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Volume XII, Issue 6 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES on TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6

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Volume XII, Issue 6 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES on TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6 ISSN 2334-3745 Volume XII, Issue 6 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6 Welcome from the Guest Editors This Special Issue on Terrorism from the Extreme Right has been guest-edited by Jacob Aasland Ravndal and Tore Bjørgo, both based at the Center for Research on Extremism (C-REX) at the University of Oslo. Last year, we invited a select group of scholars to submit original analyses of key developments in the field of right-wing extremism, violence and terrorism, with a special emphasis on contemporary actors, their modus operandi, and the conditions shaping them. All those who had submitted papers were also invited to a workshop at the University of Oslo on 15-16 February 2018 in order to discuss and revise their original manuscripts. A selection of these manuscripts was then submitted for external peer-review and eventually approved for publication in this Special Issue of Perspectives on Terrorism. Following the 9-11 attacks in 2001, extreme-right terrorism has received far less scholarly and political attention than Islamist terrorism. However, as several of the contributors to this Special Issue make clear, violence committed by extreme right perpetrators represents a very real threat, although it differs considerably from Jihadi terrorism in a number of ways. With a few notable exceptions, political violence from the extreme right tends, in many Western countries, to be more frequent than that from Salafist jihadists. At the same time, right-wing attacks usually result in fewer victims per attack than the ones emanating from jihadi terrorists. However, cumulatively, incidents of extreme right-wing violence add up to large numbers, as in Russia, where 459 people were killed in 406 deadly events between 2000-2017 (Enstad, in this issue). This Special Issue ofPerspectives on Terrorism explores the modus operandi of extreme right terrorism and violence – investigating why but also how violent events occur. It is the first Special Issue of an academic journal on terrorism from the extreme right since a 300 pages strong Special Issue on this topic was published in Vol. 7, Issue 1 of Terrorism and Political Violence in the Spring of 1995, also guest-edited by Tore Bjørgo. In the meantime, much has happened in terms of conceptual development and improvements in data quality, as well as theory formation. These developments are analysed in more detail in the introductory article to the current Special Issue, where Jacob A. Ravndal and Tore Bjørgo compare the contents of both Special Issues, aiming to bring this research field one step further. Sincerely, Jacob A. Ravndal (Postdoctoral Fellow at C-REX) and Tore Bjørgo (Director of C-REX and Associate Editor of Perspectives on Terrorism) Note from the Editorial Team We are pleased to announce the release of Volume XII, Issue 6 (December 2018) of Perspectives on Terrorism, available now at: https://www.universiteitleiden.nl/PoT. Our free and independent online journal is a publication of the Terrorism Research Initiative (TRI) and the Institute of Security and Global Affairs (ISGA) of Leiden University’s Campus The Hague. Now completing its twelfth year, Perspectives on Terrorism has over 8,100 regular e-mail subscribers and many more occasional ISSN 2334-3745 1 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6 readers and website visitors worldwide. The Articles of its six annual issues are fully peer reviewed by external referees while its Research and Policy Notes, Special Correspondence and other content are subject to internal editorial quality control. For this Special Issue, the guest-editors were assisted by Alex Schmid and James Forest, the chief editors of Perspectives on Terrorism as well as by Christine Boelema Robertus, Associate Editor for IT. Due to the length of this Special Issue, some of the regular features in the Resources section of our journal will have to wait until the next issue, to be published in February 2019. An exception has been made for the Conference Calendar, compiled by Assistant Editor Reinier Bergema which features in this December 2018 issue. ISSN 2334-3745 2 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6 Table of Contents Welcome from the Guest Editors Articles Investigating Terrorism from the Extreme Right: A Review of Past and Present Research.....................................................................................................................5 by Jacob Aasland Ravndal and Tore Bjørgo Understanding the Micro-Situational Dynamics of White Supremacist Violence in the United States......................................................................................................23 by Steven Windisch, Pete Simi, Kathleen Blee, and Matthew DeMichele Patterns of Fatal Extreme-Right Crime in the United States.....................................38 by Joshua D. Freilich, Steven M. Chermak, Jeff Gruenewald, William S. Parkin, and Brent R. Klein Explaining the Spontaneous Nature of Far-Right Violence in the United States.......52 by Matthew Sweeney and Arie Perliger Recent Trends in German Right-Wing Violence and Terrorism: What are the Contextual Factors behind ‘Hive Terrorism’?...........................................................72 by Daniel Koehler Right-Wing Terrorism and Violence in Putin’s Russia..............................................89 by Johannes Due Enstad Only Bullets will Stop Us!’ – The Banning of National Action in Britain..................104 by Graham Macklin Right-Wing Terrorism and Violence in Hungary at the Beginning of the 21st Century...................................................................................................................123 by Miroslav Mareš Italy, No Country for Acting Alone? Lone Actor Radicalisation in the Neo-Fascist Milieu......................................................................................................................136 by Pietro Castelli Gattinara, Francis O’Connor, and Lasse Lindekilde Background and Preparatory Behaviours of Right-Wing Extremist Lone Actors: A Comparative Study..................................................................................................150 by Noémie Bouhana, Emily Corner, Paul Gill and Bart Schuurman Terrorist Target Selection: The Case of Anders Behring Breivik.............................164 by Cato Hemmingby and Tore Bjørgo Resources Bibliography of Works on the Extreme Right Cited in this Special Issue..................177 Compiled by Jørgen Eikvar Axelsen ISSN 2334-3745 3 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6 Announcements Conference Monitor/Calendar of Events.................................................................192 Compiled and Selected by Reinier Bergema About Perspectives on Terrorism............................................................................199 ISSN 2334-3745 4 December 2018 PERSPECTIVES ON TERRORISM Volume 12, Issue 6 Investigating Terrorism from the Extreme Right: A Review of Past and Present Research by Jacob Aasland Ravndal and Tore Bjørgo Abstract This introductory article examines how research on terrorism and violence from the extreme right has evolved over the past two decades by comparing the contents of the present Special Issue with those of a previous Special Issue from 1995. This comparative review is divided into three sections: (1) concepts and definitions; (2) data; and (3) theory. Conceptually, the article finds considerable divergence between scholars in the field, and therefore proposes a definition of extreme-right terrorism and extreme-right violence meant to apply across all contexts and actors. Empirically, the article recognizes the inherent challenge of gathering reliable and comparable data on extreme- right violence. At the same time, it finds that considerable advances have been made with regards to generating systematic events data suitable for analysing variation across time and place. The article also outlines some of the most important findings emerging from these new data. Theoretically, the article finds some overlap between the two Special Issues concerning proposed causes of extreme-right terrorism and violence. At the same time, many theories do not speak to each other, or even investigate the same types of outcomes. The article therefore concludes by proposing a conceptual distinction between three distinct types of violent outcomes: (1) violent radicalization, (2) violent events, and (3) aggregate levels of violence. By being more explicit about the types of outcomes one seeks to explain, scholars in this field will hopefully move towards a more unified future research agenda. Keywords: Extreme right; terrorism; violence; review; state of knowledge; special issue Introduction Recent events and media reports have generated a widespread public notion of an emergent terrorist threat from the extreme right in Europe [1] and in the United States.[2] However, the nature of this threat and the conditions shaping it remain poorly documented and understood. For example, we often do not know whether to classify attacks from the extreme right as terrorism, or as less premeditated forms of violence such as racist violence or hate crime. Furthermore, while several theories on terrorism and violence from the extreme right exist, they often do not speak to each other, investigate the same types of outcomes, or even share the same research objectives. These two observations – a widespread public notion of a growing threat, alongside limited knowledge about the nature and causes of
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