GARDNER ON CARLOS CASTANEDA • THE AUDREY SANTO CASE • THE HONEYBEE Skeptical Inquirer THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE AND REASON Volume 23, No. 5 • September/October 1999 Where Do We Come From? The Biology of Life's Origin

SPECIAL REPORT

Aliens ' Built the Pyramids?

SUBLIMINALIs the PERSUASION Rorschach Valid?

Publishedby the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal. THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL AT THE CENTER FOR INQUIRY-INTERNATIONAL (ADJACENT TO THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO| • AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of philosophy, State University of New York at Buffalo Barry Karr, Executive Director Joe Nickell, Senior Research Fellow Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director Matthew Nisbet Public Relations Director FELLOWS

James E. Alcock,* psychologist, York Univ., Thomas Gilovich, psychologist. Cornell Univ. Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist. New York Univ. Toronto Henry Gordon, magician, columnist, Joe Nickell,* senior research fellow, CSICOP Steve Allen, comedian, author, composer, Toronto Lee Nisbet* philosopher, Medaille College pianist Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Bill Nye, science educator and television Jerry Andrus, magician and inventor, Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ. host. Nye Labs Albany, Oregon Susan Haack, Cooper Senior Scholar in Arts James E. Oberg, science writer Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of and Sciences, prof, of philosophy, Loren Pankratz, psychologist, Oregon Kentucky University of Miami Health Sciences Univ. Stephen Barrett M.D., psychiatrist, author, C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales John Paulos, mathematician, Temple Univ. consumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. AI Hibbs, scientist. Jet Propulsion Laboratory Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human W. V. Quine, philosopher, Harvard Univ. Fraser Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada understanding and cognitive science, Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Indiana Univ. Chicago Southern California Gerald Holton, Mallinckrodt Professor of Wallace Sampson, M.D., clinical professor Susan Blackmore, psychologist, Univ. of the Physics and professor of history of science, of medicine, Stanford Univ. West of England, Bristol Harvard Univ. Evry Schatzman, president, French Physics Ray Hyman,* psychologist, Univ. of Oregon Henri Broch, physicist, Univ. of Nice, France Association Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor Leon Jaroff, sciences editor emeritus, Time Sergei Kapitza, editor, Russian edition, Eugenie Scott* physical anthropologist, emeritus of English, Univ. of Utah executive director. National Center for Vern Bullough, professor of history, Scientific American Philip J. Klass,* aerospace writer, engineer Science Education California State Univ. at Northridge Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Thomas A. Sebeok, anthropologist, Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University linguist, Indiana Univ. John R. Cole, anthropologist, editor. Griffith Observatory Paul Kurtz,* chairman, CSICOP Robert Sheaffer, science writer National Center for Science Education Lawrence Kusche, science writer Elie A. Shneour, biochemist, author, F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for Leon Lederman, emeritus director, director, Biosystems Research Institute, Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif; Nobel Fermilab; Nobel laureate in physics Prize laureate La Jolla, Calif. Lin Zixin, former editor, Science and Richard Dawkins, zoologist, Oxford Univ. Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey L. Sprague de Camp, author, engineer Technology Daily (China) Hills, N.S.W., Australia Cornells de Jager. professor of astro­ Elizabeth Loftus, professor of psychology, Robert Steiner, magician, author. Univ. of Washington physics, Univ. of Utrecht, the Netherlands El Cerrito. Calif. Paul MacCready, scientist/engineer, Bernard Dixon, science writer, London, U.K. Jill Cornell Tarter, astronomer, SETI AeroVironment. Inc., Monrovia, Calif. Paul Edwards, philosopher, editor. Institute, Mountain View, Calif. John Maddox, editor emeritus of Nature Encyclopedia of Philosophy David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, Los Kenneth Feder, professor of anthropology. Polytech, England Angeles, Calif. Central Connecticut State Univ. Walter C. McCrone, microscopist, McCrone Stephen Toulmin, professor of philosophy, Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., Research Institute Univ. of Southern California U.K. Mario Mendez-Acosta, journalist and Marilyn vos Savant Parade magazine con­ Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer, Foothill science writer, Mexico City, Mexico tributing editor and CBS News correspon­ College. Los Altos Hills, Calif. Marvin Minsky, professor of media arts and dent Kendrick Frazier,* science writer, editor. sciences, M.I.T. Steven Weinberg, professor of physics and SKEPTICAL INQUIRER David Morrison, space scientist, NASA astronomy, Univ. of Texas at Austin; Nobel Yves Galifret, vice-president. Affiliated Ames Research Center Prize laureate Organizations: France Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Marvin Zelen, statistician, Harvard Univ. Martin Gardner,* author, critic Univ. of Calif.. Berkeley Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president. * Member, CSICOP Executive Council Santa Fe Institute; Nobel Prize laureate Bangalore Science Forum, India (Affiliations given for identification only.)

• • • Visit the CSICOP Web site at http://www.csicop.org • • •

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) b published bimonihly by >** Committee for ihc Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER represent the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Pjrjnornul. 1310 Sweet Home Rd.. Amherst. NY views and work of individual authors. Their publication does not necessarily constitute an 14228. Printed in U.SA Periodicals postage paid at Buffalo. NT Subscription prices: one year endorsement by CSICOP or us members unless so stated. (six issues), $35: two yean. $58; three years. $81; Mngic issue, S4.95. Canadian and foreign order*: Copyright ©1999 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Payment in VS. funds drawn on a U.S. bank must accompany orden: please add USS10 per year Paranormal. All rights reserved. The SKEPTKAI INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, tor shipping. Canadian and foreign customers are encouraged to use Visa or MasterCard. 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche from University Microfilms International and i* Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the (Committee should be made indexed in the Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature. to Paul Kurrz. Chairman. CSICOP. Box 703. Amherst. NY 14226-0703. Tel.: 716-636-1425. Subscriptions and changes of address should be addressed to: SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box FAX "16-636-1733. "03. Amherst. NT 14226-0703. Or call loU-frce 1-800-634-1610 (outside U.S. call 716^36- Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial inquiries should be addressed to 1425). Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscriber's address, with six Kendrick Frazier. Editor. SKEPTICAL INSURER. 944 Deer Drive NE. Albuquerque. weeks advance notice. SKEPTICAL INQUIRE* subscribers may not speak on behalf of CSICOP NM 87122. FAX 505-828-2080. For Guide for Authors, see page 81 in the or the SKEPTICAL INQUIRE*. July/August 1999 issue, or send a fix request to the Editor. It is also available on the Postmaster: Send changes of address to SKEPTICAL INQUIRE*. Box 703. Amherst. NY Web at hnp://ww^.csicc*p.oi^i7guide-for-auuSors.htmI. 14226-0703. Skeptical Inquirer COLUMNS EDITOR'S NOTE September/October 1999 • VOL 23, NO. 5 NEWS AND COMMENT Society for Scientific Exploration Tilts Wildly at Paradigms / Bennett Braun Update: Poznanski Settles, Will Testify Against Braun / Psychologist Wants Constitutional Protection for Exorcism Done in Therapy / Hubbard Statistics Course Taken to Court / NAS Publishes New Version of Science and Creationism Report / Missing Bodies Found Despite Psychics' Tips / Sorcerers and Psychics in Politics / Bible Code Redux: McKay Rebuttal Published in Statistical Science I Psychic Hotline Provider Accused of Fraud 5

NOTES OF A FRINGE WATCHER Carlos Castaneda and New Age Anthropology Cover Design by Lisa A. Hutter MARTIN GARDNER SPECIAL REPORT 46 Flash! Fox News Reports that Aliens May Have Built the Pyramids of Egypt! INVESTIGATIVE FILES Miracles or Deception? Pseudoscience as news? The Fox Network's handling of its The Pathetic Case of Audrey Santo primetime special "Opening the Lost Tombs: Live from JOE NICKELL 16 Egypt" raises ethical questions.

RICHARD C. CARRIER PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS Aliens Follow Their Leader ARTICLES ROBERT SHEAFFER 19

21 Where Do We Come From? NEW BOOKS 56 A Humbling Look at the Biology SCIENCE BEST SELLERS 56 of Life's Origin ARTICLES OF NOTE 57 The origin of life on Earth is a fundamental scientific question, but we do not know as much as many biology FOLLOW-UP textbooks would like you to believe. Dowsing Successful H.-D. BETZ 59 MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI The Whole Truth 28 Profits and Prophecy J. T. ENRIGHT 60 Hayseed Stevens and Oil in Israel Rupert Sheldrake and the Objectivity of Science A fundamentalist oil entrepreneur mixes creation science. RICHARD WISEMAN and CAROLINE WATT 61 Biblical prophecy, and revivalist techniques for a program of oil exploration in Israel. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 64

DONALD U. WISE

32 Projective Measures of Personality BOOK REVIEWS and Psychopathology Unauthorized Freud: How Well Do They Work? Doubters Confront a Legend Although projective techniques remain among the most EJitcd by Frederick C. Crews popular of all psychological measures, many critics have branded them pseudoscientific. MARK BAUERLEIN .51 SCOTT O. LILIENFELD The Honey Bee 40 What Every Skeptic Should Know By James L Gould and Carol Grant Gould About Subliminal Persuasion IAN MAIONE 52 Classic research by cognitive and social psychologists suggests Apocalypse Pretty Soon that subliminally presented stimuli can be perceived and By Alex Heard can influence individuals' low-level cognitions. More recent TERENCE HINES 53 investigations suggest that such stimuli can also affect individuals' high-level cognitive processes, including The Complete Idiot's Guide to Being Psychic attitudes, preferences, judgments, and even their behavior. By Lynne Robinson and NICHOLAS EPLEY, KENNETH SAVITSKY, LaVonne Carlson-Finnerty and ROBERT A. KACHELSKI DAVID BLOOMBERG 55 EDITOR'S NOTE Skeptical Inquirer THE MAGAZINE FOt SCIENCE AND MASON

EDITOR Kendrick Frazier The Biology of Life's Origin EDITORIAL BOARD James E. Alcock Barry Beyerstein he origin of life is one of the outstanding scientific questions of our time. Thomas Casten TOne problem facing scientists trying to explain how life began is that so Martin Gardner far we have only one example: life on Earth. In this issues cover article, Ray Hyman Lawrence Jones Massimo Pigliucci, an assistant professor in the Departments of Botany and of Philip J. Klass Ecology and Evolutionary Biology at the University of Tennessee, provides a Paul Kurtz humbling overview of what we know—and what we don't know—about the Joe Nickell Lee Nisbet biology of life's origin. Creationists constantly conflate the question of the ori­ Amardeo Sarma gin of life—which is a still-unresolved fundamental question—with the subse­ Bold Scheiber quent evolution of life—about which, of course, we know a great deal. Despite Eugenie Scott CONSULTING EDITORS all the philosophical ramifications, the origin of life is a scientific question, and Robert A. Baker Pigliucci puts the topic into up-to-date scientific context as he roams over the Susan J. Blackmore various theories and latest evidence. He also provides a series of top ten refer­ John R. Cole Kenneth L. Feder ences to the topic. There are many different possible routes by which an ances­ C. E. M. Hansel tral nucleoprotein might have become the first living organism, but we don't E. C. Krupp Scott O. Lilienfeld know which one was used. And there's nothing wrong with saying we don't yet David F. Marks know. As Pigliucci concludes, "The origin of life is one question that science James E. Oberg will be pondering for some time to come, and skeptics should be wary of over­ Robert Sheaffer David E. Thomas simplified answers found in introductory biology textbooks." Richard Wiseman MANAGING EDITOR Benjamin Radford ART DIRECTOR We had a pleasant visit with our longtime colleague and friend James Randi Lisa A. Hutter recendy. He was a distinguished guest lecturer at Los Alamos National PRODUCTION Laboratory, and my wife Ruth and I drove the two hours north from Paul Loynes Albuquerque to hear his talk. (Ruth is such an admirer of Randi she keeps CARTOONIST threatening to run off with him, but fortunately for me that hasn't happened Rob Pudim WEB PAGE DESIGNER yet.) Randi has spoken twice in previous years at Sandia National Labs in Patrick Fitzgerald Albuquerque, where I spend my days and where I helped host him; this time it was Los Alamos's curn. His nearly two-hour lecture to a packed audience of PUBLISHER'S REPRESENTATIVE 500 was deservedly well received. Speaking to a greater concentration of physi­ Barry Karr CORPORATE COUNSEL cists than you'll find anywhere outside a meeting of the American Physical Brenton N. VerPloeg Society (which itself gave an award to Randi a few years back), he straightfor­ ASSISTANT BUSINESS MANAGER wardly repeats his frequent message that physicists, with their logical minds, Sandra Lesniak are among the easiest to deceive with psychic-like magician's trickery. No one FISCAL OFFICER seems to mind the gentle admonition because the physicists know he is only Paul Paulin CHIEF DEVELOPMENT OFFICER warning against arrogance and self-deception. And Randi leaves no doubt that James Kimberly he loves science, understands the scientific process thoroughly, and eternally ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR Of DEVELOPMENT defends all good science. It's bad science, and pseudoscience, he goes after, still Anthony C. 8attaglia quite effectively, thank you. After his talk Randi kindly invited us to join him CHIEF DATA OFFICER at an informal book signing and impromptu demonstration of magic tricks at Michael Gone MANAGEMENT INFORMATION SPECIALIST the Bradbury Museum. He wowed the onlookers as usual. Jeff Howell STAFF Jodi Chapman Matthew Nisbet Etienne Rios The reaction to our special issue on Science & Religion: Conflict or Ranjit Sandhu Conciliation? (July/August 1999) has been voluminous and so far overwhelm­ Sharon Sikora ingly positive. Many of the letters are quite thoughtful. They are continuing to Kathy Vaughn Vance Vigrass arrive, in numbers far beyond what we can publish, but we will present a selec­ Dana Walpole tion of them in a future issue, probably November/December. INQUIRY MEDIA PRODUCTIONS Thomas Flynn DIRECTOR OF UBRARIES Timothy S. Binga

The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, an international organization.

4 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NEWS AND COMMENT

Society for Scientific Exploration Tilts Wildly at Paradigms

DAVE THOMAS the deliberate rephrasing of scientific or are observed for one bar of palladium, skeptical aphorisms. For example, the but not for another from the very same The Society for Scientific Exploration Discovery Institute's Jonathan Wells, batch), and so on. But at least the pre­ (SSE), publisher of the Journal of who spoke on why biology would bene­ senters acknowledged the need for Scientific Exploration, held its eigh­ fit from consideration of "Intelligent replicability and evidence. teenth annual meeting June 3—5 in Design," declared his desire to replace Not so for Lee Pulos of the University Albuquerque, New Mexico, and it was a Theodosius Dobzhanskys famous state­ of British Columbia, who discussed his wild ride. ment "Nothing in biology makes sense trips to Brazil to study the "extraordi- except in light of evolution" with the revised version "Nothing in biology makes sense except in light of evidence." Wells also stated that the benefits of introducing "design" to biology would include avoidance of "wasted efforts, that is, looking for [natural] causes where none are to be found." Former astronaut Brian O'Leary, who maintains that "The fat lady hasn't sung yet" regarding the proposed artifi­ ciality of the "Face on Mars," declared thai the phrase "Extraordinary claims require extraordinary evidence" would I David Jacobs be better stated as "Extraordinary The sessions were organized into claims require extraordinary investiga­ nary" powers of one Thomaz Green four major topics: shaking pillars of tion." O'Leary also urged attendees to Morton. Morton supposedly received the paradigm, cold fusion, anomalous explore "outside the box" into such his psychokinetic powers at the young phenomena, and suppression of areas as UFO studies, planetary anom­ age of twelve, when he was struck by new science. Almost every type of alies, healing psychokinesis, conscious­ lightning. He performs spoon-bending, "paranormal" or "anomalous" phenom­ ness, new energy, reincarnation, medi- "transmutation" of metals, and other ena imaginable was discussed, and one umship, and more. impossible feats. One example cited was outlandish claim after another was The cold fusion talks were among the direct transformation of a U.S. silver apparently accepted uncritically by most the best of the conference. Many of the dollar into a larger Pisces medallion of the attendees. speakers (Ed Storms of Los Alamos made of a different metal! But Pulos The meeting began with attacks on National Lab, George Miley of the didn't think these were simply magic relativity and evolution. Other speakers Univetsity of Illinois, Melvin Miles of tricks, because he personally observed enthusiastically promoted cold fusion, the China Lake naval center, and Morton bending spoons without touch­ spoon bending, "creation" of trinkets, Michael McKubre of SRI International) ing them. If the "powers" of Thomaz the healing effects of prayer, alien claimed to have replicable measure­ Green Morton are real, modern science abductions, the face on Mars, and the ments of tritium or other table-top is totally wrong about the forces of measurement of bacterial contamina­ nuclear products, and of excess (pur­ nature (such as electromagnetism). Or, tion at distances of thousands of miles. portedly fusion-caused) heat. These perhaps, Morton is simply a magician The SSE is the same organization speakers presented serious measure­ out to fool the gullible public. that last year got international publicity ments, and many frankly discussed diffi­ After the talk. I asked Pulos why he for a supposedly "independent" and culties with their research. In some hadn't rushed Thomaz Morton over to credulous report it issued on UFOs that ways, it was like traveling back in time Florida to take James Randi's $ 1 million was based on testimony only from to late 1989: no one knows exactly why challenge. After all, if his powers are real, UFOlogists and believers (SI, the phenomenon happens, it produces I said, it would be like taking candy September/October 1998). One telling many fewer neutrons than "conven­ from a baby. But Pulos dismissed this measure of how different this science tional" fusion, repeatability is very diffi­ suggestion, replying that Morton wasn't group is from the mainstream involves cult (sometimes the anomalous effects interested in investigations like that.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 5 NEWS AND COMMENT

Larry Dossey discussed effects of ventional scientists couldbe changed, but prayer on cardiac patients, and men­ that such change requires a lot of work. tioned that almost half of U.S. medical In my opinion, the too-quick acceptance universities were looking into the phe­ of wild claims by top SSE members nomenon in one way or another. Like it reduces the credibility of their work to or not, he said, "Prayer is back in medi­ that of tabloid stories. They could (and cine." Paul Marmet of the University of should) do much better. In the words of Ottawa presented his "Simple Theory of attendee Robert L. Park of the American the Perihelion of Mercury," which is Physical Society, writing on the confer­ based on Newtonian mechanics, and ence in the June 11 edition of his What's not relativity (except for the convenient New newsletter: "Alas, to wear the mantle mass-energy equivalence part). Marmet of Galileo it is not enough that you be demonstrated his principle with a spring persecuted by an unkind establishment, and various weights—as the mass was Jacques Benveniste you must also be right." increased, the period got longer, just as by die receptors. He believes that a simple he claims happens in the advance of voice recording of white noise of this "sig­ David E. Thomas is a SKEPTICAL Mercury's perihelion. But a handout nal" can be transmitted via water mole­ INQUIRED consulting editor and president paper, available at www.newton cules, even at fantastically diluted homeo­ of New Mexicans for Science and Reason. physics.on.ca, showed that Marmet's pathic solutions. Indeed, he diinks that He is a physicist. entire development is based on assump­ die signal can be transmitted over die tion of circularity of Mercury's orbit. Internet or by radio waves, enabling For example, Marmet states repeatedly remote detection of chemical effects Bennett Braun Update: that "The kinetic energy of an orbiting caused by, say, bacteria. Benveniste admit­ Poznanski Settles, Will mass is always half of the [magnitude of ted to having no idea why this phenome­ the) potential energy," a fact which non occurs, and suggested diat it was the Testify Against Braun holds only for circular orbits. But job of the physicists to determine how the Mercury has the most eccentric orbit "molecular signal" actually produces long- As reported in previous issues (see SI (e=0.2056) of all die solar planets except term changes in water molecules. March/April and January/February Pluto, a fact which demolishes Marmet's Many of the conference speakers com­ 1999), the Illinois Department of derivation, and which should not have plained about suppression of research Professional Regulation (IDPR) filed a escaped any peer reviewer. into anomalies by mainstream scientists complaint against psychiatrist Bennett David Jacobs of Temple University and skeptics. But they misrepresented the Braun, a leader in the repressed memory talked about alien abductions, as did John mission of organizations like CSICOP movement, child psychiatrist Elva Mack of Harvard's Cambridge Hospital when they claimed that skeptics want to Poznanski, and psychologist Roberta die next day. Both Jacobs and Mack agree suppress the very discussion of such ideas, Sachs over their treatment of Pat Burgus on die reality of die abduction phenome­ or even the existence of organizations like and her sons. The Braun proceedings non, based mainly on die recollections of the SSE. I suspect that most skeptics have been postponed until November so thousands of hypnotized "abductees." would instead champion the SSE's quest the Burgus children would not have to But Jacobs considers die aliens to have to perform investigations of paranormal miss final exams. Sachs has not been malicious designs for hybridization and phenomena. We just wish that they assigned a hearing date yet. colonization, while Mack perceives the would be more skeptical and self-critical. In surprising news, the Poznanski aliens as "emissaries of die divine" that Although a very few attendees strongly case has been settled without action profoundly touch the humans diey con­ questioned some of the claims presented, being taken against her medical license. tact, and who probably are more con­ most seemed content to not rock the A consent order between Poznanski and cerned with the fate of Earth than with boat, lest their own boat be rocked in the IDPR explains the terms of this die fate of humanity. return. Invited speaker William Tifft, an agreement, and lead prosecutor Thomas Jacques Benveniste presented his astronomer from the University of Glasgow further clarified why they set­ research on die "Role of Water in the Arizona who has published several papers tled with her. Transmission of die Molecular Signal." in serious journals regarding his radical The most important part of the order Benveniste claims diat chemical reactions hypodiesis of quantization of global red- discusses her future cooperation in the in cells are not mediated by physical lock- shifts, told the attendees that he left SSE Braun case. It says she must "cooperate and-key receptor mechanisms, but because die organization needed to be fully widi the Department, and with instead by electromagnetic signals received closer to classical science, and that con­ any federal, state or local law enforce-

6 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NEWS AND COMMENT mcnt agency as directed by the addition, she "took remedial action" by to practice his religion by ordering Department, in any investigation con­ withdrawing cooperation from Braun demons to leave a patient's body during nected to the treatment of any person or and Sachs less than halfway through the a therapy session. persons in Rush-Presbyterian-St. Luke's treatment, when Braun allegedly The appeals court decision, entitled Medical Center's Dissociative Disorders brought guns in with the children. Up Olson v. Morris, says that the boy's foster Unit, or in any Medicare or Medicaid until then, she had agreed to work with father believed the child to be the victim fraud investigation resulting from any Braun due to his standing in the psychi­ of satanic abuse by his biological par­ action of physicians, health care workers atric community, but finally decided ents. The foster father discussed the or staff members at Rush-Presbyterian- things had gone too far. After that, she matter with his own minister, and was St. Luke's Medical Center related to did keep the children under her care referred to Olson. patients treated in that Unit during the because she did not feel Patricia Burgus The foster father gave Olson's name period the Unit was in existence." was a fit mother at the time (Burgus was to the boy's caseworker at Child Protec­ In other words, she will testify against still under Braun's care). tive Services. The caseworker, in turn, Braun and Sachs in the IDPR hearings, Glasgow noted that having some­ referred the child to Olson and agreed to and will then continue to help in any fur­ body from the "inside" testify will be have the State of Arizona pay for the ther cases. Glasgow, when asked if this very helpful and overrides any need to therapy. meant there were going to be such cases in prosecute her separately. According to court records, Olson the future, said he was not at liberty to Also, the Burgus family—the victims held an exorcism on at least one occa­ discuss any cases or investigations that in this case—were consulted and agreed sion. The doctor laid his hands on the might or might not be ongoing. with the settlement before it was reached. child and prayed to the Holy Spirit to The order spells out that she must Glasgow took pains to point out that reveal and remove the youngster's step down as the head of child psychia­ he would never make a deal like this demonic spirits. He later sent a bill to try at Rush hospital within two years with Braun, and the only thing he Child Protective Services for the and she cannot provide any future would settle for, should Braun seek a "treatment." recovered memory or satanic ritual deal, would be the indefinite suspension When the caseworkers realized what abuse therapy. Poznanski also conceded of Braun's license to practice medi­ was going on during the psychother­ that, given what she knows now about cine—which is what he hopes to gain apy, they complained to the Arizona die Burgus family history, the therapy from prosecuting Braun anyway. licensing board responsible for psychol­ given to Pat Burgus, and research "doc­ ogists. The board held a hearing, and umenting die lack of reliability of mem­ —David Bloomberg revoked Olson's license for "unprofes­ ories of abuse elicited in recovered mem­ sional conduct." ory therapy, including die substantial David Bloomberg is the chairman of the Olson did not bother to bring an evidence suggesting that numerous Rational Examination Association of attorney with him to the licensing patients in such therapy have been Lincoln Land and can be reached at board's hearing, he said, because he induced to describe nonfactual 'recov­ chairman l&rtall org. never imagined they might rule against ered memories' of satanic ritual abuse," him. He simply told the board that his she would not have treated the Burgus Psychologist Wants treatment modality was appropriate. children the way she did in this case. Constitutional The licensing board did not agree. A number of factors were considered Olson responded by filing a federal in die decision to sctde. The most Protection for Exorcism lawsuit for violation of his Con­ important was that Poznanski, unlike Done in Therapy stitutional right to religious freedom. Braun and Sachs, has apparently only He expressed outrage that the licensing been involved in diis one case. The A clinical psychologist told a federal board would restrict his use of prayer other two have had several complaints appeals coun that he has a Constitutional therapy. His lawsuit alleged violation of filed against them, and played major right to perform exorcisms, according to federal civil rights law that forbids any roles in the treatment of those involved. a decision July 1 from the Ninth Circuit state from abridging a citizen's Poznanski played a minor role and Court of Appeals in California. Constitutional rights. In addition, he treated the children as though they had The psychologist, Kenneth Olson of demanded an injunction to stop the been abused—not as if diey were part of Phoenix, performed an exorcism on a licensing board from interfering with his a satanic cult. child referred to him by Child religious freedom. Glasgow noted that Poznanski, in her Protective Services of Arizona. An The federal judge dismissed Olson's seventies, has already lost much of her ordained Lutheran minister, Olson suit against the licensing board. good reputation because of this case. In insisted he had a First Amendment right Undeterred, he appealed to the U.S.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Seplember/October 1999 7 NEWS AND COMMENT

Circuit Court of Appeals in California. Scientology, refused on religious grounds. tology" and noted that the glossary in Without commenting on the merits Carlsten fired her. the course materials included this expla­ of exorcism, the appeals court ruled The dispute surfaced after Morgan nation: "The eighth dynamic is the urge against Olson, noting that he should sued Carlsten in Rhode Island Superior toward existence as infinity. This is also have appealed the licensing board's deci­ Court, alleging a violation of the Rhode identified as the Supreme Being. This is sion through proper channels before fil­ Island Employment Fair Practices Act. called the eighth dynamic, because the ing suit in federal court. Morgan said Carlsten failed to accommo­ symbol of infinity stood upright makes Ironically, Constitutional rights to date her beliefs as a Catholic and fired her the numeral '8.' This can be called the religious freedom probably contributed "based on religion." She claimed $ 12,000 infinity or God dynamic.'" to the child's plight in this case. Child in lost wages, medical benefits, and costs. Judge Alice B. Gibney told the six- protective workers are employed by the Carlsten testified that he learned member jury that the first question that government. When someone applies for about Scientology after traveling to they should consider was whether "the a foster care license, government California to learn about Hubbard courses were religious in nature and vio­ employees are reluctant to ask about the Management Technology. The courses lated her religious beliefs." The jurors applicant's religious beliefs. were given by Sterling Management, a took forty minutes to decide that the The foster father described in taxable corporation licensed by the answer was "no" and Carlsten had won. this case may actually believe that Church of Scientology. A year later, he Morgan's lawyer vowed to appeal, witches are lurking about, performing returned to California and embraced saying that Gibney was wrong to not secret satanic rituals at midnight in the religion. allow evidence about the beliefs of cemeteries, and exhibiting supernatural He said he urged Morgan, over an Scientology to be introduced. The judge powers. That belief would not have eight- or nine-month period, to take the decided to keep that evidence out affected his ability to apply for a foster course, which began in February 1991. because it would likely "inflame the jury care license, since government agencies He said the courses contained no reli­ into 'punishing' Carlsten" for his do not discriminate against foster parent "unusual religion." applicants on the basis of religion. gious content. When Morgan asked if she could —Martha Churchill take a course elsewhere, Carlsten turned —C. Eugene Emery Jr. down that request. "I didn't have any Martha Churchill is an attorney in faith in the content of that course," he Gene Emery is a reporter for the Michigan who writes on many issues testified. Providence Journal. This summary is including false memory syndrome and As part of the effort to get Morgan to based on Providence Journal articles hysterias. take the statistics course he wanted, written by Karen Lee Ziner. Carlsten hired a business consulting firm, Precision Management, to help Hubbard Statistics persuade her. Precision's consultants, NAS Publishes New Course Taken to Court both Scientologists themselves, ulti­ Version of Science and mately recommended that Morgan be Creationism Report When Susan E. Morgan became a recep­ fired. Carlsten took that advice, but tionist for dentist Roger N. Carlsten of claimed in the trial that the firing was A major revision of the National Providence, R.I., she discovered a whole for poor job performance. Academy of Sciences' 1984 publication new way to look at statistics. Precision Management is run by Science and Creationism, updated with Carlsten told her she needed to take Randy Baxter, also a Scientologist. the latest discoveries in evolutionary sci­ a course in Hubbard Administrative Baxter testified that he also teaches the ence and including refutation of the Technology. He described it as a "statis­ course Carlsten wanted Morgan to take. "new" intelligent design creationism, tics" course. But the course on "How to The consultant told the court that he has just been published. Increase Productivity by Managing received his consultant license through Science and Creationism: A View from Personnel on Statistics" included refer­ Hubbard College of Administration in the National Academy (see New Books, ences to "the God dynamic" and "the Los Angeles. Hubbard College is, in p. 56) is a companion volume to last Supreme being." It turned out to have turn, licensed by the World Institute of year's widely publicized Academy publi­ been written by the late science fiction Scientology Enterprises. cation. Teaching About Evolution and the author L. Ron Hubbard, the founder of "These courses are not Scientology, Nature of Science (SI, July/ August 1998), Scientology. or related to religion," Baxter testified. which was addressed to teachers, educa­ Morgan, a Catholic who suspected Morgan didn't agree, claiming that tors, and policy makers. Like the 1994 diat Carlsten was trying to convert her to the course was "diinly veiled Scien- report, Science and Creationism is a brief,

8 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQU IRER NEWS AND COMMENT easy-to-read, well-designed publication "But science and religion occupy two Missing Bodies Found filled with color photos and illustrations separate realms of human experience. and pertinent discussions and defini­ Demanding that they be combined Despite Psychics' Tips tions about evolutionary science and the detracts from the glory of each." Detective Barbara Bergen, the lead problems with creation "science." "Intelligent design theory" is one of investigator on an Orlando missing-per­ Key sections cover the origin of the the neocreationist positions addressed in sons case, received a tip this past June universe. Earth, and life; evidence sup­ the new publication. "Molecular evolu­ from a caller advising her to search a porting biological evolution, including tionary data counter a recent proposi­ retention pond near Disney World. In findings from paleontology, compara­ tion called 'intelligent design theory,'" the preceding six months, authorities tive anatomy, biogeography, embryol­ the report says. Intelligent design has its had already removed about a half-dozen ogy, and molecular biology; and human roots in the views of eighteenth-century vehicles—some ditched by thieves, oth- evolution. An appendix of "frequently cleric William Paley, who saw the hand ers there by tragic accident—from the asked questions" is borrowed from the of an omnipresent designer in the intri­ body of water, which (until a restraining 1998 report. cate anatomy and workings of complex wall was recently erected) had been a organisms. slam-dunk for drivers failing to negoti­ Proponents of modern-day intelligent ate a sharp left turn near Interstate 4 in design argue that molecular structures the town of Celebration. such as DNA, or molecular processes Heeding die caller's advice, die pond such as the steps blood goes through was again searched, and a sport utility when it clots, are so irreducibly complex vehicle, along with the bodies of three that they can function only if all the Massachusetts men missing for nine operational steps are in place at once— months, was found. High speed, not foul therefore seemingly making gradual evo­ play, was die suspected cause of what had lution an impossible explanation. been a mysterious disappearance. "However," says the report, "struc­ The three men had arrived in Florida tures and processes that are claimed to be in September 1998 for a short vacation. 'irreducibly' complex typically are not on The mens' families sought information closer inspection." It gives many exam­ on their whereabouts through a Web site ples. "Similarly, evolutionary mechan­ and a television campaign. isms are capable of explaining the origin Just who was the prescient prognosti- of highly complex anatomical struc­ cator being credited by the police for tures," such as eyes, which developed cracking the case? Psychics from three Science and Creationism can be independendy many different times. states had contacted family members ordered from the Academy, but bodi the "Creationism, intelligent design, and with various suggestions as to where to 1998 and 1999 reports are also on the other claims of supernatural intervention look, including a storage facility in Web at: http://books.nap.edu/html.cre- in the origin of life or of species are not northern Florida, a remote wildlife area adonism/. The new one is 35 pages long. science because they are not testable by in central Florida, and a marshy area in Academy President Bruce Alberts the mediods of science," concludes the southern Florida. says die new edition of Science and report. "No body of beliefs that has its But die tipster, whose advice had led Creationism, like die 1998 NAS report, origin in doctrinal material radier ih.in to the successful extraction of die vehi­ summarizes some of the key evidence scientific observation, interpretation, cle and bodies, turned out to be—natu­ supporting evolution and analyzes argu­ and experimentation should be admissi­ rally—a dentist! Detective Bergen told ments by creationists, but he says that it ble as science in any science course." the Boston Globe, "He was driving along nevertheless has "a somewhat different CSICOP Fellow and Executive talking to his wife when he realized he'd purpose." Council member Eugenie Scott, an missed the turn and nearly skidded over "This document lays out for a anthropologist, was one of die contribu­ the curb and into the pond." Hearing of broader audience die case against pre­ tors to the report, which was reviewed the missing men and recalling his own senting religious concepts in science by an expert panel. chilling near-miss, "He suggested we classes," Alberts says. search the pond." "Scientists, like many others, are —Kendrick Frazier touched with awe at the order and com­ —Gary Posner plexity of nature. Indeed, many scien­ Kendrick Frazier is Editor of the Gary Posner is founder of the Tampa Bay tists are deeply religious," says Alberts. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Skeptics and a CSICOP consultant.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 9 CSICOP AT THE CENTER FOR INQUIRY 1999 PRIORITY

Using the Media & Telecommunications to Promote Science and Reason V The Fund for the Future is a capital campaign to provide CSICOP with the resources ^k. needed to nmre effectively influence media and public opinion. The mis have been defined by a telecommunications revolution, along with an explosion of misinformation available to the scholar and citizen alike. The hunger for superstition, pseudoscience, the paranormal and miraculous solutions has never been more acute. fHE TEN-YEAR PLAN 1999 Contributions are needed for current priorities: • Increased media appearances by skeptical spokespersons • Press releases, opinion pieces and media alerts • Greater exposure through the Internet, including webcasting • National initiatives coordinated by the Council for Media Integrity • Instructional materials introducing skepticism to elementary and secondary school students Video production HOW CAN YOU HELP?

CSICOP has established its expertise and integrity. It's time to command more media attention and a larger audience. The Center for Inquiry Fund for the Future is about new methods of outreach and broader influence, and is driven by an ambitious ten-year strategic plan for growth. I We depend on the support of readers and friends to continue leading the international I skeptical movement. Gifts to the Fund for the Future provide the resources we need f to respond to today's challenges. All gifts are gratefully accepted. The Fund for the Future welcomes gifts of encourage­ ment and major investments. Cash contributions and gifts of stock are needed for immediate growth and new initiatives. We also offer a range of planned giving opportunities, from bequests to assorted tax-advantaged trusts and pooled funds. Planned gifts support our work in the future and can provide an income stream for you and a beneficiary. You may also make a gift supporting the general endowment, or establish a special purpose fund underwriting a long-term project that expresses your personal interests and commitment to skepticism.

In today's stock market, gifts of highly appreciated securities offer particular advantages to the donor. When donating stock to a charitable organization, you avoid taxes and maximize the impact of the asset you are donating. Contact Anthony Battaglia at (716) 636-7571 ext. 311 or via e-mail at [email protected] to discuss accomplishing your philanthropic and finan­ cial goals and contributing to the Fund for the Future. CSICOP at the Center for Inquiry P.O. Box 703 Amherst, NY 14226-0703 (716) 636-1425 ext. 311 Fax (716) 636-1733 COUNCIL FOR MEDIA INTEGRITY Formed just weeks after its inclusion in the Ten-Year Plan, the Council for Media Integrity monitors and challenges media pro­ grams that convey unfounded claims and mislead the public about science. Members include Steve Allen (co-chair), E. 0. Wilson, Stephen Jay Gould, and many others. CSICOP Co-chairs of the Fund for the 1/ will invest in electronic infrastructure to facilitate rapid Future Campaign: above, author and TV personality response to irresponsible programs. Steve Allen; below, author and critic Martin Gardner. ENHANCED LIBRARY RESOURCES The Center for Inquiry's skeptics' library—already the finest of its kind in the world—needs additional funding to enlarge its core collection and add electronic media. Worldwide modem access to the library's catalog is already nearly complete.

ADULT EDUCATION The Council cosponsors the Center for Inquiry Institute, which has already expanded its offerings to include a new three-year certifi- :ate program in science and skepticism. Courses are scheduled in Amherst. Los Angeles, and other cities.

REGIONAL OUTREACH With the establishment of The Center for Inquiry -West (Los Angeles), The Center for Inquiry-Midwest (Kansas City) and The Center for Inquiry-Rockies (Boulder. Colorado), giant steps have been taken to enhance direct field service to skeptical activists. Additional regional centers are planned, with expanded calendars of activities.

FOCUSING UPON THE YOUNG To present the skeptical message more compellingty to the young, CSICOP will develop new materials—rang­ ing from age-appropriate print publications to audio and video cassettes and instructional coursework. Goals include enhanced understanding of science and improved critical thinking skills. NEWS AND COMMENT

Sorcerers and Psychics his predictions on Chinese feng shut which the lists of modern names and geomancy, helpfully suggested, "There dates were chosen. These methods have in Politics is a possibility of a bloodbath if people so much "wiggle room" that spectacular cannot control their emotions." results can also be achieved in secular, The Reagan White House was not the "non-coded" texts such as War and only place mixing the paranormal with —Benjamin Radford Peace. McKay and his co-authors also politics. In La Plata, Argentina, a sor­ show that several very reasonable mea­ Ben Radford is Managing Editor of the cerer was enlisted to remove a curse sures of code effectiveness, much less SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. preventing the current governor of convoluted than the complicated one Buenos Aires from becoming president. chosen by Witztum and Rips, show No Buenos Aires governor has ever no trace of the alleged "encoding" been elected president, and many Bible Code Redux: in Genesis or other books of the believe it to be the result of an 1882 McKay Rebuttal Torah. The article, and many curse by a witch named La Tolosa. Published in others, are available on the Web at According to legend, she cursed the http://cs.anu.edu.au/-bdm/ province's rulers while walking counter­ Statistical Science dilugim/torah.html. clockwise around Moreno square, in —David E. Thomas the cicy center. One of the chief arguments employed Self-proclaimed psychic and sor­ by proponents of tlie Bible Code is to Psychic Hotline Provider cerer Manuel Salazar exorcised the mention that the original code propo­ curse in June, repeating the witch's rit­ nents, Witztum, Rips, and Rosenberg, Accused of Fraud ual but in a clockwise direction. As of published a paper supporting the phe­ this writing, current Buenos Aires gov­ nomenon in the journal Statistical In June, the Federal Trade Commission ernor Eduardo Duhalde is slightly trail­ Science in 1994, and tiiat, to date, no forced a major provider of 900-number ing his opponent, although his diffi­ rebuttal has ever been published there. psychic hotlines to drop nearly $40 mil­ culty is likely due to Argentine presi­ But just such a paper, authored by lion in "phantom" phone charges to dent Carlos Menem's long reluctance to Brendan McKay, Dror Bar-Natan, consumers. The company, AmericanTel- support him. Net Inc., will also pay $2 million for In Jakarta, Indonesia, fortunetellers customers who had already paid dis­ and psychics were heavily consulted in puted charges. The FTC had accused the months prior to Indonesia's parlia­ THE American Tel-Net of falsely billing con­ mentary elections in June. One of sumers even though the consumers had Indonesia's most famous psychics, not used the company's services. The Permadi, is a candidate for the popular BIBLE company was also accused of failing to Indonesian Democratic Party-Struggle, properly disclose prices and charging headed by Megawati Sukarnoputri, consumers for "setting up" time that is daughter of Indonesia's founding presi­ GOBI required by law to be free. This marks dent Sukarno. Sukarno is said to have the second time die FTC fined the com­ routinely consulted psychics before pany; in 1994 American TelNet paid deciding important matters of state $2.5 million over similar improper policy. Other high government officials billing practices. are rumored to have asked wizards to Also in June, Cheryl Burnham, a cast spells to boost their careers or clerk at a county juvenile facility out­ undercut rivals. side of Los Angeles, was accused of Permadi foresees victory for Mega­ racking up $120,000 worth of tele­ wati, framing his prediction in Nostra­ phone calls to psychic hotlines while at damus-like cryptobabblc: "There will work. The 39-year-old woman faces be disruptions and chaos before or Maya Bar-Hillel, and Gil Kalai, was charges of felony grand theft and com­ after the elections," he said in a published in the May 1999 edition of mercial burglary. The calls, some 2,500 Reuters interview. "There will be dead­ Statistical Science. The authors show of them, were made at night and on lock. And, amid the disruption and definitively diat the secret of the codes weekends between June 1997 and chaos ... a white knight will emerge." lies not in any special properties of November 1998. Another soothsayer, Lukito, who based Genesis, but rather in methods by —Benjamin Radford D

12 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER MARTIN GARDNER

Carlos Castaneda and New Age Anthropology

mong American anthropolo­ Cajamarca, Peru (not in Brazil as he Teachings of Don Juan: A Yaqui Way of gists a raucous minority believe often claimed). After finishing high Knowledge. The book hit the New Age Afirmly in the reality of ESP, PK school in Lima, he married a few years market like a bombshell. Sales went (psychokinesis), precognition and other later, but deserted his wife and child to through the roof and Castaneda became psychic wonders, especially in the para­ come to California in 1951. For a few instantly rich and famous. normal powers of the shamans or sorcer­ years he lived in San Francisco, then The book tells how Castaneda, on a ers of primitive cultures. Last March a moved to Los Angeles where he took field trip to Mexico in 1960, met Don section of the American Anthro­ courses in journalism and creative writ­ Juan at a dreary bus depot in Arizona. pological Association, calling itself the ing at Los Angeles City College. In 1960 He turned out to be an elderly Yaqui Society for the Anthropology of he married Margaret Runyon. They lived sorcerer with vast magical powers and a Consciousness, sponsored a five-day together for only six months, but were habit of giggling even more often dian conference at the University of not divorced until thirteen years later. the Maharishi of Transcendental Medi­ California at Berkeley. It was their nine­ A photograph of Margaret accompa­ tation. Castaneda became Don Juan's teenth spring conference. nies her article "My Husband Carlos apprentice. His progress involved the I did not attend, nor have I sent Castaneda," in Fate (February 1975). frequent taking of such drugs as peyote $140 for tapes of the fifty lectures by She describes him as five feet five, dark cactus, Jimson weed, and various hallu­ counterculture speakers, but I do have a eyes, curly black hair, and widi thighs cinogenic mushrooms. The book's main copy of the meeting's 27-page program and legs "disproportionately short." His theme is that beyond our ordinary sent to me by my friend Jim Breese. "A face was round and cherubic, his skin world is an extraordinary realm in which few issues back," he said in a letter, "you nut-brown. one can talk to animals, even become deplored some current agenda at Temple Carlos had a habit of suddenly van­ animals, and experience all sorts of won­ University. Well, if you think that's bad, ishing, to return unexpectedly without derful miracles. This other world, so have a look at the enclosed program." telling Margaret where he had been. familiar to Yaqui shamans, is just as real I was indeed appalled by what I saw. Phone calls were always made from pub­ as this one. What stanled me most was the number lic booths. There were periods, she Castaneda followed his first book of speakers who enthusiastically praised writes, when he drove a taxi, kept with nine others, all best sellers, which the late bogus anthropologist Carlos accounts for a ladies apparel shop, and were translated into some twenty lan­ Castaneda. clerked in a liquor store from which he guages. In order of publication they are: Not much is accurately known about would bring her "wonderful wines." A Separate Reality: Further Conversations Carlos because he was known to fabricate These jobs may or may not have been with Don Juan; Journey to Ixtlan: The information about his life. He so success­ real because it was never possible to Lessons of Don Juan; Tales of Power; The fully evaded efforts to photograph him know when Carlos was telling the truth. Second Ring of Power: The Eagle's Gift; that die only photo published in die U.S. Letters to his wife were unsigned. The Fire From Within; The Power of that shows his face cleariy was taken at a In 1968 Carlos was an anthropology Silence; Further Lessons of Don Juan, and college graduation in 1959. It is now student at the University of California at known that he was born in 1925 as Los Angeles (UCLA) when the univer­ Martin Gardner's latest book is Visitors Carlos Cesar Arana Castaneda, in sity's press published his first book, The from Oz.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Sfplember/October 1999 13 The Art of Dreaming. Amy Smith, of Salt Lake City, Utah, we are Conscious: How the Ancient In 1972 the UCLA, in a fit of self- spoke on "A Castaneda Way of Knowl­ Seers and Shamans of Mexico Short- deception, gave Carlos a doctorate in edge: Implications of an Anthropological Circuited the Energy-Body." I fail to anthropology. His thesis was based on Legacy." She describes Castaneda's work grasp what he means when he adds: "For Journey to Ixtlan. Although the public, as "personally exploring non-ordinary having devastated the 'inner' (subjective, smitten by New Age fantasies and the states of consciousness, addressing the imaginal, hence 'heuristic') support for pleasures of mind-altering drugs, gob­ existence of multiple realities and other our ability to conceptualize things in the bled up Castaneda's books, mainstream unusual phenomena, using both emic world, Don Juan has turned the whole anthropologists were outraged. Careful and etic interpretations, and document­ 'subjectivity' fantasy inside-out: we do investigations found his books riddled ing and reporting these experiences not 'think' his lessons except insofar as with contradictions, outright errors, and they think us." rafts of material pilfered from other Michael J. Winkelman, of Arizona authors. Don Juan existed only in State University, spoke on "Epistemo- Carlos's imagination. As sociologist logical Perspectives on Castaneda." His Marcello Truzzi was the first to say, abstract reads in full: Castaneda's books were the greatest sci­ Castenada's concepts such as ence hoax since the Piltdown Man. Irate "Separate Reality," "stopping the anthropologists demanded that the uni­ world," and "tonal and nagual" are versity withdraw Castaneda's Ph.D. It analyzed from an epistemological per­ spective. His approaches to the sor­ refused. Professor Walter Goldschmidt, cerer's practice were explicitly episte­ then chairman of the university's mological, centrally concerned with anthropology department—who wrote processes through which human con­ a fulsome forward to Castaneda's first ceptual processes are structured and contribute to the reality known. book—said in 1978: "We possess no Central aspects of Castenada's train­ information that would support the ing involved learning how to suspend charges. ... I am not going to say mea the ordinary epistemological con­ culpa." structs and enter into a "natural epis­ temological mode." These innate This fall the University of California constructs of nature and the human Press, motivated by shameless greed, will brain/mind are revealed by compar­ issue the thirtieth anniversary edition of through a narrative ethnography were ing them to similar epistemological systems and practices found in other Carlos's first book. They will be promot­ ground breaking achievements that contemplative disciplines. The nature ing it, not as a work of pseudo-andiropol- remain essential to the field." of the sorcerer's epistemological devel­ ogy, but as a classic still relevant to readers Edith Turner, of the University of opment is assessed from the perspec­ longing to escape from the dull world of Virginia, in her paper on "The Teachings tives of genetic epistemology. ordinary reality to a magical land of Oz. of Castaneda," sees his research as a great I don't have the space to relate the liberation. "He has taken us—like Orher abstracts of papers given at the thousands of paranormal events Dante—through a dark passage out the conference are written in the same described in Castaneda's ten fantasies. I other side into a state of enlightenment." murky, mind-numbing jargon. Here are will mention only the funniest. In his He has freed us from "capitalism, com­ a few samples. first book Carlos tells how Don Juan, munism, consumerism. Church rational­ "Insights from anthropological lin­ high on drugs, transformed him into a ity and exdusivism; from reductionism, guistics include indigenous knowledge crow. Mind you, this was no hallucina­ fundamentalist Marxist scientism and its of telepathy in natural communication, tion. Carlos became a real, live crow. type of elitism, which condemns die folk; and discovering human languages of When Don Juan tossed him into the air, and lasdy from nihilism, the eternal war wholeness. . . ." (Dan Moonhawk he flew away. The sorcerer told Carlos of revenge upon the sins of many soci­ Alford, California State University.) that three crows would signal his death eties which can never be forgiven." Not "In children with MPD [Multiple and that after he died he would be rein­ only that, but "we are allowed to talk Personality Disorder], the Original carnated as a crow. with empathy, for instance, about the Personality goes for safekeeping from It is hard to believe dial some anthro­ Nigerian sacred Bori personage, about Physicalspace into Thoughtspace, where pologists still consider Castaneda to the Hindu guru, die Brazilian mat dt it is cared for by wise and loving collec­ have been a serious, competent santo, Rumi, die Tibetan oracle, Jesus, die tions of intelligent energy." (Ralph researcher into the stupendous wonders Bal Shem Tov, the Dalai Lama, Black Elk, Allison, of Los Osos, California.) of Yaqui Indians. Here are glimpses at and at last, Don Juan." Whew! "Cultural manifestation of human some of the abstracts of papers delivered Roy Wagner, also at the University of consciousness are the result of both at die March meeting of the countercul­ Virginia, calls his paper "Consciousness immanent and transcendent aspects of a ture anthropologists. is that Part of Consciousness of which principle of action stemming from a

14 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER

I philosophical tension inherent in the be able to get the same experience from Mystery: A Startling New Theory of nature of awareness." (Richard L. rereading interlinear texts." Outside Intervention in the Development Amoroso, of die Noetic Institute.) William S. Lyons's paper defends the of Man (1983), rehashes his earlier book "The culturally diverse delineation of ability of psychics to "see" things in but adds surprising new material. He these experiences will be considered nonordinary reality, such as seeing claims that Darwin stole all his ideas while discussing the posited referencing human auras. "If, for example, the direc­ from Alfred Wallace. Although our bod­ of the extrasensory experiences in ques­ tor of the National Science Foundation ies evolved from lower animals, a sharp tion within the context of an energetic- could see' what Don Juan claims to transition took place when God planted wave world view." (Renate Dohman, of 'see', psychical research would be more human souls in bestial bodies. Goodman Goldsmith College, London.) than likely to be as readily funded as seems unaware that he is defending cur­ The conference's keynote address, on body language research." Long, com­ rent Roman Catholic opinion.' "The Varieties of Dissociative Exper­ menting on this paper, suggests that the Carlos Castaneda died in Westwood, ience," was given by Stanley Krippner, a pineal gland, or "third eye," is die "point California, in 1998. "His only real sor­ well-known parapsychologist. Here is of focus" in the kind of "seeing" cery," writes Kathryn Lindskoog in her how the meeting's program described described by Castaneda. In a paper on book Fakes, Frauds, and Other Malarky, his speech: the evolution of psi. Long defends "was turning the University of California Stanley Krippner will describe a cross- Castaneda's accounts of the psychic abil­ into an ass." The next time you come cultural, postmodern, transpersonal ities of certain animals and birds. On close to a crow, try calling out "Hello model of dissociation based on the page 261 Long calls Shirley MacLaine Carlos!" If you are high enough on pey- work of Ruth-Inge Heinze and Rhea White. Dissociation is contrasted with an "erudite amateur anthropologist." ote, you might hear the bird answer. flow, identification with the ego-self is Long's ludicrous book must be read contrasted with identification with the to be believed. Jule Eisenbud, who for a Note All-Self, control is contrasted with loss decade tried to persuade the world that of control. Each of these examples of 1. See Kenneth Feeler's article "American dissociation and integration is evalu­ Ted Serios could project his thoughts Disingenuous: Goodmans American Genesis*—a ated on the basis of whether it is onto Polaroid film, writes on "Per­ new chapter in 'Cult' Archaeology," in SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Summer 1983, pp. 36-48; J. R. Cole's socially constructive or destructive. spectives in Anthropology and Para­ review of Goodman's Ptyrhir Arrhaenlogy. in Examples will include (among others) psychology." Long thinks Eisenbud's SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Spring/Summer 1978, pp. dissociative identity disorder, "chan­ book on Serios is "one of the best docu­ 105-108; and his review of The Genesis Mystery in neling," shamanic journeying, and act­ American Antiquity, Vol. 50, 1985. pp. 692-93. ing. First person accounts will be cited; mented cases ever presented for a regu­ for example, Robert Louis Stevenson, lar PK effect." Physicist Evan Harris Edgar Bergen, Shirley MacLaine, Walker, writing on "The Compleat References Chris Sizemore ("Three Faces of Eve"), Maria Sabina, and J.Z. Knight (who Quantum Mechanical Anthropologist," "channels" Ramtha). assures us that quantum effects explain "Don Juan and the Sorcerer's Apprentice." Uri Geller's ability to bend spoons. Unsigned cover story in Time, March 5, 1973, pp. 36-45. Unbounded praise of Castaneda by Two leading proponents of psychic "On Don Juan's Last Laugh." A review of New Age anthropologists can be found archaeology, J. N. Emerson and Jeffrey Castaneda's Tales of Power, by Joyce Carol Oates, in Psychology Today, September 1974, in many books. The wildest reference is Goodman, each contribute to Long's pp. 10. 12, 130. Extrasensory Ecology: Parapsychology and book. Goodman tells how a psychic in Castaneda's Journey: The Power and the Allegory. Anthropology (1977), a collection of Oregon went into trances and remote Richard dc Mille. Capra Press, 1976. Seeing Castaneda: Reactions to the 'Don Juan" viewed a spot in Flagstaff, Arizona. The papers edited by Joseph K. Long. (See Wirings of Carlos Castaneda. Daniel Noel Richard de Mille's biting review in accuracy of his visions enabled Goodman (ed.). Putnam's, 1976. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Spring/Summer to discover deeply buried artifacts. "Does Don Juan Live on Campus?" Paul Preus, in Goodman believes that the Garden of Human Behavior, November 1978, pp. 53—57. 1978, pp. 108-112.) The book's first The Don Juan Papers: Further Castaneda Controversies. paper, by Long, is about Castaneda. He Eden was not in Africa but in California. Richard dc Mille (ed). Ross-Erickson. 1980. calls Castaneda's first book "one of the He denies drat American Indians came "The Sorcerer's Birthday: The Fiction of Carlos Castaneda." Gregory McNamee, in The most important books in the field of here across the Bering land bridge from Bloomsbury Review, Scptember/Ociober 1988. andiropology." Asia. They went the other way, California p. 31. The book's second paper is a vigorous to Asia! From California they migrated to Carlos Castaneda. Academic Opportunism, and the Africa and -her parts of the world. And Psychedelic Sixties, Jay Courtney Fikes. attack on Castaneda by Agehananda Millennia Press, 1993. Bharati, but most contributors to rhis where did these California Indians come "What Hath Carlos Wrought?" Robert McGrath, bizarre anthology are great admirers of from? In Goodman's first book Psychic in The Skeptic. March/April 1993. pp. 11-12. Archaeology: Time Machine to the Past "Portrait of a Sorcerer." Keith Thompson, in New Castaneda. Margaret Mead, for instance, Age Journal March/April 1994 pp. 152-53. writes: "Carlos Castaneda has developed (1977) a map shows how they came, "Carlos Castaneda and Don Juan." Jay C. Fikes, in a metliod which makes die American from the lost continents of Atlantis and The Encyclopedia of the Paranormal Gordon Lemuria! Stein (ed.). Prometheus, 1996. Indian religious experience available to "Shaman or Sham?" Hal Cohen, in lingua Franca, non-anthropologists who would never Goodman's second book. The Genesis September 1998. pp. 22-24.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 IS INVESTIGATIVE HIES JOE NICKELL

Miracles or Deception? The Pathetic Case of Audrey Santo

s we near the next millennium, Catholic Church is often skeptical of the room warmed from pilgrims' body the media have been pointing such extra-canonical phenomena as heat, the mixture would liquefy and run Ato "millennial madness" as the well. It has distanced itself from like tears. A more innocent explanation source for a wide range of divine Medjugorje (where six children suppos­ was afforded the tree-splotch "Virgin" claims. Yet the faithful have been seek­ edly conversed with the Virgin Mary), in Los Angeles: A tree expert deter­ ing miracles and finding them—they and the local bishop proclaimed the mined a fungus was responsible. There believe—in unlikely forms and places Medjugorje affair a fraud. seems, however, little incentive for for years. These include apparitions of Interestingly, a year after Audrey's Church prelates to adopt a critical the Virgin Mary (for example in the accident, her mother, Linda Santo, stance. Clerics who debunked a peram­ Bosnian village of Medjugorje, begin­ spent $8,000 to take her to Medjugorje bulating and weeping statue in ning in 1981), bleeding statues and in hopes of a miracle. As even a sympa­ Thornton, California, in 1981, for crucifixes (e.g., in Quebec in 1985), thetic priest admitted: "On a rational example, were denounced for their and miraculously appearing images, level, this was an extremely absurd idea. efforts by religious believers who called such as the portrait of Mary seen in a It was absurd. It should not have been them "a bunch of devils" (Nickell 1993, splotch on a tree in Los Angeles in done. It was medically wrong. And I 67-68). 1992 (Nickell 1993; 1997). Now there think from all kinds of angles, sane peo­ Nevertheless, in the Santo case, the are reported healings and other "mirac­ ple would say it was even spiritually Worcester bishop appointed a theolo­ ulous" phenomena attending a coma­ wrong" (Sherr 1998). Expecting her gian and two psychologists to form an tose teenage girl in Worcester, daughter to be cured, Linda Santo investigating commission. Their pre­ Massachusetts. bought her sandals so she could walk. liminary report was issued on January Pilgrims currently stream to the But as it happened, instead of being 21, 1999, and I appeared that evening home of Audrey Santo who has been helped, Audrey suffered a sudden car­ on The NBC Nightly News with Tom bedridden since 1987, when, at the age diac arrest. She was revived but had to Brokaw to offer a brief skeptical view of of three, a near-drowning left her in an be returned home by air ambulance at a the case. unresponsive condition. Visitors to the cost of $25,000—a bill her grand­ Among other tilings, the commis­ home chapel, converted from a garage, mother mortgaged her home to pay. sion members showed skepticism report healings after being shown stat­ Linda Santos response to the near-fatal toward claims that Audrey is a "victim ues that drip oil and communion wafers incident was to blame it on the proxim­ soul" (one who suffers for others). that bear smears of blood. ity of a Yugoslavian abortion clinic Stating diat this is not "an official term Skeptics may not be guilty of exces­ (Harrison 1998; Sherr 1998). in the Church," the report noted that sive doubt when they wonder how and Skepticism of miracle claims is often "It was used in some circles in the 18th why a tragic figure who cannot heal warranted. For example, newsmen from and 19th century when there was a fas­ herself is able to heal others. The the Canadian Broadcasting Corpora­ cination with suffering and death." It tion were able to borrow one of the remained to be determined, the com­ Joe Nickell CSICOP's Senior Research Quebec "bleeding" statues and to have mission concluded, that Audrey Fellow, is author of Looking for a Miracle it scientifically analyzed. The blood had demonstrated "cognitive abilities" or "at (1993). been mixed with pork fat so diat, when the age of diree was, and presendy is.

16 September/Ociober 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER capable of making a free choice to On the 20/20 segment, titled "The was discontinued by order of the accept the suffering of others." In fact, Miracle of Audrey" (first broadcast bishop. doctors say that Audrey exhibits "aki­ October 4, 1998), Lynn Sherr asked, In preparing the 20/20 segment a netic mutism"—a comalike state. "Is this 14-year-old child a miracle producer called SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Except for her eyes, which restlessly worker, a messenger of God? Or is this magazine and discussed with me die blink and wander, the tragic teenager all a cruel hoax, exploiting a sick and phenomenon of weeping icons. Of those remains virtually motionless. When innocent girl?" Elsewhere a spokesman that were not due to simple condensa­ ABC's 20120 reporter Lynn Sherr for the bishop confessed to having tion or "sweating," I said, approximately placed her hand in Audrey's she qualms about a disabled child being 100 percent were fakes, judging by my received, she thought, a slight squeeze, placed on public display. On one anni- experience. That includes oil-yielding but when she tried again there icons, which typically involve was no response (Sherr 1998). a non-drying oil (like olive Nevertheless, Linda Santo oil) that can stay fresh-look­ rejects the idea that her ing indefinitely. daughter is unresponsive: We discussed the possi­ "She cannot speak, but she bility of using surveillance knows everything. She is not cameras to monitor the in a coma . . . she's in that Santo statues, but I pointed room with her Jesus seven out that if trickery were days a week, adoring him, involved it was unlikely that waiting on him, serving him, such an investigative tech­ and he's blessing her." She nique would be permitted. even says that Audrey appears As Lynn Sherr would subse­ to people—"in person or in quently report on camera, dreams"—and when she does "We wanted to do our own so "is moving and speaking" test with a surveillance cam­ (Harrison 1998). era in the [home] chapel, Linda Santo believes but the family prefers to let Audrey has worked many the commission finish its miracles. She cites the case of work first." a young man injured in a Unfortunately, the com­ motorcycle accident whose mission members seem woe­ doctors had reportedly said he fully ill-prepared to investi­ would never be able to walk gate trickery. Sherr asked again; yet on the same day his commission member Dr. mother had gone to see John Madonna, "Did you Audrey he began to walk see any way that anybody without his crutches. was pouring oil or making Actually, according to his per­ the oil appear on those sonal physician, there had objects?" He replied: "No. been a good likelihood—a 75 Especially after we did our percent chance—that he examination behind the pic­ A picture of the Image of Guadalupe similar to this one is among the images that would indeed walk (Sherr allegedly exude oil in the Santo home. tures and under the statues 1998). and so forth and found that AnorJier case cited by Linda Santo versary of Audrey's accident, she was there was no way diat these objects were concerned a woman supposedly healed exhibited at a Worcester stadium with being fed the oil." Another member. of liver cancer through Audrey's inter­ some 10,000 people in attendance. At Dr. Robert Ciotone, stated: "We found cession. In fact, however, the patient's the Santo home a window was added to nothing, no source of the oil." oncologist pointed out that she had Audreys bedroom through which pil­ Actually, die conditions under which already begun a new cancer treatment grims could stare at the "miracle" girl the statues and other objects yield oil are and that it had clearly begun to work and pray for her to intercede with God consistent wirh the surreptitious appli­ even before she had gone to see Audrey. on their behalf. (The window is remi­ cation of a non-drying oil. According to The woman continued to regard the niscent of one in a mobile-home carni­ Sherr: "Although no one claims to have remission as a miracle even when the val exhibit through which spectators seen an object actually start to spout cancer returned, spreading to her brain could view "Siamese" twins as they oil"—a very significant fact—"the com­ ("Desperate" 1999). watched TV.) However, the practice missioners were astounded when a reli-

SKEPTICAl INQUIRER September/October 1999 17 gious icon they brought along oozed oil suspicions. First, there is the lack of any in part because cases of bogus weeping that night." Of course no surveillance scientific proof for the alleged phenom­ images have often been attended by cameras were monitoring the icon dur­ enon: not a single case of a weeping other easily faked miracles (Nickell ing that time. effigy has ever been scientifically veri­ 1993). In this case there are "bleeding" On an episode of CBS's 48 Hours fied. In fact the history of such pictures and communion wafers. Espe­ titled "Desperate Measures" (1999), a reported occurrences is a litany of cially troubling are reports that stig­ reporter asked Linda Santo how one deception, including self-deception. In mata—wounds imitating Jesus' cruci­ would know whether someone in the the Santo case there is no mere misper- fixion—have "mysteriously" appeared household was simply applying the oil ception, since the presence of copious on Audrey's body, and on Good Fridays "in the middle of the night." She amounts of oil—including the "sponta­ she has reportedly been seen to lie with replied, "You don't know." "Are you neous" filling of chalices—has been her arms outstretched, as if crucified. doing this?" Linda was asked. "No," she well established. Moreover, the fact According to one reporter, "Her parents replied. that the oil has not been observed to say they cannot explain how their Linda Santo did permit 20/20 to flow strongly suggests prior applica­ daughter, who cannot normally move take a sample of the oil. It proved to be tion. And the varying test results seem herself, becomes positioned in this way" 75 percent olive oil, "the rest unidenti­ less consistent with a genuine phenom­ (Harrison 1998). Although we live in a scientific age, there has been a resurgence in magical A reporter asked Linda Santo how one thinking, resulting in a revival of reli­ would know whether someone in the gious fundamentalism, the rise of the "New Age" movement, and an increase household was simply applying the oil in "miracle" claims. The appeal is wide­ "in the middle of the night." spread, although it may be especially strong among the economically disad­ She replied, "You don't know." vantaged, where human despair and superstition may coexist. (The Santo fiable," according to Sherr (1998). She enon than with an attempt to adulter­ phenomena, for example, take place in added: "Other independent tests have ate the oil in hopes of confounding the the midst of Portuguese immigrant all yielded different results—in other analysis. The presence of chicken fat— families.) words nothing conclusive." In fact, which, along with common vegetable People seem to hunger for some tan­ analysis of one sample by a Pittsburgh oil, is readily available in a home gible religious experience, and wher­ laboratory revealed it to be 80 percent kitchen—seems particularly telling. So ever there is such profound want there vegetable oil and 20 percent chicken does the observation of one volunteer is the opportunity for what may be fat, according to The Washington Post, that there tends to be an increase in oil called "pious fraud." Money is rarely which ordered the test (Weingarten on days pilgrims are expected the primary motive, the usual impetus 1998). ("Desperate" 1999). being to seemingly triumph over adver­ The commission's report, while not­ Even the timing of the phenomenon sity, renew the faith of believers, and ing that the source of the oil was not yet is suspicious, beginning long after confound the doubters. An end-justi- explained, did correctly conclude, "One Audrey's accident and following other fies-the-means attitude may prevail, cannot presume that the inability to traumas including her father's several- but the genuinely religious and the explain something automatically makes years desertion of the family and her devoutly skeptical may agree on one it miraculous." (In other words, the mother's diagnosis of breast cancer. thing, that the truth must serve as both commissioners were duly noting the According to Lynn Sherr (1998), " . . . the means and the end. Ultimately, nei­ logical fallacy of an argument ad igno- [J]ust as it seemed that God wasn't lis­ ther science nor religion can be served rantiam—literally an appeal "to igno­ tening, the Santos believe he sent them by dishonesty. rance.") The report added, "We must a sign. With no warning and no logic, References be careful not to identify this oil as they say oil suddenly coated a religious 'holy oil'"—that is, oil blessed by a portrait in their living room." This was "Desperate Measures." 1999. 48 Hours (CBS- TV), June 24. Catholic priest and used to anoint the a picture of the Image of Guadalupe— Harrison, Ted. 1998. Miracle child. Fortran Times ill—and insisted it not be used or itself a faked "miracle" picture! (Nickell December, 40-41. offered as such. Prior to this, the Santos 1993, 29-34)—and it occurred after Nickell, Joe. 1993. Looking for a Miracle. Amherst, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. distributed packets of oil-soaked cotton national media attention had focused . 1997. In the Eye of the Beholder. Free balls, often receiving money and other on several other instances of "weeping" Inquiry Spring, 5. donations in return. images. Sherr. Lynn. 1998. The Miracle of Audrey. 20120 (ABC News transcript no. 1848). October 4. Taken together, the evidence relat­ The phenomena that accompany the Weingarten, Gene. 1998. Tears for Audrey. The ing to the oil exhudations raises strong Santo oil exhudations are also suspect. Washington Post July 19. •

18 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS ROBERT SHEAFFER

*

Aliens Follow Their Leader

teven Greer, M.D., is the leader After Roswell by the late Philip Corso. ketball, which was swirling with what of CSETI, a wild-and-woolly "We possess and have reverse-engineered looks like electrical arcs. It left his body, SUFO group that claims to be able functional extraterrestrial devices diat floated down, and entered me." After a to lure spacecraft down for close operate with physics not being taught at brief conversation with the luminous encounters by shining lights at them. If UVA. I have seen them." But don't entity, Firmage was convinced that that doesn't work, they try "coherent assume that Greer is naively credulous: aliens were real. Had he known more thought sequencing" (CTS), which he thinks that at least 90 percent of the about psychology, he would never have apparently gets 'em every time—see claims of UFO abductions are "absolute embarrassed himself with this account: www.cseti.org/member/kit_ad.htm for rubbish or hoaxes." As for the rest, he This is a classic "hypnopompic halluci­ the whole story. (His Web site promises thinks shey are due to a military program nation," well-known in psychology, and to reveal a "long history of communica­ using crafts that look like UFOs, in frequently cited in the serious literature tions from Mars." Unfortunately, that which people actually are abducted dealing with supposed UFO abduc­ page is available only to paid members, (which, incidentally, was the plot of a tions. (See, for example, Susan so 1 will not be able to report on their recent episode of The X-Files). Blackmore, "Abduction by Aliens or exciting findings.) Greer claims to have But a dynamic young Internet entre­ Sleep Paralysis?" SI, May/June 1998). had hundreds of close encounters. He preneur in California's Silicon Valley has Halfway between the dream state and claims to have seen a dozen spacecraft, eclipsed Greer in the race to get atten­ waking, the mind mixes the input it clustered up in the stars in November tion by making the most outrageous receives from both. 1998. As for seeing actual ETs them­ UFO claims. Joseph Firmage, 28, was Firmage used S3 million of his own selves, tliat's much more rare: he's seen founder and CEO of the highly suc­ money to found the International Space them only a couple dozen times. Greer cessful U.S. Web Corporation Sciences Organization in Santa Clara. recently moved from North Carolina to (NASDAQ:USWB), founded just four He now accepts, and promotes, the Charlottesville, Virginia, with alien years ago but now worth $2.8 billion. most outlandish UFO claims making activity, including crop circles, following However, as Firmage told die San Jose the rounds. Like Greer, Firmage closely in his wake. According to the Metro, his role has diminished from preaches that most of our newest high- Charlotesville Weekly (February 2), CEO to "founder and chief strategist" to technology wonders, such as fiber "Greer had just bought a house in "the guy at the end of the hall who optics, were reverse-engineered from Albemarle County when the circles believes in aliens." Like Saul of Tarsus, artifacts found in a crashed saucer in appeared here." Greer noted rhat the Firmage had his life altered forever by a Roswell, New Mexico, which is surely crop circles were in the shape of the vision; unlike Saul his vision didn't among the most absurd and ironic state­ CSETI logo. "It was a welcome mat occur on the road to anywhere, but ments ever made by a Silicon Valley they—the extraterrestrials—put out for instead while lying in his bed. One insider. When informed of this. Dr. the director of CSETI," he modestly morning upon awakening, "a remark­ Narinder Kapany, who developed the explained. able being, clothed in brilliant white Greer is a big promoter of the gospel light, appeared hovering over my bed in Robert Sheaffer's World Wide Web page for of reverse-engineered alien technology, my room. Out of him emerged an elec­ UFOs and other skeptical subjects is at first proclaimed in the book The Day tric blue sphere, just smaller than a bas­ www. debunker. com.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 19 first fiber optics in the 1950s, [after his publication last December] Pennsylvania, in 1965 have been among exclaimed "that makes me a spaceman!" people with information will be the most recognizable anywhere. It is He explained how his interest in bend­ emboldened to come forward." This one of the major cases presented in John ing light around corners began when he failed to happen, most likely because Fuller's Incident at Exeter, and featured was a student in India during the there isn't anybody in possession of the on the cover of his book The Interrupted 1940s. kind of UFO-conspiracy information Journey. According to the boys, they One of Firmage's favorite "proofs" is he was hoping to find. photographed a giant UFO that they the disputed MJ-12 papers claiming that A new "documentary," "UFOs: saw hovering near the moon. The pho­ a secret government cabal keeps the lid Testing the Evidence" in which I briefly tos were soundly endorsed by "experts," on extraterrestrial encounters, milking appeared, was shown on the A&E even though they look remarkably like a them for information while hiding them Channel on April 8, 1999. Hosted by plate resting on somebody's hand from rhe public. The supposed Majestic Bill Curtis, its main focus was the (which is exactly what William K. 12 papers first surfaced in 1986 and have March 12, 1977, incident in which Hartmann, writing in the Condon been extensively studied (and refuted) Captain Neil Daniels reported that his Report, concluded that they were). since dien. Many of the more cautious United Airlines Flight 94 was appar­ Fuller quotes one professional photogra­ UFO believers agree that they are ently "diverted" for a short time under pher saying, "if somebody asked us to go hoaxes, including Roswell-crash pro­ the control of a brilliant light that out and duplicate this picture, we would moter Kevin Randle. As if these papers appeared in the sky to the west. find it impossible." were not sufficiendy suspect, Firmage Unfortunately, the show's writers chose However, the Winter 1998 issue of relies heavily on a second set of MJ-12 to completely ignore the prosaic expla­ International UFO Reporter, published by the Center for UFO Studies, con­ tains an article by Mark Cashman Firmage preaches that most of our titled "The End of a Photographic Case." Researching the venerable clas­ newest high-technology wonders were sic case, Cashman traced down John reverse-engineered from artifacts Lucci, the elder brother, twenty years old in 1965 but now fifty-three. After found in a crashed saucer in some hesitation, Lucci confessed that Roswell, New Mexico. he, his brother, and another youth had faked the photo more than thirty years earlier, "largely as described by the papers, whose credibility problems are nation I gave them. The supposed Condon report" (which, incidentally, is even more apparent than those of the navigational anomaly occurred just now online, thanks to the National first and whose supporters are even after the navigator had switched over to Capital Area Skeptics. See fewer. Yet Firmage apparendy expects a new directional beacon, which opens www.ncas.org). The boys intended people to accept the "new" MJ-12 papers up many opportunities for the aircraft only to fool one of their friends with as proof of a giant government conspir­ to suddenly change direction. Whether the photo. However, that friend took it acy, even though the originals have been the navigational anomaly was caused by to the local newspaper, and "things got shown to a hoax. You can read all these a mechanical problem or by human out of hand quickly . . . before they "proofs" for yourself at Firmage's Web error, the appearance (and disappear­ knew it, the picture was famous." site, modestly titled The Truth at ance) of the brilliant light reported by Continues Cashman: "what may sur­ www.thewordistruth.org. (He requires Captain Daniels matches precisely with prise people is how much of a burden you to give him your e-mail address the known position of die brilliant this was to the two claimants. They before allowing you to tap into his fount planet Venus setting in the west, a fact were greatly relieved to get this settled. of cosmic wisdom.) pointed out to me by skeptic Tim Other hoaxers may be similarly bur­ Firmage was confident that the pub­ Printy (see his Web page at dened, and we need to be able to give lication of his twaddle would convince http://members.aol.com/ them a way to own up to the truth." all and sundry who happened to read it, TPrinry/UFO.html). Apparently the He notes how solid the photos' reputa­ and burst open the dam of UFO show's directors didn't want to spoil a tion had once been, soberly concluding secrets. Apparently he does not realize really exciting UFO story by letting that "this must bring home to us how that "selling" far-out stories to die sci­ mere facts get in the way. fragile some apparently reliable infor­ entific community is not as easy as In spite of all the hysterical promo­ mation may be." I predict that if Mr. "selling" a hot Silicon Valley Internet tion by the media, the past year has not Cashman continues to do first-rate company to eager Wall Street investors. been a good one for classic UFO cases. investigative work like this, he will The scenario he envisioned was that The famous pair of UFO photos taken soon have few friends left within the "every week for the next two months by the Lucci brothers in Beaver County, UFO movement. Q

20 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Where Do We Come From? A Humbling Look at the Biology of Life's Origin

The origin of life on Earth is a fundamental scientific question, but we do not know as much as many biology textbooks would like you to believe.

MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI

cience is about answering questions regarding the nat­ ural world in a rational, evidence-based manner. One Scommonly accepted component of the scientific method is repeatability of the phenomena under investiga­ tion. Here lies perhaps the most difficult aspect of the quest for knowledge of the origin of life on Earth. It is clearly a question about the natural world, in fact perhaps one of the ultimate questions (together with the origin of the universe itself)- Yet the events we are attempting to investigate are by definition unique. Life may well have originated multiple times in the universe, including perhaps in our galactic neighborhood. But at the moment we only have one exam­ ple to go by. Earth is the only place that we know for

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 21 certain harbors life as we conceive it. that we can examine to tell what our earliest ancestors looked Before entering into a skeptical evaluation of the heart of like. True, there are plenty of "simple" organisms around die problem, let us answer an even more fundamental ques­ today, from viruses to bacteria to slime molds. But slime tion: Why do we care? I suggest two reasons. First, should we molds are in fact eukaryotes, i.e., their cellular structure and arrive at the conclusion that life originated elsewhere in the metabolism are basically similar to those of an animal or a universe and was then somehow "imported" to Earth, this plant. They are far too complex for our purposes. Bacteria are would automatically imply the existence of life as a widespread prokaryotes, that is, their cells are indeed simpler than those phenomenon in the cosmos, and therefore the fact that living of most other living organisms. But bacteria have been beings are not unique to our planet; it is hard to conceive of a around for more than three billion years, and they have more compelling blow to anthropocentrism since Copernicus become perfect reproductive machines, characterized by an and Galileo swept Earth away from the center of the universe incredibly efficient metabolism and ability to withstand a few centuries ago. Second, and perhaps more relevant, environmental changes. After all, it is not by chance that humankind would finally have an answer to the question they have proliferated for so long. So that answer is "where did we come from?" which, like it or not, has been vex­ unsuitable as well. Finally, viruses are indeed among the sim­ ing our philosophy, art, and science since the beginning of plest living creatures in existence, so simple in fact that some recorded history (and probably much earlier than that). If that biologists even doubt that they really qualify as "living." But doesn't sound to you like enough of a reason to ponder the evolutionarily speaking, viruses are late arrivals on the controversy over the origin of life, your curiosity-neurons are Darwinian stage. Viruses are short pieces of nucleic acids definitely in need of some therapy. wrapped in a protein. They originated from pre-existing nucleic acids, live only inside cells, and depend entirely on Couldn't We Just Look at the Simplest Organism? the host's metabolism to reproduce. Quite obviously, since our problem is to understand how the first living organisms Before we begin to discuss the varied theories about the ori­ came about, we cannot utilize as a model something that gin of life, let us clear the field from one misconception. cannot survive outside an already existing cell. No, we arc There is no such thing as a modern-day "primitive" organism looking for something simple, yes, but self-sufficient, and really primitive.

Top ten classical readings on the origin of life The Alternative Answer: What About God? A.I. Oparin, 1938. The origin of life on Earth. Macmillan. Oparin's pioneering suggestions about the first steps of No serious scientific discussion of any topic should include life and the role of coacervates in forming the first cells. supernatural explanations, since the basic (and very reason­ E. Schrodinger, 1947. What is life? Macmillan. The first physi­ cist who had a brilliant idea about the answer to the ulti­ able) assumption of science is that the world can be explained mate question. entirely in physical terms, without recourse to divine entities. S.L. Miller, 1953. "A production of amino acids under possible However, as Sherlock Holmes said, "When you have elimi­ primitive earth conditions." Science 117:528-529. The original article on how to make the soup. nated the impossible, whatever remains, however improbable, S.W. Fox, 1960. "How did life begin?" Science 132:200-208. must be the truth" (in Arthur Conan Doyle's The Sign of Four). Although his theory of proteinoid microspheres as the So, should it turn out that we really do not have a clue about precursors of modern cells is hard to believe, it is still cited in modern textbooks. the origin of life, we must entertain other, more esoteric pos­ F. Hoyle and C. Wickramasinghe, 1978. Lifecloud. Harper and sibilities. Row. All about Hoyle and Wickramasinghe's interstellar Furthermore, in the specific case of the origin of life, even theories. Turn your skeptic sense very high! D. Gish, 1979. Evolution? The fossils say no! Creation-Life such scientists as the British astrophysicist Fred Hoyle have Publishers. If you really want to know prima facie what gone on record precisely suggesting a supernatural beginning the creationists say. to all life on Earth. Hoyle, together with his colleague F. Crick, 1981. Life itself. Simon and Schuster. The eclectic Nobel laureate's offbeat take on the origin question. Chandra Wickramasinghe, suggested that a sort of silicon-chip A.G. Cairn-Smith, 1985. Seven clues to the origin of life. creator actually goes around the universe sprinkling the seeds Cambridge University Press. For the aficionados of the clay of life here and there. An alternative scenario is the one theory. J.B.S. Haldane, 1985. "The origin of life," in On being the advanced by creationists such as Duane Gish. In Gish's case, of right size and other essays, Oxford University Press. The course, we have the classical God of the Bible, who created the original soup can be found here (note that this is a reprint universe and humankind with a very personal touch, and did of a much older article). R. Shapiro, 1986. Origins: A skeptic's guide to the creation of so in the span of only six days. Let me make clear that a rejec­ life on Earth. Summit. Expressly for skeptics! tion or falsification (to the extent that it is possible) of these hypotheses does not prove the nonexistence of every God, which in and of itself is outside the realm not only of science, Massimo Pigliucci is an associate professor in the Departments of but of any human enterprise. However, modern science is cer­ Botany and of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of tainly in a position to reject specific hypotheses about special Tennessee, KnoxvilU, TN 37996-1100; E-mail pigliucci@utk. creation. Namely, Gish's contention of a 6,000-year-old Earth edit; http.llfp. bio. utk.edu/skeptic. is out of the question given what we know about the geology

22 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and geophysics of planetary evolution. unlike the organic compounds typical of living organisms. Should a skeptic reject outright any possibility of special Chirality is a property of any chemical structure that deals creation of life? Well, no. Although implausible, it is still pos­ with the three-dimensional arrangement of its atoms and mol­ sible. There are two points that must be borne in mind, how­ ecules. All amino acids, for example, the building blocks of ever, before going for a Hoyle-like explanation of the origin of proteins, can in theory come in two versions, which are mirror us all. First, it has to be true mat we really don't have a clue images of each other. These are called "left-" and "right-" about how life on Earth originated by natural means. As we handed forms, and they are characterized by exactly die same will see, though the situation is messy, it is not that desperate. chemical properties. The biomolecules used by terrestrial Second, the mere fact that we cannot currendy (or even ever) organisms, however, are either left- or right-handed (depend­ explain something does not ing on the type of molecule). constitute positive evidence •« If indeed life had come from for a supernatural explana- 2 space, one would expect to tion. After all, for a long time & find a similar chiral asymme­ we did not know what natural try in space matter as well. phenomena could cause light­ A second crucial objection ning, but eventually theories to the life-from-space based on Zeus's anger did turn out to be incorrect. hypothesis is posed by its vio­ Conscqucndy, it may be that lation of the principle of uni- the only rational position for formitarianism. If comets the time being is simply a and meteors brought us—lit­ provisional and salutary "I erally—to Earth a few billion don't know." years ago, why are they not doing it now? Meteors con­ tinue to bombard our planet Out of This World? and our neighbors in the solar system on a regular The next class of explanations basis, yet so far not a single about the ultimate prove­ living organism or complex nance of life is that—as any organic molecule has been good old-fashioned science found inside any of them. fiction movie of die 1950s There is no reason to think would have proclaimed—it is that the primordial "shower not of this world. of life" has ceased. Even Interestingly, Hoyle and though the conditions for the Wickramasinghe have made persistence of primordial life their contribution in this on our planet may no longer realm too, by suggesting that hold, presumably the space life was brought to this planet surrounding our solar system courtesy of an interstellar has not changed that much, cloud of gas and dust, or per­ leaving Hoyle, Crick, and haps by a comet. Yet another others with a major hole in their arguments. British scientist (and also an ex-physicist—coincidence?), the Finally, it has to be realized that even if we do admit that Nobel laureate Francis Crick, joined the ranks of the extrater- life originated outside Earth and was then imported here, we restrialists. Crick suggested a scenario diat envisions extrater­ really would not have an answer to how life started. We would restrial beings "seeding" the galaxy, much in die same fashion have simply shifted the question to a remote and very likely of Hoyle's silicon-chip creator. inaccessible realm, an intellectually unsatisfactory state of Contrary to the supernatural explanations, the Hoyle- affairs. Wickramasinghe theory (but not Crick's) is at least in princi­ ple open to experimental verification, in that it makes some The Chicken or the Egg in the Soup? relatively precise predictions. For one thing, we should find plenty of organic compounds in interstellar clouds, inside Having excluded—at least temporarily—Gods and extrater­ comets, or both. Both these expectations have been superfi­ restrials, we are left with plain old biochemistry and biology to cially verified. 1 say superficially because the kind of com­ give us clues to the origin of life. The history of scientific pounds found by astronomers in these media are very simple, research in this field is long and fascinating. It started in the much too simple to provide any meaningful "seed" for the ori­ 1920s with the Russian scientist Alexander Oparin and his gin of carbon-based life forms on Earth. Furthermore, "coacervates," blobs of organic matter (mosdy containing sug­ extraterrestrial organic compounds have random chirality. ars and short polypeptides), supposedly the precursors of mod-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 23 crn cells. It was Oparin, together with the British biologist speak, came before the chicken. Some sort of primitive nucleic J.B.S. Haldane, who came up with the idea of a "primordial acid had appeared first, followed only later by proteins. soup"—the possibility that the ancient oceans on Earth were In today's biochemically sophisticated cells, proteins and filled with organic matter formed by the interaction between nucleic acids play very distinct roles. Four such fundamental the atmospheric gases and energy provided by volcanic erup­ activities need to be summarized for our purposes. tions, powerful electric storms, and solar ultraviolet radiation. 1. The DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) encodes the informa­ Science had to wait until the 1950s for Stanley Miller to tion that eventually gives rise to proteins. actually attempt to experimentally reproduce the soup. The 2. The messenger RNA (or mRNA, ribonucleic acid, the story is well known: Miller started with a reasonable facsimile same as DNA, but with an extta oxygen atom and a few other of the ancient atmosphere, mostly methane and ammonia, chemical differences) then carries the information to special­ with no oxygen. Atmospheric oxygen, together with the ozone ized structures known as ribosomes. that blocks ultraviolet radiation, was in fact produced much 3. Inside the ribosomes (which, by the way, are made of later by the organic process of photosynthesis in blue-green both nucleic acids and proteins) the message gets translated algae (however, more recent research has suggested the pres­ into proteins by virtue of a second type of RNA, known as ence of some oxygen in the original atmosphere). Miller put transfer RNA (tRNA). The tRNA has the peculiar ability to the whole thing in a ball, gave it an electric charge, and waited. attach itself to the mRNA on one side and to amino acids (the He found that amino acids and other fundamental complex blocks that make up proteins) on the other side. This way, we organic molecules were accumulating at the bottom of his have a chain of mRNA that is paralleled by the forming chain apparatus. His discovery gave a huge boost to the scientific of amino acids that in turn will eventually result in the final investigation of the origin of life. Indeed, for some time it protein. seemed like creation of life in a test tube was within reach of 4. The proteins, most of which are enzymes, are the actual experimental science. Unfortunately, such experiments have "doers" of the cellular world. They are both the building not progressed much further than their original prototype, blocks of cell structures and membranes, and the builders leaving us with a sour aftertaste from the primordial soup. themselves, in die form of enzymes capable of catalyzing all Oparin and Miller, as well as other early researchers such as sorts of chemical reactions. This includes the replication of Sidney Fox, thought that the problem was how to explain the DNA and the transcription of its message into RNA—which, appearance of proteins, since they must have caused the initial of course, closes the nucleic acid-protein circle. spark of life. As any student of introductory biology knows, It's clear from the above description that we are facing a however, there are two major players inside every living cell: classic chicken-and-egg problem. If the proteins appeared first, proteins and nucleic acids (such as DNA and RNA). The so that they could eventually catalyze the formation of nucleic problem is that the structure of DNA was discovered only in acids, how was the information necessary to produce the pro­ 1953 (in fact, the same year of Miller's experiment), and the teins themselves coded? On the other hand, if nucleic acids nature of DNA as the information carrier of the cell was little came first, thereby embodying the information necessary to appreciated before James Watson and Francis Crick unveiled obtain proteins, how were the acids replicated and translated the double-helix nature of this remarkable molecule. into proteins? It seems clear to me that the answer, although As a consequence of the new discoveries, the origin of life nebulous at the moment, must lie in the proverbial middle. In debate after the 1950s was decidedly slanted in favor of nucleic fact, the existence of tRNAs points to the distinct possibility of acids preceding proteins. The new discipline of molecular biol­ dual structures, containing both RNA and amino acids. ogy was making spectacular progress, uncovering the universal Furthermore, the discovery by Sydney Altman, Thomas Cech, code by which the instructions for making proteins are embed­ and others that some RNAs are at least partially self-catalytic ded in the nucleic acids. Scientists such as Leslie Orgel, Walter (i.e., they can catalyze chemical reactions onto themselves), Gilbert, and others therefore proposed that the egg, so to lends further support to the idea of a mixed origin of life. The original molecules may have been both replicators and enzymes, with the two functions slowly diverging through Many pathways for origin of life evolutionary time and later assigned to distinct classes of mol­ ecules. Such a Solomonic solution appeals to our sense of aes­ For those who are studying the origin of life, the ques­ thetics as well. tion is no longer whether life could have originated by chemical processes involving nonbiological compo­ nents. The question instead has become which of And Then What? many pathways might have been followed to produce the first cells. Hypercycles and Emerging Properties I submit that the problem of how complex organic com­ — Science and Creationism: A View from the pounds might have formed on the primordial Earth has been National Academy of Sciences, 2nd ed.. National Academy Press, Washington, D.C., satisfactorily solved by Miller-type experiments (which yield 1999. similar results under a wide variety of simulated atmospheric conditions). Furthermore, there are good reasons to believe

24 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER that the initial complex molecules diat underwent chemical restricted to multicellular life) evolution were some sort of nucleic acid-protein mix such as • Metabolism (i.e., capacity of maintaining lower internal modern-day tRNAs. But what happened after that? There is entropy, including the ability of self-repair) still a very large gap between a semi-catalytic, semi-replicating How did we get from a nucleo-protein to an entity capable nucleo-protein and the first living "organism," whatever form of all of the above? And what did this entity (sometimes that may have assumed. known as the "progenote") look like? There are very few even And the exact form seems to be part of the problem. What tentative answers to these questions, and this—I think—is exactly is life? Physicist Erwin Schrodinger asked that question where the real problem of the origin of life lies. The German precisely in such fashion in 1947. While Schrodinger's think­ scientist Manfred Eigen has proposed a possible scenario that ing led him to predict some of the properties of DNA as a nec­ invokes what he called "hypercycles." We can think of a hyper- essary component of a living organism, we still have only a cycle as a primitive biochemical padiway, made up of self- vague notion of the boundary between life and inert matter. replicating nucleic acids and semi-catalytic proteins that hap­ And so it shouldbe, if we accept the idea that living organisms pen to be found together in pockets within the primordial are made of inert matter that happens to acquire some "emer­ soup. It is possible to imagine that some of these hypercycles gent properties" when it is assembled in particular ways. To are made of elements that "cooperate" with each other, i.e., the put it another way, living beings are not separated from the rest product of a component of the cycle can serve as the substrate of the universe by some mysterious force or vital energy. for another. Different hypercycles could have coexisted before the origin of life, and they would have competed for the ever- How then do we know what is life and what is not? We can decreasing resources within the soup (the resources were derive a list of attributes, some of which can be properties also decreasing because the hypercycles were using up some organic of non-living systems, but with the ensemble defining a living compounds at a higher rate than they were formed by com­ organism: paratively inefficient inorganic processes). Eventually, this • Ability to replicate, giving origin to similar kinds (repro­ competition would have favored more and more efficient duction) hypercycles, where the "efficiency" would be measured by the • Ability to react to changes in the environment (behavior, ability of these entities to survive and reproduce, that is by the not just limited to the special meaning that the word has in parameters of Darwinian evolution. Life as we know it (sort animals) or) would have begun. • Growth (i.e., reduction of internal entropy at the expense of environmental entropy—note diat even single cells grow Eigen and modern followers of complexity theory also immediately after reproduction, so this is not a property expect these systems to become more complicated with the HMj|HBHHHm| time." Cell 85:793-798. A review of recent advances in the Top ten contemporary readings on the origin of life field by one of the originators of the modern scientific investigation into the problem (Miller, that is). B.E.H. Maden. 1995. "No soup for starters? Autotrophy and D.H. Lee, J.R. Granja, J.A. Martinez, K. Severin, and M.R. the origins of metabolism." Trends in Biochemistry Ghadiri, 1996. "A self-replicating peptide," Nature 20:337-341. A short review of recent alternatives to the 382:525-528. This article reports the discovery of what was soup based on the clay hypothesis, i.e., on an initial bio­ thought until recently impossible: a self-replicating pro­ chemistry without either enzymes or nucleic acids. tein! Together with the earlier discovery of self-replicating RNA, this really re-opens the entire chicken-and-egg ques­ E. Stackebrandt and F.A. Rainey, 1995. "Partial and complete tion. 16S rDNA sequences, their use in generation of 16S rDNA phylogenetic trees and their implications in molecular eco­ E. Melendez-Hevia, T.G. Waddell, and M. Cascante, 1996. logical studies." Molecular Microbial Ecology Manual. "The puzzle of the Krebs citric acid cycle: assembling the edited by A.D.L Akkermans, J.D. Van Elsas, and F.J. De pieces of chemically feasible reactions, and opportunism Bruijn. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The in the design of metabolic pathways during evolution." Netherlands, pp. 1-17. Though not directly related to our Journal of Molecular Evolution 43:293-303. By examining main topic, this article summarizes how molecular biolo­ the possible evolution of one of the biochemical cycles gists can use and compare currently existing sequences of common to all living beings, the authors propose a gen­ DNA to infer a wealth of information on a wide range of eral theory of how biochemical reactions could get biological phenomena, including clues to the first stages increasingly complex during evolutionary time. of biological evolution on the planet. S. Lifson, 1997. "On the crucial stages in the origin of animate G. Ertern and J.P. Ferris, 1996. "Synthesis of RNA oligomers on matter." Journal of Molecular Evolution 44:1-8. A discus­ heterogeneous templates." Nature 379:238-240. A techni­ sion of what successive stages might have led from inani­ cal discussion of what kind of self-catalytic RNA one can mate to animate matter. Natural selection, first at the expect to form in the soup. chemical then at the biological level, is hypothesized to have played a pivotal role from the beginning. P. Forterre, 1996. "A hot topic: the origin of hyperther- mophiles." Ce//85: 789-792. Hyperthemophiles are bacte­ S.L. Miller, 1997. "Peptide nucleic acids and prebiotic chem­ ria that live under very high temperatures (up to 110°C). istry." Natural Structural Biology 4:167. Miller's recent They are by all accounts the most ancient form of life still defense of a mixed origin (nucleic acid-proteins) model for with us. The article discusses their biology as well as how the origin of life. much light (if any) they shed on the possibility that life M.R. Edwards, 1998. "From a soup or a seed? Pyritic metabolic arose under hot. non-soup-like conditions. complexes in the origin of life." Trends in Ecology and A. Laczano and S.L. Miller, 1996. "The origin and early evolu­ Evolution. 13(5):178-181. An exploration of a mineral tion of life: prebiotic chemistry, the pre-RNA world, and alternative to the soup.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/Oclober 1999 25 addition of new components to the cycle. From time to time, 2. Nucleo-proteins (similar to modern tRNAs) the addition of one component would modify the whole sys­ 3. Hypercycles (primitive and inefficient pathways, emer­ tem dramatically, giving it properties that the previous group gent properties) did not possess (sort of like adding an atom of oxygen to two 4. Cellular hypercycles (more complex cycles, eventually of hydrogen and suddenly getting something completely dis­ enclosed in a primitive cell made of lipids) tinct and more complex: water). Complexity theorists such as 5. Progenote (first self-replicating, metabolizing cell, possi­ Stuart Kauffman and Christopher Langton have demon­ bly made of RNA and proteins, with DNA entering the pic­ strated, on the basis of mathematical models, that some self- ture later on) replicating systems can display unexpectedly complex patterns How plausible is all this? It certainly is conceivable from the of behavior. The textbook example of this phenomenon is the standpoint of modern biology. The problem is that each step so-called cellular automata, mathematical entities first imag­ is difficult to describe in detail from a theoretical standpoint, ined by John von Neumann in 1940 and that can now be and so far (with the exception of the formation of organic studied at leisure by anybody who has a personal computer molecules in the soup) has proven remarkably elusive from an and a copy of a game aptly called "Life." empirical perspective. It looks like we have several clues, but The general path leading to the origination of life seems to the overall puzzle is proving to be one of the most difficult for have been something like this: scientific analysis to solve. The chief reason for such difficulty 1. Primordial soup (simple organic compounds formed could be—as I mentioned earlier—that all we have is one from atmospheric gases with the aid of various sources of example to go by. Or it may simply be that the events in ques­ energy) tion are so far remote in time that there is very little we can be certain about, making any attempt at empirical investigation hopelessly vague. Consider that the fossil record shows com­ Top ten Web sites on the origin of life pletely formed, "modern-looking" bacterial cells a few hun­ http://users.aol.com/chinlin3/home.htm dred million years after the formation of Earth—about 3.5 bil­ A page devoted to the astronomical, chemical, and bio­ lion years ago. This tells us that whatever happened before that logical aspects of the problem. happened quickly, but there is no record of it. Finally, it could http://eis.jpl.nasa.gov/origins/index2.html very well be that we are missing something fundamental here. This is NASA's "Origins" program page. It deals with much more than the origin of life on Earth, including the exis­ It may be that the study of the origin of life has not yet seen tence of other solar systems and the very birth of the uni­ its Einstein or Darwin, and that things are going to change just verse. around the corner, or never. http://www.panspermia.org/ Devoted to the panspermia theory (life imported from outer space). It includes discussions of neodarwinism and From Dust to Dust... of philosophical aspects of the origin of life question. Nice A contemporary discussion of the question of the origin of life pictures. cannot be complete without the inclusion of A.G. Cairns- http://www.seti.org/seti-top.html Smith's theory of clay crystals. I hope this will not be the case The page of SETI (Search for Extra-Terrestrial Intelligence). Lots of educational material, bibliographic references, and for much longer (except as a footnote of historical value). links. There is even a gift shop! Don't get me wrong, I am familiar with Cairns-Smith's http://www.sigmaxi.org/amsci/articles/95articles/cdeduve.html research and writing, and I find it excellent. But everybody can An article on the origin of life published in the electronic version of American Scientist, a magazine worth checking make a mistake, and I think the clay theory clearly falls within out in and of itself. the cracks of Cairns-Smith's career, as ingenious and superfi­ http://www.exobiology.nasa.gov/ cially enticing as it may be. The very cool NASA site on exobiology (the study of life Briefly, the idea is that life didn't originate with either outside our planet). nucleic acids or proteins. The original replicators and catalyz­ http://www.chron.com/content/interactive/space/news/mars/ ing agents were actually crystals found everywhere in die clay Devoted to the red planet and the possibility of life on it. Extensive links and NASA press releases. that lay around the primitive Earth. There are four cardinal http://bolero.gsfc.nasa.gov/-odenwald/ask/alife.html points of Cairn-Smith's hypothesis. First, crystals are struc­ A cute NASA Question and Answer page on life in the uni­ turally much simpler than any biologically relevant organic verse, its origin, and its evolution. molecule. Second, crystals grow and reproduce (i.e., rliey can http://www.sciam.com/askexpert/biology/biology 15.html break because of mechanical forces, and each resulting pan A "Scientific American—Ask the Experts" site where James Ferris of the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute in Troy, New continues to "grow"). Third, crystals carry information and York, gives concise but up-to-date information on what this information can be modified. A crystal is a highly regular we know about the origin of life. Some good links pro­ structure, which tends to propagate itself (therefore, it carries vided. information). Furthermore, die crystal can incorporate impu­ http://www.santafe.edu/sfi/publications/Bulletins/bulletin- summer97/turning.html rities while it's growing. These impurities alter the crystal's An article from the controversial but stimulating Santa Fe structure and can be "inherited" when the original piece breaks Institute, devoted to research on complexity theory. It (hence, the information can be modified). Fourth, crystals deals with Mars and self-replicating proteins. have some minimum capacity of catalyzing (i.e., accelerating)

26 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER chemical reactions. of energy or by avoiding dangers. Furthermore, an argument Cairns-Smith then proposed that these very primitive can be made that crystals are not actually capable of incorpo­ "organisms" started incorporating short polypeptides (proto- rating new information in their inherited "code," unlike what proteins) found in the environment—presumably in the happens with mutations in living beings. True, they can assim­ soup—because they enhanced the crystals' catalyzing abilities. ilate impurities from the environment and "transmit" such The road was suddenly open for an increase in the importance "information" to their "descendants" for some time; but these of proteins first, and then eventually of nucleic acids, until impurities do not get replicated, they need continually to be these two late arrivals on the evolutionary scene completely imported from the outside, and they do not become a perma­ supplanted their "low-tech" progenitor, and gave origin to the nent and heritable part of the crystal. Moreover, impurities do living organisms that we know today. not create new types of crystals, the way mutations give rise to entirely new kinds of animals and plants. What is wrong with this picture? First of all, Cairns-Smith seems to completely ignore what a living organism is to begin Another colossal hole in the clay theory is—of course— with. For one thing, crystals don't really have a metabolism, that we have no clue to how the "mutiny" of nucleic acids and not in the sense defined above for living organisms. The rea­ proteins actually occurred, and in fact we arc given very faint son for this may have something to do with the fact that not hints about how a crystal could possibly co-opt a polypeptide only are crystals structurally much less complex than a protein to enhance its growth. Therefore, as much as creationists or a nucleic acid, but also with their silicon-based chemistry, might like the flavor of a theory of the origin of life in which recognizably much simpler than the carbon-based chemistry the first living beings came literally from dust (although utilized by living organisms on Earth. The lower complexity Cairns-Smith is certainly no creationist), we're still left with and simpler chemistry may be insurmountable "hardware" ribonucleo-proteins as our best, albeit fuzzy, option. The ori­ obstacles to the origination of a ttue metabolism in clay mat­ gin of life is one question that science will be pondering for ter. Second, ciystals don't really react to their environment some time to come, and skeptics should be wary of oversim­ either, another hallmark of every known living creature. plified answers found in introductory biology textbooks. Notice that this is a property distinct from metabolism, in that metabolism can be entirely internal, with no reference to the Acknowledgments outside world (except for some flux of energy that must come These notes and thoughts were stimulated during a Rationalists of East into the organism to maintain its metabolism). On the other Tennessee book club discussion. Thanks to Melissa Brenneman, Walter Hayes. hand, living organisms universally and actively respond to Phil and Sharron King. Aleta and Carl Ledendeckcr, Thomas Robertson. changes in external conditions, for example by seeking sources Andy Schorr. and Ann and Jerry Sillman. who were all present at that meeting. Special thanks to Melissa for her formal and substantive editorial help. D

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SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 27 Profits and Prophecy Hayseed Stevens and Oil in Israel

A fundamentalist oil entrepreneur mixes creation science. Biblical prophecy, and revivalist techniques for a program of oil expbration in Israel.

DONALD U. WISE

hen the local Pennsylvania newspaper announced that the Prophecy Club would be W holding a three-hour seminar conducted by "Hayseed" Stevens concerning prophecy and oil in Israel, curiosity overwhelmed me. After a forty-year career of research and geology teaching, I had a fair idea of Israel's geology and the origin of its tiny oil production. Such a case for personal "enlightenment" was not to be missed. The fol­ lowing report on that January 8, 1998, seminar is a small window on the fundamentalist movement in America and its application of creation science. The Prophecy Club has a network of local chapters, with its headquarters in Topeka, Kansas. It is a fundamentalist

28 Septembe./Ociobei 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Christian organization with television programs scheduled on pany called Ness Energy International. After a few years, God eight stations. It also has radio programs on fifty-eight AM told him to go drill for oil in Israel and He would reveal the and FM stations and six shortwave stations as well as on six oil's location. satellite channels. Its January/February 1998 newsletter, dis­ Stevens described going to Israel in 1980 with eleven other tributed at the seminar, lists a total of "765 new conversions" Christian businessmen to meet with Menachem Begin. When and "2,441 rededications" during the last year as "determined Begin told them that he knew nothing about oil. Hayseed by show of hands and public confessions at its sessions." This whipped off his Texas-style ten gallon hat and gave it to Begin particular presentation was one of twelve being made from announcing that the gift would help him understand the oil Boston to Spokane by "Hayseed" Stevens in January and business. At once, the miracle occurred! The hat fit and Begin February 1998. The newsletter lists fifty additional seminars to said to him, "Maybe you should be the one to come and find be taught across the nation by four other speakers during diis oil for us in Israel." As proof that such an event took place, same time period, each charging $7 per person admis­ Stevens showed a photo of the group with a big white Texas sion. Advertised seminar subjects hat in front of Begin and concluded include how America bei t t that, "miraculously, within rwo hours taken over as part of God showed me the location of the "New World world's greatest oil field. . . . Now Order," repeat after prophecies me . . ." of ^ And the finan­ crowd cial crisis, secret codes thundered, embedded in the Bible, "The greatest and prophecy warn­ oil field on Earth is under the ings about govern­ southwest corner of the Dead Sea." mental plans concern­ Stevens described the origin of ing the use of UFOs this Israeli oil bonanza by using a "destroy the religions of the version of geology straight out of creation science. A large world and switch them to the reli­ 1992 poster from the Creation Evidence Museum was dis­ gion of the Antichrist." played with the tide "Creation in Symphony" as Joining approximately 150 other Stevens gave glowing attribution of the work to his people, I paid at the door and entered the friend, the "brilliant" creationist writer Carl rented lecture room at a local convention Baugh. The proposed model involved a 6,000- center. At the back of the room were five year-old Earth with a molten interior at 10,000 sales tables laden with video tapes, record­ degrees. Floating above the molten interior and ings, and a variety of pamphlets of prophecy keeping the surface "insulated" was a huge and doom. Following an opening prayer, the head layer of hydrocarbons, the mother lode of of the local chapter introduced Harold "Hayseed Earth's petroleum resources. Above this and Stevens, who responded with another prayer ended by a just below the crust was a layer of water in lackluster chorus of "Amens." Intent upon engaging his audi­ some strange kind of density inversion. ence. Hayseed requested a lustier "Amen." Eagerly embracing Slow seepage of the water layer produced his role as cheerleader, he cried, "If I told you that the the humid jungle-like conditions of the Philadelphia Eagles had just won the Super Bowl, what would Garden of Eden with its great vapor canopy. you say?" "Amen!" "Even better. Now what if I told you that To create Noah's flood, God used an earthquake to rupture the Jesus Christ was coming tomorrow?" A thunderous "Amen!" crust and allow the trapped water layer to pour fordi as die followed. After finally warming up his audience, Stevens Biblical "fountains of the deep." directed the group to repeat after him, "The greatest oil field According to Stevens, that Dead Sea fault zone marks the on Earth is under die southwest corner of die Dead Sea." boundary of Earth's greatest tectonic plates. (In reality the Throughout the rest of the talk, at about ten minute intervals, fault is only a medium-scale plate boundary separating the he led his audience in this same rousing cheer. African plate from the Arabian plate.) After the escape of the Now, with an involved and receptive audience, Stevens pro­ waters, diis deep fracture tapped the mother lode layer of ceeded to describe his early fundamentalist religious life grow­ petroleum which bled upwards to form the asphalt and tar ing up on a sharecrop farm in Texas, his sinful life as a profes­ sional football player, and his final conversion to Christian Donald U. Wise is a research associate at Franklin and Marshall evangelism. According to his tale, one day God told him to go College, in Lancaster, PA 17604-3003 and professor emeritus of into the oil business. With God's direction he developed geology. University of Massachusetts at Amherst. E-mail: Hayseed Stevens Oil, Inc., as well as an international oil com­ d_u>[email protected]. edit.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 29 seeps in the region of Sodom and Gomorrah. According to My strongest impression of the evening was of the interplay Stevens's interpretation of prophecy, God originally intended of prophecy, prophets, and profits. The entire talk was sprin­ all this oil to be the basis of Israel's future riches and great­ kled with overhead projections and handouts of about twenty ness. But unfortunately, the people became evil and unde­ verses of Biblical prophecy. Most prophecies were supple­ serving so God caused the fault to move. The resulting fric­ mented by Stevens's interpretation inserted in parentheses. tion ignited the oil and it exploded under Sodom and Considerable strain seemed to be required of the English lan­ Gomorrah. Somehow the heat was so intense that it created guage to make Biblical statements conform to oil exploration an "entirely new form of sulfur which melted at 10,000 and the present world of geopolitics. However, once these degrees and rained down on those evil people as fire and prophecies were accepted there could be no doubt that, brimstone." The intensity of the heat converted the rock to "Repeat after me ...!" salt (a chemical process that would certainly have delighted In 1985 Stevens organized a consortium to drill at the the alchemists of the Middle Ages). As evidence of this, Dead Sea site, but the drill string sheared off at about one mile Hayseed showed satellite photos and crude versions depth. He is now planning to drill a 19,000-foot, of Geological Survey of Israel seismic cross oAjifca $25 million well through the salt plug, and his sections with a big salt plug at the south­ company is about to offer public stock west corner of the Dead Sea basin in sales for this venture. If the evening's the vicinity of Sodom and talk was a promotion, it was done as Gomorrah. Encouraged, the audi­ a soft sell but the phone number ence enthusiastically joined him ry listed on the handouts to reach in his incantation, "The great­ his company was clear, as was est oil field on Earth is under the possibility of merging the southwest corner of the prophecy with profits. Stevens Dead Sea!" pointed out that God's plans Returning to his satellite even include the former Shah photos, Stevens explained that of Iran's financing of a 42- the new salt plug blocked the inch oil pipeline that was upward flow of the huge petro­ completed across Israel from leum layer destined for Israel. the Red Sea to the Thus diverted, the oil flowed east­ Mediterranean, but never used ward into the great reservoirs of the because of the Shah's fall. This Middle East. Even though a geologic pipeline passes within a few miles of plumbing system that would allow this the drill site and is now standing there empty, waiting to take the supposed flow is almost impossible to imagine, prob­ Bor e<5' lems such as that were never discussed. Instead, 200,000-barrel-a-day production that will result Stevens changed direction to focus on the fact that 85 percent just as soon as the well is completed. of the world's known oil resources are presently under Islamic The more immediate financial aspects of the evening were control. He assured his audience that with his drill hole well covered starting with the $7 admission charge ($7 X 150 through the salt plug to tap the mother lode of petroleum, he = $ 1,050) to cover rental of the room, etc. The plethora of would change that imbalance by making Israel the greatest oil video tapes for sale, mostly at $20 to $40, certainly met their producing nation on Earth. Quoting Isaiah 60:5 he declared, production cost as did several thin pamphlets selling at $5 to "Then you shall see and be radiant, your hearts shall thrill at $10 each. Considering the admission cost it was surprising to the glorious deliverance; because the abundant wealth of die see an additional offering with helpers passing collection Dead Sea shall be turned to you. Unto you shall the nations plates through the audience. The number of $ 10 and $20 come with their treasures." bills and personal checks in those plates was impressive. Stevens pointed out diat this drill site along the Dead Sea Following the mid-evening break Stevens proceeded to extol is at the lowest point on Earth and as everyone knows, fluids the great works done by the Prophecy Club and to propose flow downhill. Thus, the well will not only tap the mother that this warranted an unheard-of second special collection. lode but will eventually drain the Arabian oil fields (by some He noted that no one should feel any pressure to contribute unstated but geologically unthinkable mechanism). In accord and that this offering should be from the heart. He made a widi prophecy, the enraged Arabs will attack Israel at the final show of announcing his personal check for $1,000. As the batde of Armageddon. The plains near Mt. Carmel, according plate was passed this second time, he kept rephrasing the to Stevens, cover a vast reservoir of oil, and it is across these theme that this offering should be voluntary, that there was plains diat the Arabs will attack. God will ignite the underly­ no peer pressure to do God's work, and so on. I watched in ing oil to incinerate the Arabs and ensure the victory of the amazement as people around me wrote additional checks and righteous, at least according to Stevens's reading of the book of put more $10 and $20 bills into the plate. Revelations. The evening concluded with a revival-style prayer session

30 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER complete with exhortations to anyone who had sinned and The latest Church of the Mail Newsletter from Hayseed wanted redemption to raise their hands while everyone, with Stevens announced that on October 13, 1998, the Israel Oil one exception, bowed their heads. Stevens acknowledged Company had granted him drilling rights for 32,000 acres at these secret hands and counted them as part of the increas­ the southwest end of the Dead Sea. The first was well slated for ing list of recipients needing prayer. With an "Amen," April 2000 at a cost of $30 million and an expected depth of Stevens invited everyone who felt the evening had been a 19,000 feet. To judge the effect of this news on the market, the success to stand and let it be known. In response, 149 people December 8 share price of KTKC was $0.24, nearly its lowest stood, waved their hands in the air and shouted "Hallelujah" point in a 52-week trading range of $0.21 to $13.75- In early and "Amen." summer 1999 KTKC changed its name on the NASDAQ to Hayseed Stevens folded his oil operations into and took NESS, one of Hayseed's early names for his company. On July over the Kit Karson Corporation, a 19-year-old oil company 2, 1999, NESS traded at $0.48 per share. listed as KTKC on the NASDAQ. In 1996 KTKC reported its Whatever happens with his oil explorations, I'll always find total assets as $1,604 with a net loss of $1,179. After the that January evening one to be remembered and certainly one takeover, the July 23, 1998, SEC annual report for KTKC lists not easily confused with any other lecture on oil resources. Stevens as president, holding 56.5 percent of the common "Right now we are only one well short of finding (repeat after stock, which has "no par value." me) the greatest oil field on Earth ..." Science Meets Alternative Medicine Conference Tapes Now Available Audiotapes of the landmark CSICOP / Scientific Review of Alternative Medicine conference "Science Meets Alternative Medicine" are now available. Hear the entire conference, including all concurrent sessions, on seventeen 90-minute audio cassettes, or order the sessions you wish to hear. Order the full conference set of tapes for a 10% discount.

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SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 31 Projective Measures of Personality and Psychopathology How Well Do They Work}7

Although projective techniques remain among the most popular of all psychological measures, many critics have branded them pseudoscientific.

SCOTT 0. LILIENFELD

hatever their theoretical differences, all psychol­ ogists agree on one maxim: individuals differ Wgreatly from one another in their mental attrib­ utes. In the domains of personality and psychopathology, two types of tests have been used to assess these individual differences, objective and projective. Objective measures con­ tain relatively clear-cut stimuli (e.g., such items as "I like to go to parties") and require subjects to respond in one of a few fixed ways (e.g., by answering true or false). Many objec­ tive tests, including the Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI; Hathaway and McKinley 1940) and its revision, the MMPI-2, have been shown to be useful in assessing both personality and mental illness. For example,

32 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER the scales of the MMPI and MMP1-2 (e.g., schizophrenia, processes. The first projective test was probably devised in depression) are associated with other indicators of psy- 1879 by Sir Francis Galton. Gallon's test was a measure of chopathology, such as diagnoses obtained by clinical inter­ word association: subjects were presented with a set of words views (Zalewski and Gottesman 1991). and asked to provide their first response to each word. Carl In contrast to objective tests, projective tests typically pre­ Jung, the Swiss psychiatrist and protege' of Freud, later used sent subjects widi an ambiguous stimulus, such as an inkblot, the word association test in conjunction with blood pressure and ask diem to make sense of this stimulus. Unlike objective indices to detect what he termed "complexes," i.e., constella­ measures, projective measures grant sub­ jects considerable leeway in their responses, Most projective tests are highly controversial and the range of possible answers is often limited only by the respondent's ingenuity, largely because the evidence for their loquacity, or both. Nevertheless, as Meehl reliability and validity is weak. (1945) observed, these two types of tests probably differ more in degree than kind. Objective test items tions of feelings and thoughts organized around an emotion­ (e.g., "I sometimes feel sad") often entail a certain degree of ally charged issue (e.g., the "mother complex"). According to ambiguity, because diey depend pardy on subjects' interpreta­ Jung, a delayed or physiologically pronounced response to a tions of subjective terms (e.g., "sometimes"). word often belies the existence of a complex. The rationale underlying projective tests is the projective Several other projective tests were developed around the hypothesis: when interpreting an ambiguous stimulus, subjects turn of the century. Wilhelm Stern created the Cloud Picture ostensibly project aspects of their personality onto the stimu­ Test to assess individual differences in responses to drawings of lus. The concept of projection derives from Freud (1911), who clouds (Aiken 1996). In 1896, Alfred Binet, the French psy­ conceptualized it as a defense mechanism by which individu­ chologist who developed the first intelligence test, experi­ als unconsciously ascribe their negative attributes to others. mented with examining subjects' responses to inkblots. A third Freud's concept of projection ("classical projection"), however, early projective technique, pioneered by another protege' of is believed by psychoanalysts to differ from die "assimilative Freud, the Viennese psychoanalyst Alfred Adler, is the elicita- projection" that presumably occurs in projective tests, which is tion of the respondent's earliest memory. Adler (1931) claimed the more general tendency of individuals' personality charac­ that the first memory provides information regarding the ori­ teristics to influence their interpretation of ambiguous stimuli gins of inferiority feelings and one's means of compensating (Sundberg 1977). Projective tests are often viewed as the for them, although he never conducted systematic research to "stealth weapons" of die psychologist's armamentarium. By substantiate these assertions. circumventing respondents' conscious defenses, diey purport­ Not until the fourth and fifth decades of the twentieth cen­ edly provide information concerning underlying conflicts. tury, however, did projective tests, particularly the Rorschach Many projective measures, particularly inkblot tests, capi­ Inkblot Test, come into widespread use. The aftermath of talize on die phenomenon of pareidolia (Schick and Vaughn World War II witnessed a heightened demand for the diagno­ 1995), die perception of meaning in visually meaningless stim­ sis of veterans returning from combat duty with emotional uli. Although pareidolia can lead to bizarre misperceptions, problems. Projective tests thus became a staple in many assess­ such as the "Face on Mars" (Gardner 1988), it is probably a ment batteries. Over the past several decades, however, projec­ byproduct of a generally adaptive propensity toward pattern tive tests have become targets of increasing criticism. As noted recognition (Gilovich 1991). by Aiken (1996), even advocates of these tests acknowledge Most projective tests are highly controversial (Gittelman that they are often (1) insufficiently reliable or valid to justify Klein 1986; Lowenstein 1987), largely because the evidence their clinical use, (2) easily faked in either a good or bad direc­ for their reliability and validity is weak. Reliability refers to tion, (3) susceptible to subtle situational factors, including the consistency in measurement; a reliable test yields comparable personality of the examiner and mood of the examinee, and scores across different occasions (test-retest reliability) and dif­ (4) subjective in scoring and interpretation. ferent examiners or scorers (inter-rater reliability).' Validity A sampling of quotations from research psychologists refers to truth in advertising; a valid test measures what it pur­ over the past four decades reveals a persistent dissatisfaction ports to measure. The relation between reliability and validity with the status of many projective tests, and the Rorschach is asymmetrical. A reliable test is not necessarily valid—imag­ in particular: ine a test that purports to assess individuals' intelligence by • "... the rate of scienrific progress in clinical psychology measuring dieir heights—but a valid test is necessarily reliable. might well be measured by the speed and thoroughness with which it gets over the Rorschach" (Jensen 1965, p. 238). Projective Tests: A Brief History Scott O. Lilienfeld is an assistant professor in the Department of The term "projective test" was coined by Frank (1948), who Psychology at Emory University, Atlanta, GA 30322. His inter­ likened projective tests to psychological "X-rays" diat yield ests include the critical evaluation ofpseudoscientific and ques­ fleeting glimpses into otherwise unobservablc mental tionable practices in clinical psychology.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 33 • "Projective techniques do not provide an X-ray of the per­ responses to each card as they wish. sonality nor a 'royal road to the unconscious,' as Freud Rorschach interpretation involves three sets of variables: described dreams to be. The Rorschach and other procedures location—where on the blot subjects saw what they saw; con­ are not magical . .." (Sundberg 1977, p. 223). tent—what subjects report seeing; and determinants—what • "Projective techniques present a curious discrepancy made subjects report what they saw. Determinants, which are between research and practice. When evaluated as psychomet­ emphasized in modern Rorschach interpretation systems, ric instruments, the large majority make a poor showing. Yet include form, shading, and color. Although numerous their popularity in clinical use continues unabated" (Anastasi Rorschach scoring schemes have been developed (e.g., Beck, 1982, p. 564). 1944), the Comprehensive System of Exner (1991) has gained • "The Rorschach is indeed projective—for the interpreter. ascendance during the past decade. Exner's system, which Compelling as the interpretations are, and as fun as the test is yields a large number of indices designed to assess numerous to give, it doesn't provide the insight about psychological characteristics, was developed the subject that its users allege it provides" by retaining the features of extant (Dawes 1994, p. 149). Rorschach scoring systems that appeared Nevertheless, projective tests continue to have adequate research support. to enjoy widespread popularity. Durand, Despite its popularity, the scientific sta­ Blanchard, and Mindell (1988) tus of the Rorschach has repeatedly found that 49 percent of directors been called into question. Wood, of clinical psychology graduate Nezworski, and Stejskal (1996) programs and 65 percent of concluded that neither the relia­ directors of clinical psychology bility nor validity of most Exner internships believed that training indices have been satisfactorily in projective techniques was established. For instance, important. Watkins, Campbell, although the number of reflec­ Neiberding, and Hallmark (1995) tion responses (e.g., "A cat look­ found that five projective tests, ing into a mirror") is hypothe­ including the Rorschach and sized to be related to narcissism, Thematic Apperception Test, were the results of several studies reveal among the ten measures most often no association between reflection used by clinical psychologists. For example, responses and narcissism. In addition, 82 percent of clinical psychologists Exner's Depression Index has not been reported that they administered the Figure 1. The Rorschach-like Inkblot: found to be associated with diagnoses of From Anastasi/Urbina, Psychological depression. Nor does Exner's Suicide Rorschach at least "occasionally" in their Testing. 7/E, P. 413. Reprinted by per­ test batteries and 43 percent reported mission of Prentice Hall, Upper Saddle Constellation appear useful in predicting that they "frequently" or "always" admin­ River, New Jersey. suicide (Eyman and Eyman 1992). istered it. Certain Rorschach indices, however, may possess at least some validity. A quantitative review by Parker, Hanson, and A Consumer's Guide to Projective Tests Hunsley (1988) revealed that a number of Rorschach indices The following is a guide to six major projective tests, consist­ possessed validities approximately equal to those of the scales ing of a description of each test and a brief evaluation of its of die MMPI-2.! For example, the F+%, which denotes the psychometric properties (e.g., reliability and validity). Because number of "good form" responses (i.e., responses that corre­ of space constraints, some of the more unusual or obscure pro­ spond to die shape of the inkblot), is inversely associated with jective techniques (see sidebar) cannot be reviewed in detail schizophrenia and other conditions characterized by disor­ here. In addition, the projective interpretation of handwriting dered ili in king. Nevenheless, as Dawes (1994) notes, die F+% (i.e., graphology) has been reviewed elsewhere (Beyerstein and and similar indices are actually nonprojective in nature, Beyerstein 1992) and will not be discussed here. Suffice it to because diey assume that the inkblots do in fact resemble cer­ say that graphology has been found to be of little or no value tain stimuli. Consequently, these findings do not provide sup­ in assessing personality (Furnham 1988). port for the use of the Rorschach as a projective test, although they suggest that it may be useful for assessing thought disor­ (1) Rorschach Inkblot Test. Perhaps the best known of all der. Even here, however, Rorschach appears to be inferior to projective tests was developed by Hermann Rorschach in die MMPI Schizophrenia scale in the prediction of schizo­ 1921. The Rorschach consists of ten cards, almost all of which phrenia diagnoses (Archer and Gordon 1988). are bilaterally symmetrical. Five of diese cards are in black- and-white, and five contain color (see figure 1). The subject is (2) Thematic Apperception Test (TAT). The TAT, developed asked to examine each inkblot and to say what it looks like; in 1935 by Henry Murray and his student Christiana Morgan, respondents are typically permitted to provide as many consists of diirty-one cards, most of which portray individuals

34 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in ambiguous situations (see figure 2). One TAT card. Card "Approximately a century behind in time, the DAP might well 16, represents die epitome of ambiguity: it is entirely blank. be described as phrenology for the twentieth century" (p. The TAT examiner typically selects approximately 10 cards 468). Despite this negative verdict. Smith and Dumont (1995) that seem especially relevant to the subject's presenting prob­ found that many clinicians continue to make unwarranted lems. The subject is then asked to compose a story describing interpretations on the basis of DAP protocols. the actions, thoughts, and feelings of the characters on each card. Although the TAT is usually scored impressionistically (4) Bender-Gestalt Figure Drawing Test. The Bender- (i.e., on the basis of unquantified clinical impressions), stan­ Gestalt asks die subject to copy a series of drawings containing dardized coding schemes have been developed for scoring cer­ shapes, lines, and dots. Aldiough mis test is typically used to tain personality variables. For example, McClelland (1961) assess brain damage, many psychologists have adapted it to created a TAT scoring system to assess psychopadiology. Certain test assess achievement needs. behaviors are believed to be indica­ The evidence for the TAT's tive of schizophrenia, depression, or validity is arguably even more prob­ anxiety. In a review of the literature lematic than that of the Rorschach, on the Bender-Gestalt, however, largely because many TAT studies Naglieri (1992) concluded that do not use standardized scoring there is little support for the use of methods. A review of 105 studies of this measure as a projective device. McClellands (1961) scoring scheme For example, Trahan and Stricklin (Spangler 1992) provided both good (1979) found that Bender-Gestalt and bad news for the TAT. The signs purportedly related to aggres­ good news? McClelland's scheme sion (e.g., an increase in the size of performed about as well as self- the first several drawings, drawings report measures of achievement that collide with each other) were when measured against objective not associated with overt hostility. criteria for achievement (e.g.. Moreover, there is little evidence grades). The bad news? Neither type that clinical experience enhances the of measure performed especially validity of Bender-Gestalt interpre­ well; the correlations between objec­ tations. Goldberg (1959) found that tively assessed achievement and psychologists were no better than bodi the TAT and self-report mea­ their secretaries (!) at differentiating Figure 2. The TAT stimulus (two faces): Reprinted by per­ sures were statistically significant mission of the publisher from Henry A. Murray, Thematic psychiatric patients from brain (i.e., too large to have arisen by Apperception Test, Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University damaged patients on the basis of Press, Copyright 01943 by the President and Fellows of chance), but very low in magnitude. Harvard College, ©1971 by Henry A. Murray. Bender-Gestalt drawings, and that Many other studies of the TAT's the diagnostic accuracy of both validity have yielded unimpressive results (Gittelman Klein groups was relatively low. 1986). For example, Sharkey and Ritzier (1985) found diat the TAT could not distinguish depressed or psychotic patients (5) Rosenzweig Picture-Frustration Study (PFS). (Rosenz­ from normals on the basis of the emotional tone of stories. In weig, Fleming, and Clark 1947). This measure, which has the addition, TAT responses have often been found to exhibit poor distinction of being featured in the film A Clockwork Orange, test-retest reliability (Vane 1981; Winter and Stewart 1977). was designed to assess propensities for several types of aggres­ Because reliability is a prerequisite for validity, this finding sion. It consists of cartoons, each of which contains two people. docs not bode well for the TAT's validity. In each cartoon, die person on the left says something that is potentially anger-provoking, and the subject is asked to state (3) Draw-a-Person Test (DAP). The DAP simply asks sub­ how the person on die right would respond verbally (see figure jects to draw a person in any way they wish, and is tradition­ 3). The evidence for die validity of die Rosenzweig PFS, unlike ally interpreted in terms of specific bodily signs. For example, diat for most projective tests, appears promising. For example, large eyes arc believed to indicate suspiciousness, and a large scores on diis test increase following frustrating situations head is believed to indicate concerns regarding one's intelli­ (Muehleman, Hollinden, and Batsel 1981) and correlate with gence (Machover 1951). self-reported (but not teacher-reported) verbal and physical Nevertheless, research has consistently indicated that these aggression among children (Graybill, Williams, Bodmer, and signs are invalid (Kahili 1984; Swenson 1968). Indeed, the Peterson 1991). Some of these findings, however, have been only replicable finding in the DAP literature is that the overall inconsistent and difficult to replicate (LaVoie 1986). quality of drawing bears a modest relation to die severity of psychopathology (Roback 1968). Gregory (1992) summed up (6) Sentence Completion Test (SCT)- In this test, of which the opinions of many researchers when he concluded that there are many versions (e.g.. Rotter 1946), die subject is pre-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 35 scnted with a series of stems (e.g., "If my mother . . .") and is scores on more easily administered psychological tests). asked to complete each stem by forming a sentence. The evi­ There is no convincing evidence that the Rorschach, for dence for the reliability and validity of most SCT versions is example, possesses incremental validity over and above the unimpressive (Aiken 1996). One exception is a version of the MMPI or other tests (Wood et al. 1996). An anecdote SCT that has been developed by Loevinger (1976) over several relayed to me by a former supervisor, which I paraphrase decades. here, nicely illustrates the concept of incremental validity. A Loevinger uses her SCT version to assess a construct she graduate student had given the Rorschach to a patient whom calls "ego development," which refers to the maturation of die he suspected of being homosexual (this incident occurred self. As one progresses from the lowest to the highest levels of prior to the mid 1970s, when homosexuality was still con­ ego development, one sidered a mental dis­ experiences an in­ I'm sorry I order by the creasing capacity to American Psych­ I didn't mean cannot fin perceive the world in iatric Association). to tell you. your truck. shades of gray. For The student tri­ example, a conformist umphantly reported (low level) response ro his findings to his the stem "When they supervisor: "This avoided me ..." is "I patient has nearly felt as if I wasn't every homosexual wanted," whereas an sign on the Ror­ autonomous (high schach. I was right! level) response is "I As I suspected, he's wondered why they homosexual." The did—was it me? Or supervisor looked was it them? Or sternly at the student something else?" Figure 3. Rosenzweig Picture Frustration Study (cartoons with balloons to be tilled in by sub­ and replied, "1 (Loevinger 1987). jects): Copyright ©1976 by Saul Rosenzweig. Reproduced by permission. know." When the Loevinger's SCT was developed by a sophisticated method perplexed student asked "How did you know?," the supervi­ of test construction in which the results of SCT protocols were sor's responded, "I asked him." used to progressively refine the scoring key. Although Another difficulty with the hypotheses derived from many Loevinger's SCT is not without its critics (Snarey, Kohlberg, projective tests is their falsifiability. For example, if a Thematic and Noam 1983), it is one of the few projective tests to Apperception Test (TAT) protocol reveals a high level of demonstrate consistent validity. For example, scores on this aggression, should the subject be expected to exhibit high lev­ test are positively associated with empathy and moral develop­ els of aggression in the real world? Or might it instead mean ment, and negatively associated with delinquency and psy- that the subject is projecting aggression that he or she is afraid chopadiology (Loevinger 1984; Williams and Vincent 1985). to express, and should therefore be expected to exhibit low lev­ els of aggression in the real world? The latter possibility has The Bottom Line: sometimes been used to explain away negative findings for the How Well Do Projective Tests Work? TAT and other projective tests (Vane 1981). This ambiguity The question contained in this article's title is not easily makes the findings from many studies of projective tests diffi­ answered in a blanket statement. On the positive side, certain cult to interpret. projective tests appear to yield indices with at least some valid­ There is some suggestion that the few promising projective ity. With the possible exception of the Rosenzweig Picture- tests, such as die Rosenzweig PFS and Loevinger SCT, may Frustration Study (PFS) and Loevinger's Sentence Completion share one feature. Specifically, these tests attempt to assess a Test (SCT), however, the levels of validity are modest at best single psychological attribute, radier than to provide a com­ and nonexistent at worst. It seems safe to conclude rJiat the prehensive assessment of many attributes. Why might this dif­ popularity enjoyed by most projective tests is outstripped by ference be important? the mediocre, and in most cases feeble, evidence for their With apologies to fans of The Rolling Stones, I propose validity. that the answer may be found in what I like to call "The Perhaps the most damaging criticism of most projective Rolling Stones Effect." Although some of my friends vigor­ tests is their negligible or absent incremental validity. The ously disagree with me, I have long maintained diat none of concept of incremental validity, which was introduced by the members of the Rolling Stones can sing especially well. Yet Meehl (1959) and Sechrest (1963), refers to the extent to when they sing together as a group, they aren't all that bad. which a test contributes information to the prediction of a The Rolling Stones Effect illustrates what psychologists term criterion, such as a diagnosis, above and beyond information the principle of aggregation. By pooling across a number of that is already available (e.g., demographic information. observations (in this case, singers) die random errors con-

36 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER tained in any one observation (in this case, the imperfections In other words, some Rorschach indices appeared to possess in each singer's voice) are canceled out. Psychologists have long validity, but only when there were enough responses on recognized that single test responses are unreliable, because which to base them. each contains a great deal of unsystematic error or "noise" The open-ended format of projective tests appears to be a (Epstein 1979), most of which is produced by random situa­ double-edged sword. This format permits respondents to tional factors (e.g., the mood of the respondent, the personal­ structure the test stimuli in any way they wish, thereby allow­ ity of the examiner). By averaging across many test responses, ing personality variables to influence their responses. At the this noise is minimized and the weak "signal" contained in same time, however, the open-ended nature of projective tests these responses is amplified. permits many extraneous variables—such as the examiner's By using a large number of responses to assess a single personality, the specific wording of prompt questions (Aiken psychological dimension, the Rosenzweig PFS and Loevinger 1996), and even the transient motivational state of the exam­ SCT capitalize on The Rolling Stones Effect. In contrast, the inee—to come into play. Hungry subjects, for example, are Rorschach, which attempts to assess many different traits especially likely to tell TAT stories involving food with only a few responses per trait, ignores this principle. (McClelland 1951). Consequently, the Rorschach, like most projective tests, is a "jack of all trades, master of none." This hypothesis is con­ Why Are Projective Tests So Popular? sistent with the findings of Meyer (1993), who reported that Given the weak evidence for the reliability and validity of most the correlations between several Rorschach indices and projective tests, one is left to ponder why they remain so pop­ MMPI-2 measures of psychopathology were high only when ular. A number of reasons come to mind. First, tradition dies the subject had given a large number of Rorschach responses. hard. Many clinicians were trained in the use of projective

A Sampling of Other Projective Tests In addition to some of the better known projective mea­ • The Lowenfeld Mosaic Test (Lowenfeld 1949) asks sub­ sures reviewed here, a number of more arcane or bizarre jects to create mosaic designs out of 465 multicolored projective tests have been developed These include the fol­ wooden shapes, and is purportedly helpful in the diagnosis lowing measures: of schizophrenia, depression, and other conditions. • The Szondi Test (Szondi, Moser, and Webb 1959) con­ • The Draw-A-Car Test (Loney 1971) asks children to draw sists of several sets of photographs of actual psychiatric a car and asks them twenty-four questions about this drawing patients suffering from paranoia, mania, and other disor­ (e.g., "How fast will it go?"). It supposedly helps to identify ders. Subjects are asked to select the two patients they like children with encopresis and enuresis (i.e., difficulty in inhibit­ best and least from each set, the assumption being that ing defecation and urination, respectively). these choices reveal subjects' unconscious needs. • The Pigem Test (see Haworth and Rabin 1960) assesses • The Hand Test (Wagner 1962) presents subjects with subjects' personality traits by asking them what kind of ani­ various drawings of moving hands and asks them to guess mal they would like to be if they "had to return to this what each hand "might be doing." The Hand Test uses these world and could not be a person." guesses to assess aggression, anxiety, and other traits. • The Luscher Color Test, which became well known fol­ • The Rock-A-Bye Baby Test (Haworth 1961) is a film con­ lowing the book by Luscher and Scott (1969), purports to sisting of puppets enacting the parts of various characters, assess subjects' personality traits by examining their prefer­ including a child, a newborn baby, his mother, and an evil ences for various colored cards. For example, subjects who witch. It is designed to assess children's jealousy toward prefer blue are hypothesized to possess needs for tranquil­ younger siblings, guilt regarding their aggressive feelings, ity; subjects who prefer green are hypothesized to possess and other emotions. needs to impress others. Most of these tests have either been inadequately • The Blacky Test (Blum 1950) consists of twelve cartoon researched (e.g., the Pigem Test) or found to possess inade­ drawings of a black puppy engaged in ambiguous activities. quate validity. The Szondi Test, for example, appears essen­ and requires subjects to tell a story about each drawing. This tially useless in the assessment of personality (Cronbach test is intended to assess the presence of psychological con­ 1960), while the Blacky Test's reliability and validity are both flicts derived from Freudian theory. For example, a cartoon questionable (LaVoie 1984). Moreover, despite its popularity of Blacky watching a knife descend upon his sibling's tail is in parts of Europe, the Luscher Color Test has not withstood purported to assess castration anxiety. careful scrutiny. For example, it has been found to possess • The Mira Myokinetic Psychodiagnostic Test (Mira 1940) low test-retest reliability (Brauen and Bonta 1979) and to be claims to assess psychopathological tendencies by examining unrelated to scores on anxiety measures (McAloon and the characteristics (e.g., length, variability) of lines drawn by Lester 1979) and personality inferences derived from the blindfolded subjects. MMPI (Holmes et al. 1984).

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/Oelobef 1999 37 devices and have grown accustomed to administering them for tive tests are of no value. But they do suggest that clinicians decades. Moreover, many clinicians almost certainly receive will often be convinced of the validity of projective tests even communal reinforcement (Carroll 1998) from like-minded in the absence of evidence. Like many "cognitive illusions" colleagues for administering these tests. Second, research on (Piattelli-Palmarini 1994), our propensity toward illusory cor­ relation may represent a deeply ingrained by product of the human mind's propensity Perhaps the principal reason for the popularity to perceive patterns and relationships in random data (Gilovich 1991). If so, clini­ of projective tests can be found in the remarkable cians will need to master a skill that does phenomenon of illusory correlation. not come naturally to any of us: disregard­ ing the vivid and compelling data of sub­ jective experience in favor of the often dry what Meehl (1956) called the P.T. Barnum effect—the ten­ and impersonal results of objective research. dency of subjects to regard vague and uninformaiive state­ ments (e.g., "You have a great deal of unused potential") as Acknowledgement accurate self-descriptions—indicates that subjects are espe­ cially likely to accept Barnum statements that they believe I thank Lori Marino for her helpful comments on an earlier draft of originated from projective, as opposed to objective, tests this manuscript. (Snyder, Shenkel, and Lowery 1977). Presumably, tbis is because most subjects view projective tests as mysterious and Notes inscrutable, and leave these tests perplexed about what their 1. A third type of reliability, internal consistency, essentially refers to the responses mean. In the psychotherapeutic context, this greater extern to which the items on a test relate to each other. This type of reliabil­ client acceptance of projective test interpretations may become ity will not be discussed further here. translated into greater clinician confidence. 2. A recent meta-analysis of Parker et al.'s (1988) data set by Garb, Florio, and Grove (1998), however, suggests that the MMP1 is significantly Perhaps the principal reason for the popularity of projec­ more valid overall than the Rorschach. tive tests, however, can be found in the remarkable phenom­ enon of illusory correlation. This concept was introduced by Loren and Jean Chapman, who demonstrated that individu­ References als often perceive statistical associations between projective Adler, A. 1931. What Life Should Mean to You. 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Subjects were asked to esti­ Graphology-The Study of Handwriting Analysis. Buffalo, N.Y.: Prometheus Books. mate die extent to which these physical features and person­ Blum.G.S. 1950. The Blacky Pictures: Manual of Instructions. New York: ality characteristics co-occurred. Unbeknownst to subjects, Psychological Corporation. there was no correlation between the (DAP) features and per­ Brauen, C.M., and J.L. Bonta. 1979. Cross-cultural validity, reliability, and sonality characteristics, because these two sets of variables had stimulus characteristics of the Luscher Color Test. Journal of Personality Assessment 43: 459-460. been paired randomly. Carroll, R.T. 1998. The Skeptic's Dictionary. Internet address Nevertheless, subjects consistently perceived certain DAP http://dcn.davis.ca.us/-btcarol/skcptic/dictcont.html. features to be associated with certain personality traits. Chapman, L.J., and J.P. Chapman. 1967. Genesis of popular but erroneous psychodiagnostic observations. 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SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 39 What Every Skeptic Should Know About Subliminal Persuasion

Classic research by cognitive and social psychologists suggests that subliminally presented stimuli can be perceived and can influence individuals' low-level cognitions. More recent investigations suggest that such stimuli can also affect individuals' high-level cognitive processes, including attitudes, preferences, judgments, and even their behavior.

NICHOLAS EPLEY, KENNETH SAVITSKY, and ROBERT A. KACHELSKI

The report of my death was an exaggeration.

—Mark Twain, in a note to the New York Journal, June 1, 1897

eaders of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER are well acquainted with instances of mismatch between pop­ Rular belief and scientific evidence. Despite an utter lack of scientific support, for example, many individuals place a great deal of belief in such topics as astrology (Carlson 1985; Dean 1987), facilitated communication (Dillon 1993; Mulick, Jacobson, and Kobe 1993), homeopathy (Barrett 1987), alien abductions (Carlsburg 1995; Randies 1993; Turner 1994) and even Elvis sightings (Moody 1987).

40 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Issues such as these are "slam dunks" for skeptics: There can be odiers like it, may have left readers with an incomplete picture little reconciling such beliefs with evidence that simply does of die state of the art regarding subliminal presentation of stim­ not exist. uli. Accordingly, we endeavor to acquaint readers of the In other cases, though, where there is some scientific support SKEPTICAL INQUIRER with the varied (and thriving) use of sub- on which to pin one's belief, there may still be more belief than liminally presented stimuli in cognitive and social psychologi­ is warranted. Graphologists, for example, who use samples of cal research. Specifically, we review evidence suggesting that individuals' handwriting to determine enduring aspeas of their cognition can occur without conscious awareness, and that this personalities, consistently claim greater predictive validity than unconscious cognition can be affected by subliminal stimuli, can be supported empirically (Nevo 1986; Scanlon and Mauro thereby influencing individuals' judgments, attitudes, and even 1992). Some might argue the same for ESP, for which some their behavior. Indeed, this recent evidence suggesting that sub­ evidence might actually exist liminal stimuli can influence (Bern and Honorton 1994; behavior gives us pause in but see Hyman 1994). It is in contemplating the possible domains such as these that the effectiveness of subliminal skeptics role is more subde, persuasion in advertising. but just as important. One key aspect of this role is to deter­ Clarifying Ambiguities mine what the available scien­ The exact meaning of "sub­ tific evidence does and does liminal" has been a source of not support. With this in controversy and confusion for mind, our purpose here is to decades. A common defini­ explore the psychological tion, however, is that a stimu­ research on subliminal persua­ lus is subliminal (that is, below sion, an area in which popular threshold) if it cannot be ver­ belief may again outstrip avail­ bally identified (e.g., able evidence. Cheesman and Merikle 1986; Subliminal persuasion Fowler 1986, Greenwald and refers to the use of sublimi- Draine 1997). The threshold nally presented stimuli, or used in this definition is that messages presented to individ­ of conscious awareness, some­ uals beneath their level of con­ times called a subjective thresh­ scious awareness, that are old (Cheesman and Merikle intended to influence their 1986). This definition, of attitudes, choices, or actions. course, allows for the possibil­ Not surprisingly, reports that ity mat an individual perceives unscrupulous marketers were that some material was pre­ using this technique to influ­ sented, but requires that its ence consumer behavior have exact nature be unidentifiable. Nearly all of the studies we historically prompted alarm (Cousins 1957; Key 1980). Yet, as review use this definition, while the remaining adhere to a more many writers have suggested, such panic is probably unwar­ conservative one: that individuals be unable to report even the ranted: There is simply no good evidence to support the con­ presence of the stimulus. clusion that subliminal messages implanted in advertisements can exert an influence over whether one drinks Coke or Pepsi, Furthermore, there is a critical distinction to be made endorses a particular viewpoint, or votes for candidate X over between subliminal perception and subliminal persuasion. candidate Y (Moore 1988; Pratkanis and Greenwald 1988; Subliminal perception refers simply to the perception of stim­ 1 Trappey 1996; Vokey and Read 1985). uli diat are below the threshold of conscious awareness. Or is there? We will explore why the notion of subliminal Subliminal persuasion, on the other hand, requires that the persuasion might not be as far-fetched as some have supposed. subliminally presented stimulus have some effect, not simply on Our point of departure, in particular, is an article appearing in an individual's judgments, but on his or her attitudes or behav­ the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in 1992 by Anthony Pratkanis (see also ior. As others have noted, subliminal perception need not imply Moore 1992). In his article, Pratkanis traced the historical roots subliminal persuasion (e.g., Moore 1988). of the belief in the powers of the unconscious, nicely debunked James Vicarys famous "Eat Popcorn/Drink Coke" hoax, and Nicholas Epley is a doctoral student in social psychology at Cornell described the compelling results of some of his own research on University Kenneth Savitsky is assistant professor of social psychol­ the ineffectiveness of subliminal self-help audio tapes. ogy at Williams College. Robert A. Kachelski is visiting assistant Still, for all its strengths, we believe the Pratkanis article, and professor of cognitive psychology at Williams College.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 41 In this article, we restrict our discussion of subliminally pre­ Later, after the experiment had ostensibly ended, these individ­ sented stimuli to only those methods that are well supported by uals walked more slowly to the elevator than participants in a research evidence. Thus, audio self-help tapes with subliminal control group, as if they had internalized the concept of suggestions to "lose weight" or "be assertive" are not consid­ "elderly." None of them showed any recognition of their ered, nor arc "backmasked" messages hidden in recorded decreased walking speed or of the high frequency of words music, or instances of messages embedded within pictures related to the elderly in the sentence-completion task (nor (such as the word "sex" airbrushed onto ice cubes or Ritz crack­ could the effect be attributed to other plausible alternative fac­ ers). Research has shown convincingly that none of these meth­ tors, such as depressed mood). The result, concluded the ods is effective (Greenwald, Spangenberg, Pratkanis, and researchers, was a direct effect of unconscious processing on Eskenazi 1991; Moore 1982, 1988; Pratkanis 1992; Pratkanis behavior (Bargh, Chen, and Burrows 1996).' and Greenwald 1988; Thome and Himelstein 1984; Vokey and Thus, ample evidence attests to the fact that much of what Read 1985). We focus instead on subliminal visual priming goes on in the mind is unavailable to conscious awareness. techniques, whereby stimuli are presented very quickly, and are Note, however, that the "elderly words" experiment, as well as typically followed immediately by a "pattern mask," such as a the research on stereotype activation, used stimuli that were, geometric shape or a series of random letters. This mask is or could have been, consciously perceived. Since this article's intended to disrupt the individual's conscious processing of the primary concern is the influence of subliminal stimuli, we stimuli—a bit like immersing pasta in cold water to halt the turn to whether subliminally presented stimuli can actually cooking process.' be perceived, while still remaining unavailable to conscious awareness. Unconscious Processing: We believe that the research literature leaves little doubt that Out of Sight. But Not Out of Mind the answer is yes. Many researchers have reported, for example, that words presented subliminally can influence subsequent Ask people to name a psychologist and there is disappointingly judgments. Dixon (1981, see also Epley 1998a) found that par­ little variation in their answers. Virtually all of them name ticipants given a subliminal prime (e.g., the word pencil) were Sigmund Freud (with Dr. Joyce Brothers and TV's Frazier faster than those who had not seen the prime to later identify a Crane running a distant second and third). Many people might related word (e.g., write). Likewise, Marcel (1983) found that be surprised to learn, then, that contemporary psychology bears participants' identification of a color on a computer screen was little resemblance, either in substance or in methodology, to the facilitated when it was preceded subliminally by the name of work of Freud (Stanovich 1992). That said, at least one idea the color, but was delayed when preceded by the name of a dif­ often attributed to Freud—the unconscious—has made a ferent color. Although diese early studies have been criticized comeback in contemporary cognitive and social psychology on methodological grounds (Holender 1986; Merikle 1982), (Bornstein and Pittman 1992; Cohen and Schooler 1997; similar effects have been found using methodologies developed Erdelyi 1996; Greenwald 1992; Kihlstrom 1987; Uleman and to address these criticisms (Greenwald Draine, and Abrams Bargh 1989). Modern psychologists do not subscribe to all of 1996; Greenwald and Draine 1997; Merikle and Joordens Freud's notions regarding the unconscious; instead, the term 1997). refers simply to those mental processes that occur without con­ In all, dozens of studies using implicit tests of perception scious monitoring or guidance. Viewed in this way, the uncon­ now attest to the fact that subliminally presented stimuli can be scious figures prominendy in many contemporary psychologi­ perceived (for reviews, see Bornstein and Pittman 1992; cal theories (Greenwald and Banaji 1995; Wegner 1994). For Greenwald 1992). But can they persuade? example, numerous studies have shown that some memories that cannot be recalled consciously may nevertheless exert Ghosts In the Machine: influence on a variety of mental processes (Schacter 1987). Subliminal Influences on Cognition Others have noted that stereotypes can be readily applied with­ out any conscious effort or awareness (Gilbert and Hixon For many, the Eiffel Tower is a beloved symbol of Paris. But this 1991; Spencer, Fein, Wolfe, Fong, and Dunn 1998). Indeed, was not always true. When the structure was built in 1889, it stereotypes seem to be most readily applied at those times when was despised by many—some Parisians even advocated its one's conscious capacities are die most limited (Bodenhausen destruction (Harrison 1977). Likewise, popular reactions to 1990; Bodenhausen and Lichtenstein 1987; Macrae, Milne, new artistic movements that are now cherished, from and Bodenhausen 1994). Impressionist painting to rock and roll music, were initially Furthermore, the causal determinants of behavior—why we negative (Sabini 1995). do what we do—can also be unavailable to conscious aware­ How can these changes of heart be understood? One answer ness. People are notoriously poor at articulating die true causes has been proposed by Robert Zajonc (1968), who suggests that of their actions and recognizing the importance of critical "mere exposure" leads to liking: The more one sees something, causal stimuli (Nisbett and Wilson 1977). In one experiment, the more one comes to like it. Thus, die more times people participants were given a sentence-completion task containing were exposed to die Eiffel Tower, paintings by Monet and a number of words related to die elderiy (e.g., old, wise, retired). Renoir, and die music of Elvis and the Beatles, the more

42 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER positive their evaluations became. est/dishonest, moral/immoral) after subliminal exposure to a Experiments have demonstrated that this mere exposure picture of the pope, but not after exposure to the advisor effect is reliable, and, furthermore, that the phenomenon does photograph used in the first study. Moreover, this was true only not depend on one's conscious awareness of the exposure. In for participants who indicated that they practiced their religion one study using subliminal stimuli, for example, participants regularly (Baldwin et al. 1991). This suggests that the effect of were shown several irregular polygons for one millisecond, five subliminal stimuli can be quite complex, mediated here by the times each. In a subsequent phase of the study, they were given personal relevance of the stimuli. pairs of figures, one that had been flashed to them previously In all, these studies serve to demonstrate that subliminal and one they had never seen. Participants were then asked to make two judgments: Subliminal persuasion requires that the which one had they seen before, and which one did they liked better. Although they subliminally presented stimulus have some effect, were unable to determine which figure they not simply on an individual's judgments, but on had seen (these guesses did not depart reli­ ably from a chance base-rate of 50 percent), his or her attitudes or behavior. As others have participants did show an increased liking for noted, subliminal perception need not the familiar shapes, preferring them 60 per­ cent of the time (Kunst-Wilson and Zajonc imply subliminal persuasion. 1980; see also Epley 1998b; Seamon, Marsh, and Brody 1984). stimuli can influence high-level cognitive processes, including Other experiments have broadened the generalizability of preferences for geometric shapes, liking of individuals, personal­ this result. In one study, participants were subliminally exposed ity judgments, and ratings of one's self-concept. Of course, to be to a photograph of one of two males who posed as research sub­ of any use in a consumer context, these effects must go further. jects. Later, when participants engaged in a task with both con­ In addition to altering a consumers attitudes, a marketer desires federates that involved several scripted disagreements between to affect his or her behavior. (It is not enough that one likes the two, they sided more often with the one whose picture they Pepsi, one has to buy some!) And as students of social psychol­ had previously seen, and also reported liking that individual ogy know, one need not follow from the other: There is often more than his counterpart (Bornstein et al. 1987). Mere expo­ less correspondence between individuals' attitudes and behav­ sure evidently leads to liking, even when that exposure is iors than one might expect (LaPiere 1934; Regan and Fazio beneath the level of conscious awareness.* 1977; Wicker 1969). Therefore, it is incumbent upon us to doc­ In other research, experimenters have shown that subliminal ument instances in which subliminally presented stimuli influ­ exposure to words related to various personality traits can influ­ ence individuals' behavior. Such influence has only recently ence how people judge others around them. In particular, expo­ been documented, and only a handful of supportive experi­ sure to words related to hostility (Bargh and Pietromonaco ments exist. Nevertheless, we find these experiments interesting 1982), kindness, and shyness (Bargh, Bond, Lombardi, and Tota and compelling. A full accounting of the possibility (or impos­ 1986) have been found to produce corresponding personality sibility) of subliminal advertising warrants their consideration. judgments (i.e., rating others as hostile, kind, or shy). Other investigators have demonstrated that subliminal exposure to Subliminal Influences on Behavior pleasant and unpleasant photographs can also affect how target Can subliminally presented stimuli influence behavior? Recent individuals are judged (Krosnick, Betz, Jussim, and Lynn 1992). investigations suggest that the answer may be yes. For example, Subliminally presented stimuli can also affect judgments Neuberg (1988) has argued that subliminally presented stimuli about the self, a point made in one of our favorite experiments can influence behavior indirectly, by way of activating concepts in this literature. Psychology graduate students were asked to that can influence the way individuals interpret the behavior of write down three of their ideas for possible research projects. others. These interpretations, then, can lead individuals to opt They were then either exposed to a photograph of a familiar for certain behavioral responses. For example, if the concept of postdoctoral student from their laboratory or of the scowling hostility were activated subliminally, and caused individuals to face of their faculty advisor. Unaware that they had seen any­ "read" hostility into the behavior of others, these individuals thing but flashes of light, the students were then asked to rate might then choose to adopt a hostile course of action them­ the quality of the research ideas they had listed. As predicted, selves. Though such an indirect effect is a far cry from the those who had been exposed to the scowling face of their advi­ mindlessly acquiescent behavior conjured by the words "sub­ sor rated their own ideas less favorably than did those who had liminal advertising," it nonetheless would represent an instance been exposed to the smiling postdoc (Baldwin, Carrel, and of subliminally presented stimuli affecting behavior. Lopez 1991). To test this hypothesis, Neuberg confronted participants with A follow-up experiment by the same authors makes a simi­ a "Prisoner's Dilemma," an exercise in which individuals must lar point. Catholic undergraduate women rated themselves choose to either cooperate or compete with another participant more negatively on a series of trait adjective scales (e.g., hon­ (Luce and Raiffa 1957). Before choosing, participants completed

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 43 questionnaires designed to assess rheir proclivity toward cooper­ Finally, direct evidence of subliminal influences on behavior ation versus competition, and were exposed subliminally to is also surfacing from neuropsychologists who are taking advan­ either neutral words (e.g., house, water, sound) or competition- tage of recent advances in brain imaging. For example, after related words (e.g., hostile, adversary, cutthroat). Although the participants have learned to respond to an odd number with primes did not influence the behavior of those with a coopera­ their right hand and an even number with their left, the sub­ tive orientation, participants predisposed to compete did so to a liminal presentation of a number (odd or even) produces corti­ greater extent when they were exposed to competitive words cal activation in the corresponding hemisphere of the brain (left than when exposed to neutral words (Neuberg 1988). or right). This activation is located in the motor cortex, the area More recently, Bargh and colleagues have provided even of the brain that controls movement (Dehaene et al. 1998). These experiments raise more questions Experimenters have shown that subliminal exposure than they answer. What exactly ate the mechanisms that allow subliminally pre­ to words related to various personality traits can sented stimuli to influence behavior? Is the influence how people judge others around them. process indirect, as Neuberg (1988) argues, direct and unmediated, as Bargh and col­ In particular, exposure to words related to hostility, leagues (1996) maintain, or both? In addi­ kindness, and shyness have been found to produce tion, the magnitude and generalizability of these effects have yet to be investigated. corresponding personality judgments. Extraordinary claims demand extraordinary evidence, and the evidence we have more compelling evidence that subliminal stimuli can influence reviewed in this section falls short of extraordinary. Still, the behavior (Bargh et al. 1996; Bargh 1997). In contrast to topic is intriguing, and we eagerly await the results of future Neuberg's notion of an indirect influence on behavior, Bargh investigations. suggests that subliminally presented stimuli can influence behavior directly—that the influence is unmediated by con­ What About Subliminal Advertising? scious thought and results from a direct perception-behavior For some, the bottom line of research on subliminal persuasion link that operates not unlike a reflex. How might this hypothe­ is, well, the bottom line—whether the effects of subliminal sis be put to the test? Previous research has established that stimuli can be harnessed in a consumer setting. Although we exposing white participants to words stereotypically associated hesitate to offer any conclusions, we note rhat several of the crit­ with African Americans tends to automatically activate the con­ ical requirements for subliminal advertising have been met cept of hostility (Devine 1989). To find out if such exposure through scientific research. In particular, as we have detailed, might also induce hostile behavior, Bargh and colleagues (1996) subliminally presented stimuli can influence high-level cognitive asked participants to perform a tedious task on a computer. processes, and, in some cases, can even influence behavior. Unbeknownst to the participants, the computer not only Nevertheless, many remain skeptical (Moore 1982, 1988,1992; administered the task but also exposed them, subliminally, to Pratkanis 1992; Pratkanis and Greenwald 1988), and it is easy photographs of either black or white faces. Then, after many tri­ to see why. In each of the studies we reviewed, care was taken to als, the computer presented them with a bogus error message— be certain that conditions were perfect: Participants were seated "Fl 1 error: failure saving data"—and informed them that they at specific distances from the video or computer screen, their would have to start the task again from the beginning. attention was focused in just the right direction, at just the right Participants' reactions to this news were videotaped using a moment, and extraneous stimuli were kept to a minimum. Such hidden camera and were rated by judges (who were unaware of variables are notoriously difficult to control in the real world. In the participants' experimental condition) to determine the addition, influence from weak, subliminal stimuli is likely to amount of hostility they exhibited. Results indicated that pale in comparison to the highly salient and powerful stimuli those exposed to black faces did indeed respond in a more hos­ already competing for our attention (Moore 1982). tile, frustrated manner than those exposed to white faces. The phenomena we have reviewed may well represent the In an extension of this work, Chen and Bargh (1997) hot-house products of cleverly crafted laboratory experiments, exposed participants to photographs of black or white faces delicate flowers that would wilt in the harsh environment of the and asked them to play a game with another participant who everyday marketplace. Even if this were the case, however, we had not seen any photographs. Ratings provided by the sec­ hasten to point out that it would not challenge the basic valid­ ond, naive participant once again indicated greater hostility ity of the studies we discussed in this article (Mook 1983). It among those presented with black faces as opposed to white would, instead, merely highlight the challenge of applying faces. Indeed, these naive participants responded to the origi­ insights based on laboratory experiments to consumer behav­ nal participants' hostility with hostility of their own, causing ior. Moreover, despite a lack of evidence for the applicability of the entire interaction to be rated by outside observers as more subliminal messages to advertising, we suggest there is no a pri­ hostile when the original participant had been exposed to ori reason why such applications are not possible. black faces, as opposed to white. In sum, we offer no conclusions regarding the plausibility or

44 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER effectiveness of subliminal advertising; we only suggest that it awareness on social behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 53: may, in fact, be possible, and acquaint readers with die empir­ 1070-1079. Bornstein, R.F, and T.S. Pittman. cds. 1992. Perception Without Awareness. New ical research upon which we base that suggestion. To assert that York: The Guilford Press. it is impossible for subliminally presented stimuli to influence Carlsburg. K. 1995. Beyond My Wildest Dreams: Diary of a UFO Abductee. behavior—even consumer behavior—would be, not unlike the Santa Fe, N.M.: Bear and Company. premature reports of Mark Twain's death in the New York Carlson. S. 1985. A double-blind test of astrology. Nature 318: 419-425. Cheesman, J., and P.M. Merikle. 1986. Distinguishing conscious from uncon­ Journal an exaggeration. scious perceptual processes. Canadian Journal of Psychology 40: 343-367. Chen, M., and J A Bargh. 1997. Nonconscious behavioral confirmation processes: The self-fulfilling consequences of automatic stereotype activa­ Acknowledgments tion. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 33: 541—560. Cohen, J.D.. and J.W. Schooler, eds. 1997. Scientific Approaches to We thank Steven Fein, Thomas Gilovich, Justin Kruger, Dennis Consciousness. Mahwah, N.J.: Erlbaum. Regan, and Leaf Van Boven for their hdpful comments on an earlier Cousins, N. 1957. Smudging the subconscious. October 5. Saturday Review p. draft of this article. 20. Dehaene, S., L. Naccache, G. Le ClocH, E. Koechlin, M. Mueller, G. Notes Dehaene-Lambertz, P van de Moortele, and D. LeBihan. 1998. Imaging unconscious semantic priming. Nature 395: 597-600. 1. Note that there is a certain "tree-falling-in-ihc-fbrcst-with-no-one-ihere- Dean, G. 1987. Does astrology need to be true? Pan 2: The answer is no. to-hear-it" paradox here: If subliminal means diat die individual cannot iden­ SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 11: 257-273. tify the stimulus, how can it be shown that he or she has indeed perceived it? Devine, P.G. 1989. Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled To accomplish this, researchers typically resort to "implicit" tests of perception, components. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 56: 5-18. whereby the stimulus is shown to have affected die individual's judgments. Dillon, K.M. 1993. Facilitated communication, autism, and Ouija. SKEPTICAL 2. Unlike die pasta analogy, however, processing of the stimuli can (and INQUIRER 17: 281-287. does) continue beneath the level of conscious awareness, even after the intro­ Dixon. N.F. 1981. Preconscious Processing. New York: Wiley. duction of the pattern mask. This continued processing is evidenced by die Epley, N. 1998a. Subliminal semantic priming and facilitation effects. effects, detailed in the next sections, that these subliminal primes have on the Unpublished manuscript. processing of subsequently presented stimuli. Epley, N. 1998b. Whatever it was, I like it: Unconscious familiarity produces 3. One of us has obtained a similar finding. After exposure to words related conscious liking. Unpublished manuscript. to conformity (e.g., comply, follow, obey), people were especially likely to con­ Epley, N. and T. Gilovich. in press. Just going along: Nonconscious priming form to an established group norm, again without realizing that die words had and conformity to social pressure. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. influenced dicir behavior (Epley and Gilovich in press). Erdelyi, M.H. 1996. The Recovery of Unconscious Memories. Chicago: The 4. 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Spangenberg. AR. Pratkanis, and J. Eskenazi. 1991. Personality and Social Psychology 71: 230-244. Double-blind tests of subliminal self-help audiotapes. Psychological Science Bargh, J A, and P Pietromonaco. 1982. Automatic information processing and 2: 119-122. social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of Harrison, AA 1977. Merc exposure. In Advances in Experimental Social conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Psychology, cd. L Berkowitz. 10: 39-83. New York: Academic Press. Social Psychology 43: 437-449. Holender, D. 1986. Semantic activation without conscious identification in Barrett, S. 1987. Homeopathy: Is it medicine? SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 12: 56-62. dichotic listening, parafoveal vision and visual masking: A survey and Bern, D.J., and C. Honorton. 1994. Does psi exist? Rcplicablc evidence for an appraisal. Behavioral and Brain Sciences'): 1-66. anomalous process of information transfer. 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SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 45 Flash! Fox News Reports that Aliens May Have Built the Pyramids of Egypt!

Pseudoscience as news? The Fox Networks handling of its primetime special "Opening the Lost Tombs: Live from Egypt" raises ethical questions.

RICHARD C. CARRIER

couldn't believe my eyes. It was a Sunday night, on the ten o'clock news. Right between a report on Y2K and Ianother on a fine against a local construction company, Fox 5 News in New York saw fit to give us a "special report" on who built the pyramids. The graphic behind the announcer, on a backdrop of the Gizeh pyramids, asks the question: "Alien Architects?" The announcer plugs the upcoming Fox television network special "Opening the Lost Tombs: Live From Egypt," then segues into the story with the campy introduction, "There are many mysteries in Egypt, like the pyramids. Who built them and how did they do it?" With that she introduces Fox News correspondent David Garcia, who begins his voice-over to video of the

46 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER pyramids: "The ancient future, a civilization of contradiction." lications, and is not a member of the International Association Immediately we hear another voice in an Arabic accent, "a of Egyptologists.1 But there is one more thing: Fadel Gad just pyramid was a tomb," followed immediately by another simi­ happens to be a co-executive producer of "Opening the Lost lar voice, "die pyramid has never been a tomb." Tombs." This is not mentioned in this news report. Here is a This is how it begins, and it only gets worse. Besides the real blurring of the line between news and entertainment, with ramifications of this news report for the whole field of jour­ producers being portrayed as unbiased experts on news stories nalism—the way it was con­ to drum up interest in their ducted, and the shoddy j| future entertainment pro­ journalism it represents— J grams. there is the then-upcoming f The thrust of the report special that this "news g was definitely not skeptical. report" was plugging, which S Garcia tells us that "tradi­ aired the following Tuesday g tional Egyptologists" con­ (March 2, 1999). Although g sider "even the mention of that show might be excused § UFOs or other-world intelli­ as "entertainment," when gence [as] heresy" as if this the same thing is done on a were about opinion and regular news hour, amidst dogma, with rival opinions real news, such an excuse is as good as any other, instead inadequate. And as I eventu­ of being about facts and evi­ ally discovered, it would dence. The only skeptic even be ethically question­ presented was Zahi Hawass, able for Fox to call its live "Undersecretary of State," a special "entertainment." truly renowned Egypt­ One scholar who partici­ ologist, widely published in pated in it told me he agreed the field, with a Ph.D. from to take part in the show for the University of Penn­ no fee, on the basis that it sylvania (all far more than was a "news" program. Fadel Gad can claim). But "They certainly used the Dr. Hawass was not listed as word 'news'," he told me, an Egyptologist—instead, "using that as the reason he was identified as an estab­ why 'no one' who was inter­ lishment bureaucrat (though viewed was getting paid." If it wasn't mentioned, he that is true, and if Fox does would also be involved in claim die show was entertainment, then it is pulling a fast one. the upcoming special). Hawass explains, "People like to dream. If you meet someone who is not an archaeologist, they Questionable Sources love to dream." Recounting the claims of aliens, he concludes, On the ten o'clock news, after we are told that the pyramids "That's a dream! My job is to let you dream, but you have to have never been a tomb, correspondent Garcia continues, know a little bit about reality." That is all Hawass gets to say "Still, modern day scholars debate not only what they are, but against the ideas of Mr. Gad. No other experts or information why diey are—who, or what, built diem?" He treats bodi are presented on this matter. This furthers the impression that claims as if diey are exemplary of real scholarly debate. Does the debate is about opinions, not facts, about heretics fighting Garcia really think that? He could not be reached for com­ the establishment and being arrogantly dismissed as dreamers. ment. Then we see a man identified onscreen as "Fadel Gad, Eventually, Garcia tells us, "also preserved are records, Egyptologist." What news does he have for us? Why, just diis: etched in stone, supporting evidence not of this Earth." This is "Were the Egyptians thinking of UFOs at that time? Yes! A a tacit approval of the alien hypothesis by a mainstream jour­ very sophisticated, highly intelligent species that had inter­ nalist on a major network's regular ten o'clock news hour. This cepted this planet Earth and had caused the evolution and the is not a tabloid; this is supposedly a mainstream source. Yet exploration of the human consciousness." A real Egyptologist is saying this? This is what Fox News is reporting. Though I Richard Carrier is a doctoral student and graduate student later found that Mr. Gad has extensive field experience and a instructor in ancient history at Columbia University He can be master's degree in Egyptology, he has authored no known pub­ reached at [email protected].

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 47 there is no hint of skepticism. the show (and then, perhaps, "setting them up" by covering What is this "supporting evidence" not of this Earth? Gad them with sand). Moreover, many archaeologists, whose com­ again: "The records indicate that we came from another place, ments can be read in the ANE Digest archives, note that we came from the stars." Do they? A picture is then shown of Hawass was providing a very bad example of how to conduct a some Egyptian hieroglyphs resembling rings, and we hear Gad dig. Some even said they would use the video to instruct stu­ declaring "they look like flying saucers!" Then comes a picture dents on what not to do.' of a carving of an Egyptian in a ceremonial headdress, fol­ lowed by Gad's voice again: "They are showing figures with A Parade of Paranormal Purveyors antennas on their head. Very mysterious." No other interpre­ tation is offered, no one is given the chance to rebut Gad's We are given a tour of all the outlandish theories at the start of reading of these glyphs. the program, with longer, corresponding monologues popping Garcia finishes with a sappy catch-phrase ending, typical of in and out as the show progresses, apparently to fill dead time this brand of TV journalism, "A higher intelligence, or merely between setting up archaeological sites for the TV cameras. In dedicated hard work? Which theory is correct? Neither is each case an author pitches his theory, with the title of his proven. It is the mystery of Egypt," an overt declaration that book appearing on screen. We are thus led through the entire the aliens theory is just as good as any other, that it hasn't been gamut of "heretical" Egyptology today. The narrative quaintly "proven" that the pyramids are man-made. If the Fox network portrays these guys as the "doubters" and "skeptics" who are can be this gullible, or this incompetent, or this shifty, on a challenging supposedly tired, old views. About these theorists, subject where information and experts abound, how can any­ who posit lost civilizations and alien visitors, Povich tells us, one trust anything else they report? "their ideas, or at least some of them, are not quite as wacky as By now I was dreading the Fox special. I had already found you might suspect." Indeed, "they are vigorously challenging the Fox Web site (www.foxnetwork.com/egypt/) promoting all mainstream archaeologists like Zahi Hawass." When at last we kinds of pseudoscience, uncritically, from mummy curses to get some comment from Hawass, sanity is championed, aliens to psychics. No real journalism appears on the Web site though not permitted a fair fight. He is only given time to say at all, virtually no skepticism, and no references or authorities. the obvious: "There is no evidence at all, existing in any place Statements are made as if they were facts. The Titanic was sunk in Egypt, about this lost civilization." by a mummy's curse; the pyramids may have been built to sig­ So who are these purveyors of the strange? First, the views nal space travellers; the fifty-year-old predictions of "the cele­ of Edgar Cayce, the deceased psychic mentioned in the Web brated American psychic" Edgar Cayce suggest the pyramids site, arc espoused by John Van Auken of the Edgar Cayce were built ten thousand years ago; that the Sphinx shows dam­ Foundation. He tells us we will be enlightened by the discov­ age from the Great Flood; and a secret hall of records from ery of the secret hall of records containing the truth about our Atlantis would be found under it in the late 1990s—conve­ past. Then there is Richard Hoagland, author of The niently, the very time that Fox planned to explore, live on tele­ Monuments of Man. We are descended, he says, from Martian vision, new shafts opened up "beneath" the Sphinx (not refugees who settled at Gizeh. Robert Bauval is there, author exactly—more like behind it). of The Orion Mystery. The three pyramids of Gizeh were built "Forget about everything you've ever seen or heard about" thousands of years earlier than we think, according to him, the Sphinx and the pyramids, Maury Povich says as the show since they must have been aligned with the Orion constella­ begins. Then there's a cheesy voice-over, asking the questions tion, which was only possible in 10,500 B.C. We get to hear that set the tone for the rest of the show. "Are there clues to from John Anthony West, author of Serpent in the Sky. The man's destiny? Was it Atlantis that taught Egypt how to build? Sphinx, he insists, must have been built in 12,000 B.C. in order Are we the descendants of astronauts from another world?" The for so much erosion to have occurred (and, of course, the fact entire two-hour show is littered with New Age authors pushing that the head was refashioned is to him further proof of its fan­ their theories, interspersed with more interesting archaeological tastic antiquity). Graham Hancock, author of Heaven's Mirror, tours led by Zahi Hawass. Hawass is a wonderful scientist, and makes an appearance. He believes, among other things, that clearly loves his job. He embodies the excitement of archaeol­ "an earlier civilization" that emphasized the soul rather than ogy, and is eager to share it with others. Around this backbone technology was destroyed in a great flood, and the survivors of "reality," which included the new, "live-on-TV" discovery of settled in Egypt. He says we are "technologically brilliant" but an intact mummy, the exploration of an unused tomb, and the "spiritually barren" and so we should look to this ancient civi­ first-ever public viewing of the tomb of Osiris, the content is lization for guidance. entirely lopsided in favor of the "heretics." The "reality" aspect Who gets to speak on behalf of the real scholars? Several— of the show is also suspect; much of it seemed staged. It was but none of them are asked or allowed to comment on any of apparent that Hawass had explored many of these sites before, the other theories being touted on the show. Among the gen­ identifying art and translating inscriptions, in preparation for uine experts, who give brief talks on ordinary facts and theories

48 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER not related to the New Age claims, are Bob Brier, an Egyptolo­ the last ice age broke up," and dius the Sphinx had to have gist from Long Island University; Dieter Arnold from the been built around then. There is no qualification or distinc­ Metropolitan Museum of An; Gaballa Ali Gaballa, Secretary tion made here between the two views. Schoch is very plainly General of the Egyptian Antiquities Council (actually the being presented as if he is West's co-theorist. Lest we be mis­ Supreme Council for Antiquities), and, though it is not men­ taken, Povich introduced the whole segment by saying "as we tioned (as in the case of Hawass in the previous Sundays news have seen, many suspect ancient Egypt was influenced by a report), a leading Egyptologist with a Ph.D. from Liverpool vanished genius culture. For one group, the rock of the Sphinx University; Aidan Dodson, an Egyptologist (now at the speaks the truth." But wait, isn't Schoch's book called Voices of University of Bristol) commenting on die King Tut dig; and the Rocks'. This seems an almost deliberate attribution of West's Nicholas Reeves, author of The Complete Tutankhamun, who odd theory to Schoch, as if his book argues for 3 lost civiliza­ talks about how good forensic evidence suggests the boy king tion (it does not—it isn't even about the Sphinx, although it was murdered (Dr. Dodson weighs in on this one, too). briefly mentions it). We are led here to believe that Schoch and West are the "one group" Maury is talking about. This is a Mixing and Matching Expert Theories dangerous license to be taken with serious scholarship. The only credible expert with unorthodox ideas was Robert There were other "experts" as well. Christopher Frayling, Schoch, author of Voices of the Rocks. Though not mentioned listed as a "popular culture historian" and author of The Face of in the show, he holds a Ph.D. in geology and geophysics from Tutankhamun, tells us that "the most convincing explanation of Yale and has been a faculty member at Boston University since the curse" of King Tut is that "some energy" of some kind was 1984. But the way his testimony is treated is part of a worri­ pent up in the tomb and released, affecting all who were asso­ some trend. By interweaving comments by both Schoch and ciated with it. Fortunately, Dodson's account at least lets us West, Schoch's geological observations are depicted as supporting West. But Schoch only dates the core body of the Sphinx to Povich tells us that "at the precise moment of around 5000 B.C. (as opposed to 2500 B.C. [Lord Carnarvon's] death" there was a blackout in as is normally believed, or 12,000 B.C. as West argues), based on his estimation of the Cairo. However, Cairo's power system is so rates of rain erosion.' notoriously bad that a blackout would Schoch told me he did not see the show, so could not comment on how his views not be a supernatural coincidence. were portrayed. But as far as I can tell, he certainly does not advocate Wests theory, and it seems a bit judge for ourselves, since he reports how Lord Carnarvon died shifty to present them as if they are a tag team supporting a from an infected mosquito bite that was cut while shaving—a common view. But Schoch's claims very specifically do not more plausible account, at least of his death. We are not told encompass the head or hind quarters of the Sphinx, and he about any of the other "dozen" (Maury Povich) or "thirty-five" also notes tliat his dating falls within the period of known (Fox Web site) people who died under "mysterious circum­ megalith civilizations (die walls of Jericho, for example, were stances," so Fox does not help us decide what to believe here.' built in 8,000 B.C.). But this is not the theory presented on the The way Dodson's narrative is abused, however, pushes ethical show. Instead, the scene turns on two occasions to Schoch to boundaries yet again. Interspersed with his otherwise historical argue about water erosion data, during the monologue of John account we hear others interject fantastic comments: Povich Anthony West, who argues "if the water-weathering theory is tells us that "at the precise moment of [Lord Carnarvon's] correct" then there was "a very ancient and highly sophisti­ death" there was a blackout in Cairo, and Frayling adds that cated" (stone carving is "highly" sophisticated?) "civilization Carnarvon's pet howled and died in England. Are we being led existing at a time when no civilization is supposed to have to believe that Dodson endorses rhis account? existed." When? In 12,000 B.C. Povich then says this may be When asked, Dodson said he could not confirm any of the the "last monument" of a vanished civilization. When he claims inserted into his monologue. However, he doubted that rhetorically asks if there is further evidence, he turns immedi­ there were a "dozen" mysterious deaths, and added that Cairo's ately, not to any archaeologist or historian, but to Edgar power system is so notoriously bad that a blackout would not Cayce—the psychic. be a supernatural coincidence. Is it ethical to splice factual But that is not the most disturbing part of this story. statements when the speakers do not share each other's views? Schoch is shown arguing that "tjiete were moist periods, rainy This is the very same thing done to Schoch. I asked Dodson if periods, in Egypt that clearly predate the modern Sahara he would have liked to respond on TV to any of the claims desert." Then at once we see West, who follows, "this kind of made on the show (not just those littering his own segment). a rainy period prevailed in Egypt around from the time when He said he would, but "with such off-the-wall ideas, it's almost

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 49 impossible to even try to rebut them. There's just no point of aliens coming from space and building the pyramids "is nuts," connection between reality and fantasy!" but he is never asked to comment on any specific details of the This abuse is matched by yet another example. Povich intro­ arguments being made. This is a very one-sided investigation. duces the "monuments on Mars" theory again later in the The people are not being fairly informed. broadcast, adding that "recent exploration suggests it may be The show did conclude on an encouraging note, however. so." Immediately we hear a replay ofa real news report, over the West's theory was tied to Cayce's claim ofa lost hall of records sight ofa rocket launch. The news anchors voice declares, "All beneath the Sphinx, and when the tomb of Osiris is being the talk tonight is about Mars and whether American scientists explored with Hawass, he is asked his opinion of the Cayce have the proof that life once existed on that planet." theory. His response? "It's a myth . . . but to be fair," he adds Immediately, we move to Hoagland, and Viking orbiter images with a humorous tone, "I did not excavate this tunnel yet," of the "face" on Mars. But wait... are we being told that there pointing down a shaft perhaps leading in the direction of the was a real news story about this, that "American scientists" were Sphinx, "then really I don't know." Hopefully the audience will really asking whether this was proof of life on Mars? The catch his sarcasm. recording sure sounded to me like a report on the evidence of Hawass was also given (almost) the last word: "People like microbial fossils in a Martian meteorite, but I have no way of to dream. And I like to let them dream. But my show gives knowing, because that part was cut out. If this is what they did, them a little of reality. I believe that all diat we found today, isn't this dishonest? This seems a serious ethical question. this is the reality." And indeed he is right—for despite all the Eventually we get to the expected tie-in with the previous "wacky" theories, the only real facts that were exposed on the Sunday's news report. Besides being told repeatedly that the show were of that very reality: the pyramids were tombs built Egyptian constructions were "seemingly supernatural" in their for mummified corpses buried only thousands, not tens of technical perfection,* the hieroglyphs that "prove" our thousands, of years ago. The pyramids were built without extraterrestrial origins are shown again. This time, Hoagland is secret history or technology; no Atlantis; no aliens; no amaz­ our interpreter, despite the fact that even Fox won't stoop so ing hall of records. Just an exciting, fascinating, thoroughly low as to claim he has any expertise in this matter. We are human, and definitely Egyptian, historical reality. shown a wall inscription, which Hoagland says has pictures of "high-tech things" like "helicopters and land speeders and Notes spaceships and the Millennium Falcon." To prove his point, 1. Fadel Gad is president of Joy Travel International (11600 the Fox production team overlays video of an Apache heli­ Washington PI., Suite 209, Los Angeles, CA 90066). He was travelling and copter to show the similarity. According to Ms. Griffis- could not be reached for comment. His resume cites official posts, from Greenberg, an Egyptologist at the University of Alabama at Inspector of Antiquities to Director of Excavations at Saqqara, excavations from 1973 to 1980, and a master's degree in Ancient Egyptian Art and Birmingham, who saw this broadcast, this interpretation is Archaeology from Cairo University, 1981. He runs tours for organizations absurd, but not new to her—it has cropped up on the Usenet as diverse as The Institute of Noetic Sciences and the University of California, and works a lecture circuit on "Egyptian mythology." I con­ so many times she is tired of answering it. But she was glad to tacted many people who met him, and all praised him as an explain yet again, and referred me to more credible sources. ethical businessman and all-around nice guy. For online, mostly I spoke to several other Egyptologists who were amazed New Age. references to Fadel and his unusual teachings sec www.visionmagazinc.com/august98/artofliv.htm, www. in tuition, org/ jour that this was being done on television, although one said to me ncy.htm, and www.instadv.ucsb.edu/InstAdv/AlumniAssociation/Travcl. that he expects this sort of thing now, "It is just what TV 2. There was much discussion about this Fox special: see does." But what do the experts say about this "helicopter" www-oi.uchicago.edu/OI/ANE/ANE-DIGEST/CURRENT. glyph? This will serve as an example for all the rest: the "heli­ 3. See R. M. Schoch, "Redating the Great Sphinx of Giza," KMT: A Modem Journal of Ancient Egypt, 3:2 (Summer 1992), pp. 52-59, 66-70; T copter" is in fact the Abydos palimpsest. A palimpsest is what I . Dobecki and R. M. Schoch, "Seismic Investigations in the Vicinity of the is created when new writing is inscribed over old. In the case Great Sphinx of Giza, Egypt," Geoarchaeology, 7:6 (1992), pp. 527-544; R. M. Schoch, "L'Agc du Sphinx dc Gizch: Vers Unc Revision Dcchirantc?" of papyri, old ink is scraped off, but in the case of inscriptions, Kadath. Chroniques tUs Civilisations Dispones. 81 (Winter 1993-1994), pp. plaster is added over the old inscription and a new inscription 13-53). is made. The image described as a helicopter is well known to 4. See David Silverman. "The curse of the curse of die pharaohs." be the names of Rameses inscribed over the names of his father Expedition, 29:2 (1987). pp. 56-63. 5. The pyramids arc still made of die most primitive of permanent con­ (something Rameses was known to do quite frequently). A lit­ struction materials (stone) and no super-technological cutting tools have been tle bit of damage from time and weathering has furthered the found. Sec also Robert Bianchi, "Pyramidiots," Archaeology, 44 (Nov-Dec illusion of a "helicopter."'' What we should ask is why no 1991). p. 84, and Daniel Boorstin, "AftcHives of die great pyramids," The Wilson Quarterly, 16 (Summer 1992), pp. 130-4. Egyptologists were questioned about this, something well 6. See http://www.finart.be/UfocomHq/usabydos.htm. Sec also Jucrgcn known in the literature? As one of them said to me, "We don't von Bcckcrath. Handbuch der Aegyptischen Koenigsnamen, Muenchner live under rocks!" It would not have been hard to get an expert Aegyptologische Studien 20. pp. 235-237; Omm Scry and Hanny El Zeini Abydos: Holy City of Ancient Egypt. 1981, p. 187; and Shafik Farid, ed.. The to clarify the meaning of the "helicopter"—they had several Temple At Abydos, 1983. Simpkins Splendor of Egypt series, 1983, p. 8. I experts on camera already. Hawass is heard saying the claim of would like to thank Ms. Griffis-Grecnbcrg for her help. D

50 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER BOOK REVIEWS

The Freud Controversy at Century's End

MARK BAUERLEIN

Unauthorized Freud: Doubters Confront a Legend Edited by Frederick C. Crews. Viking, New York, 1998. ISBN 0-670-87221-0. 301 pp. Hardcover, $24.95.

ew intellectual disputes today are as the Freud exhibition was die immediate coction of the "Oedipal theory." Borch- rancorous as the one between pro- occasion for it (Crews's introduction Jacobsen reveals that Anna O., cele­ and anti-Freudian historians, theo­ details the episode), die collection brated as the first great cure, entered a F sanatorium one month after her treat­ rists, and dierapists. Ever since Freud's amounts to a tradition of skepticism dat­ ideas hit America ninety years ago, ing back forty years. The purpose of ment by Freud's colleague Breuer ended. cliques have gathered to disseminate the Unauthorized Freud Crews announces as: Swales underscores the sham theatrical­ doctrines of the master, while skeptics "to expose [Freud's] system of psycholog­ ity of Freud's ministrations to another have challenged them to provide empiri­ ical propositions to die same kind of early patient, "Cacilie M.," who suffered cal support for those doctrines. Ignoring scrutiny one would apply to any other from "chronic hysteria" for thirty years! the empirical demand, Freudians have aspiring science." Cioffi asserts that Freud developed his extended their speculations to all areas of sexual theories by projecting his precon­ culture, affirming not only a treatment of UNAUTHORIZED FREUD ceptions onto patients, and compelling them to accept his diagnoses. neurosis, but a vision of being human. Doubters Confront a Laoand Frwtanck c Meanwhile, opponents have continued The second section turns to "the their censure, reacting with outrage and essential knowledge claims" of psycho­ dismay to Freudians' antiscientific parti­ analysis. Contributors analyze one of die sanship, disdain for protocols of inquiry more frustrating aspects of psychoanaly­ and accreditation, and refusal to concede sis, its conversion of any piece of evidence any errors made by their founding rather into corroboration of its insight, so diat (except diose he himself confessed to). even refutations become merely speci­ The batde intensified four years ago, mens of resistance to psychoanalytic when plans for a Freud exhibit at the truths. Absorbing all denials, psycho­ Library of Congress became public; die analysis has no falsifiability conditions. exhibit sounded like an uncritical Instead, Von Eckhardt says, it possesses endorsement of Freud's dieories, paid for "explanatory power" (108), which Freud widi U.S. taxpayer dollars. Adversaries accepted as sufficient justification for it. demanded a less tendentious presenta­ By affirming a dieory on the basis that tion, widi some recognition of anti- The first section examines die "Freud it explained symptoms, critics say, Freud Freudian studies. Votaries shot back, legend," the narrative of young Freud provided psychoanalysis with a remark­ charging critics widi intellectual terror­ struggling against prudery and posi­ ably flexible method of inquiry. ism. Critics rejoined by asking Freudians tivism to ascertain the sexual origins of Interpretations could be judged on how satisfactorily diey explained symptoms, to behave more like scientists and less like hysteria and devise a method of uncov­ enthusiasts. not on how much "truer" diey were than ering them. Contributors explode this other interpretations, or how well they As die foes skirmished in Partisan myth of Freud's moral courage and Review and The New York Review of ostracism by revealing his exaggeration Books, Frederick Crews assembled the of success widi patients, his zealous Mark Bauerlein is a professor in the essays in diis collection and wrote sharp- search for confirmation of die "seduc­ Department of English, Emory University, edged headnotes to each one. Aldiough tion theory," and his unwarranted con­ Atlanta, Georgia.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 51 BOOK REVIEWS predicted future events. Furthermore, the ter detective and attracted acolytes who his theories could not withstand explanatory criterion legitimated specula­ worshiped its all-knowing originator. scrutiny, and so he turned to strategies tive tactics that supplied few hypodieses Roustang unites the faith and paranoia of power and loyalty. That shift from for testing—free association (see threads in his discussion of Freud's han­ science to police work may explain the Grunbaum), dream interpretation (Sand), dling of disciples' mentoring. In bluntness of Crews's denunciations. For and sleuthing for latent meanings International Psychoanalytic Association Crews, Freudians still think like disci­ (Timpanaro). To these critics, Freudians activities, Roustang witnesses the forma­ ples, investing themselves and their self- draw inferences, but have no rules for tion of a religion, with Freud the high esteem in the status of Freud himself. validity; they claim to treat neurosis suc­ priest anointing successors (Abraham, Countervailing evidence and peer cessfully, but have no methodological con­ Jones) and ousting heretics (Jung)- 'n tne review frighten them. They regard inter­ trols by which their actions might not suc­ infamous secret Committee, formed in locutors either as members of the fold or ceed; and they implement a method that 1912 to monitor the progress of psycho­ as enemies. Faced with that sectarian is infinitely corrigible, but never wrong. analysis and guard against wayward prac­ mindset, Crews realizes that reasoning tices, Roustang discerns a conspiratorial has little effect, and so he opts for provo­ The third section relates this episte- atmosphere, with the five members vying cation, taunting disciples with summary mological problem to Freud's clinical ses­ to please their master by vilifying those judgments like "the book shows psycho­ sions with particular cases, not to deter­ who do not. Edmunds concludes with a analysis to have been a mistake that mine what really happened (as in section rendition of Freud's manipulations of grew into an imposture." If likewise 1), but to explore how Freud predeter­ Horace Frink, an unstable psychiatrist impatient with the credulous disciple mined these cases as material his theory whom Freud wanted to serve as his mentality, many readers will find would explain. Here Esterson, Wolpe American deputy. Crews's elegant broadsides refreshing, and Rachman, Sulloway, Fish, and and the selections in Unauthorized Stannard demonstrate that Freud's These incidents of malignant disci- Freud cogent and satisfying. method hardly revealed a scientist care­ pleship signal to Crews that Freud knew fully observing subjects and steadily building a theory of neurosis from the evidence they offered. Instead, it Engaging Science About a Complex, amounted to a haphazard series of mis­ understandings, projections, and coer­ Evolved Species cions, in which Freud pushed interpreta­ IAN MAIONE tions on reluctant or unfamiliar patients and evoked supportive testimony from The Honey Bee. By James L. Gould and Carol Grant Gould. Scientific American suggestible patients eager to please the Library, New York, 1995. ISBN 0-7167-6010-X. 239 pp. Paperback. doctor, his actions licensed by the lax evi­ dentiary guidelines of Freudian theory. ost readers of the SKEPTICAL teric details on one hand or oversimplify­ Finally, in section four, contributors INQUIRER have undoubtedly ing complex issues on the other. The examine how psychoanalysis became a Mbemoaned the public's lack of Goulds do not simply recite facts; they worldwide phenomenon, and how Freud understanding of science and scientific explain why by relating each topic to the remained its arbiter. For Gellner, psycho­ reasoning. Many of us have also known experimental evidence. Clear and detailed analysis triumphed because it never pro­ real frustration at the many misleading illustrations help provide a picture of the posed to be a science. Rather, it was a television shows and books that promote complexities of real-life experiments, and world view, an idiosyncratic conceptual pseudoscience. However, exposing bad make the logic behind them clear, so that system with a unique cosmos, the science is only half the batde; educating the conclusions seem like pure common analyst's office, where the patient the public about good science is the other. sense. Scientific reasoning is often underwent a conversion-experience. The Honey Bee is a wonderful, engag­ described as refined, systematized com­ Demanding life-shaking commitments ing presentation of science, as well as a mon sense, and this is evident throughout from patients and granting extraordinary fascinating look into the remarkably com­ the book. By the end, the reader cannot powers to doctors, psychoanalysis plex world of one of the most highly help but start thinking like the experts! acquired the status of a belief-system. To evolved species on our planet. James One of the excellent examples of the Farrell, however, Freud endured because Gould, a professor of evolutionary biol­ scientific process presented involves the of his own paranoia, a trait that drove ogy at Princeton University, and Carol honeybees' dance language, discovered him to investigate minor behaviors and Gould, a well-known science writer, both by Karl Von Frisch in 1943. (Foraging that made him crave "heroic admiration" have that rare ability to present complex honeybees communicate the location of (235). Psychoanalysis met these needs scientific discoveries in detail, without perfectly in that it cast the analyst as mas­ either overwhelming the reader in eso- Ian Maione writes from Toronto, Ontario.

52 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER BOOK REVIEWS their finds to their sisters in the hive subjected to harsh scrutiny, and it engen­ arose out a of long evolutionary process. using a dance, in which the forager runs dered passionate debate. The evolution of the dance language in a figure-8 pattern, while "waggling" To their credit, the authors present an is a particular puzzle. Why are the dances her abdomen quickly back and forth. honest view of the scientific process, so imperfect? (As an example, although The location is encoded in the dance; with all its warts. Some of those wedded the sloppiness of the dance appears on the orientation of the figure-8 corre­ to the established view were reluctant to the surface to be a disadvantage, from an sponds to the direction of the food rela­ believe it could be wrong. The debate evolutionary perspective it makes sense, tive to the sun, and the rate of waggling developed partisan sides, and personali­ since dispatching hivemates to the exact encodes the distance.) ties clashed. Some of those involved did flowers that have just been harvested is The story is a good example of a puz­ not really understand Von Frisch's origi­ counterproductive. Instead, recruits are zle that was gradually solved over a long nal work. Each side presented experi­ spread out in a pattern that correlates period of time, with many incorrect mental results to counter those of the strongly with the angular size of the food hypotheses and wrong turns along the other, seemingly to no resolution. James patch.) Why hasn't the dance evolved in way. It took years before Von Frisch Gould himself was able to finally settle other species? How could it have evolved stumbled on the actual correlation the debate by designing an ingenious in the first place? between the dance and its meaning. The experiment in which foragers were suc­ The authors devote a chapter to these final pieces fell together only after one of cessfully tricked into "lying" to recruits questions, from Von Frisch's original his graduate students performed an about food locations, something that speculation that the dance evolved out of experiment that got entirely unexpected would be impossible if the dance did not intention movements, to the idea that results, and as often happens in real life represent genuine communication. they are a outgrowth of the bees' own some things don't fit into a simple model. However, despite the controversy and mental maps. As the authors themselves The dances are somewhat sloppy, and debate, the result was a greatly enhanced acknowledge, ideas about how an animal there are multiple encodings of distance. understanding of bees, and this is what evolved often remain only speculation In fact. Von Frisch spent much effort science is all about. As Gould himself without a way to test competing eliminating candidate factors (for exam­ points out, the fact that he was on the hypotheses. However, honeybees are one ple, height is not encoded in the dance). "winning" side in no way made the work of the most promising species for explor­ In contrast with typical pseudoscience, of Wenner and Wells insignificant. ing these questions, because of the diverse the authors explore the questions of why The authors also explore the natural species available to compare, along with and how. For example, it's easy for us to history and evolution of the honeybee in the large amount of existing data on bee look into a glass hive and translate a bee's depth, and those interested in the debate anatomy, physiology, and behavior. waggles into a location. But how does a between evolution and creationism will So, when faced with a friend or tiny insect do it, in the total darkness of find much of interest. The authors relate acquaintance who is wedded to the idea the hive, surrounded by thousands of her many aspects of bee behavior to the that aliens are abducting people or that sisters? For that matter, how does a bee coevolution of flowers and their pollina­ homeopathy is a wonderful new type of actually judge her direction or her dis­ tors. The strategies that the hive uses in medicine, and isn't interested in an tance while flying mere feet above the deploying its resources are explained in explanation of abstract scientific princi­ ground? These types of issues provide terms of basic economics, and these ples, you could try, "Did you know that excellent examples of scientific reasoning. make sense as optimal strategies that bees have their own language. . . ? An entire chapter is devoted to the "dance language controversy"; the chal­ lenge mounted in the 1970s by Patrick Travelogue of Modern Odd Beliefs Wells and Adrian Wenner, who TERENCE HINES attempted to show that the bees' dance is not genuine communication, and that Apocalypse Pretty Soon. By Alex Heard. W. W. Norton, New York, 1999. they really use conventional cues, such as ISBN 0-393-04689-3. 360 pp. Hardcover, $24.95. odor, to find food sources. The contro­ versy was a classic example of the error- Apocalypse Pretty Soon is an amus- various UFO cults. The others will gen­ correcting processes in science, which /-M ing, but still serious, and highly erally be unfamiliar, with the exception thrive on debate and challenge to JL A personal, look at eight apocalyp­ of the widely-known far-right-wing con­ authority. Wenner and Wells pointed out tic and semi-apocalyptic movements and spiracy groups. In each chapter, Heard weaknesses in both the logic that Von their followers. Some of these move­ takes the time to get to know several Frisch used and the experiments them­ ments, specifically the two UFO-related people who hold the belief he is dis­ selves. Because many of their points were groups included, will be familiar to cussing. He travels widely to visit well taken, a well-established theory was readers of this journal who follow the groups' headquarters, interview mem-

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 53 BOOK REVIEWS

I- bers, and get to know the movements ing red heifers to be sent to Israel to aid in tahione, and ornithine. Dr. Victor from the inside out. In almost all cases, the end of the world. That's right—sort Herbert comments in the book that he obviously likes the sometimes very of doomsday catde. These two believe these chemicals will in fact shorten the odd people he meets. The exceptions are that the second coming (Lott) or the first life span of anyone foolish enough to some of the conspiracy types, whom he coming (Richman) will happen only take them. Also covered in this chapter sees as extremely dangerous. His tone is when there is a third (historically speak­ are the cryonauts, those who have, or humorous but never mean-spirited or ing) Jewish temple built on the Temple will have, themselves frozen just before demeaning. His writing style reminds Mount in Jerusalem. Trouble is, there's no death. The hope here is that sometime in me of P.J. O'Rourke. Apocalypse Pretty temple there now. Worse, the place has a the future medical science will have fig­ Soon has die flavor of a travelogue of "^unch of mosques on it. Not good. But ured out how to cure the disease(s) diat modern odd beliefs. when the third temple is built, the rabbis the cryonauts had (would have?) died of. will need totally red heifers to use in var­ Then they'll be tfrawed out and cured. The first of the two UFO groups ious rituals and sacrifices. Since there are Well, maybe. Trouble is that freezing Heard covers is the Unarians, a happy- no red heifers in Israel now (at least none causes ice crystals to form and said crys­ go-lucky California-based organization. that are really red); diese two arc kindly tals arc bigger than the molecules of Unarian is short for Universal Articulate going to the effort to provide them. water they are formed from. They're Interdimensional Understanding of sharp, and they rupture cell membranes, Science, a group that obtained tax- The environmental apocalyptics are which turn to mush when the frozen tis­ exempt status from the IRS in the given their own chapter. They tend to sue thaws. So medical science had better 1970s. They believe that, sooner or later, believe that a vengeful earth, usually in learn how to repair this massive damage "space brothers" will come down from the form of the goddess Gaia, will get as well as the trivial little problem (in their flying saucers and turn the world even with humanity for our environ­ comparison) of curing the initial disease into a blissful place for all humaW^" mental abuses by wiping us off the face before any of these human ice cubes get None of the gloom-and-doom, eunuch- of the planet. This can lead to a sort of taken out of the freezer. making tenets of the Heavens Gaters environmental (as opposed to right- here! The Unarians sit around, channel wing political) survivalist mentality, In the final chapter. Heard and his messages from the space brothers, get in stocking up on bottled water and brie, wife visit the Monroe Institute in touch with their past lives, and engage and hiding out in a cabin in the woods. Virginia. For a price the Monroe Institute in various internal organizational squab­ In what is clearly the most chilling promises to teach people to have out-of- bles. The group was founded in die chapter, Heard hangs out with some of body experiences. Heard sees through the 1950s by Dr. Ernest Norman and his the ultra-right-wing conspiracy types, Institute's New Age gibberish, noting wife Ruth, the latter apparently one of they of Oklahoma City, Waco, and the that "considering how much money the the major consumers of costume jewelry like. Turning from this scary lot. Heard Institute had skinned us for already, way, in California. Her jewels are reverently introduces us to a small band of ultra- way too much hawking occurred" (p. displayed at Unarian headquarters. libertarians. These folks are planning to 326). But, in the end, his genuine liking of some fellow visitors kept him from just At the other end of the spectrum is build their own island in the Pacific and "snicker[ing] at everybody for three days" emergency-room doctor Steven Greer, a make it an independent nation. They (p. 328) and leaving. In this chapter he fairly well-known proponent of the view face a number of problems, the foremost makes insightful comments about why that humans are at risk for abduction by being a lack of money. Not to worry. people accept even die most obvious rub­ aliens for various nefarious purposes. They have a solution for the more seri­ bish, such as a tape alleged to prove chan­ Heard goes along on one of Greer's ous problem they'll face when they do neling in which the spirit of a drowned UFO watches. He reports, "After the manage to build their island—how to Scottish sailor named Patrick O'Shaugh- initial thrills of the 'crop-circle noises,' protect it from the established nations nessy speaks. Heard (p. 327) says "Patrick the truth set in: we were going to sit out who will, of course, want to take it over sounded like a cross between a castrato there all night, and it was cold" (pp. at once. No problem here—just get a and Mr. Bill. 'Ojjjoj,' he kept saying. 'I'm 216-217). couple of nuclear weapons. That'll keep everyone at bay. These people appear not in this water and it's so cold, oooooooh!'" My vote for the oddest group goes to so much dangerous as happily addled, One visitor is dying and this stuffbolsters Tennessee Pentecostal Minister Clyde much like Mary Poppins with an Uzi. his belief (hope?) that he won't totally Lott and Israeli (but American-born) vanish from the universe. Rabbi Chaim Richman. They are breed- The chapter tided "Death, Be Not in My Face" covers those who plan to cheat In addition to the book. Heard has Terence Hines is a professor of psychology death in one way or another. Some eat created a Web site at www.apocalypse at Pace University and author of large quantities of health foods mixed prettysoon.com. It's well worth a visit, Pseudoscience and the Paranormal. with chemicals such as virazide, glu- and his book is well worth reading.

54 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER BOOK REVIEWS

tion. They cite therapeutic touch and Can an Idiot Be Psychic? Kirlian photography as valid—the lat­ DAVID BLOOMBERG ter is even "proof that auras exist." They claim that Einstein had a "psychic The Complete Idiot's Guide to Being Psychic. By Lynne experience" because he "is reputed to Robinson and LaVonne Carlson-Finnerty. Alpha Books, have formulated the Theory of New York. 1999. ISBN 0-02-862904-3. 404 pp. Relativity while resting." They cite the Paperback. $18.95. Fox Sisters as having invoked spirits to "rap on and levitate objects," ignoring idi one of their most recent they say the former needs proof while the fact that they later admitted it was books, the publishers of the the latter is "trusting," and the former is a hoax. They perpetuate the incorrect WComplete Idiot's Guide series "critical" while the latter is "loving." claim that the late Jeane Dixon pre­ may be trying to reach its declared audi­ Obviously, it's better to be trusting and dicted President Kennedy's assassina­ ence. The Complete Idiot's Guide to loving than critical! Less subtle is their tion. Such inaccuracies are only the tip Being Psychic certainly is not meant to claim that, before it happened, skeptics of the iceberg. reach intelligent or knowledgeable read­ would have "been as unbelieving" of a It is intriguing that they repeatedly ers. Even most of those who believe in claim that Charles Lindbergh could try to claim scientific backing for some paranormal claims would likely have a complete his flight as they are now of of what they say, but don't, of course, hard time getting through the volumes astral travel. It's hard to believe the cite anything specific. They even claim of utter nonsense that fill this book. authors didn't know they were setting that "one thing that physicists and psi Previously, these guides have dealt up such a blatantly false straw man scientists agree on is that physics and with siep-by-slep instructions on liow argument, but if diat is truly what they psi probably follow the same set of nat­ to do something (buying a car, writing think about skeptics, it's no wonder ural laws." They appear to want to have a resume, gardening, etc.), and pans of they vilify them as having closed minds die credibility associated with the word diis book deal with how people can and even say "the public may confuse "scientific," without having to deal with supposedly learn to use their intuition, these two types of extremists—fanatical any of the rigors of the scientific get a spirit guide, etc. The authors are followers of all things paranormal and method. trying to put psychic powers in the ever-suspicious skeptics." The book is not completely devoid same realm as cars, resumes, and gar­ Oddly, the authors themselves seem of good advice. There is one small para­ dens—everybody knows those things to fall into the category of "fanatical fol­ graph that says, "Certain types of schiz­ actually exist; similarly, the authors lowers of all things paranormal." ophrenics also report hearing voices, declare that everybody is psychic. They Indeed, it's hard to believe they have and if you start hearing voices out of the proclaim it to be real, and simply move not lost their life savings to a confidence blue, your first stop should be your doc­ on from there. artist by now, since they seem to believe tor's office. We also recommend that The authors do acknowledge die absolutely everything associated with you make sure you're truly hearing psy­ existence of skeptics, and even specifi­ the paranormal. chic information before acting on your cally mention CSICOP and James They cite several well-known "psy­ premonitions. And whatever you do, Randi. But dieir understanding of skep­ chics" to support their claims, includ­ don't try anything dangerous because ticism is quite skewed. They claim that ing Uri Geller. (Amusingly, they state you think it's based on your intuition!" skeptics have to prove "diat psi doesn't that "skeptics continue to debunk But that's pretty much the extent of it. exist" and wonder what they will say Geller and his feats." Since they seem Their message is, quite plainly, that "when evidence finally arrives that to fully believe in his powers, this "everyone is psychic." Period. There is proves psi exists as a natural force." implies they don't know what the word no doubt. And if you dare to question They also take several potshots at "debunk" means.) They cite firewalk- the supposedly positive results of psi skeptics. In comparing the logical and ing as an example of an "unsolved mys­ studies, then you're just as bad as those rational mind versus the intuitive mind. tery," ignoring the fact that one does who "ridiculed" Galileo, Newton, and not need to be in any sort of special Einstein! David Bloomberg is the chairman of the trance state to do it. They talk of hyp­ Well, they certainly put skeptics in Rational Examination Association of notically regressing people to past lives, their place. Thankfully, that place is Lincoln Land (REALL). E-mail: chair ignoring the vast amount of evidence somewhere outside the realm of The man@Tcallorg. dealing with false memory implanta­ Complete Idiot's Guide. LJ

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 55 NEW BOOKS

Listing does not preclude future review. make the reader a better judge of statistical affects science, but this one has a far wider data, statistical graphics, and statistical argu­ cast—the uneasy place of science in modern Statistics You Can't ments of many kinds. Says Campbell: "It culture. "I intend to examine what to me is Trust: A Friendly will help you see through statistical informa­ an unsettling, and indeed, a deeply depress­ Guide to Clear Think­ tion not wordiy of acceptance and certainly ing phenomenon.. .. [I]t seems to me that ing about Statistics in not worthy of being used as a basis for deci­ contemporary societies . .. find tJiemselves Everyday Life. Steve sion making." Illustrated with cartoons by still greatly ill at ease with science, puzzled by Campbell. Think Twice Mark V. Hall. it, intimidated. . . . The uneasy relation Publishing, Box 472, between science and contemporary culture is 9815 S. Parker Road, Prometheus Bedeviled: Science and the deeply etched by history, custom, and preju­ Parker, CO 80134. Contradictions of Contemporary Culture. dice, and will not be quickly resolved. The 1999. ISBN 0- Norman Levitt. Rutgers University Press, first step in that direction consists of recog­ 9666171-5-0. 270 pp. Softcover. $24.95. 100 Joyce Kilmer Ave., Piscataway, NJ nizing how troubled our situation is and how The author of Flaws and Fallacies in 08854-8099. 1999. ISBN 0-8135-2652-3. much work will be required to put it right." Statistical Thinking returns with this primer 416 pp. Hardcover. $32. Rutgers University for helping anyone—statistical student and mathematician Norm Levitt, co-author with Science and Creationism: A View from the novice alike—evaluate claims and evidence Paul Gross of the widely discussed Higher National Academy of Sciences. National more judiciously. Examples of die "twin dev­ Superstition and co-editor of the Flight from Academy Press, 2101 Constitution Ave. ils" of poor statistics and poor interpretation Reason and Superstition, is back with another NW, Washington DC 20418. 1999. ISBN of good statistics abound. The goal is to look at the foibles of postmodernism as it 0-309-06406-6. 35 pp. Softcover. $9.95

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The Meaning of it All Visions 1 Richard Feynman 6 Michli Kaku Penguin Oxford The Man Who Loved How the Mind Works 2 Only Numbers Stephen Pinker Paul Hoffman Penguin 4th Estate Fifth Miracle Paul Davies Full Moon 8 Penguin 3 Michael Light Jonathan Cape The Strange Case of 9 Mrs. Hudson's Cat The Little Book of Science Colin Bruce 4 John Gribbin Random House Penguin The Inmates are Running Time, Love, Memory 10 the Asylum 5 Jonathan Weiner Alan Cooper Faber SAMS

By arrangement with New Scientist magazine, July 1999. See Planet Science at http://nevwscientist.com for more reviews. Some books also available at the Planet Science Shop.

56 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (2-9 copies $7 each; 10 or more $6.50 are Nikola Tesla, who advanced our knowl­ Books, 201 E. 50th Street, New York, NY each). A very welcome update of the edge of electricity, and Oliver Heaviside, a 10022. 1999. ISBN 0-375-40351-5.332 pp. Academy's 1984 Science and Creationism brilliant Victorian mathematical physicist Hardcover. $26. A distinguished neurologist report and a companion to its 1998 report who replaced his furniture with granite blocks analyzes the evolutionary origins, biological on teaching evolution. The 1998 report was that sat in bare rooms like the furnishings of basis, and ultimate limits of rational for educators and policy makers; this one is some stone-age giant. Pickover first profiles thought. Drawing on findings from anthro­ intended for a broader audience. See News several geniuses who have obsessive-compul­ pology to zoology, Calnc argues that reason and Comment, this issue, page 8. sive tendencies, treating Tesla in most depth. is a product of biology—a tool whose power He then gives a smorgasbord of short subjects is inherently and substantially restricted. It Strange Brains and Genius: The Secret ranging from IQ to the influence of the brain's has improved how we do things but has not Lives of Eccentric Scientists and Madmen. structure on behavior. In the third section, he changed why we do things. Calne offers Clifford A. Pickover. William Morrow & discusses how he selcaed individuals for the insights into how the mind works and a Co., New York, 1999. ISBN 0-688-16894-9. book and summarizes his thoughts on die compelling humanistic defense of the value 332 pp. Softcover, $14. This book "dedicated association of genius and strangeness, with of science and rationality, while at the same to the cracked, for they shall let in the light" is brief discussions about the effect of other dis­ time showing that reason has no direct links an irreverent tour of weird scientists—scien­ orders such as bipolar disorder and temporal to the brain's pathways of pleasure and satis­ tists and philosophers with strange obsessions lobe epilepsy on creativity, religion, and even faction that motivate our behavior. Reason is and compulsions. In pan it's a look at the the alien abduction experience. a powerful tool put into the service of goals nature of genius, and whether in some people it cannot determine or change. their obsessions and their creativity are linked. Within Reason: Rationality and Human Examples of the eccentric geniuses described Behavior. Donald B. Calnc. Pantheon —Kendrick Frazier

ARTICLES OF NOTE

Dawkins, Richard. "The Selfish Meme." hope that it will make the beginning of a dia­ to misinterpretations under sleep paralysis. Time, April 19, 1999, pp. 52-53. Essay on logue between skeptics and "fringe scientists" Now this fine article on the subject concurs memes—discrete units of knowledge, gos­ (his phrase). that the sleep-paralysis disorder—the result sip, jokes, and so on that are to culture what of a disconnect between brain and body as a genes are to life. Adapted from Dawkins's Holden, Constance. "Subjecting Belief to person is on the fringe of sleep—may indeed introduction to Susan Blackmore's new the Scientific Method." Science, 284: be responsible. "A growing number of schol­ book The Meme Machine (Oxford 1257-1259, May 21, 1999. A welcome ars believe that sleep paralysis may help University Press). examination of the John Templeton Foun­ explain many ancient reports of attacks by dation and its program to try to bring a rap­ witches and modern claims of abduction by space aliens." A number of psychologists Donnelly, Fred. "Edgar Cayce: Let prochement between science and religion. who study sleep paralysis are quoted. Sleeping Prophets Lie." Saint John (New Templeton stages conferences, offers prizes, Brunswick) Times Globe, April 13, 1999. P designs courses, sponsors programs includ­ Al. Column by historian shows how Edgar ing the one on science and religion at the American Association for the Advancement McCracken, Samuel. "The New Snake Cayce's "predictions" for the year 1998 of Science, and even funds research. It is Oil: A Field Guide." Commentary, 107(6): failed. New York and Japan are still above sea responsible for a fair amount of the "science 24-31. June 1999. A lengthy critical level. No continental-size land mass is bub­ finds God" media publicity of the past year assessment of alternative medicine, from bling up in the middle of the Atlantic or so. Some scientists welcome the founda­ homeopathy and acupuncture to reflexology, Ocean. "Any rational observation must con­ tion's efforts, but critics find Templeton's "bodywork," holistic dentistry, colonic irri­ clude the prophecies arc definitely false.... agenda futile, if not deceptive. The article gation, and so on. The author points out Edgar Cayce had a great imagination but was drew much comment subsequendy in the that for the great majority of alternative ther­ certainly no prophet." Letters column of Science, 284:1773-1774, apies there not only is no scientific validation June 11, 1999, including letters by evolu­ of any kind, there is frequendy evidence to I lii/ur, Avshalom C. "Can Skepticism tionary biologist Francisco Ayala and physi­ the contrary. Why, then, arc people so enam­ Itself be Dogmatic?" Frontier Perspectives, cist Steven Weinberg correcting comments ored of it? At least one explanation, writes 8(l):44-45. Spring 1999. A response by a about them and by biologist Ursula McCracken. is the extraordinary influence of member of the Center for Frontier Sciences' Goodenough expressing "bewilderment" at "the one-man industry known as Andrew executive board and its publication Frontier the proliferation of Templeton's programs Weil. M.D., whose effectiveness as an advo­ Perspectives editorial board to Martin and by its frequent "about-faces." She urges cate would be hard to exaggerate." Another great caution over "the fact that a billionaire Gardner's SKEPTICA1 INQUIRER column last is the unfortunate legitimization given it by can attempt to wield this much influence." year highly critical of the quality of science the formation of the government-funded presented by the organization and its National Center for Complementary and newsletter. Elitzur says the journal has now Alternative Medicine. The author worries become fully peer-reviewed and has assem­ Kriostof, Nicholas D. "Scientists Offer that the "severely relaxed standards of evi­ bled new Advisory and Editorial Boards. He Explanation for Alien Abductions." New dence that disfigure" the alternative medi­ says Gardner's report presented "a highly York Times, July 6, 1999. In numerous arti­ cine enterprise threaten to contaminate med­ partial picture" of the Center's activities and cles over the years, SI has suggested that ical schools now accommodating new pro­ Frontier Perspectives' content but expresses many "alien-abduction" reports may be due grams in alternative medicine.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Seplembe./October 1999 57 Miller, David. "Being an Absolute Silber, Kenneth. "Is God in the Details?" Vikan, Gary. "Debunking the Shroud: Skeptic" Science, 284:1625-1626, June 4, Reason, July 1999, pp. 23-28. Excellent Made by Human Hands." Biblical Archae­ 1999. Science and Society essay by University inquiry into the need to inject a note of real- ological Review, 24(6):27-29, November/ of Warwick philosopher makes for fairly ity into public discussion of a topic that has December 1998. Defenders of the Shroud of heavy going. Says Miller: "What is central to tun fat afield of the relevant science—the Turin have argued that it doesn't look like the rationality is criticism, not justification or widely trumpeted assertion that there is an art of the Middle Ages. Vikan argues that this proof; and to scientific rationality, empirical apparent "fine-tuning" of the laws of physics is because the artist was attempting to create, criticism. To rescue science as a rational without which humans cannot exist. A good not a painting, but a supposedly miraculous enterprise, perhaps the rational enterprise par evaluation of claims recently reiterated relic. In a sidebar Walter C. McCrone relates excellence, tiiere is accordingly no need to uncritically in Newsweek, The New Republic, how he tested thirty-two samples from the attribute to well-tested scientific hypotheses a a George Will column, and in the 1997 shroud in 1980 and found paint, not blood. security and reliability that they do not pos­ Patrick Glynn book God: The Evidence. sess." Miller calls on scientists to stop over- Silber starts with physicist Victor Stenger's Voss, David. '"New Physics' Finds a Haven lauding scientific rationality, to show greater computer-simulation experiments showing at the Patent Office." Science, 284: readiness to admit to ignorance, and to mod­ that small changes in the constants of nature 1252-1254, May 21, 1999. Report on how erate public expectations of what can be provide different kinds of universes but not dozens of recent patents have been awarded for accomplished by science. The July 9 Science necessarily ones alien to the development of devices that invoke principles outside accepted (285:199-202) published six lively letters in stars, galaxies, and life. Has physics found science, such as exotic nuclear physics, perpet­ response to Millers essay (including an excel­ God? The evidence is, at best, highly ual motion machines, and psychic forces. The lent one by Nobel laureate biochemist ambiguous, says Silber. "Some of it points in Patent Office, once considered a barrier Christian de Duve), plus a long response an opposite direction—toward a universe against bogus scientific claims and devices, is from Miller, who says his purpose was "to dis­ that can appear marvelously fine-tuned even staggering under a record onslaught of patent tinguish skepticism from relativism, to if there is no Fine Tuner." applications and a shortage of qualified exam­ applaud die former and to deplore the latter." iners. And some inspectors are diemsclvcs devotees of fringe technology. As a result, Stashower, Daniel. "The Medium and die patents are now slipping into the books diat Shah, Tahir. "Unholy Smoke." Geo­ Magician." American History, August 1999, would never have made it before. In die letters graphical, 71(l):36-39, January 1999. pp. 38—46. Mina Crandon's followers column of a subsequent issue of Science (284: Thousands of "godmen" in India make their believed she had genuine paranormal pow­ 1829-1832, June 18, 1999), several of the living performing "miracles" that Shah says ers. Harry Houdini was equally certain she holders of patents criticized in the article would be quite familiar to Harry Houdini. was a fraud. A recollection about Houdini's strongly protest Voss's characterizations. He also interviews Dipak Ghosh, a leader of investigations into the woman called the Rationalist movement in India. "Margery the Medium." —Kendrick Frazier and Robert Lopresti

SUBLIMINAL PERSUASION tion of trait information on behavior in the affective discrimination of stimuli that are not from page 45 prisoner's dilemma game. Social Cognition 6: recognized. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Personality and Social Psychology 66:37-47. 207-230. Learning. Memory, and Cognition 10:465-469. Marcel, A.J. 1983. Conscious and unconscious Nisbett, R.E., and T.D. Wilson 1977. Telling Stanovich, K.E. 1992. How to Think Straight perception: Experiments on visual masking more uian we can know: Verbal reports on About Psychology, 3rd ed. New York: Harper and word recognition. Cognitive Psychology 15: mental processes. Psychological Review 84: Collins. 197-237. 231-259. Spencer, S.J., S. Fein, C.T. Wolfe, C.T. Fong, and Merikle, P.M. 1982. Unconscious perception Nevo, B., ed. 1986. Scientific Aspects of M.A. Dunn. 1998. Automatic activation of revisited. Perception and Psychophysics 31: Graphology: A Handbook Springfield, Illinois: stereotypes: The role of self-image threat. 298-301. Charles C. Thomas. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin 24: Merikle, P.M., and S. Joordens. 1997. Measuring Pratkanis, A.R. 1992. The cargo-cult science of 1139-1152. unconscious influences. In Scientific subliminal persuasion. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Thome, S.B., and P. Himelstein. 1984. The role of Approaches to Consciousness, ed. J.D. Cohen 16: 260-272. suggestion in the perception of Satanic mes­ and J.W. Schooler. 109-123. Mahwah, N.J.: Pratkanis, A.R., and A.G. Greenwald. 1988. sages in rock-and-roll recordings. Journal of Erlbaum. Recent perspectives on unconscious process­ Psychology 116: 245-248. Moody, RA. Jr. 1987. Elvis After Lift. Atlanta: ing: Still no marketing applications. Psychology Trappey, C. 1996. A meta-analysis of consumer Peach tree. and Marketing")-. 337-353. choice and subliminal advertising. Psychology Mook, D.J. 1983. In defense of external invalidity. Randies, J. 1993. Alien Contacts and Abductions: and Marketing 13: 517-530. American Psychologist 38: 379-387. The Real Story From the Other Side. New York: Turner, K. 1994. Taken: Inside the Alien-Human Moore, T.E. 1982. Subliminal advertising: What Sterling Publishing. Abduction Agenda. Roland, Arkansas: Kelt you see is what you get. Journal of Marketing Regan, D.T. and R. Fazio. 1977. On the consis­ Works. 46: 38-47. tency between attitudes and behavior. Uleman, J.S., and J.A. Bargh, eds. 1989. Moore, T.E 1988. The case against subliminal Journal of Experimental Social Psychology 13: Unintended Thought. New York: Guilford. manipulation. Psychology and Marketing 5: 435-443. Vokey. J.R., and J.D. Read. 1985. Subliminal mes­ 297-316. Sabini, J. 1995. Social Psychology. 2nd ed. New sages: Between the devil and the media. Moore, T.E. 1992. Subliminal perception: Facts Yoric Norton. American Psychologist 40: 1231-1239. and fallacies. SKEPTICAL INQURER 16: Scanlon, M., and J. Mauro. 1992. The lowdown Wegner, D.M. 1994. Ironic processes of mental 273-281. on handwriting analysis: Is it for real? control. Psychological Review 101: 34-52. Mulick, J.A. .J.W. Jacobson, and F.H. Kobe. 1993. Psychology Today 80(6) 46-53. Wicker, A.W. 1969. Altitudes versus actions: The Anguished silence and helping hands: Autism Schacter, D.L. 1987. Implicit memory: History relationship of verbal and oven behavioral and facilitated communication. SKEPTICAL and current sums. Journal of Experimental responses to attitude objects. Journal of Social INQUIRER 17: 270-280. Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition Issues 25: 41-78. Neuberg, S.L. 1988. Behavioral implications of 13: 501-518. Zajonc R.B. 1968. Attitudinai effects of mere information presented outside of conscious Seamon, J.G., R.L Marsh, and N. Brody. 1984. exposure. Journal of Personality and Social awareness: The effect of subliminal prescnta- Critical importance of exposure duration for Psychology Monograph1): 1-27. D

58 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER FOLLOW-UP

Dowsing Successful

H.-D. BETZ

n a recent issue of SKEPTICAL and Enright was aware of this connec­ inspection of the graphs. This is pre­ INQUIRER, J.T. Enright (1999) tion. Finally, on May 27 Enright mailed: cisely the reflection-effect already Irepeats criticism (Enright 1995) on the matter is resolved indicating that his extracted by End in his analysis (1996) one of our dowsing studies, the doubts regarding our data and End's of the total data, statistically highly sig­ Scheunen-Experiment ("nothing but way of handling them were removed. nificant. Enright terms this loosely anti- random results") and generalizes his Not the faintest objection had he raised dowsing skill, but did not make clear negative opinion to all dowsing effects. to our study. This is what 1 forwarded in whether he admits trends towards a In fact, our initial analysis of 843 a talk given at that time (but published nonrandom effect or interprets this skill double-blind trials with forty-three much later), now criticized by Enright. as a demonstration that dowsers do operators yielded considerable statistical We could hardly anticipate that he not even reach chance results (note significance (p=0.0007; see Betz 1995), would tear his own message to pieces. the well-known misinterpretations of although the individual hit-rate turned Incidentally, precisely this critique psi-missing). out to be exceedingly small. Enright was put fonh in 1998 in the German Giving a simple alternative strategy (1995) does not find an error in our journal Skeptiker (211998); my rejoinder Enright repeats his false statistical inter­ analysis, but argues that it was cus­ and clarification appeared shortly there­ pretation which we have shown to arise tomized afterwards and thus not valid; after (3/1998). from his misconception of null other evaluations would not give signif­ Enright presents in his figure 2 the hypotheses (Betz et al. 1996). He claims icant results. In a rejoinder Betz et al. best run (consisting often trials) we ever seriously that dowsers could perform bet­ (1996) showed that the initial analysis obtained and attributes the effect to ter if they—as successful strategy—simply remains valid and other statistical proce­ chance alone. The probability against choose the midpoint in each trial, instead dures yield significance as well. In par­ chance is 0.2 percent (Betz et al. 1996). of attempting to dowse. Even a nonexpert ticular, Ertel (1996) presented a com­ More imponant, at three other sessions readily recognizes the two conflicting pletely different evaluation which this operator performed three additional assenions: on the one hand Enright reveals very high statistical significance. runs (ten trials each) and reproduced his claims all along that dowsers perform Although none of these calculations success. When all forty trials are com­ according to chance. On the other hand, were shown to be incorrect, Enright bined the probability against chance is he suggests that just these operators by continues to debate the data. still below 5 percent. We did not evalu­ using a (necessarily) random strategy End's analysis (1996) of the barn- ate the fact that this operator operated will perform better than by chance. experiment was presented to Enright unchallenged for more than 10 years as For strange reasons Enright contin­ prior to publication. From January to a highly successful water dowser (Betz ues to claim that we had selected the March 1996 an extensive scientific 1995). forty-three operators from some 500 exchange occurred between Enright and Enright notices quite conectly that candidates by performing thousands of End. In continued e-mails with data the best operators produced not only preliminary tests, thereby arranging attachments End answered numerous notable hits near the ideal hit-line (x = y optimal stimuli for each dowser. questions in great detail. I was kept in Figure 2, 6a and 6b), but also con­ Nowhere did we say so. It is absolutely informed by End, because several centrated data points near the mirrored clear that such an undertaking would aspects of the data had to be clarified. line x = -y, clearly evident by visual have been impossible to carry out.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 59 Enright claims that operators produce obtained until the complete data was 232-235. only random results and we have always analyzed. Betz, H.-D., H. L. Konig, R. Kulzer, R. Trischler. and J. Wagner. 1996. Dowsing reviewed— admitted that the effect tested in the The effect persists. Naturwisienschafien 83: barn is extremely small. It remains References 272-275. Enright's secret how one singles out the Enright, J. 1999. Testing dowsing. SKEPTICAL Betz, H.-D., J. 1995. Unconvcniional water INQUIRER 23 (1), January/February: 39-46. best operators when there are (nearly) detection—field test of the dowsing technique no effects which can be used as selection in dry zones. Scientific Exploration 9: No. I, Hans D. Betz criteria. In fact, the forty-three operators 1-43 and No. 2, 159-189. Enright, J. 1995. Water-Dowsing, the Schcuncn- Physics Section were never selected due to preliminary Experiments. Naturwisienschafien 82: Universitat Munchen tests; they came along, performed, and 360-369. 85748 Garching went away. Our final result was not End, S. 1996. The dowsing data defy Enright's unfavorable verdict. Naturwissenschafien 83: Germany

The Whole Truth

J. T. ENRIGHT

begin here with only a few of the cal analysis, leading to unwarranted vided by figure 1 here (figure 3 in many statements of Professor Betz's conclusions, is difficult to imagine. Enright 1999). If dowsing were a gen­ Irejoinder, restricting myself to the This is a hallmark example of the fact uine phenomenon, a cloud resembling three most offensive ones. that just about any set of data can be the Milky Way should appear in this 1) Despite Betz's assertion to the sufficiently tortured so as to support graph, a dense aggregation of points contrary, I have never, in correspon­ the interpretation of choice. stretching from lower left to upper dence of any sort, or even in casual Statisticians sometimes call this "data right. Such a pattern can only be conversation, granted the detected there by wishful validity of the analyses under­ thinking. 100 <9o ° ° o o a o8°° o o o o . oo, taken nor the conclusions 8 2) Betz asserts rJiat they drawn by Betz and coworkers I H|""" s# V ** °%Y°° !/.«* nowhere said that data were from the Munich dowsing 80 f-CWJfc.kf tins"-j used from only forty-three experiments. Betz has made 88• 0 oo - o o oo 8 dSSYo ° 9o B2. » 60 o oo ^°*8 8° o report, which provided data year ago. He must have (Betz •158 o • o OS o o O on only forty-three dowsers, J o o ip do and Enright 1998) misunder­ ?00* D coS -•B° 8>.B_„, says: ", . . werden die etwa stood a remark of mine made aE »r ft>«8 400 Vcrsuchspersonen aus der to End, but I cannot guess 40 8% co o v 8 friiheren Pilotstudien nicht which one. More specifically, J' £0o"o CD berucksichtigt" [In transla­ none of my e-mail messages Oj o8>"" _ o o, , 3 ftOO V* 80°rf» Q 20 .! tion: ". . . about 400 candi­ to End contained either the O ( ft** 1 oo»o o o o o dates from the preliminary word "matter" nor the word o & o° "resolved," let alone that my experiments were ignored," p. last message to End of March * t£l + A 31 in Wagner, Betz, and 26 (not May 27!) contained 20 40 60 80 100 Konig 1990]. I concede, how­ both. I know of no e-mail PIPE LOCATION: ever, that I cannot document exchanges whatever with decimeters my inference that those End or Betz in May 1996. It neglected 400 probably didn't Figure 1. All 843 test results' reported by Wagner et at. (1990) for the 43 dowsers, is noteworthy that in the past selected by the researchers from among nearly 500 candidates. (Filled circles: two data do well in the pilot studies. points at identical coordinates.) year, Betz has not produced the text 3) Betz accuses me of a that led him to his beliefs. Instead, 1 mining." A clear-cut demonstration of misunderstanding about null hypothe­ stand by my original conclusion: A the actual nature of the results from the ses, in my demonstration (figure 7 in more misguided application of statisti­ Munich experiments, independent of Enright 1999) that even the six "best" of statistical manipulation, is instead pro­ the dowsers could have done better man

60 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER they actually did with dowsing rods by opponent. They should instead have of the Munich experiments. SKEPTICAL simply guessing in each trial that the emulated the experts who concluded INQUIRER January: 39-46. Wagner, H., H.-D. Betz, and H. L. Konig. 1990. pipe was located at the test midline. nearly a century ago, after examining Schulf!berichtO\ KB8602, Bundesministcrium That conclusion is an empirical fact; no the vast prior literature on dowsing fur Forschung und Technologic. hypothesis of any sort is involved. (500+ publications): Note "... it should be obvious to everyone A Broader Overview that further tests by the U.S. 1. Pearson's correlation coefficient for these Geological Survey on this so-called data is 0.022. Larger values should be expected My sympathies go out to the German 'witching' for water, oil or other min­ from random processes more than 70% of the taxpayers, whose government paid a erals would be a misuse of public time. Pipe location accounts for less than 3% of funds." (Ellis 1917). die variation in dowsers' guesses. If die true cor­ large sum (ca. $250,000) for the relation were even 0.15, power to detect a signif­ Munich dowsing studies. At issue here is icant (p < 0.05) estimator (which did not occur) wherJier those charged with spending exceeds 99%. Similar interpretations apply to References Spearman's correlation coefficient, which is public money behaved in a responsible 0.021 and which makes somewhat weaker Betz, H.-D. 1997. Neue Ergebnisse dcr Rutcngan- assumptions. fashion. In my opinion, diey did not. gcrforschung. Wetter-Boden-Mensch (Zeil- Properly interpreted, the results only schrififur Geobiologie) 5: 55-59. Betz, H.-D. and J. T. Enright. 1998. Widerrufen confirmed what had been found often J. T. Enright odcr nicht? (letters). Skeptiker Vol. 11 (4), p. before, namely that dowsers cannot do 169-170. Scripps Institution of what they claim; but Betz and colleagues Ellis, A. J. 1917. Water-Supply Paper 416, Oceanography have twisted that conclusion about 180 Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Univ. of California, San Diego Survey, Washington, D.C., Government degrees to fit their pre-existing beliefs, Printing Office. La Jolla. CA 92093 and have subsequently slandered their Enright, J. T. 1999. Testing dowsing: The failure [email protected].

Rupert Sheldrake and the Objectivity of Science RICHARD WISEMAN and CAROLINE WATT

ontroversial biologist Rupert expect people in Group A to have a in the physical sciences, and only 0.8 Sheldrake has recently published lower IQ than those in Group B") inad­ percent in die biological sciences, were Csurveys suggesting that much of vertently influence their participants conducted blind. Only 4.9 percent of the current research in science may suf­ and observations in such a way as to studies of human and animal behavior fer from an important methodological make the results of their experiment used blind methods. Sheldrakes survey problem that could seriously challenge conform to their initial beliefs raises several important questions and, the validity of many scientific findings. (Rosenthal 1976; Rosenthal and Rubin perhaps not surprisingly, provoked con­ This article sets in motion a project 1978). Such "expectancy effects" may be siderable controversy (Letters, SKEPTICAL designed to assess the impact of of enormous importance, rendering die INQUIRER, 1998; Matthews 1998). Are Sheldrake's provocative findings. results of an experiment completely so few studies really conducted blind? If worthless. Fortunately, expectancy Sheldrake (1998a, 1998b) has so, are experimenter effects a real prob­ effects can be reduced by ensuring that reported that a substantial proportion of lem or do most modern mediods elimi­ studies are carried out by people who are scientists are neglecting to use blind nate the possibility of such bias? blind to die experimental hypodieses mediods. This may result in experi­ Astonishingly, until now there seems to and design. menters' hypodieses becoming self-ful­ have been little systematic attempt to filling prophecies by biasing the way To discover whether scientists are answer these important questions. data is collected, analyzed and inter­ using sufficient safeguards against possi­ preted. Psychologists have demonstrated ble experimenter effects, Sheldrake Richard Wiseman is in the Department of the potential for such effects by carrying recently surveyed more than 1,000 jour­ Psychology, University of Hertfordshire, out studies in which experimenters nal articles in both the social and natural U.K. Caroline Watt is in the Department primed with different beliefs (e.g., "we sciences. He reports that no experiments of Psychology, University of Edinburgh.

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 SI We are currently setting up a world­ We are now inviting all scientists to References wide initiative involving scientists from suggest areas and techniques that might many different countries and disciplines be susceptible to expectancy effects. We Letters to the Editor. 1998. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October, page 65. to identify areas or techniques that may are especially interested in techniques Matthews, R. 1998. Blind prejudice: "Hard" sci­ be susceptible to expectancy effects. that involve considerable manual han­ entists believe they are immune to bias. New Once potentially susceptible areas are dling by experimenters, that involve Scientist 17 January, 12. identified, we will carry out systematic subjective observations and measure­ Rosenthal, R. 1976. Experimenter Effects in Behavioral Research (enlarged ed.). New interdisciplinary research that will exam­ ment, or that require substantial train­ York: Irvington Press. ine whether such effects represent a real ing and experience to develop reliable Rosenthal, R., and D.B. Rubin. 1978. Inter­ problem for science. If we discover that results. We are also interested in hearing personal expectancy effects: The first 345 expectancy effects are more pervasive from scientists who would like to studies. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3, 377-386. than previously thought, science will gain become involved in testing this impor­ Sheldrake, R. 1998a. Experimenter effects in sci­ through resulting methodological tant question, for instance by compar­ entific research: How widely are they improvements. If existing methods are ing the outcome of blind versus not neglected? Journal of Scientific Exploration not susceptible to experimenter effects, blind methods in their own research. 12, 73-78. . 1998b. Could experimenter effects occur this will provide the previously lacking Our e-mail addresses: in the physical and biological sciences? confirmation and validation of current [email protected] SKEPTICAL INQUIRER May/June 1998, methods. Either way, science will benefit. [email protected]. 57-58. D Don't Think About Special Issue Pseudoscience... Conflict Concilia Slepnen loy Gould Richard Daw^"» Without Seven P.nWf & Sieve M'ee • Chet I foul Kurt: • luM™ 5co KcnaXek trcacr • Victor I : Skeptical Inquirer Borrv ToieviB end many oWen the magazine for science and reason

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62 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER A study of fantasy proneness in John Mack's Abduction, Nickell I The great egg-balancing mystery. Gardner. FILL IN THE GAPS IN YOUR MARCH/APRIL 1996 (vol. 20. no. 2) Science and supersti­ tion. Sagan I Special report: Evaluation of military's pro­ gram on psychic spying, Hyman I The role of represen­ Skeptical Inquirer COLLECTION tativeness in erroneous and pseudoscientific beliefs, Gilovich and Savitsky I Vampires of folklore and legend. • 15% discount on orders of $100 or more • Barber I Miracle photos Nickell I Claiborne Pell: Senator from outer space, Gardner. • $6.25 a copy, Vols. 1-18 ($5.00 Vols. 19-22). To order, use reply card insert • JULY/AUGUST (vol. 23. no. 4): Special Issue: Science tion: Thoughts of a forensic biologist. Benecke / Did JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1996 (vol. 20, no. 1) How to and Religion. Conflict or Conciliation? Celebrating cre­ Adam and Eve have navels?, Gardner. make an alien for autopsy, Stokes I EMDR treatment, ation, Raymo I Should skeptical inquiry be applied to JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1998 (vol. 22. no. 1): Testing new Lilienfeld I Psychic crime detectives, Wiseman. West, religion?. Kurtz I The 'Science and Religion' move­ claims of dermo-optical perception, Benski and CRSSA and Stemman I Health statistics bad for our health, ment Scott I Science and the versus of religion. Scientists I Magnetic water and fuel treatment, Powell Pautos / Science and reason in film and television, Palevitz I Science vs. religion, Pazameta I Anthropic I Dowsing the Rollrights. Hancock I Anomalous gold, fvans / Post-Freudian dream theory, Gardner. design. Stenger/ Scientific skepticism, CSICOP. and the Brower / Open minds and the argument from igno­ local groups. Novella and Bloomberg I Two mind-sets. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1995 (vol. 19. no. 6) The GAO Allen I God is dead, after the weather and sports, Reiss rance, Adler 200% probability and beyond: The com­ report on Roswell. Klass I Why creationists don't go to / Whence religious belief?. Pinker I Non-overlapping pelling nature of extraordinary claims in the absence psychic fairs. Taylor. Eve, and Harrold I Eyewitness tes­ magisteria, Gould I You can't have it both ways: of alternative explanations, McDonald I Psychic timony and the paranormal, Wiseman. Smith, and Irreconcilable differences?. Dawkins I The concerns of exploitation, Wiseman and Greening! Is cannibalism a Wiseman I Objectivity and repeatability in science. science. Mayr I The religious views of Stephen Gould myth?, Gardner. Mussachia I Culture-bound syndromes as fakery, and Charles Darwin. Gardner. NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1997 (vol. 21. no. 6): The Mars Bartholomew I Freud's theory of dreams. Gardner. effect in retrospect. Nienhuys I Hidden messages and SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 199S (vol. 19, no. 5) The para­ MAY/JUNE 1999 (vol. 23. no. 3): Special Section: Urban the Bible code. Thomas I Science, scientism, and anti- dox of knowledge, Loevinger I Consciousness as a legends. The snuff film. Stint I Bitter harvest: The science in the age of preposterism. Haack* / The organ-snatching urban legends. Radford I 8igfoofs valid subject for science, Ingalls I School daze: review Elemental Man: An interview with Glenn T. Seaborg / of African-American baseline essays, Rowe I Mystical screen test. Daegling and Schmitt I Tracking Bigfoot Men in Black and Contact. Night and day. Summer I on the Internet. Zuefle I Statement analysis, Shearer I medical alternativism, Raso I China, chi. and chicanery. Intelligent design and Phillip Johnson, Gardner. Huston I Fuzzy logic. Gardner. NAGPRA. science, and the demon-haunted world. SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1997 (vol. 21, no. 5): Special Issue: Clark I Urine therapy. Gardner. Alternative Medicine in a Scientific World, Park. MARCH/APRIL 1999 (vol. 23. no. 2): Special Report: JULY/AUGUST 1995 (vol. 19. no. 4) How to sell a pseu­ Beyerstein, Sampson. Green. Goodenough. McCutcheon doscience. Pratkanis I Rumors, self-fulfilling prophe­ The ten-percent myth, Radford I /The Numerology of Dr. Rashad Khalifa, cies, and national obsessions, Paulos I Rose Superstition and the regression effect. Gardner. Kruger, Savitsky. and Gilovich I Mackenberg, Pankratz I Moon, plarets, and disasters. Psychology of the seance. Wiseman I Branham I Artificial languages, Gardner I The Roswell JULY/AUGUST 1997 (vol. 21. no. 4): Dowsing and archaeology, van Leusen I incident and Project Mogul, Thomas. Special Report: Heaven's Gate. Kurtz. Hidden messages in DNA?. Larhammar MAY/JUNE 1995 (vol. 19. no. 3) The belief engine. Gardner. Nickell I What really hap­ and Chatzidimitriou I The real Chief Alcock I Is skepticism tenable? Beloff plus Blackmore, pened at Roswell, Korff Amazing free- Seattle was not a spiritual ecologist, Hyman, Kurtz, Alcock. and Gardner I Mediumship. energy claims of Dennis Lee. Krieg I Abruzzil Joint pain and weather, Quick Stem / Ancient aluminum, Eggert / Crop circle mania / Acupressure, zone therapy, and reflex­ Chiropractic: Science, antiscience. pseu­ wanes. Nickell I Doug Henning and TM, Gardner I A ology. Gardner. doscience. Keating / Secrets of a young Grand Canyon? Heaton. Russian psychic. Polidoro. JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1999 (vol. 23. no. MARCH/APRIL 1995 (vol. 19. no. 2) Remembering dan­ 1): Special Report: Armageudon and the MAY/JUNE 1997 (vol. 21. no. 3): Is the gerously. Loftus / Antiscience in academia. Gross and prophets of doomsday. Fears of the sky falling?, Morrison I Collective delu­ apocalypse, Kurtz I The Bible and the Levitt I Feminism now alienating women from science, prophets of doom. Larue I Science and sions: A skeptic's guide. Bartholomew I Koertge I 'Lights out': A faxlore phenomenon. pseudoscience in Russia, Kapitza I Scientific reasoning and achievement Brunvand I Critique of evolution study, Larhammar. Testing dowsing: The failure of the in a high school English course. Krai I Munich experiments, Enright I A falli- Skepticism and politics. Fagin I JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1995 (vol. 19, no. 1) Wonder and bilist among the cynics. Haack I The internet: A world Courtney Brown's 'Cosmic Voyage' into preposterism, skepticism. Sagan I Putting away childish things. brain?, Gardner. Gardner. Dawkins I The astonishing hypothesis. Crick I Nuclear medicine, Seaborg I Literary science blunders, Gardner I NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1998 (vol 22. no. 6): Gaps in MARCH/APRIL 1997 (vol. 21, no. 2): The darkened cos­ Air Force report on the Roswell incident /1994 CSICOP the fossil record: A case study, Thomas I The Martian mos: A tribute to Carl Sagan / Hale-Bopp comet mad­ Conference. Panic sixty years later Bartholomew I The perils of ness plus An astronomer's personal statement on UFOs. post-hockery, Ruscio I May the force be with you. Hale I Biases of everyday judgment. Gilovich I The end FALL 1994 (vol. 18. no. S): Empirical evidence for rein­ Krauss / The Mead-Freeman controversy: A fresh look: of science?, Schick I The Book of Predictions: 15 years carnation? / Reader's guide to the ozone controversy / Much ado about nothing The 'Fateful Hoaxing' of Bigfoot evidence: Are these tracks real' / Why we are Margaret Mead. Cote / Margaret Mead. Derek later, Tuerkheimer and Vyse I Farrakhan. Cabala, Freeman, and the issue of evolution. Shankman I Baha'i. and 19. Gardner. unmoved as oceans ebb and flow / Anomalous phe­ nomena in Kazakhstan / False memories. Second World Skeptics Congress: Science and reason, JANUARY/FEBRUARY 1997 (vol. 21. no. 1): The X-Files foibles and fallacies, and doomsdays / Science and the SUMMER 1994 (vol 18. no 4): 'Extraordinary science' unknowable. Gardner. meets the skeptics: Chris Carter takes questions / The and the strange legacy of Nikola Tesla / Nikola Tesla: significance of the millennium, Loevinger I Quantum Genius, visionary, and eccentric / Pollens on the SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1998 (vol. 22. no 5): Special quackery, Stenger I The mysterious placebo. Codes / 'Shroud': A study in deception / Do televised depictions Section: What are the chances?. Coincidences- Bias and Error in children's books. Wiseman and of paranormal events influence viewers' beliefs? / Remarkable or random?, Martin I Numerology. Comes Jeffreys I Jean Houston: Guru of human potential, Synchronicity and the archetypes / The synthetic mind the revolution, Dudley I Calculated risks. Cole I How to Gardner. study weird things, Trocco / Why would people not clashes with the reductionist text / Psi in believe weird things?, Anderson / Starkle, starkle. lit­ NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 1996 (vol. 20. psychology. tle twink. Hayes / Of planets and cognitions: The use no. 6): A strategy for saving science. of deductive inference in the natural sciences and psy­ Lederman I Thafs entertainmentl TV's SPRING 1994 (vol. 18. no. 3): The chology, Schlinger Jr. I What's going on at Temple UFO coverup. Klass I Scientific consensus Antiscience Threat: The growth of anti- University?, Gardner. and expert testimony, Moore I The science / The antiscience problem / Measuring the prevalence of false mem­ JULY/AUGUST 1998 (vol. 22. no. 4): Special Report: Dogon people revisited. Ortiz de Montellano I Cosmic menagerie, Tyson I ories / Bleuier's views on inheritance of Mars Global Surveyor photographs 'Face on Mars', acquired characteristics and on psi phe­ Morrison I Magnetic therapy: Plausible attraction. Physicist Alan Sokal's hilarious hoax. Livingston / Biomagnetic pseudoscience and nonsense Gardner. nomena / Examining the Satanic panic: claims, Sabadell I Catching up with eighteenth century A personal perspective... A sociological science in the evaluation of therapeutic touch. Ball SEPTEMBER/OCTOBER 1996 (vol. 20. no. and historical perspective / Philosophy and Alexander I Paranormal depictions in the media: 5): Shades of meaning: Science fiction as and the paranormal, Part 2: Skepticism, How do they affect what people believe?. Sparks I a new metric Stewart / The first World miracles, and knowledge. Planting a seed of doubt. Shneourl Essiac: The not-so- Skeptics Congress / Traditional medicine WINTER 1994 (vol. 18, no. 2) The new remarkaWe cancer remedy. McCutcheon / Near-Earth and pseudoscience in China, part 2, objects: Monsters of Doom?. Gardner. skepticism / Philosophy and the para­ Beyerstein and Sampson I Conspiracy normal. Part 1: The problem of 'psi.' / Electromagnetic theories and paranoia. Harrington I Isaac Newton. MAY/JUNE 1998 (vol. 22. no. 3): Special Section: The field cancer scares / Attacks on role-playing games / Aliens Files. Abduction by aliens or sleep paralysis?. Gardner. Global fortune-telling and Bible prophecy / Chernikov Blackmore I Before Roswell: The meaning behind the JUIY/AUGUST 1996 (vol. 20. no. 4): Traditional medi­ pattern puzzle. crashed-UFO myth. Bartholomew I Case closed: cine and pseudoscience in China, Beyerstein and Reflections on the 1997 Air Force Roswell report. FAli. 1993 (vol. 18. no. 1): 'Perspectives on education Gildenberg and Thomas I Gray Barker My friend, the Sampson I CSICOP at twenty. Kurtz I Maria's near- in America': Sandia study challenges misconceptions / myth-maker, Sherwood I A skeptic living in Roswell, death experience. Ebbem. Mulligan, and Beyerstein I Do "honesty- tests really measure honesty? / Astrology Churchill I Zero-point energy and Harold Puthoff. Alternative health education and pseudocredential- strikes back—but to what effect? / Diagnoses of alien Gardner. ing. Raso / Pentagon grant funds alternative health kidnappings that result from conjunction effects in study. Selby and Scheiber I Thomas Edison. memory / Mathematical magic for skeptics / The Wind MARCH/APRIL 1998 (vol. 22. no. 2): Special Report: Paranormalist. Gardner. The price of bad memories, tortus / Science, delusion, girl who saw the flash of the first nuclear weapon test and the appetite for wonder. Dawkins I A mind at MAY/JUNE 1996 (vol. 20. no. 3) Delights and dangers of / Science: The feminists' scapegoat? play: An interview with Martin Gardner. Frazier I sensory illusions. Wolf I The enigmatic battery of Houdini and Conan Doyle: The story of a strange Baghdad. Eggert I The claims of aromatherapy. For a complete listing of our bade issues, can 800-634- friendship, Polidoro I Spontaneous human combus- McCutcheon I Fun and fallacies with numbers. Savant I 1610. or see http://www.csicop.org/si/back -Hsues-html. LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Response to 'NAGPRA, now implementing it. NAGPRA was not gets interesting, he also severs the tics enacted to exorcise poltergeists, it was passed between his archaeology and the sum of Science, and the Demon- out of respect for the cultures, traditions, this century's anthropology. He even turns Haunted World' and repeatedly expressed concerns of the on the field, implying that its principal Native American descendants of the people subject serves little function beyond the Of all articles in the May/June 1999 issue, whose bones and belongings have been quaint. The underestimation of the role of anthropologist Geoffrey A. Clark's article crated off by the tens of thousands to uni­ culture is materialistic science at its most "NAGPRA, Science, and the Demon-Haunted versities and museums near and far. duplicitous and dangerous. Any argument World" provoked the most controversy and that concludes that science has rendered After assuming that ghosts are behind comment. We begin with a letter from the culture, cultural evolution, or cultural NAGPRA, Clark dismisses respect for supervisory archaeologist of the Navajo Nation components like norms, morals, values, Native American culture and traditions as Historic Preservation Department and Clark's the teachings of elders, traditions, or his­ irrelevant, absurd, or quaint. Meanwhile, he response to that, and then follow with other tory irrelevant is more than simply arro­ pretends that his own conceptions are unbi­ selected letters from readers. gant, it is seriously flawed and fundamen­ ased and untainted by culture or self-interest. tally risky, especially given the implications — THE EDITOR Yet these influences are easy to spot. For of Darwinian evolution. example, full implementation of his argu­ In "NAGPRA, Science and the Demon- ments would result in an unfettered, strictly I propose that in making decisions that Haunted World" Geoffrey Clark rails against materialist science ("no topic or question is affect people, we must continue to defer to straw-demons from the highest rampart of off limits") unhindered by such "pernicious an older, enormously complex and perhaps the ivory tower. However, his naive assump­ vanities" as ethics, privacy, human rights, or messy Human Culture before buying into tions, rigidly compartmentalized perspec­ past abuses. an extremely rigid Science Culture that is tive, and his almost religious devotion to sci­ only partially and recently developed and ence render his commentary uninformed Clark acknowledges as "fact" that unproven. I think that Clark would have us and isolated from the real issues or the real "Indians . . . subscribe to the same essential- accept science as the new dogma that must world. As a social science professional (non- ist notions of ethnicity as . . . the govern­ now rule our values and guide our behav­ native) working for an Indian tribe active in ment, or Americans in general." But since he ior. But science (at its most self-righteous) the implementation of NAGPRA, I point conceives the issues differently, we must all pretends to be about what is true, and not out several problems with Clark's perspec­ be wrong. He also acknowledges some exclu­ about what is right. Broader culture—polit­ tive, assumptions, and conclusions. sive Native American interests in human remains, saying: "We arc all the losers if, for ical culture, economic culture, traditional Clark assumes that all Native American reasons of political expediency Indians culture—will and must continue to serve as concerns involving human remains also rebury their past" (emphasis added). In real­ the forum for determining whac is proper involve, essentially, ghosts. He's simply ity Americans, the government, and Indians and appropriate and will and must con­ wrong. The central concern in Native have concluded that wc all ultimately gain tinue to put limits on any number of possi­ America involves respecting a wide range of when we act to respect Indian people, Indian bly harmful behaviors, attitudes, and agen­ tribes, and their right to their traditions. das including a potentially renegade and fascist (or at least stridently valueless) Under strict materialism, the "rights" of scientism. science riiat Clark asserts arc, in his own vocabulary, absurd, nonmaterial, epiphe- Peter T. Noycs nomena that do not and cannot exist. Why Window Rock then, I wonder, is he so worked up? Could it Navajo Nation, Ariz. be that he fears some of the very demons he has so logically and emphatically dismissed? GA. Clark responds: Perhaps such phantasms (along witii haunt­ ing concepts like ethics, human subject pro­ In his letter about my NAGPRA essay Peter tections, and applied science) do indeed Noyes goes off on a tangent about ghosts, and lurk, but only in the nonconforming ether then gets down to the nitty-gritty—the conflict outside the insular ivory-tower reality that has been created, and is now maintained and between the world views of science and religion. Geoffrey A. Clark enjoyed by academic-only science and its Although I don't think he understands it, Noyes denizens. does not take issue with my contention that inseparable traditions and protecting real religious ideology underlies, or warrants, cultures consciously struggling to resist Clark's faith in Darwinian evolution is NAGPRA legislation, but this is, in fact, cen­ assimilation into an American monoculture. limited to the material and tangible. He tral to my argument. In the brief space allotted While "ghosts" may make for catchy head­ then abandons both Darwinian evolution me, I make four points. lines and help to fill the hall at professional and the principal of uniformitarianism First, it is entirely legitimate for science meetings, they've had almost nothing to do and ignores the obvious conclusion that to ask why humans have religious beliefs, with the development or implementation of culture participates in adaptation and evo­ since there is no empirical support for them. NAGPRA. This mischaracterization of die lution and has contributed directly to the There is a broad consensus in evolutionary law belittles not only Native American com­ success of our species. In dismissing cul­ psychology that the "sacred" or "spiritual" munities, but those who supported and ture, Clark not only truncates the evolu­ (most broadly, the "non-material') arose as a passed the law, and die professionals who arc tionary history of humanity just when it consequence of brain evolution over the

64 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

course of the Pleistocene as hominids, with As an anthropology student (studying not have passed had not many politicians their slowly expanding cognitive capacities, archaeology in the post-NAGPRA university and much of the public been willing to buy tried to make sense of their experiential setting), I must wholeheartedly agree with into the argument that "Indian archaeology worlds. For better or worse, this heritage is Geoffrey Clark's conclusions in his article is their archaeology, and we can let them with us yet. Religious beliefs are, indeed, "NAGPRA, Science and the Demon- have it and destroy it by rcburial because it "curious survivals" of earlier cognitive evo­ Haunted World." Most of my peers in my doesn't matter, it's not an important part of lution. Their predicates and entailments archaeology classes are of the opinion that the real American past." This same thinking exist only in the human mind. race and ethnicity (which are illusory) are produces looters who destroy sites for sal­ Second Noyes invokes exactly the same somehow real and vitally linked to culture, able artifacts, and developers who think kind of simple-minded pre-scientific, essential- and that culture is of supreme importance in nothing of bulldozing ancient villages to ist, typological thinking that saturates NAG- understanding the past. That is to say that put up shopping malls. Archaeologists PRA issues and, in fact, all public discourse only people of the same culture can accu­ believe that the past is not "red" or "white" about race and ethnicity in the US (and else­ rately understand one another. And, since or "black" but human— and all human where). I have little patience with this. Just many Native American groups believe that pasts are worthy of understanding and have exactly what is an indian, anyway? A white, a their cultures have continued without sub­ something to teach us. black, an anglo etc.? The point is that race and stantial change for the millennia, it follows that only Native Americans can accurately 3) Why should non-archaeologists care ethnicity are fleeting, transient things, not about NAGPRA? Because it is an excep­ bounded in space and time (polythetic sets, if interpret pre-Columbian human remains and artifacts. tionally dangerous legal precedent. Federal you will, that are constantly changing that law (and many similar state laws) now says have only a statistical reality). Evolutionary An example of the ridiculousness of fol­ that certain minority groups, vaguely biologists and some anthropologists actually lowing NAGPRA to the letter can be evinced defined by religion and ethnicity, have the know what "race" and "ethnicity" are; in the following example set forth, seriously right to forbid the study and control the Americans in general our policymakers, and and in a positive light, by one of my profes­ disposition of certain kinds of scientific evi­ most American archaeologists don't. Like many sors: If a 6,000-year-old artifact or human dence. Think about the implications of that unapologetic (but well-educated) 1960s liber­ bone is found in lands currently claimed by for a while. als, I believe that the basic unit of social value tribe "A," then tribe "A" must be consulted is the individual, and not some collectivity of about the find and excavation. This is true John Whittaker individuals like a racial or ethnic group, a even if it is known that tribe "A" only moved Department of Anthropology family a fellowship, or even society as a whole. into that area 1,000 years ago! Grinnell College It's about time we stopped using nineteenth Grinnell, Iowa century notions of biological and cultural vari­ Again, kudos to Geoffrey Clark for call­ ation as a basis for twenty-first century public ing attention to the problematic nature of policy NAGPRA, a law that encourages any (Native With regard to Geoffrey Clark's article American) cultural belief to be taken, for the lamenting NAGPRA, I would offer the fol­ Third, Noyes seems to forget that anthro­ sake of political correctness, as equivalent to lowing: pology is a "natural" as well as a "social" sci­ scientifically derived fact. ence, and that all human behavior is deter­ "Good friend, for Jesus sake forbear Craig May mined by the interaction of biology and cul­ To digg the dust encloased here; ture. It is a severe defect of the Americanist Eugene, Ore. Blest be ye man who spares these anthropological research tradition that the lat­ stones, ter has been emphasized to the near-exclusion And cursed be he who moves my Geoffrey Clark is quite right about the of the former (such is not the case in the UK. bones." for example). All humans are "stone-agers in racialist and antisciencc roots of the Native the fast lane,' and their behavior is as much American Graves Protection and Repatri­ —Epitaph on Shakespeare's tomb affected by 5 million years of evolution as it is ation Act, and the resulting damage to infor­ by the silly notion that we are—by virtue of mation about the past. I would expand on "Are those trees straight? Mister, those "culture"—somehow removed from the rest of three points. trees are so straight that they lean the the natural world. 1) NAGPRA finds a lot of sympathetic other way." (New England saying) cars because, despite wide acceptance of Finally, it should be evident that indians autopsies, forensic examinations, and organ These seemingly unrelated items point cannot be "sovereign nations" and "wards of the up the source of Professor Clark's chagrin. court" at one and the same time. But this is, in transplants, most Americans can be con­ effect, their current legal status, for which they vinced that studying ancient human remains First, excavating burial sites has always been pay dearly in terms of socioeconomic opportu­ is ""disrespectful." This is because most peo­ a subject of concern, and not unreasonably nities and "quality of life" issues. It is my opin­ ple refuse to admit the finality of death and so. Second, the Federal government has in ion that the legal status of indians is anomalous cannot shake the irrational belief that some­ the past treated Native Americans (to use under the law, and is long overdue for, and thing of a human exists after death that can the politically correct term) cavalierly, to badly in need of, an overhaul be offended or damaged by an interference say the least, and is now attempting to with the dead body. As an archaeologist and straighten up by leaning the other way. GA. Clark scientist, I refuse to accept that, and further NAGPRA is but one result of this "lean the Department of Anthropology point out that studying people and their other way" philosophy. Affirmative action Arizona State University remains is one way to respect them. is another. It would appear that the opera­ Tempe, Ariz. 2) NAGPRA is subtly racist. It would tive philosophy is that we can correct the

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 65 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

fact that some people were less than equal on authority of one stripe or another. No of the mythic is not the answer, but direct by making them more than equal, and to argument here. Reason, insistence on falsifi- experience is. . . . hell with the Constitution. able propositions and reliance on evidence David Lagerman account for much of the progress humans Jerry F. O'DonnclI Plymouth, Wis. have made, while religion is mostly charac­ Las Cruces, N.M. terized by dogma, systems of belief. Science truly can be seen as a "candle in the dark," as Carl Sagan put it. Contrast scientific When I read Geoffrey Clark's article I was Geoffrey A. Clark wrote a fine piece on the materialism with the mythic belief struc­ left with two distinct feelings: empathy for problems with NAGPRA. His essential tures of the various religions and you his main point and disdain for an unneces­ points are well taken. He also put his own observe a wide chasm indeed. The two sary and vitriolic attack on anything bias cards on the table, which is admirable. realms really belong to different historical opposed to his opinions. He says he is "a materialist to the core," and eras and to different levels of consciousness, I agree that NAGPRA appeals to be yet defines materialism as "the idea diat only and there is no question as to the power of another in the long line of well-intentioned matter exists and that what wc regard as scientific rationality to develop knowledge. pieces of federal legislation that later prove 'mind' or 'spirit' consists exclusively of mat­ Science and its offspring, engineering, to have negative consequences. It would ter arranged in complex ways." have become so successful, though, that a appear that a law that has such a sweeping Scientific materialism is probably, maybe huge error has occurred. Science in many impact on legitimate research deserves crit­ even obviously, the dominant view of the quarters has degenerated into "scicntism," ical review. readers of this publication, so it all fits well the belief that there is no reality save that Having said this, I could not help but feel enough. It is not the only view, though: there revealed by science. There is, however, tiiat Clark dipped deeply into the well of arc other perspectives, arguably worthy of another possibility, which is that, while arrogance in his screed. Clark bypassed a respect. rationaliry and the scientific method have meaningful discussion of the philosophy of Professor Clark contrast science with reli­ pushed aside myth in the area of knowledge science by declaring that "there is only one gion and says that science looks for truth claims, there are aspects of reality that myth scientific view" and that "materialism" is the based on reason and evidence, while religion has attempted to apprehend, and with underpinning of all science. Whether or not he is correcr in his ontological "preconcep­ (at least what wc think of as religion) relics which science cannot deal. Rehabilitation tions" (his word) is not at issue; the fact that he ignored the many legitimate scholars who would at least acknowledge that not all onto­ logical questions have been decided is. Tenth European Clark peppered the piece with with uni­ Skeptical Conference versal such as "one cannot cannot simulta­ Maastricht University, The Netherlands neously understand and accept evolution . . . and sustain a belief in the nonmaterial" and the reminder that, to the materialist, religious belief is "absurd." The diatribe went down from there. His The Challenge personal belief that ". . . science and reli­ gion are fundamentally incommensurate" is of the asserted so gratuitously as to invite a play­ ground-like retort of "Oh, no they're not!" Perhaps most striking is the apparent 21st Century underlying theme of the piece: His right to Friday, September 17-Sunday, September 19, 1999 research supersedes your right to exist. This is most clearly evident in the disdain he showed for "Indian origin myths" and his conviction that the concerns of science • Witnesses, should take precedence over anything as For details, contact Program Suggestion trivial as the religious beliefs of Native Jan Willem Nienhuys and Reliability Americans. Perhaps if such confrontational- Dommelseweg 1A • Antisemitism and 1 Investigating ism and arrogance were not so prevalent, 5581 VA Waalre Esoteric Movements Mediums of the Past questionable statutes such as NAGPRA Netherlands • Medical Expertise Genetic would not be either. More important, how does such writing contribute to the • Quacks Manipulation Scare "Skepticism of Inclusion" (March/ Tel:+31.40.2216791 or • Placebos Moonlight Dinner April 1999) that Kendrick Frazier argued so Cruise on the Meuse +31.50.3129893 • Media and the well for recently? e-mail: wsadjw©urctue.nl Paranormal Youth, Astronomy Web site: http^www.skepsis.org and Big Business • Hypnotism Astrology David Matthew Zuefle Greensboro, N.C.

66 September/October 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

G. Clark's article crossed a line that you are spokesman for science again by staring "from Snuff Film Urban Legend ordinarily careful to respect, namely that of the standpoint of science, religious beliefs are not attacking religion and religious beliefs curious survivors of earlier cognitive evolu­ Scott Stine's otherwise excellent account unless they intrude upon the purview of the tion." I was actually surprised to hear that (May/June 1999) of the background to the properly named "The Committee for the 'science' had a viewpoint on something as urban legend sparked by Snuff is. marred by Scientific Investigation of Claims of the abstract and ambiguous as 'religion'. Clark an overly sensationalized portrayal of Paranormal" (CSICOP), and then only in seems so intent on supporting his extremist protests against the film. He is not the first challenging specific, testable claims with evi­ argument concerning the hostile opposition to misconstrue or overreact to those protests. dence to die contrary. . . . between religion and science that he misrep­ I was arrested in early 1976 for allegedly Clark's diatribe against religion com­ resents what can be called little more than a coming to the assistance of two women who prised a prominent portion of his text. Many consensus among some scientists as an estab­ were being beaten by policemen trying to statements illustrating this were present, lished fact. disperse a peaceful picket line against the such as "A theological investigation .. . starts I suppose I should mention I am an athe­ showing of Snuff in Boston. No one was with a conclusion," "religious views ... are ist whose evolutionary ideas and skeptical "egged," no "bomb threats" had been absurd," "religious tenets ... are ex post opinions rest on a firm foundation of mate­ reported, and no one, except those two facto rationalizations for existing social con­ rialism. 1 generally agree with Clark that ditions," "The world views of science and NAGPRA is an example of faulty legislation religion arc fundamentally incommensu­ which is particularly vulnerable to pseudo- rate," and didn't seem to me even germane to scientific claims. I also think that science is a the bulk of his discussion on NAGPRA as I system vastly superior to religion for under­ understood it.... standing the world. But Clark's dogmatic So why are we treated to a bombast claims about evolution, religion, and science against all religion, sure to offend and alien­ distort die real differences that exist between ate the sincerely religious among Si's reader­ the scientific and religious viewpoints. ship, without advancing the agenda of those with legitimate concerns about the effect of Kipp McMichael NAGPRA on the science (or as Clark [email protected] prefers, the "science-like" endeavor) of archaeology? In his otherwise excellent article Geoffrey A. Clark writes of the "materialist biases and assumptions that underlie all of sci­ David M. Larue ence." It seems to be becoming increasingly Computing and Networking fashionable to define science in this way, Colorado School of Mines characterizing it in terms of the content of women, was "besieged." When the case came Golden, Colo. 'tis, rvnlanarionc An mtlimrmd '«• '•--:~-?'£c to court, the judge ordered that all charges only if it is based on "the idea that only against me and the beaten women be con­ matter exists." I was struck by the rather bombastic tone of tinued without a finding and then dropped. While this may be true according to the Geoffrey Clark's far-flung discussion of sci­ None of the picketers I had spoken to scientific understanding of today, we do not ence, religion, and archaeology. Clark pre­ expressed the belief that a woman had actu­ know that it necessarily must remain true as ally been killed in making Snuff. Rather, peo­ sented his article as a challenge to anti- and that understanding progresses in the future. ple were concerned that the flaunting of that pseudoscientific viewpoints—yet his argu­ To claim that it must presents science as claim would have a desensitizing effect on ment utilizes a series of questionable rhetor­ encumbered by prejudice and as seeking, the general problem of unprovoked violence ical tactics more at home in die worst of not the best of all possible explanations, but against women. Whether it's committed by pseudoscience journals. only the best among those conforming to policemen or others, that problem is indis­ In an attempt to draw a "deep" connec­ certain perceptions. Proponents of pseudo- putably real. tion between evolution and materialism, science gleefully seize on such claims and Clark makes die bold claim that "one cannot argue that their own a priori assumptions Stine's desire to defuse a dangerous urban simultaneously understand and accept evolu­ are equally deserving of being called scien­ legend is appreciated. However, the protest­ ers also had valid concerns. Those concerns tion and its philosophical underpinnings and tific. were not entirely at odds with his. sustain a belief in the nonm.itcri.il." This is The proper way to distinguish science first off a slap in the face to the many reli­ from non-science is not by die concepts Steven Cushing gious evolutionary biologists and other sci­ (e.g., matter) used in its explanations, but Jamaica Plains, Mass. entists who accept evolution and, no doubt, by its adherence to certain principles, such understand it just as well as Mr. Clark. It is as parsimony, falsifiability, fruitfulness, ten- also, quite simply, an unprovable opinion tativencss in its theories, completeness, Many thanks to Scott Aaron Stine for show­ that Clark presents as a self-evident truth. I accuracy and precision in its observations, ing us that the "snuff film." a particularly expect more from a magazine which prides and lack of bias in its practitioners. abhorrent, sadomasochistic kind of proletar­ itself on careful, substantiated analysis of ian cinema, is just another "urban legend" important issues. John G. Fletcher and that, as such, it actually has a history. Clark then takes up the position as Livermore. Calif. Bravo!

SKEPT ICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 67 LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

As defined by Stine, the sub-cinematic the Internet when he was about to die. pect's card. When I tracked the suspect snuff-genre presents itself as film that "insists down, he was in bed, still drunk, and Steve Geller that it does contain actual footage of human thought the entire incident was hilariously El Cerrito, Calif. death and mutilation." Although unstated, funny. I considered trying to handcuff and but as seems implicit in Stine's argument, transport a paraplegic suspect in my cruiser this definition of the urban-legendary genre and opted instead to seize the weapon, get a must be further clarified. Such film is pre­ In the Stine article there is this statement: written statement, and sei up a non-arrest sumably edited, i.e., composed to some "(Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho [1960] actually State Attorney investigation. The suspect degree, and that such composition (mon­ bears a much greater resemblance to the case, was charged with felony criminal mischief tage) is driven by a narrational/narrative despite the fact that author Robert Bloch and given probation with restitution. impulse. So defined, and even though Stine claims he knew nothing of Gein's heinous Sometimes (actually in my job—usually) asserts that "no one has actually seen one," I crimes before writing the novel that inspired truth really is stranger than fiction ... or leg­ fear I have. And so have you. the film.)" end. All filmed "documentaries" showing real Bob Bloch was a close personal friend for James S. Holley executions are snuff films. thirty-five years. In conversations about Largo Police Dept. As provided via cable TV, you and I have Psycho, Bob always attributed the idea for the Largo, Fla. seen many such on the Arts & Entertain­ novel to Gein. ment and History channels (among others). Les Cole Most commonly, the historical context for Ventura, Calif. these horrific kinetic images is the Third Urban Legends and Reich, and typically the perpetrators of those scenes of "human death and mutilation" are the Web Nazi Sonderkommandos operating cast of An Urban Legend That Isn't die Elbe and doing their own precocious As a skeptic and regular debunker of urban equivalent of "ethnic cleansing"—an As a regular reader of SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, I legends, I always look for evidence to back endeavor, as performed by other perpetra­ have always enjoyed the articles debunking up statements people make. Benjamin tors, now being reiterated on CNN (and all popular myths. However, as I read A. Stine's Radford provides interesting evidence that other news media). .. . article, the foreword by Jan Brunvand organ snatching stories are urban legends. reminded me that there is sometimes a basis However, Radford makes several statements The "do-it-yourself" kind of snuff-film is in fact for legends. I read one of Brunvand's about urban legends without backing them exemplified in an egregiously popular video­ books some years back in which he related a up with evidence. game called Doom. All of the above, includ­ story about a man shooting an auto-teller Specifically, Radford states, "... a mod­ ing the historical ("real") film-clips, are now machine as an urban myth that probably avidly consumed by testosterone-driven ern sophistication has developed in which reflected our personal frustration with tech­ stories of old ladies microwaving their poo­ American teenagers, especially the now infa­ nology. I thought that to be an interesting mous Harris and Klebold. dles are frequently identified as the tales that story except that I have been a police officer they are." Where's the evidence that people We are now painfully aware that such for twenty-one years and that incident arc becoming more sophisticated about dis­ brutal images and dark-side pursuits exist (which got picked up on the newswires) was cerning urban legends? I'd be curious to see everywhere—in video games, on TV, the Net my case. It happened in 1981, just before I the results of a random sample to see how and in Hollywood blockbusters—and they went into K-9 school, and kept popping up many people believe any number of urban do so because they are popular and, espe­ in newsmagazines for a couple of years. The legends. If people arc more sophisticated cially, because they are profitable. Do we last time I remember reading about it was about determining what is true, then there is need to condemn all the above? Is legislation about three years after the fact in, of all a contradiction with one of Radford's other actually called for? If so, then what needs to things, a martial arts magazine. statements, "Urban legends are becoming be outlawed is nearly the entirety of twenti- more common in today's society .. ." What edi-ccntury history. But if we were to outlaw It happened at the now-defunct Freedom evidence is mere that urban legends are history itself, then we would remain igno­ Savings in Keene plaza at the corner of becoming more common? Has anyone mea­ rant. And then, as history itself shows will Keene Road and East Bay Drive in Largo, sured the number of urban legends believed happen, it will merely repeat itself. Florida. The suspect was a paraplegic man in now or in the past? "More common" than a wheelchair who was trying to get some when? Ten years ago? One hundred years John F. Moffitt money out of the teller machine just after ago? Two thousand years ago? Las Cruces, N.M. midnight. Unfortunately, he was a little drunk and kept entering die wrong PIN. Radford also states "... and the World After three tries, the machine kept his card. Wide Web helps spread rumors and legends Other than being punished for a docu­ Enraged, the suspect took the arm off his at an unprecedented rate." My own subjec­ mented crime, there's little to prevent some­ wheelchair and beat the machine. He then tive experiences lead me to believe that one from filming a murder. That's probably went back to his van and retrieved a small rumors and legends are spread more by e- why snuff films arc such an enduring urban caliber handgun and shot the machine sev­ mail (both corporate and Internet, where legend. eral times. He then left the scene. Shooting information is distributed \o recipients) than the machine caused the alarm to go off, and Documentaries of a death do exist. Jack the World Wide Web (where people seek out I responded. We then called the manager Kevorkian just got convicted for doing one. information). I take exception especially down to the scene and he retrieved the sus­ Also, I believe Timothy Leary appeared on with this statement because the World Wide

68 Seplember/Octobef 1999 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER LETTERS TO THE EDITOR

Web has a tremendous ability to counter Martin Gardner's column was an excellent term "cryptozoology" as die study of newly urban legends. Every time I get an e-mail summary of the topic but, alas, contained at discovered and rediscovered organisms, and about a free trip to Disney World, a "stolen" least one factual error. He stated that hypotfretical creatures diought to exist based cookie recipe, threat of a dreaded e-mail Premarin was an urea-containing drug. on die biological clues they leave behind. virus, or warning about telephone scams, 1 According to the manufacturer (PDR 1988) Perhaps Dr. Pine is suggesting that this term refer the sender to one of the Web sites that Premarin contains no urea. It is used as an not be defined in this manner, but, in any contains factual evidence that the story is an estrogen replacement in post-rnenopausal case, I am glad that he reiterates my exam­ urban legend. women. I've prescribed it many times to my ples of wonderful discoveries of authentic SI would have done readers a much bet­ patients. It is manufactured from pregnant cryptozooic animals such as the Vu Quang ter service by providing information about marc's urine because pregnant mares are ox and okapi. I agree with what Dr. Pine urban legend sites (such as Urban Legends prodigious producers of natural estrogens says, and I'm sure we both share a sense of Reference Page http://www.snopes.com/ which get concentrated in the urine. awe at tbc remarkable panoply of creatures, discovered and undiscovered, with whom we instead of blaming the World Wide Web for Also urine has been shown to contain share the planet. spreading rumors. various acid hydrolases (lysozymes) which have anti-bacterial activity. Therefore, there Richard Rockwell could be some scientific basis for making Clifford A. Pickover Montclair, N.J. some kind of anti-bacterial salve out of urine Yorktown Heights, N.Y. to apply to injuries to prevent infection. Is urinating on a wound as effective as applying Urine Therapy and antibiotic ointment? Who knows? I'm That's Extraordinary? sure it's never been scientifically studied but it might work in a pinch. Martin Gardner's column on urine therapy I wonder whether wc are doing our skeptical (May/June) is one of the most bizarre I've point of view a service by continuing to state Charles Goodman, M.D. read in many years of subscribing to that "extraordinary claims require extraordi­ Saratoga, Calif. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. However, he left out nary proof." one well-documented study of urine as a This statement can easily be interpreted cure for dehydration. as our requiring more stringent proof for In Men Against the Sea, Charles Nordhoff Unmasking the Goddess unusual claims ili.in we require in main­ and James Norman Hall tell how HMS stream science. Thus, we can be perceived as Bounty crew members loyal to Captain Bligh I can't tell you how pleased I was to discover behaving unfairly. were forced to survive for weeks in a small in SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (May/June), the It might be more palatable to maintain open boat. Without fresh water, several of review of P. Davis's Goddess Unmasked. I have that "extraordinary claims require at least their number tried drinking their own urine definite plans to purchase two or more some evidence that is credible and reliable." to fight thirst. They all died. copies of die book as an intellectual balm for Since most unusual claims include no good Only one study-—true, but convincing victims of this annoying movement. evidence at all, demand for extraordinary results as far as I'm concerned. evidence appears unnecessary. Aaron Goodell I'll pass. Manhattan Beach, Calif. Oran B. Dent Brad Goldberg Centerville, Ohio Studio City, Calif. It's a sad commentary that we've been sub­ jected to so much hype and disinformation because reputable authorities declined to The letters column is a forum This is just a small oversight, but in Martin criticize supposed histories and anthropolo- for views on matters raised in Gardner's article "Urine Therapy" he men­ gies of the "goddess" because tbey didn't tions tfrat urine from pregnant mares is the want to appear "anti-feminist." It should be previous issues. Letters should urea source for die drug Premarin. a mark of honor to stand up to brainless neu­ be no more than 225 words. While it is true that pregnant mare's urine rotic troublemakers and intellectual vandals. Due to the volume of letters not is the basis ot both the name and ingredient in David C. Morrow all can be published. Address let­ Premarin, that ingredient is not urea. Having Corpus Christi, Texas ters to Letters to the Editor, no estrogenic properties, what use would urea have in postmenopausal women? The urine is SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Send by used for its high concentration of estrogenic mail (preferred) to 944 Deer Dr. compounds, primarily estrone and cquilin Pickover Responds on NE, Albuquerque, NM 87122; (found as the sodium salts of tiicir sulfate Cryptozoology by fax to 505-828-2080; or by esters). Other substances found in the urine and Premarin arc dihydrocquilin, estradiol, e-mail to [email protected] Re: Ronald Pine's letter (July/August 1999, equilenin, and dihydrocquilcnin. (include name and address). p. 78) on my recent News & Comment arti­ Bradley Ambs, R.Ph. cle (March/April): Woodhavcn. Mich. As I noted in my article, many define the

SKEPTICAL INQUIRER September/October 1999 69 THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL AT THE CENTER FOR INQUIRY-INTERNATIONAL (ADJACENT TO THE STATE UNIVERSITY OF NEW YORK AT BUFFALO) AN INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION Network of Affiliated Organizations International

ARGENTINA. CAIRP. Director. Ladislao Enrique FRANCE. Cerde Zetetique. Contact Paul-Eric Blanrue. 12 MALTA. SICEC (Society for Investigating The Credibility Marquee, lose Marti 35 - "C". (CP. 1406), Buenos Rue David Deitz. 57000 Metz. Comite Francais pour of Extraordinary Claims) Vanni Pule 48. Sirti Street San Aires. E-mail: deschaveOcvtci.com.ar. I'Etude des Phenomenes Paranormaux, Gwann, SGN 07 Malta. (+356 381994) pulevanOkey- AUSTRALIA. National: Australian Skeptics, Contact: Secretary-General. Meriin Gerin. RGE/A2 38050 Grenoble world.net. Cedex. Union Rationaliste. Contact: Jean-Paul Krivine, Barry Williams. Executive Officer, P.O. Box 268, MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical 14, Rue de I'Ecole Polytechnique. 75005 Paris. Roseville. NSW 2069, (Phone: 61 2 9417 2071. Fax: 61 Research (SOMIE). Mario Mendez Acosta', 2 9417 7930, E-mail: skeptics8kasm.com.au). GERMANY. Society for the Scientific Investigation Chairman. Apartado Postal 19-546. Mexico 03900, D.F. Regional: Australian Capital Territory Skeptics, of Para-Science (GWUP). Amardeo Sarma.* NETHERLANDS. Stichting Skepsis, Rob Nanninga, P.O. Box 555, Civic Square. 2608. Hunter Skeptics, Convenor, Postfach 1222, D-64374 Rossdorf (Phone: Secretary, Westerkade 20, 9718 AS Groningen. (formerly Newcastle), P.O. Box 166, Waratah NSW +49 6154 695021. Fax: +49 6154 695022. E-mail: 2298. Darwin Skeptics (Northern Territory), P.O. infoOgwup.org). NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptics. Bernard Box 809, Sanderson NT 0812. Queensland Skeptics, Howard. Secretary, 150 Dyer's Pass Rd, Christchurch HONG KONG. Hong Kong Skeptics. Contact: Brad P.O. Box 64S4, Fairfield Gardens OLD 4103. South 2, N.Z. Vickie Hyde, Chair-entity, South Pacific Infor­ Collins. P.O. Box 1010. Shatin Central Post Office, Australia Skeptics, P.O. Box 377, Rundle Mall. SA mation Services. Box 19-760, Christchurch 5, NX Fax: Shatin. NT. S061, Australia. E-mail: lakesOsenet.com au. +64 (03) 385-5138. E-mail: nzsmOspis.co.nz. Web: Tasmanian Skeptics, 97 Gillon Crescent, Mount HUNGARY. Hungarian Skeptics, Gyula Bencze, http://www.spis.co.nz/skeptics.htm. Stuart TAS 7000. Victoria Skeptics, P.O. Box Termeszet Vilaga. P.O. Box 25, Budapest 8.1444. (Fax: S166AA, Melbourne, VIC 3001. Western Australia 011-36-1-118-7506). NORWAY. Skepsis. St. Olavsgt. 27. N-0166. Oslo. Skeptics, P.O. Box 899, Morley WA 6062. INDIA. Indian Skeptics. B. Premanand. Chairman. 10 PERU. CISPSI-PERU, Contact: MA. Paz y Mino. Director, El Corregidor 318, Lima 25 Peru. BELGIUM. SKEPP. W. Betz. Secretary, Laarbeeklaan Chettipalayam Rd.. Podanur 641-023 Coimbatore Tamil Nadu. Indian Rationalist Association, RUSSIA. Contact: Dr. Valerii A. Kuvakin, Zdravyi Smysl 103, B1090 Brussels (Fax: 32-2-4774301). Contact. Sanal Edamaruku. 779, Pocket 5. Mayur (Common Sense). 119899 Russia, Moscow, Vorob'evy BRAZIL Opcao Rational, Luis Gutman. Rua Santa Clara. Vihar 1. New Delhi 110 091. Maharashtra Gory. Moscow. State University, Philosophy 431, Bloco 5, Apt. 803, Copacabana - Rio de Janeiro Superstition Eradication Committee, Contact: Department. 22041-010 (+55-21 -547-2088 or +55-21-235-2476). Narendra Dabholkar, 155 Sadashiv Peth, Satara-415 SLOVAK REPUBLIC. Society for Advocacy of BULGARIA. Bulgarian Skeptics, Contact: Wladmir 001. Dravidar Kazhagam. K. Veeramnani. General Critical Thinking (SACT), Igor Kapisinsky. Secretary, Daskalow, Krakra 22. BG-1504 Sofia, Bulgaria. Secretary, Periyar Thidal, 50, E.V.K. Sampath Road, Madras - 600 007. Tamil Nadu. Dostojevskeho rad 13. 811 09 Bratislava, Slovak CANADA. Alberta Skeptics, Heidi Lloyd-Price, Republic Secretary, P.O. Box 5571, Station A. Calgary, Alberta IRELAND. Irish Skeptics. Contact: Peter OHara, St. SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for the Rational Investiga­ T2H 1X9. British Columbia Skeptics. Contact Lee Joseph's Hospital, Limerick. Moller, 1188 Beaufort Road. Vancouver V7G 1R7. tion of the Paranormal (ARIP). Marian Laserson, ISRAEL Israel Skeptics Society. Philip Marmaros, Ontario Skeptics, Henry Gordon, Chairman, 343 Secretary, P.O. Box 46212, Orange Grove, 2119 South Chairman. P.O. Box 8481. Jerusalem. (Fax: 972-2-567- Clark Ave West, Suite 1009. Thornhill Ontario L4J Africa. SOCRATES. Contact: LW. Retief, P.O. Box 0165, Web: http7Avww.anigrafix.com/psO. 7K5. E-mail: hgordonOidirect.com. Sceptiques du 10240, Welgedact Bellville 7530, South Africa, E-mail: Quebec: Alan Bonnier, CP. 202, Succ. Beaubien, ITALY. CICAP (Comitato Italiano per il Controllo leonrOiafrica.com. Montreal H2G 3C9. E-mail: www.sceptiques.qc.ca. delle Affermazioni sul Paranormale), P.O. Box SPAIN. Afternativa Racional a las Pseudociencias 1117, 35100 Padova. Tel. Fax: 39-426-22013. Sciema (ARP). Carlos Telleria. Executive Director, Apdto. CHINA. China Association for Science and & Paranormale, Massimo Polidoro, Editor, P.O. Box 1516, 50080 Zaragoza. El Investigador Esceptico. Technology, Contact: Shen Zhenyu, Research 60, 27058 Voghera (PV); e-mail: editorecicap.org. Center. CAST. PO Box 8113. Beijing, China. Contact: Felix Ares De Bias, GAmez/Ares/Martinez, Chinese Skeptics Circle, Contact: Wu JAPAN. Japan Skeptics, Jun Jugaku, Contact Person, P.O. Box 904. 20080 Donostia-San Sebastian. Business Center for Academic Societies Japan, 16-9 Xianghong, Box 4-doctor. Renmin Univ. of China, SWEDEN. Vetenskap och Folkbildning (Swedish Honkomagome 5-chome, Bunkyo-Ku, Tokyo 113. Beijing 100872. Skeptics), Sven Ove Hansson, Secretary, Box 185. 101 JAPAN. (Japan Anti-Pseudoscience Activities CZECH REPUBLIC Czech Club of Skeptics. Dr. Ivan Network) c/o Ohta Publishing Company. Ryutarou 23 Stockholm. David, Vozova 5, Prague 3. 73000, The Czech Republic Minakami, Chairperson. Epcot Bid 1F, 22, Arakichou, TAIWAN. Tim Holmes. P.O. Box 195, Tanzu. Taiwan. ESTONIA. Contact: Indrek Rohtmets, Horisont, EE 0102 Shinjukuku Tokyo. JAPAN (Fax: +81 3 3359-0040, e- UNITED KINGDOM. Skeptical Inquirer Representative, Tallinn. Narva mnt. 5. mail: skepticOe-mail.ne.jp.) Michael J. Hutchinson, 10 Crescent View, Loughton, EUROPEAN COUNCIL OF SKEPTICAL ORGANIZA­ KAZAKHSTAN. Kazakhstan Commission for Inves­ Essex IG10 4PZ. Association for Skeptical Enquiry TIONS. Amardeo Sarma.' Secretary, Postfach 1222. tigation of Anomalous Phenomena (KCIAP), (ASKE), Contact: Wayne Spencer, 15 Ramsden Wood D-64374 Rossdorf (Fax: +49 6154 81912). Contact: Sergey Efimov. Astrophysical Institute, Rd.. Walsden, Todmorden. Lancaster OL14 7UD, E- Kamenskoye Plato, Alma-Ata 480068, Kazakhstan. FINLAND. Skepsis. Ilpo V. Salmi, Chairman. Vekko mail: askeOdoofa.demon.co.uk. The Skeptic maga­ KOREA. Korea PseudoScience Awareness. Gun II Joutsenlahti, Secretary. P.O. Box. 00101 Helsinki. zine, Editors, Toby Howard and Steve Donnelly, P.O. Kang. Director. 187-11 Bukahyun-dong Sudaemun- Finland. E-mail contact: Jukka Hakkinen, Jukka. Box 475, Manchester M60 2TH. E-mail: tobyOcs. ku, Seoul 120-190. Korea. hakkinenahelsinki.fi. man.ac.uk. United States

ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics, Emory Kimbrough. 233-1888, Fax: 619-696-9476). INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics. Robert Craig. Chair­ 3550 Watermelon Road. Apt. 28A. Northport AL COLORADO. Rocky Mountain Skeptics, Bela person, 5401 Hedgerow Drive, Indianapolis. IN 46226. 35473 (205-759-2624). Scheiber,* President P.O. Box 7277, Boulder, CO KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science Educators ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptics Inc. James McGaha. 80306 (Tel.: 303-449-7537, Fax: 303-447-8412. Web: and Skeptics (KASES), Chairman, Prof. Robert A. Chairman, 5100 N. Sabino Foothills Dr.. Tucson. AZ bcn.boulder.co.us/community/rms). Baker. 3495 Castleton Way North. Lexington. KY 40502. 85715. E-mail: JMCGAHAePimaCC.Pima.EDU. D.C CAPITAL AREA. National Capital Area LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of Rational Phoenix Skeptics, Michael Stackpole. Chairman, Skeptics, c/o D.W. "Chip" Denman. 8006 Inquiry and Scientific Methods (BR-PRISM). Dick P.O. Box 60333. Phoenix. AZ 85082. Valley Street Silver Spring. MD 20910. Schroth. Director, 425 Carriage Way. Baton Rouge, LA CALIFORNIA. Bay Area Skeptics. Wilma Russell. http://www.ncas.org (301-587-3827). 70808-4828 (504-766-4747), Secretary. 17722 Buti Park Court. Castro Valley. CA FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics. Gary Posner. 1113 MKMGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Contact Loma J. 94546 Center for Inquiry-West 5519 Grosvenor Ave, Normandy Trace Rd., Tampa, FL 33602 (813-221- Simmons. 31710 Cowan Road, Apt 103. Westfand. Ml Los Angeles, CA 90066 (Tel. 310-306-2847) East Bay 3533), E-mail: garyposOaol.com. Web address: 48185-2366 (734-525-5731). TrvCmes Skeptics. Contact Skeptics Society, Daniel Sabsay. President, 70 Yosemite httpy/members.aol.com/tbskep/i ndex.html. Gary Barker. 3596 Butternut St. Saginaw. Ml 48604 (517- Avenue #309, Oakland. CA 94611 (510-420-0202). GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics. Becky Long. President 7994502), E-mail: garyOearthvrsKXVsvsu.edu. Sacramento Skeptics Society. Terry Sandbek. 3550 2277 Winding Woods Dr, Tucker. GA 30084. MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics. Robert W. McCoy. Watt Ave, Suite 3, Sacramento, CA 95821 (530*68- ILLINOIS. Rational Examination Assoc of Lincoln 549 Turnpike Rd, Golden Valley. MN 55416. St 8551). E-mail: tsandbekeMOTHER.COM. San Diego Land (REALL). David Bloomberg. Chairman. P.O. Box Kloud ESP Teaching Investigation Committee Association for Rational Inquiry, Contact Bruce R. 20302. Springfield IL 62708 (217-726-5354). E-mail: (SKEPTIC), Jerry Mertens. Coordinator. Psychology Wallace. 945 Fourth Avenue. San Diego, CA 92101 (619- chairmanOreall.org. Dept, St. Cloud State Univ.. St. Cloud. MN 56301, MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Skeptical Contact: Jeff Corey, 18 Woodland St., Huntington, 15237 (412-366-1000), E-mail: mindfulOtelerama.com. Inquiry. Verle Muhrer. Chairman. United Labor NY 11743. e-mail: jcoreyOliu.edu Western New Philadelphia Association for Critical Thinking Building. 6301 Rockhill Road. Suite 412. Kansas City. York Skeptics, Tim Madigan. Chairman, 3965 (PhACD. Eric Krieg. P.O. Box 1131. North Wales. PA MO 64131. Gateway Skeptics, Chairperson. Steve Rensch Road., Buffalo. NY 14228. 19454-0131, Web: http://www.phact.org, Tel: (215) Best. 6943 Amherst Ave.. University City, MO 63130. NORTH CAROLINA. Triad Area Skeptics Club. 8852089. NEW ENGLAND. New England Skeptical Society Contact: Eric Carlson. Physics Department. Wake TENNESSEE. Reality Fellowship, Contact Carl (NESS). Contact: Steve Novella. MD. PO Box 185526. forest University, Winston-Salem, NC 27109. E-mail: Ledendecker. 2123 Stonybrook Rd. Louisville. TN 37777. Hamden. CT 06518, E-mail: ctskepticOcompuserve ecarlsonOwfu.edu. Tel: 336-758-4994. Web: httpJI TEXAS. Houston Association for Scientific Thinking com Connecticut Chapter. Contact: Jon Blumenfeld. www.wfu.edu/-ecarlson/tasc. (HAST). Darrell Kachilla. P.O. Box 541314, Houston, TX E-mail. jonOjblumenfeld.com. Massachusetts OHIO. South Shore Skeptics, Page Stephens. P.O. Box 77254. North Texas Skeptics. Joe Voelkenng, Chapter. Contact: Sheila Gibson (a/k/a "chairchick"), 5083, Cleveland. OH 44101 (216-676-4859). E-mail: President P.O. Box 111794, Carrollton, TX 75011-1794 P.O. Box 2S37. Acton. MA 01720. E-mail: hpstOearthlink.net Association for Rational skepchikShotmail.com New Hampshire Chapter. Thinking (Cincinnati area), Joseph F. Gastright, WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible Contact: J J. Kane, 89 Glengarry Drive. Stratham. NH Contact. Ill Wallace Ave.. Covington, KY 41014 Explanations. P.O. Box 4S792. Seattle, WA 98145- 03885 Tel; 603-778-6873. (606-581-7315). Central Ohioans for Rational 0792. Tad Cook, Secretary. E-mail: tadOssc.com. NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science and Inquiry (CORD, Russ Henshaw, President, 200 W WISCONSIN. Contact: Mike Neumann, 1835 N. 57th Reason, David E. Thomas. President P0 Box 1017, Pacemont Rd.. Columbus, OH 43202 (614-447-9247); Street Milwaukee, Wl 53208 (414-453-7425, E-mail: Peralta, NM 87042, E-mail: det9rt66.com. John E-mail: henshaw_deyoOmsn.com. mikeOomnifest.uwm.edu). Geohegan, Vice President, 450 Montclaire 5E, OREGON. Oregonians for Rationality, Josh Reese, •Member, CSICOP Executive Council Albuquerque, NM 87108. PresySec. 7555 Spring Valley Rd NW. Salem. OR "Associate Member, CSICOP Executive Council 97304 (503-364-6255). E-mail: joshrOncn.com. Web: NEW YORK. Center for Inquiry-International. PO The organizations listed above have aims similar to http://www.teleport.com/-or4think. Box 703. Amherst. NY 14226. (Tel 716-636-1425) those of CSICOP but are independent and Inquiring Skeptics of Upper New York (ISUNY). PENNSYLVANIA. Paranormal Investigating autonomous. Representatives of these organizations Contact: D. Sager, PO Box 603. Altamont, NY 12009. Committee of Pittsburgh (PICP), Richard Busch. cannot speak on behalf of CSICOP. Please send updates (518-861-6383) New York Area Skeptics (NYASk). Chairman, 8209 Thompson Run Rd.. Pittsburgh. PA to Barry Karr. P.O. Box 703. Amherst. NY 14226-0703

George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology. William Jarvis, professor of health promo­ Bela Scheiber,* systems analyst, Boulder, Eastern New Mexico University tion and public health, Loma Linda Uni­ Colo. Bill G. Aldridge, executive director. National versity, School of Public Health Chris Scott statistician, London, England Science Teachers Assoc. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology. Stuart D. Scott Jr., associate professor of Gary Bauslaugh, educational consultant. University of Saskatchewan anthropology. SUNY. Buffalo Center for Curriculum. Transfer and Richard H. Lange, M.D.. Mohawk Valley Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, Technology, Victoria, B.C., Canada Physician Health Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. SUNY, Buffalo Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Gerald A. Lame, professor of biblical history Carla Selby, anthropologist/archaeologist Washington, D.C. and archaeology. University of So. Steven N. Shore, associate professor and Martin Bridgstock, lecturer. School of California. chair, Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, Science, Griffith University, Brisbane, Bernard J. Leikind. staff scientist, GA Indiana Univ. South Bend Australia Technologies Inc.. San Diego Barry Singer, psychologist. Eugene, Oregon Richard Busch, magician, Pittsburgh, Pa. William M. London, consumer advocate. Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Shawn Carlson, physicist, San Diego, Calif. Fort Lee, New Jersey Laboratory, University of Wisconsin- Charles J. Cazeau. geologist. Deary, Idaho Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engi­ Madison Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, neering, Caltech, and SETI Coordinator of Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst, Cambridge, the Planetary Society Colorado State Univ. Massachusetts James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot Felix Ares de Bias, professor of computer David E. Thomas, physicist, mathematician, science, University of Basque, San Sebastian, Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psy­ Peralta. New Mexico chiatry. Calabasas Mental Health Services. Spain Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics, Los Angeles. Michael R. Dennett writer, investigator. University of Pittsburgh Jan Willem Nienhuys, mathematician, Univ. Federal Way. Washington Neil deGrasse Tyson, astrophysicist. of Eindhoven, the Netherlands Sid Deutsch, consultant. Sarasota. Fla. Princeton University and the Hayden John W. Patterson, professor of materials J. Dommanget astronomer, Royale Planetarium science and engineering. Iowa State Observatory, Brussels, Belgium Richard Wiseman. Senior Research Fellow in University Nahum J. Duker, assistant professor of psychology. University of Hertfordshire Steven Pinker, professor and director of the pathology, Temple University Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, MIT CSICOP Barbara Eisenstadt psychologist, educator, James Pomerantz. Provost, and professor of clinician. East Greenbush, N.Y. Subcommittees cognitive and linguistic sciences. Brown John F. Fischer, forensic analyst Orlando, Fla. Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, I. W. Univ. Robert E. Funk, anthropologist. New York Kelly. Dept. of Educational Psychology. 28 Gary P. Posner, M.D., Tampa, Fla Campus Drive. Saskatoon, Sask., Canada. State Museum & Science Service Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, 57N-OX1 Eileen Gambrill, professor of social welfare. SUNY, Buffalo Council for Media Integrity: Network University of California at Berkeley Michael Radner, professor of philosophy, Director, Barry Karr, CSICOP, P.O Box 703. Sylvio Garattini, director, Mario Negri McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Amherst NY 14226-0703. Pharmacology Institute, Milan, Italy Canada Health Claims Subcommittee: Co-chair­ Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist. University of Robert H. Romer, professor of physics. men, William Jarvis, Professor of Health Massachusetts Amherst College Promotion and Education. School of Public Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers Milton A. Rothman. physicist Philadelphia, Health, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda. University, New Jersey Pa CA 93350. and Stephen Barrett M.D-. P.O. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president. Karl Sabbagh, journalist Richmond, Surrey, Box 1747. Allentown, PA 18105. Interstellar Media England Parapsychology Subcommittee: Chairman, Clyde F. Herreid, professor of biology. SUNY. Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of educa­ Ray Hyman.- Psychology Dept. Univ. of Buffalo tion and medicine. University of Wisconsin- Oregon, Eugene. OR 97402. Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology. Madison UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip J. Pace University, Pleasantville. N.Y. Amardeo Sarma, • project supervisor, Klass,* 404 -N- Street S.W.. Washington, Michael Hutchinson, author; SKEPTICAL EURESC0M; executive director. GWUP, DC. 20024. INQUIRE" representative. Europe Germany Philip A. lanna, assoc professor of astron­ Steven D. Schafersman, asst. professor of •Member. CSICOP Executive Council omy. Univ. of Virginia geology, Miami Univ.. Ohio "Associate Member. CSICOP Executive Council Center for Inquiry-International "... to promote and defend reason, science, and freedom of inquiry in all areas of human endeavor." P.O. Box 703 • Amherst, NY 14226 • (716) 636-1425

What may first appear as a sunny-side-up egg is actually NASA Hubble Space Telescope's face-on snapshot of the small spiral galaxy NGC 7742. But NGC 7742 is not a run-of-the-mill spiral galaxy. In fact, this spiral is known to be a Seyfert 2 active galaxy, a type of galaxy that is probably powered by a black hole residing in its core. The core of NGC 7742 is the large yellow "yolk" in the center of the image. The lumpy, thick ring around this core is an area of active starbirth. The ring is about 3,000 light-years from the core. Tightly wound spiral arms also are faintly visible. Surrounding the inner ring is a wispy band of material, which is probably the remains of a once very active stellar breeding ground.

THE COMMITTEE FOR THE SCIENTIFIC Center for Inquiry-R INVESTIGATION OF CLAIMS OF THE PARANORMAL P.O. Box 2019 Boulder, CO 80306 pie Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal encouragi Tel.: (303) 449-7537 (the critical investigation of paranormal and fringe-science claims from a responsible, point of view and disseminates factual information about the results of Center for Inquiry- Inquiries to the scientific community, the media, and the public. It also promotes scien United Labor Building land scientific inquiry, critical thinking, science education, and the use of reason in exal [jning important issues. To carry out these objectives the Committee: 6301 Rockhill Rd.. Suite 412 Kansas City, MO 64131 Sponsors publications Conducts public outreach efforts Tel.: (816) 822-9840 Maintains an international network of people and groups interested in critical examining paranormal, fringe-science, and other claims, and in contributing to co Center for Inquiry-W sumer education 5519 Grosvenor Ave. Encourages research by objective and impartial inquiry in areas where it is needed Los Angeles, CA 90066 Convenes conferences and meetings Tel.: (310) 306-2847 Conducts educational programs at all age levels Does not reject claims on a priori grounds, antecedent to inquiry, but examines the Fax: (310) 821-2610 objectively and carefully Center for Inquiry- [The Committee is a nonprofit scientific land educational organization. Professor Valerii A. Kuvakin :jrnal. 117421 Russia Moscow, Novatorov 18-2-2