. 261, 273. 3 T. Kushner, ‘Beyond the Pale? British Reactions to Nazi Anti-Semitism, 1933–39’, Immigrants and Minorities, 8 (1989) 143, 145. 4 T. M. Endelman, ‘Jews, Aliens, and other Outsiders in British History’, Historical Journal, 37 (1994) 964, 969. See also Endelman, The Jews of Britain 1656–2000 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002) for a further discussion of the ‘emancipation contract’ theory. 5 H. Nicolson, Diaries and Letters 1939–45, ed. N. Nicolson (London: Collins, 1967), p. 469 (13 June 1945); cited in Kushner, ‘Beyond the Pale?’, p. 156. See also T. Kushner, The Persistence of Prejudice: Anti-Semitism in British Society during the Second World War (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), p. 2. 6 G. Orwell, ‘Anti-Semitism in Britain’, Contemporary Jewish Record (April 1945), reprinted in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume 3: As I Please, 1943–1945, eds. S. Orwell and I. Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), pp. 378–88, here at pp. 383 and 387. 7 Gollancz to Bearsted, 4 April 1938, Gollancz Archive MSS157/3/JE/2/28. 8 L. London, Whitehall and the Jews, 1933–1948: British Immigration Policy, Jewish Refugees and the Holocaust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000); P. Shatzkes, Holocaust and Rescue: Impotent or Indifferent? Anglo-Jewry 1938–1945 (Basingstoke: Palgrave, 2002); M. Gilbert, Auschwitz and the Allies (London: Mandarin, 1991); D. S. Wyman, The Abandonment of the Jews: America and the Holocaust, 1941–1945, 2nd edn. (New York: The New Press, 1998); W. Laqueur, The Terrible Secret: Suppression of the Truth about Hitler’s ‘Final Solution’ (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1982); Y. Bauer, Jews for Sale: Nazi-Jewish Negotiations, 1933–1945 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1994); R. Breitman, Official Secrets: What the Nazis Planned, What the British and Americans Knew (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 2000). 9 C. Sidgwick, German Journey (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1936), pp. 265–6. 10 N. J. Crowson, ‘The British Conservative Party and the Jews during the Late 1930s’, Patterns of Prejudice, 29 (1995) 15, 21, 31–2. 11 E. W. D. Tennant, ‘Hitler’, in The Man and the Hour: Studies of Six Great Men of Our Time, ed. A. Bryant (London: Philip Allan, 1934), p. 123; Marquess of Lothian, ‘England and Germany’, Nineteenth Century and After, 121 (1937) 586. Tennant was a founder member of the Anglo-German Fellowship. On his business links with Germany, see N. Forbes, Doing Business with the Nazis: British Economic and Financial Relations with Germany 1931–1939 (London: Frank Cass, 2000), pp. 139–41. 12 Kushner, ‘Beyond the Pale?’, p. 156. See also Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination: A Social and Cultural History (Oxford: Blackwell, 1994) for further comments along these lines, for example (pp. 34–5): ‘Reactions to Nazi antisemitism in the democracies can only be understood by analysing both the strengths and the limitations of liberalism when faced with the challenge of an intolerant and ultimately genocidal state.’ 13 A. Schwarz, Die Reise ins Dritte Reich: Britische Augenzeugen im nationalsozialistischen Deutschland (1933–39) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1993), p. 299. 14 R. Griffiths, Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany 1933–39 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), p. 65. For some thoughts on why fascism failed in Britain, see chapter 6. Notes 211

15 G. Orwell, ‘As I Please’, Tribune (11 February 1944), reprinted in The Collected Essays, vol. 3, pp. 112–15, here at p. 114. 16 J.-F. Lyotard, The Differend: Phrases in Dispute (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1988), p. 15, citing Freud’s Jokes and Their Relation to the Unconscious (1905). 17 Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, p. 77. See also Kushner, The Holocaust, pp. 37–42. 18 N. Webster, Germany and England (London: Boswell Publishing Company, 1938), pp. 23–4; reprinted from the Patriot (October and November 1938) and revised. The Patriot continued to exist until 1940, and argued that there was a Jewish plot to destroy the British empire. See also N. Webster, The Surrender of an Empire, 3rd edn. (London: The Boswell Publishing Co., 1933). Webster was a signatory to the Link letter to The Times in October 1938. 19 Truth, 7 July 1939, cited in R. B. Cockett, ‘Ball, Chamberlain and Truth’, Historical Journal, 33 (1990) 136. 20 C. Brooks, Can Chamberlain Save Britain? The Lesson of Munich (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1938), p. 138. On Brooks at Truth, see C. Hirshfield, ‘The Tenacity of Tradition: Truth and the Jews 1877–1957’, Patterns of Prejudice, 28 (1994) 78–83. See also chapter 6, as well as my Breeding Superman: Nietzsche, Race and Eugenics in Edwardian and Interwar Britain (Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2002), chapter 2. 21 Cockett, ‘Ball, Chamberlain and Truth’, p. 131. See also R. A. C. Parker, Chamberlain and Appeasement: British Policy and the Coming of the Second World War (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1993), p. 7. 22 O. Dutch, Germany’s Next Aims (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1939), p. 231. 23 See G. W. Price, I Know These Dictators (London: George G. Harrap, 1937); idem., Year of Reckoning (London: Cassell & Company, 1939); B. Nichols, News of England (London: Jonathan Cape, 1938); D. Reed, Insanity Fair (London: Jonathan Cape, 1938); idem., Disgrace Abounding (London: Jonathan Cape, 1939). On these three journalists, see Kushner, The Holocaust, pp. 41–2. I discuss Reed below and Ward Price in chapter 4. 24 On British fascist activities after the outbreak of war, including their continued antisemitic campaigns, see Kushner, The Persistence of Prejudice; A. Goldman, ‘The Resurgence of Anti-Semitism in Britain during World War II’, Jewish Social Studies, 46 (1984) 37–50; Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 344–67; idem., Patriotism Perverted: Captain Ramsay, the Right Club and British Anti-Semitism 1939–40 (London: Constable, 1998). Goldman tellingly argues (p. 48) that, ‘despite its government, the British people on the whole remained true to their tradition of tolerance’. 25 J. Wolf, Some Impressions of Nazi Germany (London: The Golden Eagle Publishing Co., 1934), pp. 25, 24, 26, 27, 48. 26 C. W. Domville-Fife, This is Germany (London: Seeley Service & Co., 1939), p. 17. 27 A. P. Laurie, The Case for Germany: A Study of Modern Germany (Berlin: Internationaler Verlag, 1939), p. 32. 28 Erich Uetrecht to Sarolea, 17 January 1939, Sarolea papers, Sar. Coll. 84; Sarolea to C. E. Carroll, 11 July 1939, Sar. Coll. 85. Sarolea spoke on at least three occasions to the Link, whose organ the Anglo-German Review was. Sarolea’s wide-ranging correspondence with German institutions and individuals includes the Anti- Komintern, the Deutsch-Englische Gesellschaft, the editor of Der Deutsche Gedanke, the German Embassy in London, the Institut zum Studium der Judenfrage (Berlin), and the Anglo-German Academic Bureau (DAAD). 212 Notes

29 G. E. O. Knight, In Defence of Germany (London: Golden Eagle Press, 1933), pp. 6, 7, 10; idem., Germany’s Demand for Security (London: Golden Eagle Press, 1934), p. 12. See also Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 70–3, 77. 30 J. Murphy, Adolf Hitler: The Drama of His Career (London: Chapman & Hall, 1934), p. 137. Murphy went on to (mis)translate Mein Kampf for Hutchinsons. 31 A. Raven-Thomson, The Coming Corporate State (London: BUF, n.d. [1935]), p. 15. 32 M. Fry, Hitler’s Wonderland (London: John Murray, 1934), pp. 96, 102. 33 The Marquess of Londonderry, Ourselves and Germany (London: Robert Hale, 1938), p. 111, citing a letter from the author to Ribbentrop of 21 February 1936. 34 L. Woolf, Barbarians at the Gate (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), p. 213. 35 N. Hillson, I Speak of Germany: A Plea for Anglo-German Friendship (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1937), p. 15 36 G. Bolitho, The Other Germany (London: Lovat Dickson, 1934), pp. 223, 252. The exiled Count Potocki’s Right Review, 1 (1936) put forward a similar argument: ‘If the Jews want to be treated as human beings, as far as we are concerned all they have to do is behave as such. In the meantime it is the Jews themselves who invented human racialism, and who stick tenaciously to it to the public and private detriment of all outsiders: and Aryan racialism is nothing but a reaction against this.’ 37 C. Hamilton, Modern Germanies as Seen by an Englishwoman. With a Postscript on the Nazi Regime (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1933), pp. 180–1. 38 Sir A. Willert, The Frontiers of England (London: William Heinemann, 1935), p. 39. 39 H. P. Greenwood, The German Revolution (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1934), pp. 55–6, 59–60, 192. 40 J. Brown, I Saw for Myself (London: Selwyn and Blount, n.d. [1935]), p. 132. 41 C. Cunningham, Germany To-day and Tomorrow (London: John Heritage The Unicorn Press, 1936), pp. 29, 35. 42 R. Hastings, The Changing Face of Germany (London: Frederick Muller, 1934), p. 49. 43 J. B. White, Dover-Nürnberg Return (London: Burrup, Mathiseon & Company, 1937), p. 20. White was Director of the Economic League Central Council 1926–45. During the war he fought with the Rifle Brigade and worked for the Political Intelligence Department of the Foreign Office. After the war he became Conservative MP for Canterbury (1945–53). 44 R. Hughes, The New Germany (London: Athenaeum Press, 1936), pp. 10, 12, 24, 25; Lord Sydenham of Combe, ‘Foreword’ to A. H. Lane, The Alien Menace, 5th edn. (London: Boswell Publishing Co., 1934), p. xv. On Combe, see M. Ruotsila, ‘Lord Sydenham of Combe’s World Jewish Conspiracy’, Patterns of Prejudice, 34 (2000) 47–64. The language of C3 and A1 populations derives from the ‘national efficiency’ movement at the turn of the century, geared primarily toward military readiness. For the locus classicus of the argument, see A. White, Efficiency and Empire (London: Methuen and Co., 1901) and, for discussion, G. R. Searle, The Quest for National Efficiency: A Study in British Politics and Political Thought, 1899–1914 (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1971). For use of this language in the context of organicist attitudes to diet, see D. Matless, ‘Bodies Made of Grass Made of Earth Made of Bodies: Organicism, Diet and National Health in Mid- Twentieth-Century England’, Journal of Historical Geography, 27 (2001) 362 and 364. Notes 213

45 K. G. W. Ludecke, I Knew Hitler: The Story of a Nazi Who Escaped the Blood Purge (New York: Charles Scribner’s Sons, 1937), p. 72. 46 R. Garbutt, Germany: The Truth (London: Rich and Cowan, 1939), pp. 196, 199. 47 Reed, Insanity Fair, pp. 152, 158, 159. On Reed, see R. Thurlow, ‘Anti-Nazi Antisemite: the Case of Douglas Reed’, Patterns of Prejudice, 18 (1984) 23–34. It is worth noting, as Thurlow points out (p. 23), that Reed’s ‘vehement anti- Nazism was not straightforward’. His position was based on the belief that Hitler had perverted Nazism’s original, noble goals which, Reed believed, ‘had been more fully expounded by Otto Strasser in Germany’. 48 V. Bartlett, Nazi Germany Explained (London: Victor Gollancz, 1933), pp. 79, 81–2. Bartlett had worked for the BBC, Reuters, the Daily Mail, the Daily Herald, The Times, News Chronicle and the World Review. He was a paciﬁst and member of the Anglo-German Group. 49 E. O. Lorimer, What Hitler Wants (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 49. On Nazi race theory, see p. 58. 50 J. W. Dunne, The League of North-West Europe: A Solution to the Present European Crisis (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1936), p. 19. 51 V. G. Lennox, ‘The Ambitions of Hitler’, in Germany: What Next?, ed. R. Keane (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 114. 52 R. Dell, Germany Unmasked (London: Martin Hopkinson, 1934), p. 61. Dell made a comparable statement with regard to race-theory. Although he said (p. 34) that ‘All the great nations are of mixed race and the Germans themselves are far from being racially pure’, he later observed that whilst, ‘as far as is known, Hitler is not of Jewish origin, he can hardly be of pure “Nordic” race, for he has certain Mediterranean characteristics’. This confusion about race- thinking – condemning its ‘excesses’ but having faith in its fundamentals, such as that the idea of different races is a sound one – helps explain the self-contra- dictory position often taken with regard to the Jews. 53 R. A. Brady, The Spirit and Structure of German Fascism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937), pp. 61 (Darré), 63ff, 69. 54 See, for example, J. Huxley and A. C. Haddon, We Europeans (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939 [1935]); J. B. S. Haldane, Heredity and Politics (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1938). 55 M. M. Green, Eyes Right! A Left-Wing Glance at the New Germany (London: Christophers, 1935), pp. 72, 73–5, 82, 122. 56 H. Sellon, Europe at the Cross-Roads (London: Hutchinson & Co., n.d. [1937]), p. 179. In 1940, Sellon became Professor of International Politics at the University of Reading. On the question of ‘national minorities’, see M. Levene, ‘The Limits of Tolerance: Nation-State Building and What It Means for Minority Groups’, Patterns of Prejudice, 34 (2000) 19–40. 57 S. Dark, The Jew To-Day (London: Ivor Nicholson & Watson, 1933), pp. ix, 43. 58 C. Hoover, Germany Enters the Third Reich (London: Macmillan and Co., 1933), pp. 171–2. 59 E. Mowrer, Germany Puts the Clock Back, rev. edn. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1938), pp. 177–8. 60 J. A. Cole, Just Back from Germany (London: Faber and Faber, 1938), pp. 232–3. Cole became a sergeant in the intelligence corps and, after the war, a Foreign Ofﬁce civil servant in Berlin. From 1958 to 1973 he worked for the BBC. 61 J. Gloag, Word Warfare: Some Aspects of German Propaganda and English Liberty (London: Nicholson and Watson, 1939), pp. 83, 84. 214 Notes

62 E. Hambloch, Germany Rampant: A Study in Economic Militarism (London: Duckworth, 1939), p. 79. See also Hambloch, ‘The Power behind European Freemasonry’, English Review, 63 (1936) 568–79, another ‘exposé’ of the Jews. 63 P. Tabor, The Nazi Myth: The Real Face of the Third Reich (London: Pallas Publishing Company, 1939), p. 78. 64 F. Tuohy, Craziways, Europe (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1934), p. 45. 65 E. Taverner, These Germans (London: Seeley, Service & Co., 1937), p. 139. 66 H. Lichtenberger, The Third Reich (London: Duckworth, 1938), p. 283. 67 H. Rauschning, Germany’s Revolution of Destruction (London: William Heinemann, 1939), p. 99. 68 Major J. R. J. Macnamara, The Whistle Blows (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1938), p. 156. Cf. H. S. Ashton, The Jew at Bay (London: Philip Allan, 1933), p. 122: ‘Jewry is as impregnable as is the Christian faith itself. … The Jews always await their moment when to strike, but strike they will. They are simply awaiting their moment and discretion to them is always nine parts of valour.’ See also A. D. Cohen, ‘The Future of the Jew’, English Review, 62 (1936) 225–30. 69 R. Bernays, Special Correspondent (London: Victor Gollancz, 1934), p. 233. 70 W. Zuckerman, ‘Nazis Without a Jewish Policy’, Fortnightly Review, 138 (1935) 86. 71 J. Steel, Hitler as Frankenstein (London: Wishart & Co., 1933), pp. 110–11. 72 G. N. Shuster, Strong Man Rules: An Interpretation of Germany Today (New York and London: D. Appleton-Century Company, 1934), pp. 277–8. 73 Brown, I Saw for Myself, p. 132. 74 Lennox, ‘The Ambitions of Hitler’, p. 114. 75 F. L. Schuman, The Nazi Dictatorship: A Study in Social Pathology and the Politics of Fascism, 2nd edn. (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1936), p. 327. His view was echoed by Mowrer (Germany Puts the Clock Back, p. 186): ‘All in all, it might have been well for his persecutors to remember that possibly the Jews could get along better without the Germans than the Germans without the Jews.’ 76 F. Borkenau, The New German Empire (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 183. Cf. O. I. Janowsky and M. M. Fagen, International Aspects of German Racial Policies (New York: Oxford University Press, 1937), p. xix, for the claim that ‘Policies of hatred or violence cannot be conﬁned within any frontier and will not stop with the Jews’, a logical and more convincing extension of the kind of argument being put forward by Borkenau. A similar argument to Borkenau’s was put forward by R. Olden, the former political editor of the Berliner Tageblatt, in his Hitler the Pawn (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936), p. 393: ‘Formerly one felt inclined to believe that the Germans were anti-Semitic. Now, however, since Jewish shops, Jewish doctors and lawyers, after years of ofﬁcial boycott and degradation, still have a clientele large enough for them to make a living, one must presume that the people’s appreciation of Jewish achievement outweighs its aversion to the Jews themselves.’ 77 F. E. Jones, The Battle for Peace (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 54. 78 R. Pascal, The Nazi Dictatorship (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1934), pp. 141, 146. 79 E. Henri, Hitler Over Europe? (London: J.M. Dent & Sons, 1934), p. 127. 80 M. Lowenthal, The Jews of Germany: A History of Sixteen Centuries (London: Lindsay Drummond, 1939), p. 362. 81 P. F. Drucker, The End of Economic Man: A Study of the New Totalitarianism (London: William Heinemann, 1939), pp. 6, 187. On the development of these ideas, see P. F. Drucker, Adventures of a Bystander (London: Heinemann, 1978) Notes 215

and J. E. Flaherty, Peter Drucker: Shaping the Managerial Mind (San Francisco: Jossey Bass, 1999), pp. 21–9. For an early appreciation, see W. H. Carter, ‘The Challenge to Democracy’, Fortnightly Review, 146 (1939) 665–71. Cf. Dark, The Jew To-Day, p. 8: ‘the Jew, I repeat, is the bourgeois par excellence. … It is therefore inevitable that, in every revolt against the tyranny of the bourgeoisie, against both its deficiencies and its ideals, the Jew should be the first person to be attacked.’ 82 Dutch, Germany’s Next Aims, pp. 203–4. 83 Drucker, The End of Economic Man, p. 200. 84 F. Neumann, Behemoth: The Structure and Practice of National Socialism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1942), p. 107. 85 G. Feder, Hitler’s Official Programme and Its Fundamental Ideas (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1934), p. 57. 86 Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination, p. 59. 87 D. Thompson, ‘The Record of Persecution’, in Nazism: An Assault on Civilization, eds. P. Van Paassen and J. W. Wise (New York: Harrison Smith and Robert Haas, 1934), p. 12. 88 J. W. Wise, ‘Introduction’ and L. Lewisohn, ‘The Revolt against Civilization’, both in Nazism, eds. Van Paassen and Wise, pp. xi and 157. 89 Shuster, Strong Man Rules, p. 99. Cf. G. Norlin, Hitlerism: Why and Whither? (London: Friends of Europe, 1935), p. 15: ‘anti-Semitism is fundamental in the Nazi movement, and it is clear that in the long run, if Hitlerism continues to prevail, the atmosphere in Germany will be suffocating to any member of the Jewish race or to any one even remotely tainted with Jewish blood.’ What this means in terms of a prediction is hard to say. 90 F. Seidler, The Bloodless Pogrom (London: Victor Gollancz, 1934), pp. 7–8, 55, 131. 91 Dell, Germany Unmasked, p. 23. 92 W. Steed, Hitler: Whence and Whither? (London: Nisbet & Co., 1934), p. 129. 93 J. L. Spivak, Europe under the Terror (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936), p. 116. 94 S. H. Roberts, The House that Hitler Built (London: Methuen Publishers, 1937), pp. 261, 263. 95 Mowrer, Germany Puts the Clock Back, p. 186. 96 Dodd, My Years in Germany, p. 267. 97 Lorimer, What Hitler Wants, p. 58. 98 O. G. Villard, Inside Germany (London: Constable & Co., 1939), pp. 62, 66. The chapters of the book were first serialized in the Daily Telegraph. 99 R. Reynolds, When Freedom Shrieked (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), pp. 211, 269. 100 Reed, Insanity Fair, p. 152. 101 World Committee for the Victims of German Fascism, The Brown Book of the Hitler Terror and the Burning of the Reichstag (London: Victor Gollancz, 1933), pp. 229, 283. See also The Reichstag Fire Trial: The Second Brown Book of the Hitler Terror (London: John Lane, 1934). 102 The Yellow Spot: The Extermination of the Jews of Germany (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936). 103 I. Cohen, ‘The Jews in Germany’, Quarterly Review, 261 (1933) 14. Later he referred to the new wave of antisemitism as ‘a distressing commentary upon the state of modern civilisation’. See ‘The Jewish Tragedy’, Quarterly Review, 263 (1934) 252. 104 L. Sturzo, ‘Fascism and Nazism’, Quarterly Review, 261 (1933) 172. 216 Notes

105 F. Ermarth, The New Germany: National Socialist Government in Theory and Practice (Washington, DC: Digest Press, 1936), p. 37. 106 G. Warburg, Six Years of Hitler: The Jews under the Nazi Regime (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1939), p. 26. 107 W. Steed, Hitler: Whence and Whither? (London: Nisbet & Co., 1934), p. 144. 108 B. S. Deutsch, ‘The Disenfranchisement of the Jews’, in Nazism, eds. Van Paassen and Wise, p. 44. 109 Bartlett, Nazi Germany Explained, p. 115. 110 Hoover, Germany Enters the Third Reich, pp. 163, 168. 111 Dell, Germany Unmasked, p. 23. 112 Wise, Swastika, p. 38. 113 M. S. Wertheimer, ‘The Nazi Revolution in Germany’, in New Governments in Europe: The Trend Toward Dictatorship, eds. V. M. Dean et al. (New York: Thomas Nelson and Sons, 1934), p. 145. 114 Schuman, The Nazi Dictatorship, p.109. 115 Lorimer, What Hitler Wants, p. 58. 116 G. Sacks, The Intelligent Man’s Guide to Jew-Baiting (London: Victor Gollancz, 1935), pp. 153–4. 117 Tabor, The Nazi Myth, p. 71. 118 J. K. Pollock, The Government of Greater Germany (New York: D. Van Nostrand Company, 1938), p. 52. 119 Lichtenberger, The Third Reich, p. 137. 120 P. J. S. Serrarens, Germany under National Socialism (Oxford: The Catholic Social Guild, 1933), p. 5. 121 Roberts, The House that Hitler Built, p. 51. 122 K. Heiden, A History of National Socialism (London: Methuen & Co., 1934), p. 307. 123 Kushner, The Holocaust and the Liberal Imagination, p. 59. 124 H. Picton, Nazis and Germans: A Record of Personal Experience (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1940), p. 63. 125 H. W. Blood-Ryan, Göring: The Iron Man of Germany (London: John Long, 1938), p. 209. See also p. 182 for Blood-Ryan’s scoffing at those rank-and-file Nazis who were ‘naturally to expect that the 600,000 Jews in Germany were to be exterminated. … The Nazis came to power, but the bloody pogrom did not become the order of the day’. 126 P. Harlow, The Shortest Way with the Jews (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1939), pp. 238–9. 127 Woolf, Barbarians at the Gate, p. 26. 128 For the reasons why Belsen wrongly became identified in the British consciousness as the worst Nazi death camp (when it was not a death camp at all), see the essays in J. Reilly et al., eds., Belsen in Memory and History (London: Frank Cass, 1997). 129 O. Keun, Darkness from the North: An Essay in German History (London: H. & E. R. Brinton, 1935), pp. 25, 62, 76–7. 130 Keun to Dell, 15 August 1935, Dell papers 2/7/15.

Chapter 4

1 W. H. Auden and L. MacNeice, ‘Auden and MacNeice: Their Last Will and Testament’, in Letters from Iceland (1937), p. 237; D. Walker-Smith, ‘Current Comments’, English Review, 63 (1936) 401. Notes 217

2 See, among others, A. Bauerkämper, Die ‘radikale Rechte’ in Großbritannien: Nationalistische, antisemitische und faschistische Bewegungen vom späten 19. Jahrhundert bis 1945 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991); P. Kennedy and A. Nicholls, eds., Nationalist and Racialist Movements in Britain and Germany Before 1914 (London: Macmillan, 1981); R. Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley’s Blackshirts to the National Front, rev. edn. (London: I. B. Tauris, 1998); T. Linehan, British Fascism 1918–39: Parties, Ideology and Culture (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 2000); J. V. Gottlieb, Feminine Fascism: Women in Britain’s Fascist Movement 1923–1945 (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000); J. V. Gottlieb and T. Linehan, eds., Cultural Expressions of the Far Right in Twentieth-Century Britain (London: I. B. Tauris, 2003). 3 J. Drennan, B.U.F. Oswald Mosley and British Fascism (London: John Murray, 1934), p. 292. I discuss Drennan (W. E. D. Allen) in more detail below. 4 D. Jerrold, The Necessity of Freedom: Notes on Christianity and Politics (London: Sheed & Ward, 1938), p. 159. 5 W. H. Carter, ‘Let Us Understand Germany’, Fortnightly Review, 134 (1933) 12; J. F. C. Fuller, Towards Armageddon: The Defence Problem and its Solution (London: Lovat Dickson, 1937), p. 43; E. W. D. Tennant, ‘Herr Hitler and His Policy; March 1933’, English Review, 56 (1933) 364; D. Jerrold, England (London: Arrowsmith, 1935), pp. 173–4. 6 A. Wilson, ‘Germany in May’, English Review, 58 (1934) 700. 7 W. Teeling, Why Britain Prospers (London: Right Book Club, 1938), pp. 49–51; ‘Labour Camps’, National Review, 110 (1938) 351–8. 8 On this topic see also Grifﬁths, Fellow Travellers, chapter 7: ‘1936: A Swing Towards Germany’, pp. 191–244. 9 R. Hughes, The New Germany (London: Athenaeum Press, 1936), pp. 10, 12. 10 N. Hillson, I Speak of Germany: A Plea for Anglo-German Friendship (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1937), p. 117. 11 H. Lichtenberger, The Third Reich, trans. K. S. Pinson (London: Duckworth, 1938), p. 287. 12 E. O. Lorimer, What Hitler Wants (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1939), p. 150. 13 S. H. Roberts, The House That Hitler Built (London: Methuen Publishers, 1937), p. 209. 14 G. E. R. Gedye, Fallen Bastions: The Central European Tragedy (London: Victor Gollancz, 1939), p. 345. Cf. W. Arnold-Forster, ‘Germany’s Concentration Camps’, Nineteenth Century and After, 114 (1933) 550–60, for an early discussion of Dachau; ‘Ex-Prisoner’, ‘In a German Concentration Camp’, Nineteenth Century and After, 125 (1939) 665–72 for the experiences of a Jewish man taken to Sachsenhausen following Kristallnacht. 15 A. M. Ludovici, ‘Hitler and the Third Reich’, English Review, 63 (1936) 35. Further references in the text. 16 See especially R. Gellately, Backing Hitler: Consent and Coercion in Nazi Germany (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000); E. A. Johnson, The Nazi Terror: The Gestapo, Jews, and Ordinary Germans (New York: Basic Books, 1999); K.-M. Mallmann and G. Paul, ‘Omniscient, Omnipotent, Omnipresent? Gestapo, Society and Resistance’, in Nazism and German Society 1933–1945, ed. D. Crew (London: Routledge, 1994), pp. 166–96. 17 Hughes, The New Germany, pp. 18–19. W. Teeling felt that ‘the ﬁnal lesson of Nuremberg to us all must be that, whatever army or other leaders desire, the people of Germany do not want war and are anxious for peace with Great Britain’. See ‘Nuremberg, 1937’, Nineteenth Century and After, 122 (1937) 567. 218 Notes

18 S. Friedländer, ‘Introduction’ to Visions of Apocalypse, eds. S. Friedländer et al. (New York: Holmes & Meier, 1985), pp. 11–12. See also J.-L. Nancy, The Inoperative Community, trans. P. Connor et al. (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1991). E. Nolte famously (and cryptically) defined fascism as ‘resistance to transcendence’ (Three Faces of Fascism: Action Francaise, Italian Fascism, National Socialism, trans. L. Vennewitz (New York: Mentor, 1969), p. 537), and here one senses what he meant, with the attempt to situate within the earthly sphere, within the race, a feeling of the divine. 19 G. W. Price, Year of Reckoning (London: Cassell and Company, 1939), p. 10. 20 G. W. Price, I Know These Dictators (London: George G. Harrap & Co., 1937). See especially Price’s advertisement for Tennant and Conwell-Evans’ Anglo- German Fellowship, pp. 155–6. 21 Steed to E. V. Lucas (Methuen & Co.), 29 February 1936, Steed papers, Add. 74136/124. 22 B. Nichols, News from England or A Country Without a Hero (London: Jonathan Cape, 1938), pp. 281, 282, 292. 23 Ibid., pp. 297, 303. 24 J. F. C. Fuller, ‘Germany – As I See It’, English Review, 60 (1935) 587, 586. The Nazi jurist Ernst Rudolf Huber wrote: ‘The law itself is nothing other than the expression of the communal order in which the people live and which derives from the Führer.’ J. Noakes and G. Pridham, Nazism 1919–1945: A Documentary Reader. Vol. 2: State, Economy and Society, 1933–1939 (Exeter: Exeter University Press, 1984), p. 476. 25 Fuller, Towards Armageddon, p. 12. Further references in the text. 26 Fuller to Liddell Hart, 5 May 1937, Liddell Hart papers LH1/302/280; Liddell Hart to Fuller, 6 May 1937, LH1/302/281. 27 Fuller, Towards Armageddon, p. 117. 28 W. E. D. Allen, ‘The Fascist Idea in Britain’, Quarterly Review, 261 (1933) 232. 29 Drennan, B.U.F. Oswald Mosley and British Fascism, pp. 16, 19, 212, 200, 290, 287. 30 H. A. Heinz, Germany’s Hitler (London: Hurst & Blackett, 1934), p. 284. Heinz’s book is called a ‘tireless eulogy’ and discussed in the context of other books translated from the German in Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 124–5. 31 The rhetoric of self-sacrifice and ‘steeling the body’ also permitted the most outrageous acts when directed against outsiders. As Eric Wolf notes, following Norbert Elias, ‘Warriors trained to be hard and pitiless took pride in directing their passions – disciplined within – against designated targets.’ E. R. Wolf, ‘National Socialist Germany’, in his Envisioning Power: Ideologies of Dominance and Crisis (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999), p. 255. See also N. Elias, Studien über die Deutschen: Machtkämpfe und Habitusentwicklung im 19. und 20. Jahrhundert (Frankfurt am Main: Suhrkamp Taschenbuch Verlag, 1994). 32 C. H. Douglas, Credit-Power and Democracy: With a Draft Scheme for the Mining Industry, 4th edn. (London: Stanley Nott, 1934 [1920]), p. 8. 33 G. Orwell, ‘London Letter to Partisan Review’, Partisan Review (March–April 1942), reprinted in The Collected Essays, Journalism and Letters of George Orwell. Volume 2: My Country Right or Left 1940–1943, eds. S. Orwell and I. Angus (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1970), p. 211. 34 Douglas, Credit-Power and Democracy, p. 77. 35 As Conford shows, ‘Social Credit was of central importance to the coalescence of the organic movement.’ The Origins of the Organic Movement (Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2001), p. 157. Notes 219

36 Earl of Portsmouth, Alternative to Death: The Relationship between Soil, Family and Community (London: Faber and Faber, 1943), p. 35. But compare P. Selver, Orage and the New Age Circle: Reminiscences and Reﬂection (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1959), who speaks of Orage’s followers as containing too many ‘social reformers, economic wizards, votaries of philosophy, bores and cranks’ (p. 24) and equally condemns Douglas’s ‘brainless anti-Semitism’ and Orage’s decision to swap Guild Socialism for Social Credit (p. 28). 37 H. Belloc, The Crisis of Our Civilization (London: Cassell and Company, 1937), p. 221. See also J. P. Corrin, ‘The Formation of the Distributist Circle’, Chesterton Review, 1 (1975) 52–83. 38 H. Belloc, An Essay on the Restoration of Property (London: The Distributist League, 1936), pp. 4–5. 39 C. H. Douglas, The Control and Distribution of Production, 2nd edn. (London: Stanley Nott, 1934 [1922]), p. 93. 40 J. P. Corrin, Catholic Intellectuals and the Challenge of Democracy (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 2002), p. 116. 41 H. E. Humphries, Liberty and Property: An Introduction to Distributism (London: The League, n.d. [1928]), p. 10. 42 C. H. Douglas, Social Credit, 3rd edn. (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1937 [1924]), p. 25. 43 Douglas, The Control, p. 106. 44 Ibid., pp. 106–7. 45 Douglas, Social Credit, p. 29. 46 See G. C. Lebzelter, ‘Henry Hamilton Beamish and the Britons: Champions of Anti-Semitism’, in British Fascism: Essays on the Radical Right in Inter-war Britain, eds. K. Lunn and R. Thurlow (London: Croom Helm, 1980), pp. 41–56. 47 A. Kitson, The Bankers’ Conspiracy! Which Started the World Crisis (London: Elliot Stock, 1933), pp. 41, 40. 48 C. H. Douglas, The Big Idea (Liverpool: K.R.P. Publications, 1942), pp. 50–1. On Douglas becoming gradually emboldened to attack the Jews, see J. L. Finlay, Social Credit: The English Origins (Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press, 1972), pp. 103–5, but note Finlay’s attempt to limit Douglas’ position to ‘an extreme form of religio-philosophic propaganda’ rather than something ‘in itself vicious and evil’, a curious distinction. On Social Credit’s attitude to agricultural credits, as expressed through the pages of its journal, the New English Weekly, and the connections with antisemitism, see P. Conford, ‘Finance versus Farming: Rural Reconstruction and Economic Reform, 1894–1955’, Rural History, 13 (2002) 225–41. 49 C. Dawson, Beyond Politics (London: Sheed & Ward, 1939), p. 3. In Religion and the Modern State (p. 136), Dawson had claimed that, because fascist movements were ‘organized in a hierarchical fashion, based on authority, discipline, and subordination’, the Church immediately felt more comfortable with them than with democratic government. See Corrin, Catholic Intellectuals, p. 382. 50 V. McNabb, Nazareth or Social Chaos (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1933), p. 61. 51 New English Weekly, 14 September 1933, 20 December 1934, 3 January 1935; see also Finlay, Social Credit, p. 176. On the NEW’s links with Social Credit and the organic movement, see P. Conford, ‘A Forum for Organic Husbandry: The New English Weekly and Agricultural Policy, 1939–1949’, Agricultural History Review, 46 (1998) 197–210. 52 A. J. Penty, ‘Communism and Fascism’, Part II, American Review, 7 (1936) 493. 220 Notes

53 A. J. Penty, Tradition and Modernism in Politics (London: Sheed & Ward, 1937), p. 69. 54 Dawson, Beyond Politics, p. 43. 55 J. L. Benvenisti, The Iniquitous Contract: An Analysis of Usury and Maldistribution (London: Burns Oates & Washbourne, 1937), p. xxii; idem., The Absent-Minded Revolution (London: Sands & Co., 1937), p. 119. 56 H. Belloc, ‘Preface’ and Rev. H. E. G. Rope, ‘Looking Before and After’, both in Flee to the Fields: The Faith and Works of the Catholic Land Movement, ed. J. McQuillan et al. (London: Heath Cranton, 1934), pp. x, 198, 208–9. 57 J. K. Heydon, Fascism and Providence (London: Sheed & Ward, 1937), pp. 51, 96, 142. 58 L. Sturzo, ‘Fascism and Nazism’, Quarterly Review, 261 (1933) 176. 59 Corrin, Catholic Intellectuals, pp. 223–4. 60 Ibid., pp. 363–8. 61 See D. Hyde, I Believed (London: William Heinemann, 1950). 62 R. Bernays, Special Correspondent (London: Victor Gollancz, 1934), p. 232. 63 J. P. Corrin, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc: The Battle against Modernity (Athens: Ohio University Press, 1981), p. 183. 64 B. Keating, ‘The Catholic Land Movement in England’, Chesterton Review, 22, 1&2 (1996) 96. Keating was a member of the Central (London) Branch of the Distributist League. 65 H. Walters, ‘Was Father Vincent McNabb a Dangerous Crank?’, Chesterton Review, 22, 1&2 (1996) 110. 66 G. Macdonald, ‘And Now the Pink Legend’; L. J. Filewood, ‘”Fascism” and the Weekly Review: A Response to Gregory Macdonald and Jay P. Corrin’, both in the Chesterton Review, 3 (1976) 1–21 and 22–31. Macdonald was a staff member of G.K.’s Weekly 1926–36, and Filewood, whose stance is more radical, was closely associated with the Weekly Review. 67 See the debate in the Chesterton Review, 25 (1999), especially K. L. Morris, ‘Fascism and British Catholic Writers 1924–1939’, pp. 21–51 and the reply by J. Pearce, ‘Fascism and Chesterton’, pp. 69–79. Morris writes (p. 46) that British Catholic writers, though ‘pro-Fascist’, were not ‘Fascist’. That this change in analysis has been slow to occur is indicated by B. Sewell’s G.K.’s Weekly: An Appraisal (Upton, Wirral: The Aylesford Press, 1990), where the author writes (p. 33) with impeccable logic that ‘The financial giants of today, fifty years on, have mostly concealed, as far as they can, their “Middle European” origins, and given themselves English or Scottish names (all honour to those who have not done so), so that those who attack them, and there are not many who do, cannot be labelled as “anti-Semitic”.’ 68 G. K. Chesterton, ‘The Return of Caesar’, G.K.’s Weekly (27 July 1933), reprinted in the Chesterton Review, 25 (1999) 17–19, here at 17. 69 G. K. Chesterton, The End of the Armistice (London: Sheed & Ward, 1940). 70 A. Kolnai’s obituary of Chesterton – ‘G.K. Chesterton’, Der Christliche Ständestaat (28 June 1936) 619–21 – tackled this issue head on, praising Chesterton’s rejection of Nazism but admitting his admiration for Italian Fascism. The Anglo-Australian Jewish scientist Joseph Jacobs noted in 1919 that Chesterton ‘appears to be prejudiced against the Jews on the general principle that a fine old crusty prejudice is a good old Johnsonian quality’. See Jewish Contributions to Civilization: An Estimate (Philadelphia: The Jewish Publication Society of America, 1919), p. 40. 71 Corrin, G. K. Chesterton and Hilaire Belloc, pp. 191–2. Notes 221

72 R. Speaight, The Property Basket: Recollections of a Divided Life (London: Collins & Harvill Press, 1970), p. 373. 73 Belloc to Duff Cooper, 14 March 1932; Belloc to Lady Phipps, 16 March 1936, both in Letters from Hilaire Belloc, ed. R. Speaight (London: Hollis & Carter, 1958), pp. 227, 256. 74 T. S. Eliot, The Idea of a Christian Society (London: Faber and Faber, 1939), pp. 20, 15. 75 On Eliot’s views in a broader context, see R. Griffiths, ‘Three “Catholic” Reactionaries: Claudel, T. S. Eliot and Saunders Lewis’, in The Pen and the Sword: Right-wing Politics and Literary Innovation in the Twentieth Century, ed. R. Griffiths (London: King’s College London, 2000), pp. 57–79. 76 E. Gill, Money and Morals (London: Faber and Faber, 1934), pp. 21, 54. 77 E. Gill, Autobiography (London: Lund Humphries, 1992 [1940]), pp. 139–40. 78 E. Ward, David Jones Mythmaker (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1983), p. 12. Further references in the text. T. Dilworth’s argument that Jones’ ‘motives for seeking to preserve the peace can hardly be considered pro-Nazi, even though he sympathizes with Germany and Hitler’ seems to me too ready to brush aside the problem. See ‘David Jones and Fascism’, in David Jones: Man and Poet, ed. J. Matthias (Orono: National Poetry Foundation, 1988), p. 152. 79 S. Ashley, ‘David Jones’, in British Writers: Supplement 7, ed. J. Parini (New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 2002), p. 173. 80 Ibid. 81 See, for example, H. Belloc, ‘The Restoration of Property’, English Review, 56 (1933) 28–40, 169–82, 564–75; and 57 (1933) 24–36, 171–8, 415–24; ‘The Crown and the Breakdown of Parliament’, English Review, 58 (1934) 145–52; ‘The Battle of Sterling’, English Review, 61 (1935) 150–7. 82 D. Jerrold, Georgian Adventure (London: Collins Pall Mall, 1937), p. 334. 83 M. George, The Hollow Men: An Examination of British Foreign Policy between the Years 1933 and 1939 (London: Leslie Frewin, 1967), pp. 136, 139. 84 The Link was a pro-Nazi organization founded in July 1937 by Admiral Sir Barry Domvile. By June 1939 it had more than 4,300 members. Its letter to The Times of 12 October 1938, which called for ‘real friendship and cooperation between Great Britain and Germany’, was signed by 26 of the most notable pro-German activists in Britain, including Domvile, Captain Ramsay, C. E. Carroll, A. P. Laurie, George Pitt-Rivers, Nesta Webster, Lord Londonderry and Douglas Jerrold. On The Link, see Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 329–30, and idem, Patriotism Perverted, pp. 39–42. 85 Jerrold, Georgian Adventure, p. 322. 86 D. Jerrold, ‘The Corporate State in England’, Everyman (13 October 1933), cited in Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, p. 46. 87 Jerrold, Georgian Adventure, pp. 324–7, 330. 88 D. Jerrold, ‘Current Comments’, English Review, 57 (1933) 122. 89 Ibid., p. 225. 90 Jerrold, Georgian Adventure, p. 380. 91 Ibid., p. 363. Jerrold went on: ‘Nor do the Spaniards realise that the basic truth that European civilization stands or falls with the Church is not only unknown to Englishmen, but when stated, is unintelligible to them.’ 92 Jerrold to Bryant, 5 July 1939, Bryant papers E21. Bryant wrote a preface for Jerrold’s book Communist Atrocities (an offprint is in the Bryant papers E21), in which he maintained that ‘The Spanish Civil War has been profoundly misun- derstood in this country. … Spain is not and is never likely to be a Fascist 222 Notes

country: the Spanish genius does not admit of such straight-laced restriction.’ Substitute ‘English’ for ‘Spanish’ and one arrives at Bryant’s post-1940 eulogies to ‘our island story’. 93 Anonymous [= D. Jerrold et al.], The Spanish Republic: A Survey of Two Years of Progress (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1933), pp. 136, 20. See also D. Jerrold, ‘Spain: Impressions and Reflections’, Nineteenth Century and After, 121 (1937) 470–92. 94 D. Jerrold, ‘The Future of the English Political Parties’, English Review, 57 (1933) 358. 95 Jerrold, England, p. 173. 96 D. Jerrold, ‘Whither England?’, English Review, 63 (1936) 25. 97 D. Jerrold, ‘Looking Back and Looking Forward: A Plea for More Politics’, English Review, 63 (1936) 456. 98 D. Jerrold, ‘Current Comments’, English Review, 57 (1933) 569. 99 D. Jerrold, ‘Fascism: Its Cause and Cure’, Nineteenth Century and After, 121 (1937) 352. 100 D. Jerrold, They That Take the Sword: The Future of the League of Nations (London: John Lane The Bodley Head, 1936), p. 6. See also Jerrold, ‘The League and the Future’, Nineteenth Century and After, 118 (1935) 657–74. 101 Jerrold, The Necessity of Freedom, pp. 155, 165, 175. See also ‘Fascism: Its Cause and Cure’, passim. 102 D. Jerrold, Britain and Europe 1900–1940 (London: Collins, 1941), p. 190. 103 Jerrold, Georgian Adventure, pp. 313–14. 104 G. T. Garratt, The Shadow of the Swastika (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), p. 211. 105 D. Walker-Smith, ‘Current Comments’, English Review, 63 (1936) 304–5, 307. 106 D. Walker-Smith, ‘Current Comments’, English Review, 64 (1937) 7–8. 107 Ibid., pp. 522–3. 108 C. Petrie, Mussolini (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1931). See also Petrie, ‘Mussolini’, in The Man and the Hour: Studies of Six Great Men of Our Time, ed. A. Bryant (London: Philip Allan, 1934), pp. 97–115; Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, pp. 22–3. 109 C. Petrie, ‘Foreign Affairs’, English Review, 56 (1933) 674. 110 C. Petrie, ‘Foreign Affairs’, English Review, 60 (1935) 607. 111 C. Petrie, ‘Foreign Affairs’, English Review, 63 (1936) 160, 249. 112 See R. Griffiths, An Intelligent Person’s Guide to Fascism (London: Duckworth, 2000). 113 F. Borkenau, ‘The Communist Myth’, Fortnightly Review, 144 (1938) 571–8. As Borkenau pointed out, there had been no serious communist uprising in an industrialized country, only what he called a ‘police problem’; hence the fear of the ‘Communist International’ was unwarranted. 114 Speaight, The Property Basket, p. 155. 115 Jerrold to Bryant, 24 July 1935, Bryant papers E21. 116 An especially important signal of this change of heart was S. Cripps’s The Struggle for Peace (London: Victor Gollancz, 1936). Cripps wrote, ‘If, having brought to bear all our powers of reasoning, we come to the conclusion that war is inevitable, however we act, then we must resign ourselves, as best we can, to the destruction of civilisation in a fresh and more ghastly holocaust’ (pp. 12–13), and condemned the armaments race as a ‘crass waste of productive energy which already we recognise but cannot now obviate’ (p. 119). Yet he argued against an all-out pacifist position and for a policy of ‘true collective Notes 223

security’ based on working-class unity and genuine international all-inclusive- ness in which there would be ‘no potential aggressors against the group’ (p. 144). See also M. Ceadel, Pacifism in Britain 1914–1945: The Defining of a Faith (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980), and D. Blaazer, The Popular Front and the Progressive Tradition: Socialists, Liberals, and the Quest for Unity 1884–1939 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), pp. 154–8 on the Labour understanding of fascism and rearmament. 117 As Orwell sarcastically noted of communist strategy in ‘Inside the Whale’ (1940): ‘The years 1935–9 were the period of anti-Fascism and the Popular Front, the heyday of the Left Book Club, when red duchesses and “broad- minded” deans toured the battlefields of the Spanish war and Winston Churchill was the blue-eyed boy of the Daily Worker.’ See Collected Essays, Vol. 1, p. 563. 118 ‘Cato’, Guilty Men (London: Victor Gollancz, 1941). 119 Gollancz to Stuart Samuels, 15 September 1965, Gollancz Archive, MSS 157/3/LB/2/46/1. 120 Sadly D. Barker’s obituary of Foyle in the Guardian (10 June 1999) failed to mention this particular enterprise. 121 D. Walker-Smith, ‘Current Comments’, English Review, 64 (1937) 397–8. Walker-Smith was a member of the Right Book Club’s selection committee along with Norman G. Thwaites, Anthony Ludovici, Trevor Blakemore and Collinson Owen. 122 A. Bryant, ‘Memo: On Suggested Proposal for Amalgamation of the Right Book Club with the National Book Association’, 28 April 1937, p. 2, Bryant papers C49. 123 Typical examples are R. W. Finn, The English Heritage (London: Right Book Club, 1937); and W. S. Shears, This England (London: Right Book Club, 1938). 124 See R. Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted: Captain Ramsay, the Right Club and British Anti-semitism 1939–40 (London: Constable, 1998), pp. 70–3. As Griffiths notes (p. 73), ‘Such divergences of attitude were to be found in all pro-Nazi circles.’ 125 See the fullest treatment of the RBC available, E. H. H. Green, Ideologies of Conservatism: Conservative Political Ideas in the Twentieth Century (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2002), chapter 5: ‘The Battle of the Books: Book Clubs and Conservatism in the 1930s’, pp. 135–56 which discusses the RBC in terms of its relations with the NBA. See also A. Roberts, Eminent Churchillians (London: Phoenix, 1995), pp. 292–3. 126 N. J. Crowson, Facing Fascism: The Conservative Party and the European Dictators 1935–1940 (London: Routledge, 1997), p. 23. 127 A. Wilson, Thoughts and Talks 1935–7: The Diary of a Member of Parliament (London: Right Book Club, 1938), pp. 199, 200. 128 A. Wilson, More Thoughts and Talks: The Diary and Scrap-book of a Member of Parliament from September 1937 to August 1939 (London: Right Book Club, 1939), p. 220. Wilson’s ‘Walks and Talks’ column, on which these two books were based, appeared in Nineteenth Century and After. 129 However, it is important to bear in mind Harold Nicolson’s disclaimer of 5 September 1939, according to which Wilson was ‘putting it about that Germany will mop up Poland and that we must then make peace. He is a dangerous, well-meaning but slightly insane person. Not that his view is incor- rect.’ H. Nicolson, Diaries and Letters 1939–45, ed. N. Nicolson (London: Collins, 1967), p. 31. 224 Notes

130 C. Petrie, Lords of the Inland Sea: A Study of the Mediterranean Powers (London: Right Book Club, 1937), pp. 61, 62. 131 A. J. Mackenzie, Propaganda Boom (London: Right Book Club, 1938), p. 222. 132 W. H. Chamberlin, A False Utopia: Collectivism in Theory and Practice (London: Right Book Club, 1937), p. 231. Despite the title, a clear attack on Communism, Chamberlin was just as harsh in his judgment of Nazism, if not of Italian Fascism. 133 B. Newman, Danger Spots of Europe, rev. edn. (London: Right Book Club, 1939), p. 262. 134 Count Pückler, How Strong is Britain? (London: Right Book Club, 1939). Pückler was the London correspondent of the Deutsche Allgemeine Zeitung, and was acquainted with most of the British fellow-travellers. To Charles Sarolea, for example, he wrote in December 1938, ‘I hope you will allow me to assure you, that as a German I shall not forget the splendid way in which during the autumn crisis you stood up for fair judgement and justice.’ Pückler to Sarolea, 13 December 1938, Sarolea papers, Sar. Coll. 61. 135 P. Gibbs, Ordeal in England (England Speaks Again) (London: Right Book Club, 1938), pp. 184, 207, 208, 156, 401. 136 A. Kolnai, The War Against the West (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 518. 137 Gibbs to F. Whyte, 5 March 1939. Whyte papers, FW28. 138 P. Gibbs, Across the Frontiers (London: Right Book Club, 1939), pp. 88, 278, 235, 324, 103, 102. It is interesting to note that Gibbs did change his mind once war began. In 1942 he wrote to Emily Lorimer, congratulating her on her book What the German Needs, saying that he ‘read it at a gasp with complete agreement and enthusiasm. It is a very valuable and important book and I hope it will have a wide and immediate circulation, especially in the services, in which the men must know these facts.’ Gibbs to Lorimer, 9 October 1942, Lorimer papers, MSS Eur.F177/54. 139 F. Yeats-Brown, European Jungle (London: Right Book Club, 1939), pp. 12, 27, 178, 125, 14. 140 R. Northam, ‘Conservatism the Only Way’ (London: Right Book Club, 1939), pp. 53, 241, 242, 252. 141 See A. Bryant, ‘Memorandum on the Means of Combatting Left-Wing and Communistic Propaganda in Literature and the Universities’, Bryant papers C48. 142 Bryant to Baldwin, 5 May 1937, Bryant papers C49, cited in Green, Ideologies of Conservatism, p. 142. 143 Bryant to Lord Davidson, 1 July 1936, Bryant papers C41. 144 A. Bryant, ‘Notes on Mr. Graham’s Conﬁdential Memorandum on NBA of 20 April 1938’, Bryant papers C41. 145 See the papers in the Gollancz Archive, MSS157/3/LB/3/37–44. 146 A. Bryant, ‘Memo: On Suggested Proposal for Amalgamation of the Right Book Club with the National Book Association, 28 April 1937’, Bryant papers C49. 147 Green, Ideologies of Conservatism, p. 147. In 1941 Emily Lorimer wrote a confi- dential report on the publication of Mein Kampf, indicting as ‘suspected quis- lings’ Walter Hutchinson, the publisher, James Murphy, the translator (on whom see chapter 3), and Arthur Bryant. She wrote of the supposedly ‘unexpurgated’ version – which was in fact, she claimed, wildly and deliberately mis- translated by the pro-Nazi Murphy – that ‘I found and find it beyond words disgraceful that a historian of repute, who could not conceivably be in igno- rance of the fact that the book he was thus recommending was a dangerous, Notes 225

Nazi-produced fraud and that he was grinding a most prejudicial axe, should have been accessory to the hoodwinking of the Members of the National Book Club [sic] and should have pressed on them this piece of Goebbels’ propaganda’. She went on: ‘When war broke out Hutchinson unctuously announced that he was giving to the Red Cross the royalties which would otherwise have gone to Hitler. (If Judas had thought of it he need not so precipitately have gone out and hanged himself: he could have handed his silver pieces to some fund for distressed Pharisees).’ See ‘The Mein Kampf Ramp’, 16 August 1941, Lorimer Papers, MSS Eur.F177/85. See also R. C. K. Ensor, Hitler’s Self-Disclosure in Mein Kampf, Oxford Pamphlets on World Affairs, 3 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1939), p. 8, and for the publishing history, see J. J. Barnes and P. P. Barnes, Hitler’s Mein Kampf in Britain and America: A Publishing History 1930–39 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980) and idem., James Vincent Murphy: Translator and Interpreter of Fascist Europe (New York: University Press of America, 1987), pp. 209–21. 148 S. Johnson, letter to the National Review, 112 (1939) 795. 149 Green, Ideologies of Conservatism, p. 149. 150 See, for example, Selver, Orage and the New Age Circle; D. Milburn, The Deutschlandbild of the New Age Circle (Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang, 1994). Milburn notes (p. 265) that ‘Arguably the most striking aspect of the New Age is the predominance of Nietzsche’, a fact that is indeed striking given that the journal was meant to be an organ of Guild Socialism. Orage’s willingness to promote the avant-garde was both the New Age’s glory and its shame. Many of the future greats of British modernism cut their teeth in its pages, but so did a number of future fascists, including Ludovici. 151 These were the unusual claims of H. R. Williamson, ‘Labour and the Fascist Spectre’, Fortnightly Review, 145 (1939) 147–55. The author claimed to be a socialist, but argued that the Daily Herald and the LBC proved Germany’s claims about the Labour press. 152 P. Reichel, Der schöne Schein des Dritten Reiches: Faszination und Gewalt des Faschismus (Frankfurt/M: Fischer Taschenbuch Verlag, 1993). 153 J. C. Alexander, ‘On the Social Construction of Moral Universals: The “Holocaust” from War Crime to Trauma Drama’, European Journal of Social Theory, 5 (2002) 13. 154 O. Dutch, Germany’s Next Aims (London: Edward Arnold & Co., 1939), p. 233. 155 H. Read, The Politics of the Unpolitical (London: Routledge, 1943), p. 4. 156 ‘Episodes of the Month’, National Review, 111 (1938) 4. 157 S. Gwynn, ‘Ebb and Flow: A Monthly Commentary’, Fortnightly Review, 133 (1933) 791. See also S. Wichert, ‘The British Left and Appeasement: Political Tactics or Alternative Policies?’, in The Fascist Challenge and the Policy of Appeasement, eds. W. J. Mommsen and L. Kettenacker (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1983), pp. 125–41.

Chapter 5

1 A. M. Ludovici, ‘Hitler and the Third Reich’, part III, English Review, 63 (1936) 234; V. Klemperer, I Shall Bear Witness: The Diaries of Victor Klemperer 1933–1941, trans. M. Chalmers (London: Phoenix, 1999), p. 355, entry for 10 January 1939. 2 Eliot to Lymington, 13 February 1942. Wallop papers, 15M84/F165 (hereafter HRO followed by number). 226 Notes

3 Viscount Lymington, ‘Folly or Fertility: An Essay on Agriculture and National Independence’, English Review, 64 (1937) 428, 421, 429. 4 On the concept of ‘home’, see my ‘Homes without Heimats? Jean Améry at the Limits’, Angelaki, 2, 1 (1995) 91–100. 5 U. Linke, German Bodies: Race and Representation after Hitler (New York: Routledge, 1999), p. 15. See also, on the notion of ‘organic purity’, S. Straus, ‘Organic Purity and the Role of Anthropology in Rwanda and Cambodia’, Patterns of Prejudice, 35, 2 (2001) 47–62. 6 H. P. Greenwood, The German Revolution (London: George Routledge & Sons, 1934), p. 11. 7 See R. Grifﬁths, An Intelligent Person’s Guide to Fascism (London: Duckworth, 2000). 8 Viscount Lymington, ‘Hammer and Sickle’, English Review, 57 (1933) 185. 9 See D. Mellor, ed., A Paradise Lost: The Neo-Romantic Imagination in Britain 1935–55 (London, 1987); F. Trentmann, ‘Civilization and its Discontents: English Neo-Romanticism and the Transformation of Anti-Modernism in Twentieth-Century Western Culture’, Journal of Contemporary History, 29 (1994) 583–625. But see also the work of P. Mandler: ‘Against “Englishness”: English Culture and the Limits to Rural Nostalgia, 1850–1940’, Transactions of the Royal Historical Society, 6th series, 7 (1997) 155–75; ‘The Consciousness of Modernity? Liberalism and the English National Character, 1870–1940’, in Meanings of Modernity: Britain from the Late-Victorian Era to World War II, eds. M. Daunton and B. Riegner (Oxford: Berg, 2001), pp. 119–44. 10 H. G. Wells, ‘Developing Social Elements’, in The Works of H. G. Wells: The Atlantic Edition, vol. IX: Anticipations and Other Papers (London: T. Fisher Unwin, 1924 [orig. 1902]), pp. 82–3. 11 J. Herf, Reactionary Modernism: Technology, Culture and Politics in Weimar and the Third Reich (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1984). 12 See especially Trentmann, ‘Civilization and its Discontents’, p. 614. 13 Ibid., p. 603. 14 R. G. Stapledon, The Land Now and To-morrow (London: Faber and Faber, 1935), p. vii. 15 G. Stapledon, ‘Agriculture and the Countryside’, in The Way of the Land (London: Faber and Faber, 1943), p. 92 (originally delivered as a lecture to the Council for the Preservation of Rural England, Chester, 14 October 1938). 16 Stapledon, ‘The Land and the Nation’, in ibid., p. 94 (originally a paper read to the Autumn School of the National Labour Organisation, Eastbourne, 6 November 1938). 17 L. J. Picton, ‘Diet and Farming’, in England and the Farmer: A Symposium, ed. H. J. Massingham (London: B. T. Batsford, 1941), p. 111. 18 See lists of members in Bryant papers E51. 19 For more on Kinship in Husbandry, see D. Matless, Landscape and Englishness (London: Reaktion Books, 1998), pp. 104ff; P. Conford, ‘A Forum for Organic Husbandry: The New English Weekly and Agricultural Policy, 1939–1949’, Agricultural History Review, 46, 2 (1998) 197–210; and, for a more appreciative view, R. J. Moore-Colyer, ‘Back to Basics: Rolf Gardiner, H. J. Massingham and “A Kinship in Husbandry”’, Rural History, 12 (2001) 85–108. The fact that most of these men cannot unproblematically be called ‘fascists’ (Bell especially) suggests the validity of Grifﬁths’s argument (see note 7 above). 20 T. H. Sanderson-Wells, Sun Diet, or Live Food for Live Britons (London: John Bale, 1939). See also P. Conford, The Origins of the Organic Movement (Edinburgh: Floris Notes 227

Books, 2001), pp. 136–7. As Conford notes (p. 138), the views of writers such as Sanderson-Wells and Carrell show how ‘an organic interpretation of human life, conflating the biological with the spiritual, leads to a totalitarian model of the state’. 21 Matless, Landscape and Englishness, p. 106. 22 E. B. Balfour, The Living Soil: Evidence of the Importance to Human Health of Soil Vitality, with Special Reference to Post-War Planning (London: Faber and Faber, 1943), p. 13. 23 Cf. ibid., p. 17; Lord Northbourne, Look to the Land (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1940). Although the Soil Association has been effectively purged of fascist affilia- tions, it still has a tendency to promote some rather ‘mystical’ books on the land. See the books for sale at its web-site: www.soilassociation.org. 24 Gardiner to Bryant, 27 September 1941, Bryant papers E19. On 1 November he again wrote to Bryant, saying: ‘I think our next task is to consider how we can strengthen ourselves in creative opposition to the tendencies of the Servile State.’ 25 H. J. Massingham, ‘Introduction’ to English Country: Fifteen Essays by Various Authors (London: Wishart & Co., 1934), p. ix. 26 Viscount Lymington, Horn, Hoof and Corn: The Future of British Agriculture (London: Faber and Faber, 1932), p. 59. 27 Cf. G. Pitt-Rivers, ‘Is There a Population Problem?’, New Age, 27, 5 (3 June 1920) 69–71; L. C. Money, ‘Renew or Die!’, Nineteenth Century and After, 123 (1938) 129–46. 28 Lymington, Horn, Hoof and Corn, pp. 106, 121. Compare the comments on race of H. Peake, The English Village: The Origin and Decay of its Community. An Anthropological Interpretation (London: Benn Brothers, 1922), pp. 37–46. Lymington was influenced, after 1935, by the French physician Alexis Carrell, whose book Man, the Unknown (London: Harper & Brothers Publishers, 1935), p. 319, argued that ‘Those who have murdered, robbed while armed with auto- matic pistol or machine gun, kidnapped children, despoiled the poor of their savings, misled the public in important matters, should be humanely and economically disposed of in small euthanasic institutions supplied with proper gases.’ 29 See the writings of the English Mistery’s founder, William Sanderson: Statecraft (London: Methuen & Co., 1927), and That Which was Lost: A Treatise on Freemasonry and the English Mistery (London: Constable & Co., 1930). On the English Mistery/Array and its relationship with fascism, see chapter 6. 30 Francis-Hawkins to Lymington, HRO 15M84/F195. 31 A. M. Ludovici, Health and Education Through Self-Mastery (London: Watts & Co., 1933). 32 For more on Ludovici see my Breeding Superman, chapter 2. 33 Ludovici to Blacker, 25 January 1932. Eugenics Society Archive, SA/EUG/C.212/3 (Eugenics Society. ‘People’ – A. M. Ludovici 1927–47). Cited by permission of the Galton Institute and the Wellcome Trustees, Contemporary Medical Archives Centre, Wellcome Institute for the History of Medicine, London. 34 Ludovici to Lymington, 5 February 1938 and 8 February 1938, HRO 15M84/F195. 35 Viscount Lymington, Famine in England (London: H. F. & G. Witherby, 1938), p. 118. Unfortunately, I have been unable to locate Lymington’s reply to Ludovici’s letter. The stress of writers like Lymington and Ludovici on eradicat- ing the ‘Jewish spirit’ of ‘Manchesterism’ (see, for example, Ludovici, A Defence 228 Notes

of Conservatism: A Further Text-Book for Tories (London: Faber & Gwyer, 1927), pp. 153–4), recalls the words of Werner Sombart: ‘In order to free ourselves from the Jewish spirit – said to be the chief task of the German people and, above all, of Socialism – it is not enough to exclude all Jews, not even enough to cultivate an anti-Jewish temper. It will be far better to transform the institutional culture that it will no longer serve as a bulwark for the Jewish spirit.’ See A New Social Philosophy, trans. K. F. Geiser (New York: Greenwood Press, 1969 [1937]), p. 179. 36 W. Sombart, The Jews and Modern Capitalism, trans. M. Epstein (New Brunswick: Transaction Books, 1982 [1911]), p. 344. 37 L. [Lymington], ‘Notes on Rural Life and Land Tenure’ in Return to Husbandry, ed. E. Blunden (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1943), p. 18. 38 Gardiner, England Herself: Ventures in Rural Restoration (London: Faber and Faber, 1943), pp. 9–10. 39 ‘Cobbett’ [= A. M. Ludovici, pseud.], Jews, and the Jews of England (London: Boswell Publishing Co., 1938), pp. 65–6. Further references in the text. Ludovici’s inspiration was W. Cobbett, Rural Rides (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1985 [orig. 1830]). 40 Matless, Landscape and Englishness, pp. 110ff; M. Chase, ‘This is No Claptrap, This is Our Heritage’, in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, eds. C. Shaw and M. Chase (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), pp. 128–46; idem., ‘Rolf Gardiner: An Inter-war, Cross-cultural Case Study’, in Adult Education between Cultures: Encounters and Identities in European Adult Education since 1890, eds. B. J. Hake and S. Marriott (Leeds: University of Leeds, 1992), pp. 225–41; P. Wright, The Village that Died for England: The Strange Story of Tyneham (London: Jonathan Cape, 1995). 41 See J. L. Finlay, ‘John Hargrave, the Green Shirts, and Social Credit’, Journal of Contemporary History, 5 (1970) 53–71. 42 R. J. Moore-Colyer argues that ‘Gardiner had little time for fascism as such.’ ‘Rolf Gardiner, English Patriot and the Council for the Church and Countryside’, Agricultural History Review, 49 (2001) 195. But the condemnation of the BUF or the racial policies of the Nazis does not absolve Gardiner of pro-fascist tendencies. Moore-Colyer performs the same operation on Massingham, implying that his very clearly stated anti-Nazism (which is not in doubt) means that he could not at the same time advocate policies in Britain that were at best ultra-conservative. It is worth noting in this regard that Massingham’s strongest anti-Nazi statements were not made until well into the war. Nor does the fact that ‘many of his writings underpin the very basis of the concerns for organic holism, local- ism, and food quality currently adumbrated by rural economists and strategists’ mean that the latter are in any way reliant on Massingham’s work. See R. J. Moore-Colyer, ‘A Voice Clamouring in the Wilderness: H. J. Massingham (1888–1952) and Rural England’, Rural History, 13 (2002) 199–224. For the view that Massingham saw the land and ethnicity as intimately linked, see C. Palmer, ‘Christianity, Englishness and the Southern English Countryside: A Study of the Work of H. J. Massingham’, Social & Cultural Geography, 3 (2002) 33. 43 R. Gardiner, ‘Reﬂections on Music and Statecraft’, in Water Springing from the Ground: An Anthology of the Writings of Rolf Gardiner, ed. A. Best (Fontmell Magna: Springhead Trust, 1972), pp. 99, 100. ‘Masculine renaissance’ was one of Ludovici’s most loved ideas. 44 Gardiner to Lymington, HRO 15M84/F195; Bryant papers E51. See also G. Boyes, The Imagined Village: Culture, Ideology and the English Folk Revival (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1993), pp. 154ff. Notes 229

45 Gardiner to Bryant, 28 January 1940 (Halifax); 8 October 1939 (Christendom); 30 December 1941 (reconciliation), Bryant papers E19. 46 R. Griffin, The Nature of Fascism (London: Routledge, 1991). On Lintorn-Orman see J. V. Gottlieb, Feminine Fascism: Women in Britain’s Fascist Movement 1923–1945 (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000), pp. 11–42. 47 See R. O. Paxton, ‘The Five Stages of Fascism’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998) 1–23. 48 See, for example, G. R. Searle, ‘Critics of Edwardian Society: The Case of the Radical Right’, in The Edwardian Age: Conflict and Stability 1900–1914, ed. A. O’Day (London: Macmillan, 1979), pp. 79–96; A. Bauerkämper, Die ‘radikale Rechte’ in Großbritannien: Nationalistische, antisemitische und faschistische Bewegungen vom späten 19. Jahrhundert bis 1945 (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 1991). 49 H. E. Moore, Back to the Land (London: Methuen & Co., 1893), p. xiii. 50 A. White, ‘The Inevitable’, in The Views of ‘Vanoc’: An Englishman’s Outlook (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner and Co., 1910), p. 65. See also The Modern Jew (London: William Heinemann, 1899), and Efficiency and Empire (London: Methuen & Co., 1901). 51 Lord Willoughby de Broke, ‘National Toryism’, National Review, 59, 351 (May 1912) 413–27; idem., ed., The Sport of Our Ancestors (London: Constable, 1921). See G. D. Phillips, ‘Lord Willoughby de Broke: Radicalism and Conservatism’, in Edwardian Conservatism: Five Studies in Adaptation, eds. J. A. Thompson and A. Mejia (London: Croom Helm, 1988), pp. 77–104. 52 C. S. Orwin and W. F. Drake, Back to the Land (London: P. S. King & Son, 1935), p. 9. 53 C. Brereton, ‘A Programme for Agriculture’, English Review, 64 (1937) 190–1. 54 R. Gardiner, ‘When Peace Breaks Out: Tasks of Youth in a Post-War World’, in Return to Husbandry, ed. E. Blunden (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1943), p. 24; idem., ‘Youth and Europe’ in Water Springing from the Ground, p. 20; J. C. Squire, ‘Introduction’ to E. Blunden, The Face of England: In a Series of Occasional Sketches (London: Longmans, Green & Co., 1932), p. vii. Matless correctly observes (Landscape and Englishness, p. 126) that ‘There is a sense in organicist work of the melancholy pleasure inherent in documenting something doomed.’ 55 Gardiner, ‘Can Farming Save European Civilisation?’, in Water Springing from the Ground, p. 197. 56 Gardiner, England Herself, p. 62. 57 E. Blunden, English Villages (London: William Collins, 1941), p. 20. See also Blunden, ‘Ourselves and Germany’, Fortnightly Review, 145 (1939) 618–26, for a very pro-German statement. 58 A. B. [Adrian Bell], ‘Husbandry and Society’, in Return to Husbandry, ed. E. Blunden (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, 1943), pp. 5–6. 59 Gardiner, ‘When Peace Breaks Out’, p. 21. 60 Gardiner, England Herself, p. 146. 61 Lymington to Le Mare, HRO 15M84/F238. 62 The Earl of Portsmouth, A Knot of Roots: An Autobiography (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1965), p. 197. 63 Trentmann, ‘Civilization and its Discontents’, p. 613. 64 ‘Notes of the Month: The Probable Results of War’, The New Pioneer, 1, 6 (May 1939) 139. This journal was run by Lymington. 65 A. Bryant, Unfinished Victory (London: Macmillan & Co., 1940), p. 141; Lymington to Bryant, 9 January 1940, Bryant papers E60. E. Lorimer, ‘The Mein 230 Notes

Kampf Ramp’ (16 August 1941), Lorimer Papers, MSS Eur.F177/85. Earlier Bryant had applauded the way in which, thanks to Hitler, Germany ‘has returned now to her own spiritual atmosphere, and for all her economic misery and necessity she feels that she has found her soul. In awakening her Hitler has shown himself to be a great German.’ See Bryant, ‘Summary’, in The Man and the Hour: Studies of Six Great Men of Our Time, ed. A. Bryant (London: Philip Allan, 1934), p. 144. The essays were originally lectures delivered at Ashridge at the end of 1933, under the title ‘Makers of Modern Europe’. 66 A. Bryant, English Saga (1840–1940) (London: Collins with Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1940), p. 313. 67 A. Williamson, A Patriot’s Progress: Henry Williamson and the First World War (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 1998), p. 153. 68 H. Williamson, ‘Introduction’ to J. Russell, English Farming (London: William Collins, 1941), p. 10. 69 See Matless, Landscape and Englishness, pp. 159–60; D. Grant, ed., Your Daily Bread (London, 1944). 70 See P. Conford, ‘The Myth of Neglect: Responses to the Early Organic Movement, 1930–1950’, Agricultural History Review, 50 (2002) 89–106. 71 J. Jenks, From the Ground Up: An Outline of Rural Economy (London: Hollis & Carter, 1950), p. 215. See also J. Jenks, The Country Year (London: SPCK, 1946); idem., British Agriculture and International Trade (London: Council for the Church and Countryside, 1948); idem., The Stuff Man’s Made Of: The Positive Approach to Health through Nutrition (London: Faber and Faber, 1959) by which point the stress was much more ﬁrmly ‘ecological’. 72 Matless, Landscape and Englishness, p. 308 n.83. 73 G. T. Wrench, Reconstruction By Way of the Soil (London: Faber and Faber, 1946), p. 85. 74 See J. E. Tunbridge and G. J. Ashworth, Dissonant Heritage: the Management of the Past as a Resource in Conﬂict (Chichester: John Wiley, 1996); B. Graham, G. J. Ashworth and J. E. Tunbridge, A Geography of Heritage: Power, Culture and Economy (London: Arnold, 2000); and the essays in B. Graham, ed., Modern Europe: Place, Culture, Identity (London: Arnold, 1998). The countryside is always under threat because, of course, the England that is portrayed in magazines such as This England ‘is not a country that really exists or ever existed except in literature.’ S. Silver, ‘That England’, Searchlight, 305 (November 2000) 20. See also Raymond Williams’ classic study The Country and the City (London: Chatto & Windus, 1973). 75 See M. Oelschlaeger, The Idea of Wilderness: From Prehistory to the Age of Ecology (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1991).

Chapter 6

1 J. Strachey, The Menace of Fascism (London: Victor Gollancz, 1933), p. 179; H. Nicolson to O. Mosley, 29 June 1932, cited in G. Lebzelter, Anti-Semitism in England 1918–1939 (London: Macmillan, 1978), p. 176; A. Kolnai to E. Gémes, 17 August 1936. 2 H. W. H. Helby, letter to the New Age, 36 (6 November 1924) 21–2. 3 L. Broad and L. Russell, The Way of the Dictators (London: Hutchinson & Co., 1935), p. 295. 4 Cited in L. Susser, ‘Right Wings over Britain: T. E. Hulme and the Intellectual Rebellion against Democracy’, in The Intellectual Revolt Against Liberal Democracy Notes 231

1870–1945, ed. Z. Sternhell (Jerusalem: The Israel Academy of Sciences and Humanities, 1996), p. 371. See also F. J. C. Hearnshaw, ‘Democracy or Dictatorship?’, Contemporary Review, 146 (1934) 431–8. More curiously, one opponent of fascism, who called it ‘the apotheosis of the cad’, thought that fascism, like Bolshevism, meant ‘the domination of men whose whole outlook is utterly un-English and far more in accord with Semitic or other Oriental ideals’. See A. Hopkinson, ‘Reﬂections on Fascism’, Nineteenth Century and After, 115 (1934) 389, 390. 5 The best existing introduction to the English Mistery is R. Grifﬁths, Fellow Travellers of the Right: British Enthusiasts for Nazi Germany 1933–39 (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1983), pp. 317–29. See also idem., Patriotism Perverted: Captain Ramsay, the Right Club and British Anti-Semitism 1939–40 (London: Constable, 1998), pp. 52–4, and my Breeding Superman, chapter 2. 6 See, for example, J. Stevenson, ‘Great Britain’ in Fascists and Conservatives: The Radical Right and the Establishment in Twentieth-Century Europe, ed. M. Blinkhorn (London: Unwin Hyman, 1990), pp. 268, 275; R. Thurlow, Fascism in Britain: From Oswald Mosley’s Blackshirts to the National Front, 2nd edn. (London: I.B. Tauris, 1998), p. 283; S. G. Payne, A History of Fascism 1914–1945 (London: UCL Press, 1995), pp. 303–4. 7 According to Strachey, ‘our leaders’ panic fear of Fascism is itself driving them into the one course which can deliver them into the hands of the Fascists.’ See ‘The Road to Victory’, Left Book News, 7 (1936) 144. 8 Steed to F. W. Foerster, Steed papers, Add. 74114/56. 9 W. A. Rudlin, The Growth of Fascism in Great Britain (London: George Allen & Unwin, 1935), pp. 104, 72–3, 116. 10 G. T. Garratt, Mussolini’s Roman Empire (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1938), p. 243. 11 G. T. Garratt, The Shadow of the Swastika (London: Hamish Hamilton, 1938), pp. 55, 78, 210, 211. The term ‘Fabio-Fascism’ was coined by E. M. Forster. 12 F. E. Jones, Hitler’s Drive to the East (London: Victor Gollancz, 1937), p. 105; ‘Vigilantes’, Why the League Has Failed (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), p. 63. 13 For similar sentiments about the frailties of democracy see F. C. S. Schiller, ‘Can Democracy Survive?’, Nineteenth Century and After, 114 (1933) 385–97; H. L. Stewart, ‘Can Parliamentary Government Endure?’, Hibbert Journal, 33 (1935) 343–56; J. A. R. Marriott, ‘Dictatorship and Democracy’, Quarterly Review, 263 (1934) 222–39. 14 R. O. Paxton, ‘The Five Stages of Fascism’, Journal of Modern History, 70 (1998) 11. 15 Ibid, p. 11. 16 Ibid, p. 14. 17 W. Sanderson, That Which Was Lost: A Treatise on Freemasonry and the English Mistery (London: Constable & Co., 1930), p. 7. See also idem., Statecraft (London: Methuen & Co., 1927). 18 Earl of Portsmouth, A Knot of Roots: An Autobiography (London: Geoffrey Bles, 1965), pp. 127–8. 19 English Mistery, Order of 1930, no. 4: Rules of Procedure for all Audiences of the Syndicate and Meetings of Kin (London: English Mistery, 1930), #32, p. 5. 20 English Mistery, Order of 1930, no. 1: Constitution (London: English Mistery, 1930), #2, p. 1; Order of 1933, no. 1 (London: English Mistery, 1933), #1, #2, #6, pp. 1, 2. 21 See, for example, W. H. Mallock, Aristocracy and Evolution: A Study of the Rights, the Origin, and the Social Functions of the Wealthier Classes (London: Adam and 232 Notes

Charles Black, 1898); O. Levy, The Revival of Aristocracy, trans. L. A. Magnus (London: Probsthain & Co., 1906); J. M. Kennedy, Tory Democracy (London: Stephen Swift & Co., 1911); Lord Willoughby de Broke, ‘Introduction’ to Anon. [A. Bountwood], National Revival: A Re-Statement of Tory Principles (London: Herbert Jenkins, 1913); idem., ‘The Tory Tradition’, National Review, LVIII (October 1911) 201–13; idem., ‘National Toryism’, National Review, LIX (May 1912) 413–27; A. M. Ludovici, A Defence of Aristocracy: A Textbook for Tories (London: Constable & Co., 1915); idem., The False Assumptions of ‘Democracy’ (London: Heath Cranton, 1921), with an introduction by Willoughby de Broke; P. Mairet, Aristocracy and the Meaning of Class Rule: An Essay upon Aristocracy Past and Future (London: The C. W. Daniel Company, 1931). 22 Order of 1930, no. 5: Rules of Conduct for Companions (London: English Mistery, 1930), IIf, IIh, p. 8; A Description of the English Mistery (London: English Mistery, 1938), p. 9; Notes on the Orders (London: English Mistery, 1933), p. 24; Order of 1933, no. 1 (London: English Mistery, 1933), #1, p. 1. An interesting comparison here is with Franco. According to Preston, Franco believed that ‘Spanish history since Felipe II consisted only of three “calamitous centuries” which brought decadence, corruption, and freemasonry. His eternal delays in restoring the monarchy were excused on the grounds that the Bourbon dynasty was no longer capable of emulating the virile “totalitarian” monarchy which had expelled the Jews and the Moriscos and conquered America. To eliminate the historical legacy of three awkward centuries of decadence, Franco endeavoured to create a uniquely Spanish political model based on a fusion of medieval absolutism and Axis totalitarianism.’ See P. Preston, ¡Comrades! Portraits from the Spanish Civil War (London: HarperCollins, 1999), p. 53. See also S. V. Utechin, Russian Political Thought: A Concise History (London: J. M. Dent & Sons, 1964), for some interesting Russian parallels. 23 Sanderson to Lymington, 16 August 1933, Wallop papers 15M84/F411 (hereafter HRO followed by number). 24 As journalist and fellow Mistery associate Collin Brooks put it, ‘The appointment of Dorman Smith pleased me. He is the first Mistery Man to take Cabinet office.’ Fleet Street, Press, Barons and Politics: The Journals of Collin Brooks, ed. N. J. Crowson (London: Royal Historical Society, 1998), p. 242, entry for 29 January 1939. See Dorman-Smith’s article ‘The Revival of Agriculture’, English Review, 63 (1936) 42–50. Brooks himself wrote that the democracies were far less efficient and dynamic than the dictatorships; he claimed that ‘Attachment to Parliamentary Democracy, which, despite popular delusion, had never any con- nection with popular liberty, threatens us with economic disaster and prevents our sound defence against military defeat and destruction’ and that ‘Far from Nazism and Fascism being in their origin antagonistic to British interests, they were the bulwarks of those interests’, because their raison d’être was anti- Bolshevism. See Can Chamberlain Save Britain? The Lessons of Munich (London: Eyre & Spottiswoode, 1938), pp. x, 45, 112. 25 See Fuller’s BUF diary in Fuller papers IV/4/28, which gives basic details of trips to Germany and meetings with Ribbentrop, Rosenberg, Schacht and Hess. See also chapter 4. For examples of Fuller’s military writings of the time, see ‘British Strategy’, Quarterly Review, 262 (1934) 287–98 (a review of Liddell Hart’s The British Way in Warfare); ‘War and Western Civilisation’, Nineteenth Century and After, 115 (1934) 394–403. 26 See the 548 membership forms, HRO 15M84/F378 (Sanderson is no. 1, Lymington no. 21). Notes 233

27 Wilson to Lymington 1 April 1937, HRO 15M84/F195. Wilson was one of the many members of the Array who was also active in the early organicist movement. With Lymington and other members of the Kinship in Husbandry, he was one of the founder members of the Soil Association. As well as chapter five, see P. Conford, The Origins of the Organic Movement (Edinburgh: Floris Books, 2001), pp. 84–5, 150, 214. For a celebration of Wilson’s organic Iceni Estate, see G. Godwin, The Land Our Larder: The Story of the Surfleet Experiment and its Significance in War (London: The Acorn Press, 1939). Godwin had earlier written of the Peckham experiment that ‘by building for the future, we may assure the biological fulfilment of our race.’ See George Godwin, ‘The Peckham Experiment’, Fortnightly Review, 135 (1934) 186–92, here p. 192, and on Peckham, see D. Matless, Landscape and Englishness (London: Reaktion Books, 1998), pp. 162–6. In 1941, Wilson argued that the post-war imperative would be to turn to the land, and noted of fascism that although ‘those great feelings and forces have been led into the service of evil should not detract from what were apparently sound beginnings’. See ‘A Farmer’, I Believe: An Appeal for the Land (Cambridge: Capt. R.G.M. Wilson, 1941), p. 7. In 1937, however, he had written more stri- dently of Iceni: ‘In five short years on the Estate we have recaptured a belief in the land of our country, a belief in the greatness of our race, as typified by the English working man when treated as a human being, and a happiness and fullness of life which only comes from service to an occupation that is greater than ourselves and upon which the life of our nation depends.’ See R. J. M. Wilson, ‘The Iceni Estate’, Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, 1 (1937) 4. 28 See M. Durham, Women and Fascism (London: Routledge, 1998) and J. V. Gottlieb, Feminine Fascism: Women in Britain’s Fascist Movement, 1923–1945 (London: I. B. Tauris, 2000). 29 ‘Elitist fascism’ is the term used by A. Gillette, Racial Theories in Fascist Italy (London: Routledge, 2002), p. 156. On Evola, see also T. Sheehan, ‘Divertare Dio: Julius Evola and the Metaphysics of Fascism’, Stanford Italian Review, 6 (1986) 279–92; idem., ‘Myth and Violence: The Fascism of Julius Evola and Alain de Benoist’, Social Research, 48 (1981) 45–73. Evola, however, placed more emphasis on the need for a combination of spiritual and biological factors than did Ludovici, who was interested primarily in the question of better breeding. On Valois, see J. L. Talmon, Myth of the Nation and Vision of Revolution: Ideological Polarization in the Twentieth Century (New Brunswick: Transaction, 1991), pp. 472–4; M. Winock, Nationalism, Anti-Semitism, and Fascism in France, trans. J. M. Todd (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1998), pp. 177–81 and passim. 30 English Mistery, Chancellor’s Index of Literature, First or St. James’s Kin, 1 February 1936, revised 20 February 1936, HRO 15M84/F392. 31 ‘Notes of 100th Audience of the Syndicate of the English Mistery’ (20 February 1933), p. 151, HRO 15M84/F376. 32 Ludovici, False Assumptions, pp. 64, 203. 33 A. M. Ludovici, A Defence of Conservatism: A Further Text-book for Tories (London: Faber and Gwyer, 1927), p. 231. 34 See R. Griffiths, An Intelligent Person’s Guide to Fascism (London: Duckworth, 2000), for the argument that fascism was persuasive and all-pervasive in the 1930s, and for the reasons why. 35 Viscount Lymington, ‘The Film of “Cavalcade”’, English Review, 56 (1933) 577. It is hard to reconcile this reactionary attitude with the portrait of the young Lymington painted by one society lady: ‘We marched practically undraped and wholly uninhibited up the Champs Elysées. I rode a baby elephant from the 234 Notes

“Helen Scott will get it for You” agency. I particularly remember the antics of Gerald Lymington (now the Earl of Portsmouth) as he danced savagely, lance in hand, before my swaying pachyderm.’ See C. Crosby, The Passionate Years (London: Alvin Redman, 1955), pp. 141–2. 36 Lymington to Bessborough, 22 September 1936, HRO 15M84/F389. 37 See HRO 15M84/F195 for solicitors’ correspondence regarding money owed by Lymington to Sanderson, and Lymington’s attempt to prevent Sanderson from using the name ‘English Mistery’. 38 Sanderson to Lymington, 6 September 1933, HRO 15M84/F411. 39 A. Ludovici, Recovery: The Quest of Regenerate National Values (London: English Mistery, 1935), pp. 11, 10. 40 See Lymington to Sanderson, 2 April 1936; Sanderson to Lymington, 4 April 1936; Irvine to Lymington, 26 March 1936, HRO 15M84/F390. 41 Cooke to Lymington, 15 September 1933, HRO 15M84/F411. 42 Sanderson to Lymington, 26 February 1936, HRO 15M84/F390. 43 Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, 1 (September 1937) 2. 44 The Springhead Ring News Sheet, 23 (5 November 1938), Bryant papers E51. 45 Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, 3 (April 1938) 1. 46 See M. Chase, ‘This is no Claptrap, This is Our Heritage’, in The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia, eds. C. Shaw and M. Chase (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1989), pp. 128–46; Matless, Landscape and Englishness, pp. 103–70; R. J. Moore-Colyer, ‘Back to Basics: Rolf Gardiner, H. J. Massingham, and ‘A “Kinship in Husbandry”’, Rural History, 12 (2001) 85–108; Conford, The Origins, p. 214; see also chapter 5 above. 47 On the BCAEC see Griffiths, Patriotism Perverted, pp. 53–4. On Beckett, see F. Beckett, The Rebel Who Lost His Cause: The Tragedy of John Beckett, MP (London: London House, 1999). See also Viscount Lymington, Should Britain Fight? The British Position and Some Facts on the Sudeten Problem (London: British Council Against European Commitments, n.d. [1938]). 48 G. W. [Gerald Wallop, Viscount Lymington], ‘Leaflet to all Members of English Array Musters’ (17 May 1939), HRO 15M84/F364. 49 Viscount Lymington, Famine in England (London: Right Book Club, 1938), pp. 42, 43, 141, 79–80, 202, 208, 118, 190–1. An abridged version of the book was translated into Norwegian, German and Hungarian. See also W. C. Ellis, MP, ‘Whither Agriculture?’, New Pioneer, 1, 3 (February 1939) 68. The book was widely praised by the BUF, the Imperial Fascist League, and other groups (HRO 15M84/F148). 50 Lymington to Wilson, 30 April 1937, HRO 15M84/F195. 51 Ludovici to Lymington, 5 February 1939, HRO 15M84/F195. This did not prevent Ludovici from encouraging Lymington to make his book Jews, and the Jews of England (which he published under the pseudonym Cobbett in 1938) known to ‘the Fascists of various shades and colours’. Ludovici to Lymington, 19 September 1938, HRO 15M84/F238. 52 Lymington to Ratcliff, 16 February 1938, HRO 15M84/F188. 53 Francis-Hawkins to Lymington, 14 March 1938, HRO 15M84/F195; Ratcliff to Lymington 23 February 1938, HRO 15M84/F188. 54 Griffiths, Fellow Travellers of the Right, p. 328. 55 O. Mosley, Fascism: 100 Questions Asked and Answered (London: BUF Publications, 1936), no pagination, question 7. 56 Ibid. This was not a problem confined to Britain. R. Soucy notes that ‘Taittinger’s attempts to distinguish his fascism from Mussolini’s, and Valois’ references to Notes 235

the French roots of fascism indicated their sensitivity to critics who dismissed it as a foreign ideology.’ R. Soucy, French Fascism: The First Wave 1924–1933 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986), p. 224. 57 Frankfurter Zeitung (11 May 1935), cited in Griffiths, Fellow Travellers, p. 107. Cf. Hitler’s speech of 30 January 1939, in which he declared: ‘Europe can no longer enjoy peace until the Jewish question is cleared up [Denn Europa kann nicht mehr zur Ruhe kommen, bevor nicht die jüdische Frage ausgeräumt ist].’ M. Domarus, Hitler: Reden und Proklamationen 1932–1945 (Würzburg: Verlagsdruckerei Schmidt, 1963), vol. 2, p. 1057. 58 ‘Notes of the 100th Audience of the Syndicate of the English Mistery’ (20 February 1933), p. 174, HRO 15M84/F376. On the typescript Lymington has written ‘argued’ instead of the typed ‘agreed’ and ‘now’ instead of ‘not’. Further references in the text. 59 F. E. Jones, The Battle for Peace (London: Victor Gollancz, 1938), pp. 226–7. 60 G. W. [= Gerald Wallop, Viscount Lymington], ‘The English Array and the British Union of Fascists’, typescript (March 1938), p. 1, HRO 15M84/F364. Further references in the text. See also Portsmouth, A Knot of Roots, p. 127: ‘Much of it, the Mistery, could and did provide the world with ridicule and unkind laughter. … some of it was faintly precious and a little meet for ridicule.’ 61 A. Raven-Thompson, The Coming Corporate State (London: BUF, n.d.), p. 4. 62 ‘Influx of Refugees’, Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, 6 (January 1939) 2. 63 Minutes of BCAEC meeting at Caxton Hall, 16 September 1938, HRO 15M84/F255. 64 W. Zukerman, The Jew in Revolt: The Modern Jew in the World Crisis (London: Martin Secker & Warburg, 1937), p. 54. 65 Portsmouth, A Knot of Roots, p. 129. 66 B. Newman, Danger Spots of Europe, rev. edn. (London: Right Book Club, 1939), p. 14. 67 Lymington, ‘Lessons from September, 1938’, Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, 5 (October 1938) 1. 68 Ratcliff to Lymington, 12 February 1941, HRO 15M84/F188; Swan to Lymington 14 May 1939, HRO 15M84/F195. 69 A. M. Ludovici, The Confessions of an Antifeminist (1969), Ludovici manuscripts, MS 3121, pp. 167–70 (there are no pp.168 or 169 in the ms). 70 Public Record Office (PRO), Home Office (HO) 283/16/30, cited in T. Kushner, ‘The Impact of the Holocaust on British Society and Culture’, Contemporary Record, 5 (1991) 352. 71 PRO, HO 045/25724, report by Inspector Percy Bower, 28 August 1940; Leese to Maude S. de Lande, 14 June 1940. Even in 1943, MI5, who admittedly had their own reasons for defending the policy of internment, recommended to the Home Office that Leese should not be released, because ‘he would most certainly preach anti-Semitism to the best of his ability. He would have a wide field for these activities at the present time.’ PRO HO 045/25724, T. M. Shelford (MI5) to Major W. H. Coles (Home Office), 23 April 1943 (my emphasis). It is also important to note that even during the war Lymington could continue to publish his blood and soil philosophy. See The Earl of Portsmouth, Alternative to Death: The Relationship Between Soil, Family and Community (London: Right Book Club, 1943). 72 As G. Lebzelter pointed out some time ago: ‘Some contemporaries mistook the wave of anti-Semitism as a straightforward imitation of Nazism. A closer inves- tigation shows that anti-Semitism had its separate roots in England. As the 236 Notes

organization of the radical right became more aware of German Fascism, they naturally borrowed heavily from its “advanced” anti-Semitic ideology, ampliﬁed their own political thought and adopted storm-trooper techniques in their campaign. In an embryonic state, however, anti-Semitism was part and parcel of their profound anti-modern, anti-materialistic and anti-democratic thought, and only needed expatiation.’ Political Anti-Semitism, p. 45. 73 W. Churchill, speech at Defence of Freedom and Peace meeting, Albert Hall, 3 December 1936, Steed papers, Add. 74114/230. 74 Portsmouth, A Knot of Roots, p. 128. 75 Garratt noted (The Shadow of the Swastika, p. 54) that ‘The generally disillusioned attitude of the country about Parliament, and the gradual decay of democracy suggest that we may be drifting into a kind of one-party bureaucracy, with the House of Commons as an advisory body, supposed to represent the public, but rapidly degenerating into a subservient organisation such as Herr Hitler has already set up in Germany.’ 76 D. Baker, ‘The Extreme Right in the 1920s: Fascism in a Cold Climate, or “Conservatism with Knobs on”?’, in The Failure of British Fascism: The Far Right and the Fight for Political Recognition, ed. M. Cronin (Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1996), pp. 25–6.

Conclusion

1 F. Nietzsche, Beyond Good and Evil: Prelude to a Philosophy of the Future, trans. R. J. Hollingdale (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1988), §53, p. 62. 2 H. Nicolson, ‘Is War Inevitable?’, Nineteenth Century and After, 126 (1939) 2, 12, 13. 3 H. Nicolson, Diaries and Letters 1939–45, ed. N. Nicolson (London: Collins, 1967), pp. 31–2. 4 T. W. Adorno, Negative Dialectics, trans. E. B. Ashton (London: Routledge, 1990), p. 365. On this problem as a challenge to historical writing, see my Constructing the Holocaust: A Study in Historiography (London: Vallentine Mitchell, 2003). 5 G. P. Gooch, ‘The Terror in Germany’, Contemporary Review, 146 (1934) 129. 6 F. Borkenau, ‘After the Atom’ (1947) in End and Beginning: On the Generations of Cultures and the Origins of the West, ed. R. Lowenthal (New York: Columbia University Press, 1981), p. 438. 7 M. Davis, Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World (London: Verso, 2001), p. 297, citing G. Arrighi, The Long Twentieth Century: Money, Power and the Origins of Our Times (London: Verso, 1994), p. 263. Bibliography

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Abel, Theodore, 201–2 n98 Bearsted, Lord, 80 Acéphales, 41 Beckett, John, 136, 175, 177, 184 Action Française, 130 Bell, Adrian, 153 Adorno, Theodor W., 40, 190 Belloc, Hilaire, 28, 122, 123, 124, 126, Alexander, H.G., 193 n5 127, 128, 129, 130, 135, 145, 203 n12 Alexander Technique, 156 Belsen, 109 Allen, W.E.D., 62, 121 Benda, Julien, 6 Angell, Norman, 11, 49 Benjamin, Walter, 9 Anglo-German Fellowship, 186 Benn, Gottfried, 17 Anglo-German Review, 86 Benvenisti, J.L., 127 Annales, 42 Bernays, Robert, 98, 128 anthropology, 6, 32, 33, 37, 42, 46, 156 Bernstein, Michael André, 3, 203 n9 antisemitism, 9, 10, 18, 25, 31, 32, 37, Bessborough, Lord, 173 46, 51, 56, 63, 78, 79–110, 122, 127, Bismarck, Otto von, 179 129, 130, 157, 163, 181, 184–5, 186, Blacker, C.P., 156 187; exclusionary, 79; assimilationist, Blake, Leonardo, 208 n129 80; conservative, 82, 98, 139; caused Blanchot, Maurice, 6, 19 by Jews, 90, 93, 96, 97; casual, 92–8, Bloch, Ernst, 18, 38, 40–2, 73 130; Marxist interpretation of, 94–5, Bloch, Marc, 42 100–1; as rhetoric, 99, 100, 105; as Blood-Ryan, H.W., 216 n125 central to Nazism, 105–8; in Italy, Blunden, Edmund, 153, 157, 161 140–1; left-wing, 152 Boer War, 160 appeasement, 4, 11, 26, 46, 50, 63, 64, Bolin, Luis, 134 67, 68, 92, 132, 138, 140, 141–2, 145, Bolitho, Gordon, 88, 90, 135 184, 189, 190 Borkenau, Franz, 1, 2, 7, 9, 10, 18, 22–6, Arendt, Hannah, 17 30, 37, 38, 42, 43, 56, 59, 68, 70, 75, Armenian genocide, 1 99, 110, 190, 192, 222 n113 Arrighi, Giovanni, 191 Boucher, David, 20 Arrow, 36 Brady, Robert, 94 Ashbridge Fellowship, 145 Brecht, Bertolt, 17, 58 Ashton, H.S., 214 n68 British Council Against European Astor, Viscount, 168 Commitments, 148, 176, 184 Auden, W.H., 113 British Council for a Christian Settlement in Europe, 176 back-to-the-land movement, 6, 148–65; British Empire, 69, 98, 120, 155, 191 Catholic, 126, 127, 132 British Fascisti, 159 Baldwin, Stanley, 5, 145 British Fascists, 178, 179 Balfour, Eve, 153 British Union of Fascists (BUF), 4, 87, Bartlett, Vernon, 1, 93, 106, 107, 213 114, 120, 121, 126, 128, 133, 136, n48 152, 154, 156, 159, 166, 167, 175–84 Bataille, Georges, 18, 38, 40–2, 56 Britons, 125 Bäumler, Alfred, 38 Brooks, Collin, 85, 232 n24 BBC, 156 Brown, Harrison, 57, 196 n8 Beamish, Henry Hamilton, 125 Brown, John, 64, 90, 99

263 264 Index

Bruce, Maye, 154 Conwell-Evans, T.P., 206 n72 Bryant, Arthur, 95, 138, 139, 144, 145, Cooke, Roger Gresham, 174 152, 153, 159, 162, 168, 221–2 n92, Cooper, Duff, 168 230 n65 Corbin, M., 203 n12 Buchenwald, 117 corporatism, 43, 126, 130, 133, 181 Burke, Edmund, 121 Corrin, Jay P., 124 Countryside Alliance, 165 Caillois, Roger, 41 Crick, Bernard, 10 Carlism, 184 Cripps, Stafford, 222–3 n116 Carlyle, Thomas, 121 Crosby, Caresse, 233–4 n35 Carrell, Alexis, 227 n28 Crowe, Eyre, 61 Carson, Edward, 115 Crowson, N.J., 82 Carter, W. Horsfall, 115 Cunningham, Charles, 60, 70, 71, 90 Catholicism, 10, 28, 60, 122, 127–9, 130, 131–2, 134, 141, 145 Dachau, 117 Ceadel, Martin, 50 Daily Express, 77 Chamberlain, Neville, 5, 11, 50, 58, 72, Daily Mail, 103, 118 77, 84, 85, 138, 147, 168, 184, 185, Daily Telegraph, 103 190 Daladier, Edouard, 190 Chamberlin, William, 141 Dark, Sidney, 96, 215 n81 Chance, R., 206 n79 Darré, R.W., 95 Chesterton, A.K., 177 Darwinism, 133 Chesterton, G.K., 4, 20, 28, 122, 128, Davis, Mike, 191 129, 135 Dawson, Christopher, 122, 126, 219 n49 Chesterton Review, 128 Defence of Freedom and Peace, 11, 12 Christian Socialism, 29 Dell, Robert, 43, 49, 94, 95, 102, 103, Christliche Ständestaat, 28 106, 107, 110, 213 n52 Churchill, Winston, 11, 60, 77, 138, Depression, 5, 65, 188 186, 187, 192 Deutsch, Bernard, 106 Clemenceau, Georges, 59 Deutsche Volkswirt, 28 Cobbett, William, 121, 157 Dewey, John, 199 n58 Cockett, R.B., 85 Diehards, 114, 149, 160, 170, 172, 186 Cohen, Israel, 105, 106, 215 n103 Dilworth, Thomas, 221 n78 Cole, G.D.H., 33, 52 Disraeli, Benjamin, 121 Cole, J.A., 8, 97, 213 n60 Distributism, 4, 28, 33, 114, 122–32 collective memory, 77 Distributist League, 128 Collège de Sociologie, 41 Dodd, Martha, 79, 103, 104 Collingwood, R.G., 9, 18, 19–22, 37, 44, Domville-Fife, Charles, 63, 86, 87 192 Dorman-Smith, Reginald Hugh, 139, colonies, German, 69, 70, 136 171 Communism, 7, 20, 22, 23, 24, 27, 33, Douglas, C.H., 9, 122, 123–7, 130, 146 34, 50, 89, 120, 127, 131, 135, 137, Drennan, James, see W.E.D. Allen 138, 140, 142, 143, 146, 172, 175, Drucker, Peter, 100, 101 176, 180, 188 Duff, Sheila Grant, 5, 57, 67 Conford, Philip, 218 n35, 219 n48, 227 Duncan, James, 59, 62, 64 n20 Duncan, Ronald, 153 Congdon, Lee, 198 n45 Durkheim, Emile, 48 Congreve, Geoffrey, 171, 174 Dutch, Oswald, 100, 205 n55 Conservative Party, 8, 132, 136, 139, 144, 145, 174 Easterbrook, Laurence, 153 conservatism, 29, 80, 138, 143–4, 146 Eatwell, Roger, 17 Index 265

Eden, Anthony, 72 Gardiner, Rolf, 149, 152, 153, 154, 156, Elias, Norbert, 10, 23 157, 158–9, 161–2, 164, 175, 227 n24 Eliot, T.S., 130, 145, 148, 167 Garratt, G.R., 5, 144, 168, 236 n75 Endelman, Todd, 80 Gedye, G.E.R., 116 English Mistery / English Array, 4, 12, George, Margaret, 206 n79 85, 139, 146, 148, 155, 156, 158, 159, George, Stefan, 29 166–88; structure of, 169–71; split, Germain, G.G., 200 n74 173–4; relationship with BUF, 175–86; ‘Germanicus’, 49 antisemitism, 184–5 Gibbs, Philip, 61, 63, 141–2, 224 n138 English Review, 114, 119, 132–8, 142, 145 Gill, Eric, 4, 130–1 Erckner, S., 59, 68, 69 Girard, René, 18 Ermarth, Fritz, 55, 71, 105 G.K.’s Weekly, 129 eugenics, 31, 95, 116, 137, 146, 153, Gloag, John, 59, 97 155, 156, 170, 172, 176 Godwin, G., 233 n27 Eugenics Society, 156 Goebbels, Joseph, 90, 116 Everyman, 142 Goering, Hermann, 76, 108, 141 Evola, Julius, 171, 233 n29 Goldman, Aaron, 211 n24 Gollancz, Victor, 5, 26, 27, 29, 34, 35, Fagen, M.M., 214 n76 43, 80, 84, 101, 105, 109, 138, 144 fascism, 5, 6, 18, 19, 20, 21, 28, 31, 34, Gorgias, 83 35, 41, 42, 43, 52, 57, 74, 114, 118, Graham, Michael, 153 122, 126, 128, 129, 130, 132, 135, Grand, Alexander de, 12 141, 142, 143, 144, 148, 151, 154, Grant, Irene, 28, 198 n52 155, 162, 168; Italian, 4, 12, 28, 61, Green, E.H.H., 144, 145 105, 117, 127, 129, 133, 136, 140–1, Green, Margaret, 62, 95 152, 163, 167, 179, 185; British, 4, 5, Greenwood, H. Powys, 61, 89–90, 206 6, 7, 12, 13, 43, 62, 65–6, 113, 115, n70 118–22, 126, 137, 139, 146, 149, 151, Grey, Richard de, 171, 174 156, 158, 159, 160, 164–5, 166–88, Griffin, Roger, 12, 17, 159 192; definition of, 7, 12, 17, 48, 121, Griffith, Arthur, 115 146, 158, 169; Marxist interpretation Griffiths, Richard, 6, 12, 47, 62, 83, 84, of, 18, 36, 37, 40, 50–1, 73–4, 94–5; as 178 Prussianism, 20, 26; elitist, 171 Grigg, Edward, 53 Febvre, Lucien, 42 Grisewood, Harman, 122, 126, 131, 145 Finlay, John L., 219 n48 Guérin, Daniel, 9 Foreign Affairs, 60 Guild Socialism, 28, 123, 126, 146 Forster, E.M., 66 Gunther, John, 72 Foyle, Christina, 138, 144 Gwynne, H.A., 114 Francis-Hawkins, Neil, 156, 178 Franco, Francisco, 33, 128, 129, 133, Halifax, Lord, 43, 159, 168 134, 139, 145, 175, 232 n22 Hambloch, Ernest, 97 Frankfurt School, 19, 23 Hamilton, Cicely, 89, 90 Frank, Hans, 68 Hannington, Wal, 33 Freikorps, 20, 46 Hargrave, John, 157, 158 Freud, Sigmund, 83 Harlow, Peter, 109 Friedländer, Saul, 118 Hastings, Robert, 91 Fry, Michael, 87, 91 Hayek, Friedrich, 34 Fuller, J.F.C., 115, 119–20, 135, 146, 171 Hegelianism, 23 Heidegger, Martin, 6, 38 Galilei Circle, 34 Heiden, Konrad, 2, 3, 54, 108 Garbutt, Reginald, 91 Heinz, Heinz A., 121 266 Index

Henderson, Nevile, 20 Keith, Arthur, 91 Henri, Ernst, 45, 50, 51, 70, 72–6, 100 Kennedy, A.L., 64, 207 n87 Heraclitus, 48, 49 Kennedy, Douglas, 153 Hermant, Max, 9 Keun, Odette, 65, 109–10 Heydon, J.K., 127–8 Kibbo Kift Kindred, 158 Hillson, Norman, 62, 88, 116 Kinship in Husbandry, 149, 153, 154, Himmler, Heinrich, 73, 91 157, 161, 175 Hindle, Wilfred, 136 Kitson, Arthur, 122, 125, 127 Hitler, Adolf, passim; Mein Kampf, 60, Klages, Ludwig, 29, 35 69, 70, 75, 121, 145 Klemperer, Victor, 148 Hoare, Samuel, 168 Klossowski, Pierre, 41 Holocaust, 1, 2, 3, 6, 19, 104, 114, 135, Knickerbocker, H.R., 50 190 Knight, G.E.O., 64, 86, 87 Hoover, Calvin, 45, 50, 78, 96, 97, 106 Kolnai, Aurel, 3, 10, 11, 12, 17, 18, Hopkinson, A., 231 n4 26–34, 36, 37, 38, 44, 56, 110, 142, Horkheimer, Max, 40 166, 192, 198 n53, 199 n56, 199 n60, Hosking, J.E., 153 199 n62, 199 n65, 220 n70 Howard, Albert, 153 Krieck, Ernst, 35, 38 Huber, Rudolf, 218 n24 Kristallnacht, 82, 85, 88, 104, 109 Hughes, Randolph, 62, 91, 116, 117–18, Kushner, Tony, 79–80, 93, 107, 108, 210 135 n12 Humphries, H.E., 124 Hunt, F.J., 174 Labouchere, Henry Du Pre, 85 Hutchinson & Co., 145 labour camps, 116–7, 139–40, 176 Huxley, Aldous, 49 Labour Party, 27 Lamarckianism, 170 Iceni Estate, 171, 233 n27 Lane, A.H., 91, 115 Imperial Fascist League, 63 Laski, Harold, 11, 27 Independent Labour Party, 62, 176 Laurie, A.P., 63, 64, 86 Institute for Social Research, 40 League of Nations, 50, 134, 138 Irvine, Bryant, 170, 174 League of Nations Union, 12, 144 Lebzelter, Gisela, 235–6 n72 Jackson, J.H., 197 n18 Leese, Arnold, 8, 63, 125, 186–7, 235 n71 Jacobs, Joseph, 220 n70 Left Book Club, 5, 11, 26, 27, 29, 32, 34, Janowsky, O.I., 214 n76 52, 138, 144 Jászi, Oscar, 11 Le Mare, Malcolm, 162 Jenks, Jorian, 153, 154, 163 Lengyel, Emil, 13 Jerrold, Douglas, 4, 114, 115, 132–5, 137, Lennox, Victor, 94, 99 138, 140, 144, 145, 146, 168, 221 n91 Levinas, Emmanuel, 9, 19 Joad, C.E.M., 49 Levy, Oscar, 156, 166, 171 Johnson, Stanley, 144, 145 Lewis, John, 27 Johnstone, Gerald, 178 Lewis, Sinclair, 102 Joicey, Nicholas, 207 n101 Lewis, Wyndham, 58 Jones, David, 4, 130–2 Lewisohn, Ludwig, 44, 102 Jones, Frederick Elwyn, 48, 54, 60, 66, liberalism, 21, 22, 24, 29, 42, 80, 91, 93, 68, 71, 100, 168, 188 107, 108, 110, 134, 140 Joyce, William, 136, 175, 177, 178 Lichtenberger, Henri, 60, 69, 97, 108, 116 Jünger, Ernst, 46 Liddell Hart, Basil, 120 Linehan, Thomas, 12 Katz, Jacob, 3, 47 Link, 63, 85, 133, 221 n84 Keane, Richard, 72 Lintorn-Orman, Rotha, 159 Index 267

Lloyd George, David, 27 Mowrer, Edgar, 5, 96, 97, 103, 104, 144, Lloyd, Lord, 43 214 n75 Lobont, Florin, 196 n14 Mowrer, Lilian, 67 Lockhart, R.H. Bruce, 79 Mother Earth, 154 Londonderry, Marquess of, 69, 88, 168 Muhs, Rudolf, 4 Lorimer, Emily, 5, 6, 93–4, 103, 104, Müller, Albert, 53 107, 116, 162, 224 n138, 224–5 n147 Murphy, James, 87, 135 Lothian, Marquess of, 82 Murray, Gilbert, 27 Lowenthal, Marvin, 100 Mussolini, Benito, 4, 71, 77, 85, 115, Lowenthal, Richard, 23 118, 129, 133, 137, 139, 141, 144, Ludecke, Kurt, 91 145, 166, 178, 185 Ludovici, Anthony M., 113, 117, 135, 139, 145, 146, 148, 156, 157–8, 164, National Book Association, 144–5 171–2, 173, 177, 186–7, 234 n51 National Government, 5, 65–6, 84, 145, Luther, Martin, 29 168, 183, 187–8 Lymington, Viscount (George Wallop, National Review, 114, 145, 146 subsequently Earl of Portsmouth), National Socialist League, 175 123, 142, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150, Necker, Wilhelm, 56, 68, 71, 72, 78 152, 153, 155, 156, 157, 158, 160, Neumann, Franz, 101 161, 162, 164, 170–1, 173–4, 175, 176, New Age, 146, 156, 166 177–8, 180, 181–5, 187, 235 n60 New English Weekly, 126, 145 Lyotard, Jean-François, 83 Newman, Bernard, 141 New Party, 121, 179 MacDonald, James Ramsay, 5, 43 New Pioneer, 175, 178, 184 Mackenzie, A.J., 141 New York Herald Tribune, 52 Macnamara, J.R.J., 98 Nichols, Beverley, 85, 118–19 MacNeice, Louis, 113 Nicolson, Harold, 80, 166, 189–90, 223 Mairet, Philip, 153 n129 Malinowski, Bronislaw, 19, 42, 196 n13 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 29, 166, 171, 189 Manchester Guardian, 36 Nietzscheanism, 7, 119, 146, 156, 166, Man, Paul de, 6 171, 172 Marx, Karl, 72 Nineteenth Century and After, 36, 139 Massingham, H.J., 149, 152, 153, 154–5, Nolte, Ernst, 48, 218 n18 157, 161, 164 No More War Movement, 49 Matless, David, 153, 163–4, 229 n54 Norlin, George, 215 n89 Maurras, Charles, 130 Northam, Reginald, 143 Maxse, Leo, 114 Northbourne, Lord, 153, 154 McCarrisson, Robert, 153 Northumberland, Duke of, 114 McNabb, Vincent, 126, 129, 145 Nuremberg rallies, 117, 140 Menczer, Béla, 10 Menschheitskämpfer, 28 Olden, Rudolf, 214 n76 Milburn, D., 225 n150 Orage, A.R., 123, 146 Mond, Alfred, 124 organic movement, 146, 149, 162–3 Moore-Colyer, R.J., 228 n42 ‘organo-fascism’, 150, 151, 154, 157, Moral, Marqués del, 134 158, 162, 164–5 Morning Post, 114 Orwell, George, 13, 26, 27, 80, 83, 123, Morris, William, 131, 151 194 n21, 223 n117 Mosley, Diana, 179 Oesterreichische Volkswirt, 28, 34 Mosley, Oswald, 4, 113, 114, 119, 121, 133, 135, 136, 137, 156, 157, 161, paciﬁsm, 49–50, 58ff, 71, 77, 96–7, 146 167, 168, 177, 178–9, 180, 181, 187 Palmer, Clare, 228 n42 268 Index

Papen, Franz von, 51 Rauschning, Hermann, 18, 57, 70, 98, Pareto, Vilfredo, 23 196 n6 Parker, R.A.C., 207 n104 Raven-Thomson, Alexander, 87, 121 Parkes, James, 101 Read, Herbert, 146 Partisan Review, 13 Reed, Douglas, 9, 81, 85, 92, 93, 104, Pascal, Roy, 50–1, 100 213 n47 Patriot, 84, 114, 211 n18 Regulation 18B, 161 Paxton, Robert, 12, 169 Reimann, G., 57 Payne, Robert, 153 Renton, Dave, 7, 17 Payne, Stanley, 17 Rexism, 136 Peace Pledge Union, 49, 176 Reynolds, Rothay, 103–4, 105 Penguin B ooks, 5, 24, 46, 93, 138, 144 Right Book Club, 4, 114, 132, 138–45, Penty, Arthur J., 122, 126, 128 185 Petrie, Charles, 136, 137, 140, 141, Right Club, 142–3, 176 168 Roberts, Cecil, 61 Petroff, Irma, 56 Roberts, David D., 12 Petroff, Peter, 56 Roberts, Stephen H., 54, 103, 104, 108, Philips, W. Alison, 62 116 Picton, Harold, 108 Rodin, Auguste, 171 Picton, Lionel, 153 Rose, Jonathan, 46 Pitt-Rivers, George Lane-Fox, 63 Rosenberg, Alfred, 35, 50, 73, 74, 130, Poincaré, R.N.L., 59 141 Polanyi, Helen, 34 Rothermere, Viscount, 118, 168 Polanyi, Karl, 18, 34–6, 37 Royden, Maude, 49 Polanyi, Michael, 34 Rudlin, W.A., 168, 188 political religion, 2, 18, 25, 35, 36, 37, Ruskin, John, 131, 151, 154 39, 42, 66 Russell, Bertrand, 49 Pollock, James, 54, 108 Rutzen, John de, 171 Portsmouth, Earl of, see Viscount Lymington Sacks, George, 45, 107 Potocki, Count, 212 n36 Sanderson, William, 169–70, 172, predictions, 3, 47–8, 49, 58, 69, 74, 77, 173–4, 180 80, 101–4 Sanderson-Wells, T.H., 153 Preston, Paul, 232 n22 Sarolea, Charles, 48, 86, 203 n12, 211 progress, 23 n28, 224 n134 Protestantism, 21 Saunders, Robert, 149 Protocols of the Elders of Zion, 125, 127 Schmitt, Carl, 38 Pückler, Count, 141, 224 n134 Schönere Zukunft?, 28 Schuman, Frederick, 44, 52, 99, 107 Quarterly Gazette of the English Array, Schwarz, Angela, 10 158, 175 Seidler, Fritz, 102 Quarterly Review, 105, 121 Sellon, Hugh, 95–6, 213 n56 Queensborough, Lord, 135 Selver, Paul, 219 n36 Quinn, E., 193 n5 Seton-Watson, R.W., 54 Sewell, Brocard, 220 n67 Rabinbach, Anson, 40 Shaw, Ben, 170 race-science, 6, 30, 32, 38, 39–40, 46, Shuster, George, 58, 99, 102, 128 61, 68, 95–6, 107 Sidgwick, Christopher, 64 Ramsay, Archibald H.M., 176 Silver, S., 230 n74 Ratcliff, Donald, 174, 177, 178, 186 Social Credit, 114, 122–32, 146, 158 Rathbone, Eleanor, 50, 101, 102, 109 Socrates, 171 Index 269

Soil Association, 153, 154, 227 n23 totalitarianism, 24, 53, 55, 66, 71–2, Sombart, Werner, 157, 228 n35 126, 129, 146, 190 Soucy, Robert, 234–5 n56 Toynbee, Arnold J., 23 Soviet Union, 9, 24, 28, 73–6, 129, 138, Truth, 84–5 141 Tuohy, Ferdinand, 97 Spanish Civil War, 9, 128, 132, 134, 137 Turner, G.F.B., 70 Spann, Othmar, 35 Speaight, Robert, 129 Uetrecht, Erich, 211 n28 Spengler, Oswald, 23, 29, 61 Spivak, John L., 45, 103 Valois, Georges, 172 Springhead Ring, 158, 175 Van Paasen, Pierre, 51 Stapledon, George, 152, 153 Varga, Lucie, 18, 38, 42 Steed, Wickham, 11, 12, 27, 60, 102, Versailles Treaty, 25, 46, 50, 58, 59, 62, 103, 106, 118, 168, 205 n65 63, 65, 78, 117, 135, 189 Steel, Johannes, 99 ‘Vigilantes’ (Konni Ziliacus), 65–6, 168 Sternhell, Ze’ev, 17 Villard, Oswald, 103, 104, 105 Stowe, Leland, 52–3, 70 Voegelin, Eric, 2, 18, 38–40, 203 n16 Strachey, John, 27, 33, 50, 51, 52, 166, Voigt, F.A., 18, 34, 36–7, 44, 66, 68, 78, 168, 231 n7 192 Strasserism, 7, 186 Völkischer Beobachter, 179 Streicher, Julius, 91, 92, 179 Volksgemeinschaft, 30, 118 Stresemann, Gustav, 102 Stürmer, 88 Walker-Smith, Derek, 113, 136–7, 145 Sturzo, Luigi, 105, 128 Wall, Alfred, 11 Swan, Norman, 170, 186 Warburg, G., 106 Sydenham of Combe, Lord, 91, 115, 125 Ward, Elizabeth, 131 Szakolczai, Arpád, 23 Ward Price, George, 63, 81, 85, 93, 118–19, 143 Tabor, Paul, 71, 97, 108 Warren, C. Henry, 153 Tabouis, Geneviève, 5, 57, 66, 72, 144 Weber, Max, 36 Taverner, Eric, 63, 97 Webster, Nesta, 84, 85, 93, 125 Tavistock, Lord, 176 Weekly Review, 129 Taylor, G.R. Stirling, 1 Wells, H.G., 151 Teeling, William, 116, 217 n17 Wertheimer, Mildred, 106 teleology, 3, 6 White, Arnold, 115, 160 Tennant, E.W.D., 82, 115, 135, 193 n5, White, John, 91, 212 n43 210 n11 Willert, Arthur, 66, 89 The Cockpit, 128 Williamson, Henry, 163 The Nation, 103 Willoughby de Broke, Lord, 160 The Times, 63, 64, 77, 78, 92, 133 Wilson, Arnold, 135, 139, 143, 168 Third Reich, 13, 24, 26, 47, 49, 51, 77, Wilson, Roy, 171, 233 n27 78, 80, 88, 92, 93, 96, 108, 113, 114ff, Wise, James, 102, 106 134, 136, 192; nature of, 2, 8, 57, 62, Wolf, Eric R., 218 n31 67, 70, 71, 73, 103; left support for, 8, Wolf, John, 63, 85–6, 87 underrating of, 10, in historiography, Woodman, Dorothy, 52, 53 46, 190; German people’s support for, Woolf, Leonard, 88, 109 62, 117 Thompson, Dorothy, 78, 102 Yeats-Brown, Francis, 119, 139, 142–3, Thurlow, Richard, 213 n47 168 Thyssen, Fritz, 50, 73 Time and Tide, 194 n14 Zukerman, William, 78, 185