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Home , Australian Skeptics, Barry Beyerstein, Charles Honorton, Duane Gish, Edinburgh Skeptics, Gil Gross

Vol. 1818,, No . 2No. 2 ^^ Winter 1994 Winter / 1994/$6.2$6.255

Paul Kurtz William Grey THE NEW THE PROBLEM OF 'PSI'

Cancer Scares

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"74 47CT8 3575" 5 THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is the official journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the , an international organization. Editor . Editorial Board James E. Alcock, , Susan J. Blackmore, , , Philip J. Klass, , , Lee Nisbet, Bela Scheiber. Consulting Editors A. Baker, William Sims Bainbridge, John R. Cole, Kenneth L. Feder, C. E. M. Hansel, E. C. Krupp, David F. Marks, Andrew Neher, James E. Oberg, , Steven N. Shore. Managing Editor Doris Hawley Doyle. Contributing Editor Lys Ann Shore. Business Manager Mary Rose Hays. Assistant Business Manager Sandra Lesniak. Chief Data Officer Richard Seymour. Computer Assistant Michael Cione. Production Paul E. Loynes. Asst. Managing Editor Cynthia Matheis. Art Linda Hays. Audio Technician Vance Vigrass. Librarian Jonathan Jiras. Staff Alfreda Pidgeon, Ranjit Sandhu, Sharon Sikora, Elizabeth Begley (Albuquerque). Cartoonist Rob Pudim.

The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman; professor emeritus of , State University of New York at Buffalo. , Executive Director and Public Relations Director. Lee Nisbet, Special Projects Director. Fellows of the Committee James E. Alcock,* psychologist, York Univ., Toronto; Robert A. Baker, psychologist, Univ. of Kentucky; , M.D., psychiatrist, "author, consumer advocate, Allentown, Pa. Barry Beyerstein,* biopsychologist, Simon Fraser Univ., Vancouver, B.C., Canada; Irving Biederman, psychologist, Univ. of Southern California; ,* psychologist, Univ. of the West of England, Bristol; Henri Broch, physicist, Univ. of Nice, France; Jan Harold Brunvand, folklorist, professor of English, Univ. of Utah; Vern Bullough, Distinguished Professor, State Univ. of New York; Mario Bunge, philosopher, McGill University; John R. Cole, anthropologist, Inst, for the Study of Human Issues; F. H. C. Crick, biophysicist, Salk Inst, for Biological Studies, La Jolla, Calif.; L. Sprague de Camp, author, engineer; Cornelis de lager, professor of astrophysics, Univ. of Utrecht, the ; Bernard Dixon, writer, , U.K.: Paul Edwards, philosopher, Editor, Encyclopedia of Philosophy; Antony Flew, philosopher, Reading Univ., U.K.; Andrew Fraknoi, astronomer. Foothill College, Los Altos Hills, Calif.; Kendrick Frazier,* science writer, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER; Yves Galifret. Exec. Secretary, l'Union Rationaliste; Martin Gardner,* author, critic; Murray Gell-Mann, professor of physics, California Inst. of ; , magician, columnist, Toronto; Stephen Jay Gould, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Univ.; C. E. M. Hansel, psychologist, Univ. of Wales; AI Hibbs, scientist, Jet Propulsion Laboratory; Douglas Hofstadter, professor of human understanding and cognitive science, Indiana Univ.; Gerald Holton, Mallinckrodt Professor of Physics and Professor of of Science, Harvard Univ. Ray Hyman,* psycholo­ gist, Univ. of Oregon; Leon Jaroff, editor, Time; Lawrence Jerome, science writer, engineer; Sergei Kapitza, editor, Russian edition, ; Philip J. Klass,* science writer, engineer; Marvin Kohl, professor of philosophy, SUNY at Fredonia; Edwin C. Krupp, astronomer, director, Griffith Observatory; Paul Kurtz,* chairman, CSICOP; Lawrence Kusche, science writer; Paul MacCready, scientist/ engineer, AeroVironment, Inc., Monrovia, Calif.; David Marks, psychologist, Middlesex Polytech, England; David Morrison, space scientist, NASA Ames Center; Richard A. Muller, professor of physics, Univ. of Calif., Berkeley; H. Narasimhaiah, physicist, president, Bangalore Science Forum, India; Dorothy Nelkin, sociologist, Cornell Univ. Joe Nickell,* author, technical writing instructor, Univ. of Kentucky; Lee Nisbet,* philosopher, Medaille College; James E. Oberg, science writer; Loren Pankratz, psychologist, Oregon Health Sciences Univ.; John Paulos, mathematician. Temple Univ.; Mark Plummer, lawyer, ; W. V. Quine, philosopher, Harvard Univ.; Milton Rosenberg, psychologist, Univ. of ; , astronomer, Cornell Univ.; , M.D., clinical professor of medicine, Stanford Univ.; Evry Schatzman, President, French Physics Association; , physical anthropologist, executive director, National Center for ; Thomas A. Sebeok, anthropologist, linguist, Indiana Univ.; Robert Sheaffer, science writer; Dick Smith, film producer, publisher, Terrey Hills, N.S.W., Australia; Robert Steiner, magician, author. El Cerrito, Calif.; Carol Tavris, psychologist and author, , Calif.; , professor of philosophy. University of Southern California; Marvin Zelen, statistician, Harvard Univ. Lin Zixin, former editor Science and Technology Daily (China). (Affilia­ tions given for identification only.) "Member, CSICOP Executive Council

Manuscripts, letters, books for review, and editorial should be addressed to Kendrick Frazier, Editor, THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. 3025 Palo Alto Dr., N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87111. Subscriptions, change of address, and advertising should be addressed to: THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Old address as well as new are necessary for change of subscriber's address, with six weeks advance notice. Subscribers to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER may not speak on behalf of CSICOP or THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. Inquiries from the media and the public about the work of the Committee should be made to Paul Kurtz, Chairman, CSICOP, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: (716) 636-1425. FAX: (716)-636-1733. Articles, reports, reviews, and letters published in THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER represent the views and work of individual authors. Their publication does not necessarily constitute an endorsement by CSICOP or its members unless so stated. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is indexed in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature. Copyright *1994 by the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, 3965 Rensch Road, Buffalo, NY 14228. All rights reserved. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is available on 16mm microfilm, 35mm microfilm, and 105mm microfiche from University Microfilms International. Subscription Rates: Individuals, libraries, and institutions, $25.00 a year; back issues, $6.25 each. THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER (ISSN 0194-6730) is published quarterly, Winter, Spring, Summer, and Fall. Printed in Canada. Second-class postage paid at Buffalo, New York, and additional mailing offices. Send changes of address to THE SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226-0703. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Vol. 18, No. 2, Winter 1994 | -.• . . ••,;,...• .,• - 1 Journal of the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

I | ARTICLES The New Skepticism Paul Kurtz 134 Philosophy and the Paranormal, Part 1: The Problem of 'Psi' William Grey 142 Electromagnetic Field Cancer Scares Sid Deutsch 152 The Attacks on Role-Playing Games Paul Cardwell, Jr. 157 Global Fortune-Telling and Bible Prophecy Terry Tremaine 166 A Chemikov Pattern Puzzle Clifford A Pickover 170

NEWS AND COMMENT 117 CBS Acknowledges Ark Hoax / Court Raises Standards of Testimony / Astrologer Sues, Loses, Has to Pay / Randi on NOVA, 'Frontline' Exposes FC / The Girl with the X-Ray Eyes / UK Meets on

J NOTES OF A FRINGE-WATCHER Pealeism and the Paranormal Martin Gardner 126

PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS The Montauk Project and the Delphi Robert Sheaffer 131

BOOK REVIEWS Paul Kurtz, The New Skepticism: and Reliable John M. Novak 173 Lewis Wolpert, The Unnatural of Science Terence Hines 179 Underwood Dudley, Mathematical Cranks and A Budget of Trisections Robert L Foote 182 Duane T. Gish, Dinosaurs by Design Daniel J. Phelps 187 Jim Schnabel, Round in Circles- Physicists, , Pranksters and the Secret History of Cropwatchers Robert A Baker 191 Taisha Abdar, The Sorcerers' Crossing Barbara G. Walker 195

] NEW BOOKS 198

ARTICLES OF NOTE 200

FORUM 202 in Philadelphia Ralph Estling Tyrannosaurus Hex Robert J. Park Trying to Understand Traditional Chinese Medicine Peter Huston

LETTERS TO THE EDITOR 210

ON THE COVER: Illustration by Bruce Adams after Magritte. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal announces the 1994 CSICOP Conference "The of "

at the Doubletree Suites Hotel Seattle Friday, Saturday, and Sunday June 24, 25, and 26

Keynote Address (Friday at 8:00 P.M.) Carl Sagan

Friday, June 24

8:00 A.M. - 9:00 A.M.: Registration

9:00 A.M. - 12:00 NOON: THE BELIEF ENGINE: HOW WORLD VIEWS ARE FORMED , professor of psychology, Glendon College, York University, Toronto Ray Hyman, professor of psychology, University of Oregon, Eugene Anthony Pratkanis, professor of psychology, University of California, Santa Cruz speakers to be announced.

12:45 P.M. - 2:15 P.M.: Luncheon (optional): AN ILLUSTRATED HISTORY OF UFOs James McGaha and Philip J. Klass

2:30 P.M. - 5:30 P.M.: HOW WE FOOL OURSELVES: ANOMALIES OF AND INTERPRETATION Barry Beyerstein, professor of psychology, , Vancouver, B.C. , professor of psychology, University of Washington, Seattle Other speakers to be announced.

5:00 P.M. - 8:00 P.M.: Dinner Break

8:00 P.M.: KEYNOTE ADDRESS Carl Sagan, professor of astronomy and space sciences, Cornell University Saturday, June 25

9:00 A.M. -12:00 NOON: MEMORY: HOW RELIABLE IS IT? Stephen Ceci, professor of psychology, Cornell University Richard Ofshe, professor of , University of California, Berkeley Philip J. Klass, former senior editor, Aviation Week & Space Technology Robert Baiter, professor emeritus of psychology, University of Kentucky

12:00 NOON - 2:00 P.M.: CSICOP Luncheon (optional) Program to be announced.

2:00 P.M. - 5:00 P.M.: Two Concurrent Sessions, A and B

Session A I. THEORIES Don Kates, attorney and criminologist, San Francisco Valerie Klein, expert

II. NEAR-DEATH Susan Blackmore, senior lecturer in psychology, University of the West of England Other speakers to be announced.

Session B: INFLUENCING BELIEFS IN THE COURTROOM: RULES OF LAW, EXPERT TESTIMONY, AND SCIENCE Peter Huber, author of Galileo's Revenge: in the Courtroom Timothy Moore, associate professor of psychology, Glendon College, York University, Toronto: " and Expert Testimony: Lessons from the Judas Priest Trial"

Gerald M. Rosen, clinical associate professor, Departments of Psychiatry and Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle: "Confirmatory Bias in Forensic Settings"

Barry Beyerstein, Brain Behavior Laboratory, Psychology Department, Simon Fraser University, Vancouver, B.C.: ": Pseudoscientists in die Courtroom"

6:00 P.M. - 7:00 P.M.: Pre-Banquet Social Hour (cash bar)

7:00 P.M. - 10:00 P.M.: AWARDS BANQUET (optional) Awards Presentation: Paul Kurtz, CSICOP Chairman

Sunday, June 26

9:00 A.M. - 12:00 NOON: Open Meeting with CSICOP Executive Council

(Continued on next page.) REGISTRATION FORM

Preregistration is advised. Registration fees do not include meals or accommodations. (Full-time students with I.D., $25.00.) Make checks payable and return to: 1994 CSICOP Conference, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, New York 14226

Q YES,! (we) plan to attend the 1994 CSICOP Conference. • $ 135 Registration for ____ person(s), including Keynote Address. $ • $20 Friday CSICOP Luncheon (optional) for person (s). $ • $20 Saturday Luncheon (optional) for person(s). < D $30 Saturday Awards Banquet (optional) for ____person(s). * D $15 Keynote Address (this fee is for nonregistrants only) for ____ person(s). < Total $. D Check enclosed /Charge my D VISA D MasterCard. (1-800-634-1610 for credit card orders.)

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O No, I not be able to attend the conference, but please accept my contribution (tax-deductible) of t to help cover the costs of this and future CSICOP special events. ACCOMMODATIONS: Doubletree Suites Hotel (206-575-8220) Single/double $79 (includes complimentary full breakfast buffet). Mention CSICOP Conference for this special rate. Cut-off date for conference rate is June 8. All suites have livingroom, bedroom, and bath; two telephones, two televisions, refrigerator, and wetbar. Or stay at the Doubletree Inn (206-575-8220) directly across the street: Single/double $65. Complimentary shuttle service to and from Sea-Tac Airport to Doubletree Suites or Doubletree Inn; 15 minutes from downtown. Transportation: For special discount airline rates, call CSICOP's travel agent, Judy Pensack, Creative Destinations, 800-572-5440 or FAX 407-830-5530. For more information, call or write Mary Rose Hays, CSICOP, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, New York 14226. 716-636-1425, FAX 716-636-1733. Media representatives should contact Barry Karr at 716-636-1425. News and Comment

The Sorry Saga of CBS and Ark : Network Drops Two Sun Programs, Keeps One

ie CBS television network has completed program from Sun called scrapped two projects in develop­ "Mysteries of the Ancient World," Tment with Sun International which deals with such phenomena as Pictures, the company that produced the Sphinx, , the Ber­ "The Incredible Discovery of Noah's muda Triangle, and the Shroud of Ark," a pro-creationist pseudodocu- Turin. It claimed this program had mentary based on a hoax, shown on been carefully checked for accuracy CBS on February 20. and reviewed by the network's legal The decision came when Los Angeles and program practices department. Times reporter Daniel Cerone pre­ The network also said it does not sented CBS with the confession of plan to run an on-air correction George Jammal, an Israeli actor living concerning "Incredible Discovery." in California, who played a key role The basic of the hoax had been in the documentary. Jammal admitted published four months earlier, in the to the Times in an interview during July 5 Time magazine, the Summer the last week of October that he made 1993 (see SI Articles of up the story of discovering the piece Note, Fall 1993, Jaroff and Fox list­ of wood from Noah's Ark. He did so ings), and elsewhere. But Jammal to expose the production company's originally held to his story, as did Sun. shoddy research methods on behalf of A friend of his who was in on the hoax, what he considered to be religious Gerald Larue, professor emeritus of propaganda. biblical history and archaeology at the The Times reported the confession University of Southern California, October 30 ("Admitting Noah's Ark had alerted the media. Hoax," p. B4) and said that as a result Jammal now says the hoax was CBS decided the day before to close painfully obvious. The wood he had down production of "Revelations" and said was from the Ark was actually "The UFO Phenomenon," the two in- a piece of California pine from some progress features by Sun, a Salt Lake railroad tracks in Long Beach. He had City production company. "All of this hardened it by frying it on his kitchen has clearly made us re-examine our stove, and even made a videotape of business relationship with Sun, and himself doing that. He has never been we won't be going forward with those to Turkey. The producers never made programs," CBS spokesperson Susan any effort to check his story, nor to Tick said. subject the wood to carbon dating, But CBS said it intended to go despite offers to have that done. "This ahead with plans to broadcast a nearly is a scam that has been pulled on the

Winter 1994 117 American public, and it's gone too far," they're listening and they're talking. Jammal said of the program. "They're I feel I made a ." foisting religious propaganda on A November 1 Los Angeles Times Americans and making them believe column by Howard Rosenberg titled it's true. So I hoaxed the hoaxers." "Will CBS See Error of Its Ways?" said "This was a dishonest program," CBS's credibility was falling like a Larue said. brick. It condemned CBS for airing the "We were obviously duped, and all original program, stonewalling for I can do is admit to that," said Sun four months, and now, once the hoax President Allan Pedersen. is admitted, saying it planned no on- What made Jammal finally come air correction and would go ahead forward? "When I heard that CBS was with Sun's "Mysteries of the Ancient going forward with more phony, World." Wrote Rosenberg: "Not to religious, documentary, pseudo- worry, though, says spokeswoman science programs, that's when my Tick, because CBS has checked it for volcano erupted," Jammal told the accuracy. So listen up, you would-be Times. hoaxers, you're not dealing with "Professor Larue and many other Beavis and Butt-head here." scholars wrote letters of protest and nobody listened," he said. "Well, now —Kendrick Frazier

Supreme Court Rejects 'Anything Goes' Approach II To Expert Scientific Testimony

he U.S. Supreme Court recently any good evidence that it did. Merrell decided Daubert v. Merrell Dow Dow's expert testified that none of the T Pharmaceuticals, Inc., the "junk published studies of Bendectin—more science" case that has agitated and than 30, involving more than 130,000 divided the . patients—found the drug capable of Although the decision went against causing birth defects. Merrell Dow and allowed in scientific The Dauberts presented evidence rejected by the lower courts, who based their conclusions on in vitro the decision is by no means a defeat and in vivo animal studies supposedly for good science in the courtroom. showing a link between Bendectin and Daubert involved claims by two birth defects. They also offered a minors that they were born with statistical reanalysis of the epidemio­ serious birth defects because their logical studies, which attempted to mother had taken Bendectin, a show that a very weak causal link morning-sickness drug made by Mer­ might have been obscured by the rell Dow. Merrell Dow asked the trial standard methods used in the earlier court for a summary judgment, claim­ studies. ing there was no evidence that Ben­ The trial court applied the rule in dectin caused birth defects and that Frye v. U.S. that the Dauberts could not come up with should be admitted only if the principle

118 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 on which it is based is sufficiently necessarily a defeat for those who established to be generally accepted in believe court judgments should be the relevant field. The trial court and aligned with the scientific consensus. the Court of Appeals thought the The Supreme Court rejected an Dauberts' evidence did not meet this "anything goes" approach to expert test because it was never peer- scientific testimony. Rule 104 requires reviewed or published. the trial judge to determine at the The Dauberts appealed, claiming outset whether the expert is propos­ that Congress repealed the Frye ing to testify to (1) scientific knowl­ general-acceptance rule when it edge that (2) will assist the trier of enacted the Federal Rules of Evidence to ". . . understand or determine in 1975. The Dauberts argued that a fact in issue." The Court wrote: under Rule 702, any witness ". . . "This entails a preliminary assessment qualified as an expert by knowledge, of whether the reasoning or method­ skill, and training or ology underlying the testimony is education . . ." could give his or her scientifically valid and of whether that opinion on a scientific issue, without reasoning or methodology properly any requirement as to whether the can be applied to the facts in issue." witness's theory or practice was Blackmun set out some generally accepted by other scientists "general " to assist trial or had been published in professional judges in determining what is reliable journals. This free-wheeling interpre­ scientific knowledge. tation of the Federal Rules troubled many scientists and judges who felt • Is the theory behind the proposed it would allow any or testimony testable? In some crackpot with a diploma to pitch his cases, judges will have to find out case to the jury. Indeed, in some state if they are dealing with a poten­ and federal courts that have not tially falsifiable theory or not. followed Frye, exactly that has hap­ (Questions of theoretical falsifi- pened. Some of the ugly examples are ability don't seem to be helpful collected in Peter Huber's recent book, in the courtroom context. Per­ Galileo's Revenge: Junk Science in the haps the Court has in Courtroom. theories that are practically The Supreme Court, in an opinion unfalsifiable, because their pro­ by Justice Blackmun, held the Federal ponents have a long record of Rules of Evidence indeed replaced Frye dodging or explaining away con­ v. U.S. and that the "general accep­ tradictory evidence. Knowing tance" test was no longer the sole that a theory can be and has been standard for the admissibility of tested makes it more reliable.) scientific evidence. It sent the case • Has the theory been subjected to back to the district court for trial on peer review and publication? the merits under the new standards. Submission to the scrutiny of the Although the Federal Rules of Evi­ scientific community is a compo­ dence only apply in federal courts, nent of good science, in part many state courts have recently because it makes it more likely codified their evidence law in practi­ that errors will be detected. cally identical language; therefore, the • In the case of particular tech­ decision will have an impact beyond niques, do we know the actual the federal circuits. or potential rate of error? (Here The decision was not, however, the Court mentions the example

Winter 1994 119 of the now-discredited "science" no harm is done to science. The of spectographic voice identifica­ Daubert decision apparently intends to tion.) That is, even if the theory give jurors and parties the benefit of is sound in principle, can it be considering only probably right the­ applied reliably in practice? ories and requires courts to choose • Finally, has the theory or tech­ such evidence by thinking like scien­ nique become generally ac­ tists. cepted? General acceptance will This is a flexible approach to not be the only criterion for admitting scientific evidence. How is reliability, but it can be an impor­ it likely to work in practice? Most tant factor. likely as well as lawyers and judges want it to work. If both sides are wide­ The Court spoke to the concerns awake, it will probably work well. If of some groups, including some prom­ the lawyer opposing admission of inent scientists, who filed friend-of- dubious evidence doesn't understand the-court briefs arguing that to allow the basics of scientific practice, and the judges to screen scientific evidence trial judge doesn't want to think would impose scientific orthodoxy and carefully about the issues, then fringe stifle the search for . These scientists will slip through now and concerns seemed to spring from a then. It will be up to the lawyers to fundamental misunderstanding of the educate both judges and jurors about legal process. Scientific conclusions what constitutes good science. At the can always be subject to revision, but least, Daubert means that presenting the law must bring disputes to an an impressive resume is no longer end—quickly if possible, but to an end. enough—experts will find their A conjecture that is probably wrong methods and reasoning under exam­ (as most new conjectures are) will ination as well. eventually be tested and shown to be so, which itself advances science. But —John A. Thomas a conjecture that is probably wrong will not help a legal fact-finder reach John A. Thomas is an attorney with a a conclusion. If the courts sometimes practice in Grand Prairie, Texas. He refuse to admit evidence based on a reported on the "junk science" legal theory that eventually is vindicated, controversy in our Fall 1992 issue.

Astrologer Ordered to Pay Newspaper's Legal Fees

Madison, Wisconsin, astrologer that, while the money was important, lost a libel suit against Madi- "the greatest benefit would be to A, son's leading alternative week­ prevent frivolous suits like this in the ly newspaper and was ordered to pay future." the newspaper's legal fees incurred in The astrologer, Neil Marbell, sued defending itself. the newspaper, two editors, and a Vince O'Hern, publisher of the writer, Richard Russell, for a January newspaper, Isthmus, estimated that its 11, 1991, opinion column by Russell attorney's fees were "in the neighbor­ that called astrologers "purveyors of hood of $10,000." But O'Hern said hogwash." Russell wrote that astrol-

120 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 ogers were "deluded" and "" On August 27, 1993, Judge Mark and said that people should "never, Frankel ruled for the second time in ever under any circumstances give favor of Isthmus, both in awarding money to astrologers." attorney's fees and rejecting Marbell's Although the article did not men­ motion to reconsider the judge's May tion Marbell, he sued the newspaper, 28, 1993, ruling dismissing the suit. alleging the column was "false, mali­ Marbell said he considered the cious, defamatory, and libelous." He suit "absolutely not frivolous." Pub­ sought $12 million in damages, $1 lisher O'Hern said: "[The] case million for every sign in the zodiac, obviously had no merit. His purpose an Isthmus source told a Capital Times was to harass us and cost us as much reporter. money as he could. We feel justice was Marbell said he was the only local served." astrologer with his own office and a listing in the telephone book. —K.F.

Media Notes: Randi's 'Secrets of the ' on NOVA; 'Frontline' Exposes PC

ravo to James "The Amazing" Randi, BNOVA, and WGBH/ Boston for the one-hour NOVA documentary "Secrets of the Psychics," televised nationally on October 19. The irrepress­ ible Randi, ever the voice of , hosted the pro­ gram and showed time and again how proclaimed psy­ chic abilities fail to stand up to his expert skeptical scrutiny. He showed how to bend spoons and do surgery, recounted how he exposed the fakery of Peter Popoff, and had psychologist Ray Hyman demonstrate how palm reading works equally well whether one gives the "right" answer or its oppo­ site. The second half of the show was taped in Mos­ cow. There the proponents Randi: Bending spoons, exposing secrets, stimulating .

Winter 1994 121 were fresh to Western viewers, but correct sum of two numbers, despite the results were the same. Proponents the fact that the child was looking of psychically charged water amus­ away and clearly paying no attention. ingly rationalized away any attempt Nevertheless, some hopeful parents to test their claimed abilities to and FC's main proponent, Douglas distinguish it from ordinary water. Biklen, couldn't bring themselves to Two middle-aged women doing a acknowledge the lesson shown. Writ­ of a man via his ten, produced, and directed by Jon photograph said all sorts of wonderful Palfreman, the program was an things about serial murderer Ted extraordinarily revealing report, a Bundy. They also failed to discern that vivid portrayal of subconscious wish­ he is dead (executed four years ago). ful thinking. This show, written and produced by Carl Charlson, belatedly atones for * * * an earlier NOVA program, "The Case of ESP" (reviewed in SI, Summer Veteran CBS News anchorman Dan 1984), which lacked NOVA's usual Rather had unkind words for tele­ scientific care and skepticism. And it vision news in a speech to the Radio was good to see Randi in such a well- and Television News Directors Asso­ produced showcase of his investi­ ciation at a meeting in Miami. He gative skills and rationalist phi­ criticized TV news's "fuzz and wuzz, losophy. cop-shop stuff" intended to compete not with other news programs but with entertainment shows, "includ­ ing those posing as news programs," Immediately following NOVA that for "dead bodies, mayhem, and lurid evening, on PBS's "Frontline," was an tales." excellent critical investigation of Rather specifically had strong Facilitated Communication (see SI, criticism for CBS's airing of the Spring 1993). (FC is being used as an creationist pseudoscientific pseudo- aid for autistic individuals and others documentary "The Incredible Discov­ with limited communication skills. A ery of Noah's Ark." He singled out the facilitator supports the subject's television executives who "freely take pointing finger, or hand or arm, as he an hour that might have been used or she strikes the letters on a type­ for a documentary and hand it over writer or a computer keyboard to com­ to a quote-unquote 'entertainment pose a word or message.) special' about the discovery of Noah's "Frontline" showed double-blind Ark that turns out to be a 100-percent demonstrations in which subject and hoax." facilitator were shown different photos. Ironically, Rather's remarks came In each situation, it was the object on the same day that CBS announced viewed by the facilitator that was that it would broadcast an hour- described in FC, not the one seen by long TV special based on headlines in the autistic patient. Clearly it was the the Weekly World News, the most facilitator who was doing the "com­ outlandish of all the supermarket municating." In another case, the tabloids. facilitator swiftly guided an autistic youngster's fingers to punch the —Kendrick Frazier

122 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 D The Girl with the X-Ray Eyes

ome time ago, while I was trying an investigation on Nieto's claimed to put some order into my video powers, said that he believed she S library, I came upon a video- could bend the lighter strip of metal cassette without any label to suggest enclosed in the glass tube by shaking its content; so I decided to put the tape it vigorously while dancing and that in the VCR and find out what it was. any sound would be covered by the It was the recording of a TV show loud music she plays "for concen­ on the paranormal called "Incredible," tration." aired a few years ago by RAI-TV, the Besides these more conventional Italian network. I had never seen it, effects, Nieto was noted for another and I later found out that my sister special ability—reading messages had taped it while I was living in the inside closed containers. The descrip­ , studying with James tions I found were very vague and Randi. did not allow any speculation. That's The discovery proved to be most when the videotape came to my interesting. help. I had read and heard about the The "Incredible" show was on PK achievements of a young Spanish girl (), and after interviews named Monica Nieto. According to with some parapsychologists who newspapers and books on the para­ attempted to explain what PK was normal, she appeared to be able to supposed to be, there came a docu­ bend metal and see through solid mentary on Monica Nieto. It had been objects. From the descriptions, she shot in her own house in Caceres, seemed to be another mini-Geller, as Extremadura (Spain), and showed an the imitators of self-proclaimed psy­ adolescent girl obviously enjoying the chic are called; enthusiastic attention. The hostess of the show, reports told of her ability to bend actress Maria Rosaria Omaggio (a metal rods in sealed glass tubes, and would-be Shirley MacLaine), said that spoons and forks, under the eyes of Nieto had never before shown her the onlookers. Others said that the abilities on television and that she was bending never occurred when anyone very happy to do it for Italian was looking (remember the shyness television. effect of Professor John Taylor?), it Nieto then proceeded to demon­ only happened a long time after Nieto strate metal bending—well, almost. had taken the object in her hands and In the first demonstration, one could had played with it. Sometimes she see the hostess walking in the would leave the room with a tube for streets of Caceres with Nieto holding a while and then return, hiding its a glass tube with a metal rod inside contents with her hands and revealing it and hear a voice in the background later that the metal inside it had bent; telling Nieto's story. At the end of other times she would dance, holding the walk, the metal is taken out of the object in her fists and close to her the tube and shown to be bent: body, which precluded anyone's see­ incredible! ing it. Next we are in Nieto's house. Here Jose L. J. Pena, the former vice- a parapsychologist explains how Nieto president of the Sociedad Espanola de had been thoroughly studied by a Parapsicologia (SEDP), who conducted commission that included a physicist,

Winter 1994 123 a biologist, an engineer, a priest, and nounces her guess, obviously correct. a parapsychologist—no conjurors— Nieto had finally demonstrated and all of them had been con­ herself to be a trickster. She surely vinced of the psychic nature of her enjoys all the attention she gets from powers. Nieto is then asked to bend the media; in an interview she is a piece of metal in front of the camera; quoted as saying, "I like very much the rod is placed in the tube and a to be in the magazines, with pictures cork placed on top of it—not sealed, and all the rest." In her view there only placed; she takes the tube with is surely nothing wrong with fooling her two hands and suddenly the some adults and gaining popularity. image on the screen freezes and fades What is certainly wrong is the attitude away! After a while (how long, we of those who present the case to the don't know), Nieto's image returns; audience as inexplicable and don't she is still seated with her hands on suggest that there is an alternative the tube, but now the metal inside is explanation for it. A correct procedure bent. would have been to call in a profes­ What had happened during the sional conjuror to comment on the interval? Had it been possible for her video. Well, incredible as it may seem, to leave the room or do something else they did; but this proved to be more that didn't appear important enough confusing than anything else. to be included in the documentary? The conjuror was a very popular Did she go on and on sitting with the one with TV audiences in Italy and tube, thus forcing the cameramen to was also known for his attempts to stop taping? Who knows? They don't be credited as a Geller-like psychic. He tell us. asked where the box came from and Finally comes the most revealing if it was transparent; when the hostess part of the show, the X-ray eyes answered that she herself had brought demonstration. The hostess shows a the box and that it was not transpar­ few pieces of paper with names of ent, he declared that the only possible colors or Spanish phrases written on explanation was . A con­ them. A handmade cardboard box is juror, he explained, could do the same introduced, and one of the pieces of thing, but only if he could control the paper, chosen at random, is placed game (which was exactly what Nieto inside the box, face down. A lid is had done). He then proceeded to placed on the box, which is then given perform his version of the trick, which to the girl. in was nothing like the one Seated in an armchair with a long used by Nieto. This, I think, is the kind back and wings at the sides of her of thing that persuades people of the head, she manipulates the box very reality of psychic phenomena. Here close to her face, rotates it, turns it was a famous conjuror declaring that upside-down, and presses it; most of there was no possible trick, ergo the the time she is looking not at the box girl really had psychic powers! but at the experimenters' faces. What is very clear in the film is that she — raises the lower part of the box with her thumbs and reads the note while Massimo Polidoro is a conjuror and the she misdirects the attention of the investigator for the Italian Committee for spectators by sudden moves and re­ the Investigation of Claims of the quests like: "Can I turn the music on? Paranormal (C1CAP), P.O. Box 60, It helps me." After a while she an­ 27958 Voghera (PV), Italy.

124 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 D European Skeptics Focus on Alternative Medicine

he Fifth European Skeptics' Con­ and more interested in studying ference, sponsored by the U.K. conditions under which observers T Skeptics, was held at Keele Uni­ think they have perceived a paranor­ versity, Stoke-on-Trent, England, mal event. from August 29-31, 1993. Titled Susan Blackmore, a frequent "Alternative Medicine: Science or speaker at international skeptics' Illusion?" the meeting was held in meetings, reviewed her research into conjunction with the British Associ­ near-death experiences (NDEs). ation for the Advancement of Sci­ Blackmore hypothesizes that sub- ence's annual Science Festival. The first speaker was Peter May, a physician who spearheaded an inquiry by Britain's Inde­ pendent Television Net­ work (ITN) into the claims of American healer Morris Cer- ullo. Cerullo has held sev­ eral widely advertised "missions" in London in recent years. May followed up on about a dozen of the John Maddox, editor of Nature, and Paul Kurtz at Keele supposedly healed, six of University. whom had been identified by Cerullo's jective experiences characteristic of organization. Even among the faith the NDE arise entirely because of healer's hand-picked "best cases," no physical processes in the brain under­ evidence could be found of a mirac­ going trauma. Nonetheless, people ulous or paranormal healing. who have had NDEs often experience John Maddox, editor of the British a genuine transformation in their science journal Nature, co-chaired the values, life plans, and worldviews. morning session on Monday, August Paul Kurtz spoke on the growth 30, with CSICOP chairman Paul of antiscientific attitudes in North Kurtz. In his introductory remarks, America and Europe, examined possi­ Maddox spoke movingly of the impact ble psychological and sociological expla­ of alternative medicine, the risks faced nations for this phenomenon, and sur­ by patients who opt for nontraditional veyed the options available to skeptics care, and the role of critical inquiry who wish to defend reasoned inquiry. in the ongoing debate over alternative Tuesday, August 31, was devoted therapies. to informal workshops on subjects That afternoon, Robert Morris, ranging from pseudoscience in the Koestler Professor of film Jurassic Park, to pseudoscience in at the University of , U.S. social work practices, to the frankly examined issues current in his "scarab beetle" and "exploding book­ field. Morris suggested that parapsy- case" anecdotes of Carl Jung. chologists have become less eager to document alleged paranormal events —Tom Plynn

Winter 1994 125 Notes of a Fringe-Watcher MARTIN GARDNER

1 Pealeism and the Paranormal

"Pray Big! Believe Big! Act Big!" Waldo Trine's In Tune with the Infinite. You'll find a history of New Thought, —Norman Vincent Peale with emphasis on its promotion by the poet Ella Wheeler Wilcox, in the last orman Vincent Peale, the chapter of my biography of Mary "minister to millions" who Baker Eddy, just published by Prome­ N burst into prominence in 1952 theus Books. with his block-busting best-seller The and Unity were Power of Positive Thinking, is the subject the two most successful spin-offs of an excellent unauthorized biog­ from New Thought, both with ele­ raphy by Carol V. R. George, profes­ ments that are major aspects of sor of history at Hobart and William Pealeism. "I think Christianity is truly Smith Colleges. Titled God's Salesman, a science," Peale said in a 1971 sermon, and published in 1993 by Oxford "and I believe the church is a labor­ University Press, it is the first detailed, atory in which the science is demon­ objective account of Peale's life and his strated." Mrs. Eddy couldn't have said influence on American Protestantism. it better. Throughout her book George re­ The essence of Pealeism is this: If fers to her subject's views as "Peale- you accentuate the positive, eliminate ism," a term he intensely dislikes. the negative, pray fervently to a Actually, his central themes are not personal God, and "picturize" in your a new ism. They repeat over and over mind your goals (one of Peale's books again, with endless anecdotes, in is titled Imaging), will occur sermon after sermon and book after in your life. You will be healthier, book, the basic ideas of New Thought. happier, and make lots more money. This was a religious movement that Indeed, The Power of Positive Thinking flourished in the decades before and made Peale an instant millionaire. It after 1900 and is still being preached is easy to understand its appeal to busi­ in some hundred off-beat churches nessmen and sales personnel. George around the nation. With roots in the quotes Peale as saying that if he hadn't of Emerson, and become a preacher, he would have sparked by the teachings of a Maine been a salesman. faith-healer named Phineas Quimby, George skillfully explains why New Thought generated an enormous Peale's "feel good" Christianity number of books and periodicals, of aroused so much ire among both which the most influential was Ralph conservative and liberal Christians.

126 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Liberals were especially annoyed by Peale's far-right political opin­ ions, and especially by his ener­ getic efforts to block John Ken­ GODS nedy's nomination. Peale actually thought that Kennedy's election would mean Vatican control of our . He later apologized SALESMAN for this. "I've never been too bright, anyhow," he told his con­ NORMAN VINCENT PEALE gregation when he offered to AND THE POWER OF resign as pastor. POSITIVE THINKING Liberals were also annoyed by Peale's lifelong friendship and admiration for Richard Nixon. The Nixons attended Peale's church whenever they were in New York, and it was Peale who married Julie Nixon to Eisen­ hower's grandson. "I think Kennedy is a jerk," Peale wrote in a letter that George cites. In 1984 President Reagan pinned on Peale the Presidential Medal of Freedom. "Dr. Peale and I disagree on everything, religiously and politically," Reinhold Niebuhr told Time (September 19, 1960). During I mean that I have accepted the Lord Peale's campaigning for Eisenhower's Jesus Christ as my personal Savior. election, Adlai Stevenson, speaking in I mean that I believe my sins are St. Paul, said he found Paul appealing forgiven by the atoning work of and Peale appalling. grace on the cross." Then he added, "Now 111 tell you something else. Born-again Christians were equal­ ... I personally love and understand ly appalled by Peale's refusal ever to this way of stating the Christian mention such doctrines as the Virgin gospel. But I am absolutely and Birth, the bodily Resurrection of Jesus, thoroughly convinced that it is my the Incarnation, and the blood atone­ mission never to use this language ment. As to what Peale actually be­ in trying to communicate with the lieves about such it is audience that has been given me." impossible to tell. It is this theological fogginess that so infuriates both Here is how Peale answered a liberal and conservative Christians, similar question about his debt to New even though the fogginess has enabled Thought: "They think I am one of Peale to keep one foot in and one foot them, but I am not. Actually, I am not out of both camps. George quotes a opposed to it." marvelous answer that Peale gave to This is not the place to discuss an inquiry about his theological be­ Peale's vague theology. Instead I shall liefs: focus on a little known aspect of his "I'm a conservative, and I will tell beliefs that receives only the following you exactly what I mean by that. brief paragraph in God's Salesman:

Winter 1994 127 To those who claimed that the experience of all. At the end of the power of unconscious mind was a final session, the presiding bishop form of "clairvoyance," he explained asked all the ministers in the it as "spiritual " accom­ audience to come forward, form a plished by "the passage of God's choir and sing an old, familiar hymn. thoughts through the mind." It was I was sitting on the speakers' rather like Emerson's transparent platform, watching them come eyeball. Peale studied the literature down the aisles. And suddenly, of psychic research and was familiar among them I saw my father. I saw with J. B. Rhine's experiments at him as plainly as I ever saw him Duke University. With neither when he was alive. He seemed about embarrassment nor hesitation, he 40, vital and handsome. He was revealed in sermons and speeches singing with the others. When he his personal experiences with psy­ smiled at me and put up his hand chic phenomena. Most of his refer­ in an old familiar gesture, for ences were to encounters with several unforgettable seconds it was intimates who had died, such as the as if my father and I were alone in time he felt the touch of his moth­ that big auditorium. Then he was er's hand on his head after her gone, but in my heart the death, or when he saw his father's of his presence was indisputable. He vigorous image approaching him on was there, and I know that some the platform at Marble Church, or day, somewhere, I'll meet him again. when he recognized his deceased We don't try to prove immortal­ brother Bob smiling at him and ity so that we can believe in it; we greeting him through a brick wall try to prove it because we cannot at the Foundation for Christian help believing in it. Instinct Living. And there were many others whispers to us that death is not the to which he bore witness, at least end; reason supports it; psychic one of which was picked up and phenomena uphold it. headlined by the sensational National Enquirer. Within his Easter Interviewed by the National sermons orthodox and alternate Enquirer {July 5,1983) Peale described of death often com­ another ghostly visitation in 1970. He peted, with a traditional view of the resurrection sharing place with a was addressing a group in Pawling, metaphysical understanding of New York, where he lives, when he death as movement to another level distinctly saw his dead brother Bob of . walking outside the building. The apparition appeared behind "two solid walls.... I had seen him right through Peale's book The Amazing Results those walls." of Positive Thinking has a chapter on In a 1957 interview with the titled "How American Weekly, reprinted in Martin to Live with the Spiritual Forces Ebon's anthology The Psychic Reader Around You." (1969), Peale recalled a visitation by In "Why I Believe in Life After the of his departed mother. The Death," an article in Peale's monthly day after she died a badly shaken Peale magazine Guideposts (April 1977), he put his hands on his Bible, hoping to described the visitation by his dead gain strength. "Suddenly I felt two father: cupped hands laid on the top and back of my head." He did not turn to look, And just last year, when I was but he knew telepathically that his preaching at a Methodist gathering mother was saying, "Everything is all in Georgia, I had the most startling right, Norman. I am happy. This is a

128 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 wonderful place. Do not grieve for Peale has always been a firm believer me." in the reality of near-death experien­ Recalling this incident in his Guide- ces, or what are now called NDEs. As posts article cited above, Peale wrote: he wrote in Guideposts: "An illusion? A hallucination caused by grief? I don't think so. I think my Time and again it has been reported mother was permitted to reach across of people on the brink of death that the gulf of death to touch and reassure they seem to become aware of a great radiance or hear beautiful me." music or see the faces of departed Peale told the American Weekly loved ones who are apparently about a later visitation by his mother waiting for them across the line. Are that took place outside a New Jersey these just hallucinations? I don't restaurant. He was feeling guilty think so. Several such episodes have about having paid $400 for two happened within my own family. hurricane lamps to give his wife as a surprise. Peale had left the restaurant Asked by American Weekly if he ahead of Ruth when he heard in his believed science would someday prove mind his mother say: "Norman, don't there is life after death, Peale an­ worry about the lamps. They will swered: "Let us hope so. When it please Ruth. She deserves them, she comes it will be the greatest scientific is so wonderful." discovery ever made. But I don't have Peale began sobbing uncon­ to wait. Mother told me all I need to trollably. He and Ruth drove several know." miles on their way to New York be­ I am in debt to reader Chris fore he could tell her what had Niemeyer for calling my attention to happened: constant proclamations of paranormal events in the pages of Guideposts. They "Why did my mother come through strongly resemble the testimonies at to me at such a time and place, about the back of Mrs. Eddy's Science and so relatively trivial a matter? I don't Health, but go even deeper into the know. I do not think I am unstable miraculous. or neurotic. I believe I have my feet Niemeyer began his letter by on earth. It wasn't grief that sent recalling testimonies he had read in me out of control, it was an amazed Guideposts at a time when he believed feeling of being in the presence of them. One told of a woman who an overwhelming force. experienced the stigmata—one of her "My feeling of the reality and importance of these experiences has hands miraculously began oozing grown ever since my mother's blood. Another was about a woman death. Just now I am waiting, with who had been shot by a thief. a sense of expectancy, for a com­ Wounded and trying to escape to her munication from a friend of mine, car, she was confronted by a fence. a very tough-minded, skeptical Too weak to climb over the fence, she nurse, who had often told me of prayed for help. A cloud enveloped her extra-sensory demonstrations she and lifted her over. In another testi­ had witnessed in line of duty and mony, a woman described her visit with whom I had an agreement that with a friend to a beautiful garden at the first of us to die would try to communicate with the other. She a religious retreat, tended by a nun. died last Saturday. So, I am wait­ Later she learned that the retreat had ing—not too confidently. But still no such garden, and no nun in res­ I wouldn't be surprised." idence. Her friend confirmed their

Winter 1994 129 visit to the garden. called out "Jake!" He leaped out of the Has Guideposts stopped publishing way just before a car crashed into the such incredible tales? To find out, back of the stalled Chevy. Both cars Niemeyer went to the public library were totaled. The husband, who had to check 1993 issues. In the January been knocked unconscious, awoke in issue a man wrote about praying on a hospital with his uninjured wife be­ a ship for guidance about tithing. He side him. If she had not called out his felt strangely impelled to send his name, he would have been killed. The pastor a check to give to one of his wife was puzzled. "I didn't say any­ old, bedridden Sunday school teach­ thing," she told Jake. "I was so fright­ ers. The pastor wrote back that the ened, my lips were clamped shut." money was the exact amount needed Thousands of such testimonies in for a new hearing aid. "She had Guideposts have implied similar para­ ordered it C.O.D.," said the pastor, normal events, usually in response to "but now couldn't afford it. Without prayers. Could it be that this mystical, your gift the post office would have paranormal aspect of the magazine had to return it." The sender of the accounts for its circulation of about check told Guideposts: "Suddenly I four million, exceeding that of knew what—or rather Who—made Newsweek? me do what I did." Readers of Guideposts apparently The February issue ran a testimony take all such anecdotes seriously. from a woman whose son Mark had Today millions still take them seri­ been murdered. After the murderer's ously in the preaching and writing of trial, she visited the local newspaper Peale's most famous protege, the office to pick up back issues with Reverend Robert Schuller, whose editorials about the trial that she Crystal Cathedral far outglitters wanted to send to relatives. She was Peale's drab Marble Collegiate astounded to see that one paper con­ Church on Fifth Avenue in Manhat­ tained a crossword puzzle that had tan. As far as I can tell, Schuller's been completely solved in Mark's theology differs from Peale's in only handwriting! After putting away one respect. What Peale calls "positive some groceries, she returned to the thinking" Schuller calls "possibility paper only to find that the puzzle's thinking." solution had vanished. She took this "No book on the life of Norman as a sign from God that her son's life, Vincent Peale could be less than unfinished on earth, had been com­ motivating, inspiring, life-changing," pleted in heaven. reads Schuller's blurb on the jacket of The April issue printed a letter God's Salesman. "Dr. Peale is one of from a man whose car had stalled on the 20th century's most remarkable a two-lane highway. He got out and and influential persons. As an author, tried to start the car by pushing it motivator, minister and positive while his wife sat in the driver's seat. persuader, he changed my life and my As he stepped behind the car his wife ministry." •

130 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Psychic Vibrations

The Montauk Project and the Delphi Experiments

ROBERT SHEAFFER

eople always think of the west­ guiding me" the whole time. Accord­ ern states as the region where ing to Bielek, Cameron, and Nichols, P exciting events like flying- the boys in the cages were repeatedly saucer crashes and harmonic conver­ tortured, raped, and sodomized into gences take place, but Long Island, total sexual submission. Why was this New York, is fast emerging as a center done? Apparently the mental shock of of paranormal activity. Not only did tortures, applied right at the moment a saucer allegedly crash near Yaphank of adolescent sexual climax, was (see this column, Fall 1993), but it is discovered to be capable of opening also claimed that at the abandoned Air up holes in the space-time continuum, Force base in Montauk, Long Island, allowing objects or even persons to the U.S. government performed lurid pass through. psychic experiments of a kind that Later it was found possible to might have sprung from the twisted achieve the same effect with compu­ mind of the Marquis de Sade. ters alone, by somehow "interfacing" Writing in the Sedona journal, self- described psychic and channeler Helga Morrow gives a melodramatic account of her recent investigation of alleged time-travel experiments that are said to have taken place there in the 1950s and 1960s. Recently she, accompanied by Al Bielek, Preston Nichols, and Duncan Cameron, who were allegedly once involved in these experiments, claim they somehow slipped into the closed-off area and down into a subterranean "chamber of horrors." She describes "cages" in which the unwilling subjects of the experi­ ments—young adolescent boys—were kept. Her perfectly understandable fear was lessened by the presence of her guardian "," who she affirms were "with me, protecting and

Winter 1994 131 an IBM 360 with the Cray 1, which career in parapsychology as an out- did not yet exist. When the two of-body traveler. When the late para- computers were supposedly con­ psychologist D. Scott Rogo wanted to nected, Cameron produced via his confound skeptics by proving that own mind-power an uncontrollable paranormal effects could be produced 25-foot monster that went storming at will, he wrote: about smashing buildings. All at­ tempts to destroy the monster failed. In 1972 a young psychology student Fortunately, it was "sent into hyper- at Duke University wandered into space, to another time." the offices of the Psychical Research Al Bielek and some other pioneers Foundation in Durham, N.C. His name was Blue Harary and he were once allegedly sent forward to claimed he could leave his body at the year 6737. There they saw a will.... Blue was placed in one room "golden horse" amid the apparent and, at a randomly selected time, ruins of dead civilization. The intrepid was asked to send his mind to an voyagers were instructed to remain adjoining room where the kitten within a circle with a 20-foot radius, was being observed by another or else they could not return. "Unfor­ experimenter, who did not know tunately," writes Morrow, "many the time when Blue would attempt were lost in time for eternity." to project to the animal. . . . The kitten invariably became less active Today, "the technology for sending and less vocal during those times an animal, person, or thing into when Blue was projecting to it. . . another time can fit into an ordinary . So, despite what Dr. Sagan tells briefcase," according to Morrow. In you, successful tests have been certain circles, the "Montauk Project" conducted with astral projectors is a hot product. Peter and under controlled conditions, under Preston Nichols have written a book, double-blind conditions and with The Montauk Project: Experiments in skeptics present. (Fate, April 1980) Time. Al Bielek is selling a video, Montauk Lecture. A "Global Sciences" Now, seeking to escape his onetime conspiracy-oriented conference was fame as a psychic, Harary flatly dis­ held in Denver, with Morrow a avows any claim to special powers and featured speaker. Preston Nichols and rejects with scorn Targ's statements Duncan Cameron are business about his former psychic rapport with partners in something called "Space- cats (SI, Spring 1991, p. 331; journal Time Labs, a fully equipped manufac­ of the American Society for Psychical turer of psychoactive electronic equip­ Research, 86:400, 403). ment." Caveat emptor. The high-water mark of the entire "" fad was undoubt­ edly the alleged successful attempt of Harary and Targ to predict the prices Do you remember the "remote view­ of December 1982 silver futures on ing" experiments that were all the rage commodity markets (SI, Winter 1984- in the 1970s? One of the highest- 85, pp. 118, 125). This effort, under scoring stars of "remote viewing" at the auspices of their incorporated SRI International in Menlo Park was venture, Delphi Associates, sup­ Keith "Blue" Harary. Harary and posedly generated under tight exper­ Russell Targ jointly wrote The Mind imental controls nine consecutive Race (1984), about their remote- correct of the silver viewing efforts. Harary began his market's direction and strength. The

132 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 odds against this happening by chance were claimed to be more than 83,000 to 1. John White, the principal inves­ tor, turned a substantial profit, which made headlines worldwide, even gaining Delphi a favorable depiction on the NOVA program "The Case for ESP" (1984) for a supposedly genuine paranormal feat. Targ began ecstat­ ically speculating how, within 12 months, Delphi could corner not only the silver market but a fortune greater than the U.S. Gross National Product. Then, just as remarkably, Delphi Associates' remote-viewing program disintegrated, little more was heard from them, and the remarkable suc­ cess was never repeated. The relation­ ship of the two researchers soured, resulting in Harary bringing a $1.5- million suit against Targ for damages resulting from the misuse of his name current one. Harary, however, thinks (this column, Summer 1989), a suit that he described the first of the ultimately settled out of court. Now March targets correctly—a miniature a writer and psychologist living in San golf course—but it may have been Francisco, Harary has finally pub­ mistakenly matched by the judges lished his explanation of those events with another target, the San Francisco in the Journal of the American Society zoo, possibly because they were for Psychical Research (October 1992). thrown off the track by his comment Harary now insists that all of the about the smell of roasted peanuts. Delphi experiments, successful or not, The second target he missed because, were "informal," and that "every one well, nobody is ever 100-percent of [the] essential principles of the accurate in such things. formal remote-viewing methodology" If this is correct, then Harary would was "violated by the manner in which have us believe that (a) he made an Delphi conducted the associative incredible 13 consecutive correct remote-viewing trials." In attempting predictions of future price movements to duplicate the reportedly brilliant of silver, in spite of (b) all the exper­ success of the predictions for Decem­ imental procedures having been done ber using March silver futures, two incorrectly, and also in spite of (c) his incorrect predictions were given to the not being psychic and (d) his having investor, who subsequently lost much no interest whatsoever in anyone's of his earlier profits, as well as all fur­ future attempts to make money in this ther interest in investing through manner. I fail to see how all these can Delphi. simultaneously be true. Why did they go wrong? Targ What really happened in the Delphi suggests that "displacement" had Associates remote-viewing silver occurred: Harary's remote perception futures project? Unfortunately, well of the target had been accurate, but never know, because Targ says the was somehow displaced from the original data have been lost. D

Winter 1994 133 The New Skepticism

PAUL KURTZ

kepticism, like all things, is good if used in moderation. It is essential for the S healthy mind; but if taken to excess, it can lead to overweening doubt. Skepticism, if properly understood, is not a metaphysical picture of the unknowability of "ultimate reality"; it does not lead to an inevitable epistemological impasse; it need not culminate in existential despair or . Rather it should be considered as an essential methodo­ logical rule guiding us to examine critically all claims to knowledge and affirmations of value. Without it, we are apt to slip into complacent Skeptical inquirers self- and dogmatism; with it, if should be prudently used, we can effectively advance the frontiers of inquiry and knowledge, and also open-minded apply it to practical life, , and politics. about new Briefly stated, a skeptic is one who is willing possibilities and to question any claim to truth, asking for clarity in definition, consistency in , and adequacy be willing to of evidence. The use of skepticism is thus an question even the essential part of objective scientific inquiry and the search for reliable knowledge. most well- Skepticism has deep roots in the philosophical established tradition. The term derives from the Greek word skeptikos, which means "to consider, principles in the examine." It is akin to the Greek skepsis, which light of further means "inquiry" and "doubt." Skepticism provides powerful tools of inquiry. criticism in science, philosophy, , moral­ ity, politics, and society. It is thought to be ex­ ceedingly difficult to apply it to ordinary life or to live consistently with its principles. For human seek certitudes to guide them, and the skeptical mode is often viewed with alarm by those who hunger for faith and con­ viction. Skepticism is the intractable foe of pretentious

This article has been adapted from Paul Kurtz's The New Skepticism: Inquiry and Reliable Knowledge (Buffalo, N.Y.: , 1992).

134 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 belief systems. When people demand humankind's revered belief systems. definite answers to their queries, Skeptics are viewed as dissenters, skepticism always seems to give them heretics, radicals, subversive rogues, further questions to ponder. Yet in a or worse, and they are bitterly cas­ profound sense, skepticism is an tigated by the entrenched establish­ essential ingredient of all reflective ments who fear them. Revolutionary conduct and an enduring charac­ reformers are also wont to turn their teristic of the educated mind. wrath on skeptical doubters who Still, skeptics are considered question their passionate dangerous because they commitment to ill- question the reigning conceived programs of orthodoxies, the shib­ social reconstruc­ boleths and hosan- ; tion. Skeptics wish nas of any age to examine all sides Although the skep­ of a question; and tical attitude is an for every argument indelible part of in favor of a the­ reflective inquiry, sis, they usually can a person get can find one or beyond the skep­ more arguments tical orientation opposed to it. to develop posi­ Extreme skep­ tive directions and ticism cannot commitments in be­ consistently serve lief and behavior, and our practical in­ will skepticism ena­ terests, for insofar ble one to do so? as it sires doubt, Skeptics always bid t inhibits actions. those overwhelmed by All parties to a con­ Absolute Truth or Spe­ troversy may revile cial to pause. They skeptics because they ask, "What do you usually resist being swept mean?"—seeking clar away by the dominant ification and defini fervor of the day. tion—and "Why do you believe what Nevertheless, skepticism is essential you do?"—demanding , evi­ to the quest for knowledge; for it is dence, justification, or proof. Like in the seedbed of puzzlement that natives of Missouri, they say, "Show genuine inquiry takes root. Without me." All too often probing skeptics skepticism, we may remain mired in discover that the unquestioned beliefs unexamined belief systems that are and many cherished values of the day accepted as sacrosanct yet have no rest on quixotic sands and that, by factual basis in reality. With it, we digging at their tottering foundations, allow for some free play for the gen­ they may hasten their collapse. Skep­ eration of new ideas and the growth tics are able to detect contradictions of knowledge. Although the skeptical within belief systems; they discover outlook may not be sufficient unto hypocrisies, double standards, dispar­ itself for any philosophy of the ities between what people profess and practical life, it provides a necessary what they actually do; they point to condition for the reflective approach the paucity of evidence for most of to life. Must skepticism leave us

Winter 1994 135 floundering in a quagmire of indeci­ case, human beings are prone to err. sion? Or does it permit us to go For every proof in favor of a thesis, further, and to discover some proba­ one may pose a counter-proof. Like bilities by which we can live? Will it the web that is spun by a spider, the allow us to achieve reliable knowl­ entire structure may collapse when we edge? Or must all new discoveries in disturb the glue that holds the threads turn give way to the probing criticisms together. of the skeptic's scalpel? The answer Not only is epistemic certainty to these questions depends in part on impossible, maintain total skeptics, the what one means by skepticism, for very criteria by which we judge there are various kinds that can be whether something is true or false are distinguished. questionable. Knowledge is based upon the methods by which we Nihilism evaluate claims to truth—whether empirical or rational. But these are Total Negative Skepticism. The first kind simply assumed, they insist, and of skepticism that may be identified cannot be used to validate themselves is nihilism. Its most extreme form is without begging the question. Thus total negative skepticism. Here I am we can never get beyond the first referring to skepticism as a complete stage of inquiry. Total skeptics end up rejection of all claims to truth or value. in utter subjectivity, solipsists im­ This kind of skepticism is mired in prisoned in their own worlds, con­ unlimited doubt, from which it never fused about the nature of knowledge. emerges. Knowledge is not possible, This is the total skeptics' approach to total skeptics aver. There is no cer­ science, philosophy, and religion. tainty, no reliable basis for convic­ Nihilistic skepticism has also been tions, no truth at all. All that we used in ethics with devastating results. encounter are appearances, impres­ Here the total skeptic is a complete sions, sensations; and we have no relativist, subjectivist, and emotivist. guarantee that these correspond to What is "good" or "bad," "right" or anything in external reality. Indeed, "wrong," varies among individuals and we have no assurance that we are societies. There are no discernible properly describing external objects normative standards other than taste "in themselves." Our senses, which lie and feeling, and there is no basis for at the heart of our experiential world, objective moral judgment. We cannot may deceive us. Our sense organs act discern principles that are universal or as visors, shielding and limiting our obligatory for . Complete perceptions, which vary from individ­ cultural relativity is the only option ual to individual and from species to for this kind of skepticism. Principles species. Similar pitfalls await those of justice are simply related to power who seek to root knowledge in the or the social contract; there are no cognitive intuitions or deductive normative standards common to all of mathematics or logic, social systems. In the face of moral claim total skeptics. Meanings are controversy, total skeptics may irreducibly subjective and untranslat­ become extreme doubters; all stand­ able into intersubjective or objective ards are equally untenable. They may referents. Purely formal conceptual thus become conservative tradi­ systems tell us more about the lan­ tionalists. If there are no reliable guage we are using than about the guides to moral conduct, then the only nature of ultimate reality itself. In any recourse is to follow custom. Ours is

136 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 not to reason why, ours is but to do type of skepticism that masks a theory or die, for there are no reasons. Or of knowledge or reality in epistemol- total skeptics may become cynical ogy, , ethics, and politics. amoralists for whom "anything goes." Neutralists claim to have no such Who is to say that one thing is better theory. They simply make personal or worse than anything else? they ask, statements and do not ask anyone to for if there are no standards of justice accept or reject them or be convinced discoverable in the nature of things, or persuaded by their arguments. political morality in the last analysis These are merely their own private is a question of force, custom, or expressions they are uttering, and passion, not of reason or of evi­ they are not generalizable to others. dence. For every argument in favor of a This kind of total skepticism is self- thesis, they can discover a counter­ contradictory; for in affirming that no argument. The only option for neutral knowledge is possible, these skeptics skeptics is thus to suspend judgment have already made an assertion. In entirely. Here rules the denying that we can know reality, roost. They are unable in epistemol- they often presuppose a phenomen- ogy to discover any criteria of knowl­ alistic or subjectivistic metaphysics in edge; in metaphysics, a theory of which sense impressions or ideas are reality; in religion, a basis for belief the constitutive blocks out of which or disbelief in God; in ethics and our knowledge of the world, how­ politics, any standards of virtue, value, ever fragmented, is constructed. In or social justice. asserting that there are no norma­ The ancient pre-Socratic Greek tive standards of ethics and politics, philosopher Cratylus (fifth-fourth total skeptics sometimes advise us century B.C.) was overwhelmed by the either to be tolerant of individual fact that everything is changing, idiosyncrasies and respect cultural including our own phenomenological relativity, or to be courageous and worlds of experience; and he there­ follow our own quest to satisfy fore concluded that it is impossible to ambition or appetite. But this imper­ communicate knowledge or to fully ceptibly masks underlying value judg­ understand anyone. According to ments that skeptics cherish. This kind legend, Cratylus refused to discuss of skepticism may be labeled "­ anything with anyone and, since it was tism"; for in resolutely rejecting the pointless to reply, only wiggled his very possibility of knowledge or finger when asked a question. The value, such skeptics are themselves neutral state of suspension of belief, introducing their own questionable now known as , was assertions. defended by of Elis and had a great impact on the subsequent Neutral Skepticism development of skepticism. It applied primarily to philosophical and meta­ One form of nihilistic skepticism that physical questions, where one is seeks to avoid dogmatism does so by uncertain about what is ultimately assuming a completely neutral stance. true about reality, but it put aside Here skeptics will neither affirm nor questions of ordinary life, where deny anything. They are unwilling to convention and custom prevail. This utter any pronouncements, such as form of skepticism also degenerates into nihilism, for in denying any form that sense perception or formal rea­ of knowledge it can lead to despair. soning is unreliable. They reject any

Winter 1994 137 Mitigated Skepticism upon us by the exigencies of living. It would be total if we were to follow There is a fundamental difficulty with philosophy to the end of the trail, to the forms of skepticism outlined irremediable indecision and doubt. above, for they are contrary to the Fortunately, we take detours in life, demands of life. We need to function and thus we live and act as if we had in the world—whatever its ultimate knowledge. Our generalizations are reality—and we need to develop some based upon experience and practice, beliefs by which we may live and act. and the inferences that we make on Perhaps our beliefs rest ultimately the basis of habit and custom serve upon probabilities; nevertheless we as our guide. need to develop knowledge as a pragmatic requirement of living and acting in the world. A modified form Unbelief of skepticism was called mitigated skepticism by , the great The term skepticism has sometimes eighteenth-century Scottish philos­ been used as synonymous with unbelief opher. It is a position that was also or disbelief in any domain of knowl­ defended by the Greek philosopher edge. Actually there are two aspects of the second century B.C. to this—one is the reflective conviction Mitigated skeptics have confronted that certain claims are unfounded or the black hole of nothingness and are untrue, and hence not believable, and skeptical about the ultimate reliability this seems a reasonable posture to of knowledge claims. They are con­ take; the other is the negative a priori vinced that the foundations of knowl­ rejection of a belief without a careful edge and value are ephemeral and that examination of the grounds for that it is impossible to establish ultimate belief. Critics call this latter form of about reality with any cer­ skepticism "dogmatism." The word tainty. Nonetheless, we are forced by unbelief in both of these senses is usu­ the exigencies of practical life to ally taken to apply to religion, theol­ develop viable generalizations and to ogy, the paranormal, and the occult. make choices, even though we can In religion the unbeliever is usually give no ultimate justification for them. an atheist—not simply a neutral One cannot find any secure basis for agnostic—for this kind of skepticism causal inferences about nature, other rejects the claims of theists. The than the fact that there are regular­ atheist denies the basic premises of ities encountered within experience, theism: that God exists, that there is on the basis of which we make some ultimate purpose to the uni­ predictions that the future will be like verse, that men and women have the past. But we have no ultimate immortal souls, and that they can be foundation for this postulate of saved by divine grace. induction. Similarly, one cannot deduce what ought to be the case from Reflective unbelievers find the what is. Morality is contingent on the language of transcendence basically sentiments of men and women who unintelligible, even meaningless, and agree to abide by social convention in that is why they say they are skeptics. order to satisfy their multifarious Or, more pointedly, if they have desires as best they can. examined the arguments adduced historically to prove the existence of Mitigated skepticism is not total, God, they find them invalid, hence but only partial and limited, forced unconvincing. They find the so-called

138 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 appeals to experience unwarranted: convictions on the basis of inadequate neither nor the appeal to evidence or faith, so the dogmatic miracles or revelation establishes the unbelievers may reject such new existence of transcendental . claims because these violate their own Moreover, they maintain that moral­ preconceptions about the universe. ity is possible without a belief in God. This latter kind of skepticism has Unbelievers are critics of supernatu- many faults and is in my judgment ralistic claims, which they consider illegitimate. These skeptics are no . Indeed, they consider the longer open-minded inquirers, but God to be without merit, . They are convinced that a fanciful creation of human imagi­ they have the Non-Truth, which they nation that does not deserve careful affirm resolutely, and in doing so they examination by emancipated men and may slam shut the door to further women. Many classical atheists discoveries. (Baron d'Holbach, Diderot, Marx, Engels) fit into this category, for they Skeptical Inquiry were materialists first, and their and unbelief There is yet another kind of skepti­ followed from their materialistic cism, which differs from the kinds of metaphysics. Such skeptics are dog­ skepticism encountered above. Indeed, matic only if their unbelief is a form this form of skepticism strongly of doctrinaire faith and not based on criticizes nihilism, total and neutral; rational grounds. mitigated skepticism; and dogmatic In the paranormal field, unbeliev­ unbelief—although it has learned ers similarly deny the reality of psi something from each of them. This phenomena. They maintain that ESP, kind of skepticism I label "skeptical clairvoyance, , psycho­ inquiry," with inquiry rather than kinesis, and the existence of discarnate doubt as the motivation. I call it the souls are without sufficient evidence new skepticism, although it has emerged and contrary to our knowledge of how in the contemporary world as an the material universe operates. Some outgrowth of . A key skeptics deny paranormal phenomena difference between this and earlier on a priori grounds, i.e., they are to forms of skepticism is that it is positive be rejected because they violate well- and constructive. It involves the trans­ established physical laws. They can be formation of the negative critical considered dogmatists only if they analysis of the claims to knowledge refuse to examine the evidence into a positive contribution to the brought by the proponents of the growth and development of skeptical paranormal, or if they consider the inquiry. It is basically a form of meth­ level of science that has been reached odological skepticism, for here skepti­ on any one day to be its final formu­ cism is an essential phase of the lation. Insofar as this kind of unbelief process of inquiry; but it does not and masks a closed mind, it is an illegit­ need not lead to unbelief, despair, or imate form of skepticism. If those who hopelessness. This skepticism is not say that they are skeptics simply mean total, but is limited to the context that they deny the existence of the under inquiry. Hence we may call it paranormal realm, they are aparanor- selective or contextual skepticism, for malists. The question to be asked of one need not doubt everything at the them always is, Why? For much as the same time, but only certain questions believers can be judged to hold certain in the limited context of investigation.

Winter 1994 139 It is not neutral, because it knowledge and the moral progress of that we do develop knowledge about humankind. It has important implica­ the world. Accordingly, not only is tions for our knowledge of the uni­ human knowledge possible, but it can verse and our moral and social life. be found to be reliable; and we can Skepticism in this sense provides a in the normative realm act on the best positive and constructive eupraxophy evidence and reasons available. that can assist us in interpreting the Knowledge is not simply limited to the cosmos in which we live and in descriptive or the formal sciences, but achieving some wisdom in conduct. is discoverable in the normative fields The new skepticism is more in tune of ethics and politics. Although this with the demands of everyday knowl­ is a modified form of skepticism, it edge than with speculative philos­ goes far beyond the mitigated skep­ ophy. Traditional skepticism has had ticism of Hume; for it does not face all too little to say about the evident an abyss of ultimate uncertainty, but achievements of constructive skeptical is impressed by the ability of the inquiry. And derisive skeptical jabs human mind to understand and con­ hurled from the wings of the theater trol nature. of life are not always appreciated, The new skepticism is not dog­ especially if they inhibit life from matic, for it holds that we should proceeding without interruption. never by a priori rejection close the Skeptical inquiry is essential in any door to any kind of responsible in­ quest for knowledge or deliberative vestigation. Thus it is skeptical of valuational judgment. But it is limited dogmatic or narrow-minded and focused, selective, and positive, and aparanormalism. Nonetheless, it and it is part and parcel of a genuine is willing to assert reflective unbelief process of inquiry. This form of about some claims that it finds lack modified skepticism is formulated in adequate justification. It is willing to the light of the following consid­ assert that some claims are unproved, erations: improbable, or false. There has already been an enor­ Skepticism, as a method of doubt mous advance in the sciences, both that demands evidence and reasons theoretically and technologically. This for hypotheses, is essential to the applies to the natural, biological, process of scientific research, philoso­ social, and behavioral sciences. The phical dialogue, and critical intelli­ forms of classical skepticism of the gence. It is also vital in ordinary life, ancient world that reemerged in the where the demands of common sense early modern period were unaware of are always a challenge to us to develop the tremendous potential of scientific and act upon the most reliable hypoth­ research. Pyrrhonistic skepticism is eses and beliefs available. It is the foe today invalidated, because there now of absolute certainty and dogmatic exists a considerable body of reliable finality. It appreciates the snares and knowledge. Accordingly, it is mean­ pitfalls of all kinds of human knowl­ ingless to cast all claims to truth into edge and the importance of the a state of utter doubt. The same principles of and probabil- considerations apply to post-modern­ ism in regard to the degrees of ist subjectivism and Richard Rorty's certainty of our knowledge. This pragmatic skepticism, which I believe differs sharply from the skepticisms are likewise mistaken. of old, and it can contribute substan­ Contrary to traditional skeptical tially to the advancement of human doubts, there are methodological

140 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 criteria by which we are able to test which we frame judgments of prac­ claims to knowledge: (a) empirical tice. Indeed, it is possible to develop tests based upon , a eupraxophy, based on the most (b) logical standards of coherence and reliable knowledge of the day, to consistency, and (c) experimental tests provide a generalized interpretation of in which ideas are judged by their the cosmos and some conceptions of consequences. All of this is related to the good life. the proposition that it is possible to Doubt plays a vital role in the develop and use objective methods of context of ongoing inquiry. It should, inquiry in order to achieve reliable however, be selective, not unlimited, knowledge. and contextual, not universal. The We can apply skeptical inquiry to principle of fallibilism is relevant. We many areas. Thoroughgoing investi­ should not make absolute assertions, gations of paranormal claims can only but be willing to admit that we may be made by means of careful scientific be mistaken. Our knowledge is based procedures. Religious claims, using upon probabilities, which are reliable, biblical criticism, the sciences of not ultimate or finalities. archaeology, linguistics, and history, Finally, skeptical inquirers should have today given us a basis for skep­ always be open-minded about new tical criticism of the appeals to reve­ possibilities, unexpected departures in lation and theories of . thought. They should always be We have long since transcended willing to question or overturn even cultural in values and the most well-established principles in norms and are beginning to see the the light of further inquiry. The key emergence of a global society. Thus principle of skeptical inquiry is to seek, extreme cultural subjectivity is no when feasible, adequate evidence and longer valid, for there is a basis for reasonable grounds for any claim to transcultural values. There is also a truth in any context. body of tested prima facie ethical principles and rules that may be gen- eralizable to all human communities. Paul Kurtz is the founding Chairman of Therefore, the methods of skepti­ CS1COP and professor emeritus of cal inquiry can be applied to the philosophy at the State University of New political and economic domain in York at Buffalo.

Anthony Standen Dead at 86

nthony Standen, chemist, editor and scientific gadfly, died in June at 86. Author of Science Is a Sacred Cow (1950), an entertaining A^critique of scientific pomposity, Standen was sometimes considered the founder of the modern skeptics movement in science. However, Standen's writings could also be used by antievolutionists and opponents, not just critics, of science, since about the only fields he considered respectable were physics and math. He had degrees in chemistry and entomology.

Winter 1994 141 Philosophy and the Paranormal Part 1: The Problem of "Psi

WILLIAM GREY

sychic and paranormal claims raise issues in two important domains of philosophical P inquiry: , or the theory of knowledge (which examines the nature of knowledge and human understanding and the proper methods by which knowledge may be Spurious claims acquired), and metaphysics (which is concerned to provide an account of the basic structure of like those of reality: what sort of world do we inhabit?). or Questions about knowledge and belief have differ traditionally been central preoccupations of philosophers. In particular, the question of from systematic miracles (which I discuss in Part 2 of this article) inquiry in and the arguments developed by the eighteenth- century Scottish philosopher David Hume respectable (1711-1776) are relevant to the assessment of disciplines in that paranormal claims. Scientific inquiry provides us with a body of they insulate knowledge that purports to explain why things themselves from happen as they do: why rivers flow, why plants grow, and so forth. Science, and physics in criticism. particular, is an extraordinary triumph of the human mind. Yet despite its achievements, the understanding that science provides has seemed to some people to be unsatisfactory. Science, for example, provides accounts of how things happen in terms of chains of causes that leave no room for some dimensions of human experience—and, in particular, it has been said that science is remiss in ignoring paranormal claims.

This is the first of a two-part article examining some fundamental issues raised by paranormal claims.

142 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 The Nature of the Paranormal causal direction in ESP is from world to subject. In psychokinesis (PK) the The paranormal (or "psi") encom­ subject seems to affect the world passes a heterogeneous collection of through a deviant causal path: the claims. One reason for this diversity causal direction in this case is from is that paranormal phenomena are subject to world. typically characterized by exclusion; We must carefully distinguish that is, they comprise what does not parapsychological experiences and fit into the accepted categories we use paranormal processes. The former are when we try to explain what happens a phenomenological reality; the latter, in the world. Given this negative mode a contested hypothesis invoked to of characterization, there is no reason explain them. Parapsychology, con­ to expect there will be any feature that ceived as the study of paranormal all supposedly paranormal phenomena experience, is a legitimate field of share. There are nevertheless some empirical inquiry. However, it is an interesting common patterns. open question whether there are any In general, paranormal phenomena objectively real paranormal phenomena involve (or seem to involve) anoma­ that provide the basis for parapsycho­ lous causal connections between a logical experiences. Skeptical conclu­ conscious subject and the world. In the sions about the existence of psi case of extrasensory perception (ESP) phenomena should not lead one to it appears that subjects acquire knowl­ deny the veracity of experiences that edge of their environment through people characterize as parapsycholog­ some nonstandard pathway. The ical. The experiences are real enough;

Winter 1994 143 FIGURE I

Psi

Psychokinesis (PK) Extrasensory Perception (ESP) , I , I I Telepathy Clairvoyance Precognition what is in dispute is how they are best It is not easy to establish a precise to be explained. meaning for "paranormal." The word Paranormal claims present a chal­ suggests something hidden or myster­ lenge to the dominant orthodoxy of ious, or the operation of a kind of mainstream science. The Cambridge or principle that functions philosopher C. D. Broad (1887-1971) outside the normal range of expecta­ suggested that parapsychology, an tion or experience. It also suggests important branch of paranormal something beyond the scope of cur­ inquiry, presents a challenge for at rently accepted physical theory. least five deeply entrenched meta­ "Paranormal" in this sense is a term physical assumptions: (a) that future recommended—if not coined—by the events cannot affect the present French-born American philosopher before they happen (backward causa­ C. J. Ducasse (1881-1969). (See tion is forbidden); (b) that a person's Ducasse 1954.) A rough map of the mind cannot effect a change in the territory is set out in Figure 1. material world without the interven­ Psychokinesis is the power to affect tion of some physical or force; physical happenings through thought, (c) that a person cannot know the or by an act of will alone, without the content of another person's mind mediation of bodily action. Clairvoy­ except by the use of inferences based ance is the ability to acquire knowl­ on experience and drawn from obser­ edge of happenings through means vations of his or her speech or other than the normal sensory chan­ behavior; (d) that we cannot directly nels. Telepathy and precognition could know what happens at a distant point be treated as special cases of clairvoy­ in space without some sensory per­ ance, where the knowledge acquired ception or energy of it-transmitted to concerns the thoughts of another us; (e) that discarnate beings do not person (in the case of telepathy) or exist as persons separable from phys­ knowledge of the future (in the case ical bodies (Broad 1949; cited in Kurtz of precognition). In addition to these 1981: 6-7). two broad categories of "psi" phe­ Paranormal claims thus challenge nomena (ESP and PK), there is a third some widely accepted beliefs. This in conspicuous area of paranormal con­ itself is no objection to paranormal cern, which relates to the possibility claims. After all, many of today's of experience or existence transcend­ scientific orthodoxies were yester­ ing the temporal or spatial location of day's heresies. But, as Hume (1748) our bodies. Questions about "out-of- insisted, extraordinary claims demand body experiences," disembodied exist­ extraordinary evidence. And these are ence, , and the possibility extraordinary claims. of life after death, are instances of this

144 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 kind of concern. The possible existence of psi phe­ nomena and the implications of such "Parapsychological. . . phenomena have generated wide­ experiences are real enough; spread interest. Psi phenomena raise the possibility of alternative ways of what is in dispute is how they knowing and doing, which we can are best to be explained." characterize as alternative epistemol­ ogies and alternative . That is, we confront the possibility of divides into deviant ways of acquiring radically different ways of acquiring knowledge (deviant ) and knowledge about the world and rad­ deviant ways of doing something ically different ways of doing things. (deviant technologies). There are For example, an orthodox way of those—the "knowers," such as psy­ finding out about the world is to use chics, clairvoyants, psychometrists— observation and , that is, who claim to have special powers, or to conduct an empirical inquiry. The special techniques, for finding out is supposed to about the unknown, especially the provide us with exemplary procedures future. Techniques for precognition (which can be set out as a set of and prognostication are enormously methodological canons or principles) varied. Alternative technologies (the that tell us how to find out about the province of the "doers") include the world. But however we characterize panoply of perpetual-motion ma­ the scientific method (its proponents chines, healing techniques (homeop­ squabble about the details), the athy, ), energy polarizers, defenders of psi usually claim that the and the like. currently accepted methods of inquiry To make the discussion manage­ are too limited. able, I will consider only claims that Alternative technologies provide are testable. If someone, for example, alternative ways of doing things or of declares that God created the world achieving certain results. Medicine, in 4004 B.C., or that the Shroud of for example, uses immunization as a Turin was used to wrap the body of technique for disease prevention. That Christ, then we are presented with a is an orthodox medical technology. claim that can be critically assessed by Naturopathy and are relating the claim to a body of relevant alternative medical technologies. If factual evidence. If, however, it is they are effective, it is important that claimed that there is a benign force we know about them, as they can be that pervades the universe, this is too exploited to provide a cheap means of vague to be tested, and it therefore promoting health and reducing mor­ cannot be the subject of empirical bidity. If they are useless or positively inquiry. dangerous, again it is important that Finally, note that some paranormal we know about them, in order to avoid claims make more insistent demands them. It is therefore important to on our attention than others. Phre­ consider the sorts of principles or nology (the belief that personality and criteria that are relevant to determin­ dispositions are reflected in the con­ ing whether these alternatives make formation of the head) has been any compelling claims on our thoroughly discredited, although no attention. doubt it still attracts a few adherents. The field of paranormal claims thus But there are certainly disputed cases.

Winter 1994 145 Meditation, , hypnotism, there are four forces that govern how and telepathy, for example, are activ­ things interact—gravity, electromag- ities or phenomena whose credentials, netism, and the strong and weak many people believe, are unclear. nuclear forces. Are these four Whether or not the jury is still out enough? Does physical theory provide may itself be a matter of dispute. us with a complete description of There is a fuzzy, and shifting, boun­ reality? It also raises epistemological dary between epistemologically dis­ issues: Can our science-based reputable fields of inquiry methods of inquiry be accepted as (phrenology, say) and the most impec­ reliable methods for finding out cably respectable. everything we want or need to know about the world? If not, in what way The Challenge of Psi do they need to be supplemented? In particular, are there other reliable Paranormal claims are a perennial ways of knowing (precognition, clair­ source of fascination. They are of voyance, or whatever) that we need personal interest because many people to take account of but with which believe they have had some expe­ physics is unable to deal? Or maybe rience, such as an accurate premoni­ there are no physically inexplicable tion in a dream or a telepathic message phenomena; perhaps we need to from a loved one, that cannot be develop a better physical theory to satisfactorily explained in the terms take account of all the details of the that science-based understanding world we inhabit. provides. Our physical theories say These topics are important even if that the world is at bottom material, it turns out that all claims of para­ and we explain what happens in terms normal phenomena are completely of the recurrent patterns that consti­ mistaken. Ducasse (1954: 811) has tute the physical laws. Sometimes pointed out that, should this be the things are known, or happen, that case, it tells us something important cannot be accounted for in terms of about delusion and deception, and the the sort of physical interactions sanc­ proneness of human understanding to tioned by physics. Or so it seems. fall into error in a particular kind of This personal interest immediately way. leads us to the general interest of psi. If there is a dimension of experience The Structure of Paranormal Belief that cannot be accounted for with the help of our science-based understand­ While the belief structures that under­ ing, this surely shows that physics is lie paranormal claims often seem at best incomplete—things happen puzzling and bizarre, they typically that it is unable to explain. Or perhaps turn out to be misapplications of the the whole of our science-based under­ very same patterns of thought that standing is mistaken! Perhaps the have helped us to develop some of our principles that determine the way the best theories about the world. I have world works are quite different from suggested elsewhere that supersti­ what we take them to be. tious and delusory belief systems are This general problem—the possible often based on an erroneous belief limitations of our scientific world- that an important layer of underlying view—immediately raises metaphysi­ structure in the world has been cal issues about the sort of things that identified through the discovery of exist in the world. Physics tells us that some important new invariant prin-

146 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 ciple (Grey 1988). and make sense of our experience. Take a clear instance of a pseudo- One reason that astrology still has its science, say astrology. This is a devotees is that for some people it is delusory belief system, by which I like a London street map: it helps them mean a set of claims about why things to find their way through their happen as they do that turns out, on experiential jungle. And trying to inspection, to have no foundation. The disabuse them of its value may be as evidence against astrology is as con­ futile as an attempt by British Intel­ clusive as anyone could wish (see ligence to disabuse the Gurkha of the Carlson 1985; Bok and Jerome 1975), value of his map. The map could be yet it still has its adherents. Why? One given a simple pragmatic justification: reason is that there are some circum­ it worked! stances in which false beliefs can be Less creditable reasons for accept­ useful. ing defective maps are: (a) The stand­ The usefulness of false beliefs is ard maps are less interesting. (Hume illustrated in the following anecdote thought that this natural human told by John Masters (1956: 92) to propensity for credulous belief, which portray the peculiar character of the he called the "love of wonder," was Gurkhas he served with in India. The story tells of a Gurkha soldier who escaped from a Japanese prison in "However we characterize the South Burma and walked 600 miles alone through the jungles of occupied scientific method . . . the Burma to his base in India. It was a defenders of psi usually claim remarkable journey that took six months. Also remarkable was the fact that the currently accepted that the Gurkha never asked for methods of inquiry are directions along the way. He did not speak Burmese, and he did not trust too limited." the Burmese anyway. But he never needed to ask directions and never lost responsible for generating a great deal his way, because he had a map. He of error.) (b) The standard maps are carefully recorded in pencil on the map ideologically unsound. (Political or every river he crossed, every turn he religious preconception may incline took, and every path he followed. one to accept or reject a theory. Thus British intelligence was eager to get some people unwisely accept biblical the map and to know all about the testimony as a reliable authority about journey. However, the map that had the origins of the universe and served the Gurkha so well was a humankind.) (c) Any map is as good disappointment. It was a street map as any other map. (This sort of of London. extreme epistemic permissiveness This story reveals something of the appears to be based on the extraor­ character of the Gurkha. But it also dinary belief that theories do not need suggests something about structured to be circumscribed by evidential belief systems in general, and deviant constraints.) or delusory belief systems in partic­ Coming to appreciate the utility of ular. Such belief systems sometimes defective maps in particular circum­ play the same role in our thinking as stances requires understanding not the London street map did for the just the content of paranormal claims, Gurkha. They can help us to structure but also the structure of paranormal

Winter 1994 147 product of our ignorance, that they believe can be explained as a manifes­ "There is a fuzzy, and shifting, tation of some hidden underlying boundary between order (astrological, numerological, or whatever). Beneath the chaotic epistemologically disreputable appearances there is an underlying fields of inquiry . . . and the unity, a hidden order or deeper mean­ ing, that (they believe) some psychic most impeccably respectable." Rosetta Stone will uncover. Yet it is precisely the same assumption—faith belief. The powerful urge to accept in underlying order despite appearan­ what seem to be (and often are) ces to the contrary—that has moti­ outrageous empirical claims is not vated many of our most powerful always the result of some incompre­ theoretical . hensible perversity. It is actually a Astrology and other spurious belief pathological expression of the very same systems share with science a dis­ capacities that enable us to develop some taste for disorder, an urge to find a of our most important and profound hidden underlying connectedness insights about the world. linking disparate events. It is the Psychics and other "credulists" are same pattern-making assumption that typically engaged seriously (but mis- has enabled us to develop our subtle guidedly) in that most characteristic and profound understanding of the of human enterprises: the attempt to nature of our world. What, then, capture our chaotic and fragmentary distinguishes systematic inquiry in experiences in a network of meanings respectable disciplines (like physics) and to discover the hidden connected­ from claims of discredited fields ness that (we hope) underlies all the (like phrenology)? Spurious belief disorderly and recalcitrant happenings systems, unlike genuine science, in the world. As Stephen Hawking systematically insulate themselves (1988:13) has expressed it, "Ever since from criticism, and hence from pro­ the dawn of civilization, people have gress. For further explication and not been content to see events as defense of this proposal see Chalmers unconnected and inexplicable. They (1982). have craved an understanding of the Paranormal phenomena are usu­ underlying order in the world." Des­ ally at odds with the general run of pite the conspicuous difference in experience and typically conflict with approach, the belief structure of well-established laws of nature. The psychics has something in common violation of a law of nature is one with scientific worldviews. This is the definition of a miracle, and in Part 2 urge to discover (or, failing that, to of this article I will go on to examine invent) repetitive patterns that lie Hume's discussion of the miracu­ hidden beneath a veneer of disorder. lous. Although Hume's essay was Like the scientifically minded, credu­ written more than two centuries ago, lists are in pursuit of unifying invar­ it provides timely advice for evalu­ iant principles. ating psi and comparable anomalous A central article of faith that many claims. Indeed, Hume's principles are psychics hold in common is the belief helpful for any situation in which we that there are no real coincidences or have to decide what to believe when accidents. An accident or mishap is confronted with conflicting testi­ always a superficial appearance, a mony.

148 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 References Broadcasting Corporation. Hawking, Stephen. 1988. A Brief History of Bok, Bart J., and Lawrence E. Jerome. 1975. Time. London: Bantam Press. Objections to Astrology. Buffalo, N.Y.: Hume, David. 1748. "Of Miracles." In Prometheus Books. Enquiries Concerning Human Understand­ Broad, C. D. 1949. The relevance of psychical ing, 2nd ed., §10, ed. by L. A. Selby-Bigge, research to philosophy. Philosophy, pp. 108-131, Oxford: Clarendon Press. 24:291-309. Kurtz, Paul. 1978. Is parapsychology a Carlson, Shawn. 1985. A double-blind test science? SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3(2): 14-32. of astrology. Nature, 318: 419-425. Reprinted in Paranormal Borderlands of Chalmers, Alan. 1982. What Is This Thing Science, ed. by Kendrick Frazier (Buffalo, Called Science? 2nd rev. ed. Milton Keynes: N.Y.: Prometheus Books), pp. 5-23. Open University Press. Masters, John. 1956. Bugles and a Tiger. Ducasse, C. J. 1954. The philosophical London: Michael Joseph. importance of "psychic phenomena." Journal of Philosophy, 51: 810-823. Grey, W. L. 1988. "The Distaste for Dis­ William Grey is in the Department of order." In Ockham's Razor 2, ed. by Robyn Philosophy, University of New England, Williams, 127-132. : Australian Armidale, Australia.

Distinguishing the External and Internal Worlds

From the work of the Swiss psychologist Jean Piaget, we know that human beings have a fundamentally egocentric conception of the world. Growing up in modern society means learning to accept the existence of an external world separate from oneself. It is hard. Most of humankind, for most of its history, never learned to distinguish the internal world of thoughts and feelings from the external world of objects and events. Each individual was indivisibly connected to the natural and powers that govern the world. Cutting this connection, which is necessary before science can develop, goes against the grain of human nature. . . . Our is that the antecedents of science either permeate a culture or are absent altogether. This follows from the Piagetian view that concepts build in stages. A culture that eventually developed science must have included, in its prescientific era, a number of activities that taught the mind to differentiate between internal thought and external reality. A culture that never developed science won't contain such activities: indeed, all its activities will perpetuate the confusion of thought and reality.

—Alan Cromer, Uncommon Sense: The Heretical Nature of Science (Oxford University Press, 1993)

Winter 1994 149 " science books far outsell most books by reputable scientists.»

1 wrote the words above way back in 1981, in my 1 book Science: Good, Bad and Bogus. I think they are 1 still true. The book is a collection of essays, many of them culled from the pages of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. There I dealt with ESP, biorhythms, psychics, and dozens of other fringe-science phenomena. That was then. This is now. Hardly anyone takes biorhythms, , or the seriously anymore. I expect that this is at least partly because the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER and its parent, CSICOP, have been doing their work. Psychics? We have lots more to do there. But we need to work from a position of strength. That's where the comes in. The •V'UfflH Center, in Amherst, New York (a suburb of Buffalo, 60 miles from Rochester, 80 miles mil I ."M from Toronto, an hour by air from , five hours from California), will be able 9-mi to dedicate these fea- Martin Gardner, co-chairman of CSICOP's "Price of Reason" Campaign $3:96 million tures to the with the success of its "Price of Reason" Campaign: 1. The world's largest skeptics' library 2. Our own seminar, meeting, and conference rooms 3. Our own video and audio $3 million production center The new facility will be adja­ cent to the Amherst Campus of the State University of New York $2,518,000 Total raised in gifts, at Buffalo, the largest campus of pledges, trusts, and the country's largest state uni­ bequests in the Center tor Inquiry "Price of versity system. Reason" Campaign (a joint project of CSICOP Price: $3.96 million in donated and CODESH) as of November 1993. capital. I am proud to be co- chairman of this effort with . We have both given to it. But we can't accomplish our goals without your participation, too. Please use the postpaid re­ sponse card in this issue, and let us know how you would like to help out. Electromagnetic Field Cancer Scares

SID DEUTSCH

o electromagnetic fields cause cancer? Those who claim that they do cause D cancer seek a scientific explanation for the phenomenon. In this sense, it is not a para­ normal claim, but it is a "" claim and is therefore a valid subject for the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. A single example illustrates the importance of the subject (Fischetti 1993). In the United States, in 1993, 17,500 of us will develop brain cancer (according to the National Cancer Despite the Institute). About one out of 50 people use handheld cellular telephones. Statistically, media hype, no therefore, 350 of the people who use these study has telephones will develop brain cancer. It is reasonable to estimate that 10 of these tumors demonstrated a will occur on the side of the head near where cause-and-effect the telephone is held. link between On January 21, 1993, David Reynard of St. Petersburg, Florida, blamed his wife's use of a electromagnetic handheld cellular telephone for her death due fields and cancer. to brain cancer. The media, ever eager to protect hapless citizens, exposed this hitherto unknown cause of cancer. In a few days, cellular-phone stock prices dropped by 17 percent, and the Cellular Telecommunication Industry Associa­ tion has pledged to spend $15 million to $25 million in the next three to five years to study the issue. A great deal of research has been, and will be, done to determine safe limits of electromag­ netic energy. I was personally involved in a project some 30 years ago in which the eyes of anesthetized rabbits were held against the open end of a microwave waveguide. Not surprisingly, when the microwave energy was sufficient to cause a sustained temperature rise to abnormal levels, the eyes were damaged (Rosenthal 1976). This, incidentally, illustrates

152 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 one of the boundary conditions: If may seem as if 60 com­ incident energy induces an appreciable plete reversals in a temperature rise anywhere in the second is fast, but this body, it is potentially dangerous. This is actually extremely is, of course, the microwave-oven slow for an electro­ effect. Bear in mind, however, that a magnetic field. There 7°F fever is one of the body's normal are special problems defense mechanisms. here, so we will post­ It happens that it is a relatively pone consideration of simple procedure to calculate and the power-frequency measure temperature rise in tissue. If cancer scare until the it were only a matter of an artificial end of this discussion. fever, however, there would be no To begin with, one controversy. The problem is that the must separate electric David Reynards and their lawyers and field effects from mag­ many in the media maintain that netic field effects— cancer is somehow caused or aggra­ they are different. vated by electromagnetic energy that First, consider the is below the level of appreciable electric field: temperature rise. Fringe science The electric field is based upon resides in the word "somehow." voltage. We all know that a 1.5-volt To meet the electromagnetic field flashlight battery, or even a 12-volt challenge, the Institute of Electrical automobile battery, is harmless, but and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) called the 117-volt outlet is dangerous. (I was upon an interdisciplinary group of 125 once momentarily knocked uncon­ people—biomedical engineers, bio- scious when my forehead touched a physicists, and cancer researchers. 117-volt electrode while I was sitting After eight years of deliberation, they on a grounded pipe.) produced a safety standard known as At low frequencies, the IEEE limit C95.1-1991. is 600 volts/meter (600 V/m). (The To cause cancer, a DNA molecule actual figure is 614, but I am rounding anywhere in the body has to be off some of the values.) In other damaged to the extent that its cell and words, in air, across a distance of one its progeny grow uncontrollably (and centimeter it is safe to have a voltage the fails to recognize difference of 6 volts. But the body is and eliminate the mutation). Electro­ no stranger to electric fields—across magnetic fields can harm technicians, a typical excitable cell membrane, the who are constantly warned and field is 10,000,000 V/m! (Deutsch and trained to avoid injury when employed Deutsch 1993). This is the voltage that in a high-field environment. For the sustains the nervous system; students general public, however, the IEEE are always shocked to learn these facts C95.1 standard sets limits within of life. Ten million volts/meter is which electromagnetic fields are so probably sufficient to rip apart a DNA weak that there is negligible danger molecule, but the DNA is inside the of DNA damage. cell, a safe distance away from the cell The danger depends upon how fast membrane. the fields are changing; namely, the A 6-foot-tall person is 1.8 meters frequency. The power-station fre­ high, so the IEEE standard allows quency in the United States is, of 1,100 volts across 1.8 meters (caused course, 60 cycles/second (60 Hz). It by the field from an overhead wire.

Winter 1994 153 say). This has to be properly inter­ netic field, however, induce voltage in preted. It is the field before you walk the surrounding tissues that can result into it. Walk in with bare feet touching in dangerous currents. The higher the the ground, and the head-to-toe frequency, the greater the induced voltage becomes—zero! Your body is voltage. Above 0.1 MHz, the IEEE a relatively good conductor, but air is magnetic-field limit accordingly an insulator, so no current can flow becomes more stringent decreasing from the wire through the air and gradually until, at 100 MHz, it is only from head to toe (although your hair 0.07 ampere-turn/meter. The mag­ may stand up a bit). netic fields produced by Citizens Band The situation changes if the voltage and cordless telephone transmitters is alternating, because current can are, of course, below the IEEE limits then oscillate back and forth through at their respective frequencies. the body from head to toe, toe to head, What happens at very high fre­ and so forth, in synchronism with the quencies, such as at 100 MHz and electric field, even though no current above? Now the length of a wave is actually enters the body through the relatively small. It is best to think of air insulator. The IEEE limits are the electromagnetic field leaving the accordingly gradually lowered. At 30 antenna (which is also relatively small) million cycles/second (30 MHz) and as a beam, such as the beam of a above, the safe limit is 27 V/m. This flashlight. At these very high frequen­ is the limit for Citizens Band radio (30 cies, when the beam strikes your body, MHz) and cordless telephones (50 it is almost completely reflected in the MHz). The fields generated by these same way that a beam of light is devices are less than 27 V/m. reflected from a mirror. Above 100 MHz, it is more con­ The IEEE safe limit is now venient to deal with the combined expressed as the power density in the electric and magnetic fields. We will "beam." At 300 MHz, it is 2 watts/ look at this later on; for now, consider square meter (2 W/m2). It should be the low-frequency magnetic field: easy to visualize this power density: We are of course immersed in the You know how much heat is given off earth's magnetic field, and all of us by a 100-watt lamp. Now imagine that are acquainted with the small rectan­ this heat is evenly distributed over the gular parallelepiped magnets that hold front of your body, which has an area promissory notes against the refrig­ of around 0.5 square meter, say, so erator. The body, however, is almost that the density is 200 W/m2. Next, completely nonmagnetic. I (and many imagine that this slight warmth from others) routinely use an air trans­ the 100-watt lamp is diluted by a former to feed appreciable amounts of factor of 100; this gives us the IEEE magnetic energy across the skin, from limit of 2 W/m2. Finally, divide by an outside coil to a coil completely another factor of 10, say, to account implanted under the skin. Moving a for the signal reflected from the body, hand in and out of the coils has no to get an idea of the minuscule amount effect. of heat absorbed at 300 MHz. At low frequencies, the IEEE limit Another way of looking at the safe for magnetic-field testing is 160 level is this: 2 W/m2 is equal to 0.0002 ampere-turns/meter. (For example, watts/square centimeter or, after a one-meter-long 160-turn coil allowing for reflection, some 0.00002 wrapped around your leg, say, can W/cm2. This is far below the level at carry 1 ampere.) Changes in a mag­ which an appreciable temperature rise

154 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 can occur (or, we maintain, the level not go below 3,000 Hz. For 60 Hz, that can cause a DNA molecule to the IEEE advocates further research. mutate). Its United States Activities Board A further surprise awaits us: issues Entity Position Statements Reflection from the body improves as (EPSs). The EPS pertinent to the the frequency increases, so the safe present discussion states, in its intro­ limit increases. Above 300 MHz, the duction: "Although prior studies have IEEE power-density limit accordingly not indicated a health hazard in power increases gradually until, at 15,000 frequency electric and magnetic fields, MHz, it is 100 W/m2. Along the way there continues to be widespread we have cellular telephones at around public concern. This paper is intended 800 MHz (safe limit 5 W/m2); micro­ to identify research needs to provide wave ovens at 2,400 MHz (safe limit acceptable answers. It does not outside the oven is 16 W/m2); and police attempt to identify where that radars above 15,000 MHz (safe limit research will be conducted, nor how 100 W/m2). In all of these applications, it will be funded." This is followed by the energy entering the body is an analysis that includes research sug­ minuscule. gestions. Let us now consider the cancer In the meantime, since this appears scare at the power-station frequency to be an ongoing controversy, what of 60 Hz. People have been rightfully should be the commonsense position concerned about this for many years: of skeptical scientists? The IEEE low- We are exposed to 60-Hz fields from frequency magnetic-field limit of 160 overhead power lines, house wiring, ampere-turns/meter corresponds to a electric blankets, etc., and cancer is flux density of 200 microteslas (200 near the top of the list as a cause of uT). The earth's magnetic field has a death. Given our modern lifestyles, is strength of about 50 uT. Nobody has there a link between the 60-Hz fields suggested that the earth's field causes and cancer? To answer the question, cancer, and neither is it reasonable to we perform controlled experiments propose that a 200 uT field should be using cells and tissue grown in culture; viewed with suspicion. According to animal experiments; and epidemiolog­ the above-mentioned EPS, chronic ical surveys of people who live near exposure in the home is generally power lines. The result of a large below 1 uT; more intermittent, but amount of research money spent over not uncommon, exposure near trans­ many years is, alas, a shouting match mission lines rarely exceeds 10 uT. (I involving plaintiffs, defendants, and would add that the field of a refrig­ their lawyers (and even a few scien­ erator bar magnet can be far greater tists). We are exposed to so many than 200 uT). carcinogenic agents (natural radioac­ The IEEE low-frequency electric- tivity from radon and manmade field limit of 600 V/m outside the body pollutants from automobiles, to name is far below the level at which a DNA two) that it is impossible to prove that molecule inside the body will sustain John Smith's cancer was caused by damage. The EPS referred to above power-frequency fields. states that chronic exposure in the In our decade of need we turn to home is generally below 10 V/m; expo­ the IEEE, which, according to its sure near electric appliances or electric unabbreviated title, is responsible for transmission and distribution lines can effects accompanying power-station exceed 5,000 V/m on rare occasions, frequencies. The C95.1 standard does but these are intermittent occurrences.

Winter 1994 155 It remains to be seen if judges and Perspective. IEEE Press, Piscat- juries will respect the scientific evi­ away, N.J. dence represented by the IEEE C95.1- Fischetti, Mark. 1993. The Cellular Phone Scare. IEEE Spectrum, 30: 43-47, June. 1991 levels, or if they will bow to the IEEE C95.1-1991. "Safety Levels with emotional appeal of a dying cancer Respect to Human Exposure to Radio patient who held a cellular telephone Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz near the side of her head. The cost to 300 GHz," IEEE, 445 Hoes Lane, Piscataway, N.J. 08855-1331. to society of unnecessarily scaling back IEEE U.S. Activities Board Entity Position electric, magnetic, and power levels is Statement. 1991. "Research Needs in enormous, both for past and future Health Effects of Power Frequency equipment. An increase in the gasoline Electric and Magnetic Fields," IEEE, 1828 tax would accomplish much more by L St. N.W., Washington, DC 20036-5104. Rosenthal, Saul, et al. 1976. In Biological way of cancer prevention. We have to Effects of Electromagnetic Waves, 110-125, be engaged in a never-ending battle ed. by C. C. Johnson and M. L. Shore, to raise the technical sophistication of Dept. of Health, Education, and Welfare. those who are born into this techno­ logical world. Sid Deutsch is visiting professor of References electrical engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL 33620. He is a Deutsch, Sid, and Alice Deutsch. 1993. CS1COP Scientific and Technical Con­ Understanding the Nervous System: An sultant.

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156 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 The Attacks on Role-Playing Games

PAUL CARDWELL JR.

elevision productions, particularly made- for-TV movies, are a popular source of , T paranormal claims. These are especially troublesome when they claim to be documen­ taries, since the producers and networks frequently retreat behind a defense of "enter­ tainment" when challenged. One of the long­ time favorite subjects has been role-playing games—almost exclusively Dungeons & Drag­ ons, which is a trademark of TSR, Inc., but often it While diminishing misused as a generic term. These games are not only among the favorite in frequency, topics of TV movies. The Associated Press and attacks on role- United Press International, between 1979 and 1992, carried 111 stories mentioning role- playing games playing games. Almost all named only Dungeons are still popular & Dragons, even though there are several with the mass hundred such games on the market, and among their manufacturers are more than a dozen media. companies beyond the desktop publishing level. These articles contained 51,182 words in 2,197 paragraphs. These paragraphs were divided into four categories: those favorable to gaming, those unfavorable to gaming, those neutral (stating they existed, describing them accurately, but without value judgments, etc.), and those paragraphs not mentioning them at all, even by . Those in the last category were discarded. Based on the remaining paragraphs, each story was tabulated as having a majority of pro-game paragraphs, anti-game paragraphs, neutral paragraphs, or with no category having a majority. Of the 111 stories, 80 were anti- game, 19 had no majority, 9 were neutral, and only 3 were pro-game. Those three pro-game stories were all from UP1, which is a considerably smaller wire service than AP.

Winter 1994 157 good ones (pp. 20-21, 316). Also, since Egbert was a homosexual (p. 316), the "The collection of anti-game homophobia on campus in 1979 anecdotes has sometimes been undoubtedly was a contributing factor to the stress that caused him to vanish. called a 'modern / I am not comfortable relying only on a term coined by the folklorist Dear for all of this information, but since the Egbert family will not help, ]an Harold Brunvand. I must assume that either they are not Actually it is a collective interested in correcting the record or that Dear is essentially correct in his delusion." statements. Dear came onto campus and from Dungeons & Dragons was first fragmentary tales, second- and third- marketed in 1972 as a supplement to hand, or worse, he pieced together the the miniatures wargame system story that has become a cliche: Egbert, Chainmail. The D&D rules as a generally described as a "computer separate system were published in genius"—an exotic title at that time— 1974. The game grew rapidly from a was also involved in an even more very small base, doubling sales each exotic activity. He was playing the year primarily through word-of- "strange" game of Dungeons & Drag­ mouth advertising (Gygax 1989). This ons in the steam tunnels under the occurred mostly on college campuses, Michigan State campus (pp. 31-32), a which became its natural environ­ statement denied by Dear's publisher ment. During the late 1970s, several in the acknowledgments and on page other role-playing games entered the 13. In this story, Dear confused three market too. separate and unconnected things. The first attacks on role-playing First, almost every college has games (RPGs) came in August 1979, steam tunnels and steam-tunnel sto­ during the disappearance of Dallas ries. Yet access to these tunnels Egbert III from the Michigan State virtually always involves at the least University campus just before exams. the crime of breaking and entering. The campus police could not find him, MSU at that time was something of and since all evidence indicated that an exception in that access to the he left the campus voluntarily, their tunnel system could be gained jurisdiction was limited. Egbert's uncle through buildings under construc­ then hired private detective William tion—still trespassing, but a lesser Dear, and the nature of RPG changed crime (Flinn 1988). The tunnels are forever. cramped, hot, humid, and dirty. They Egbert was a troubled kid. In 1979, are hardly an easy way to get from according to Dear's book, The Dungeon one building to another, as many Master, he was a sophomore in college students believe. Indeed, even if one at 16, with a 180 IQ, socially retarded had the proper keys to make the trip, (Dear 1985: 20-21), an epileptic not one would look a mess upon arrival. quite under medical control (pp. 88- One can get scalded from valving 89), a drug addict (p. 163) who claimed steam, and getting lost is a distinct to make his own drugs (pp. 17, 22), possibility. It is a combination of the and under severe pressure from his forbidden territory and real danger mother to make perfect grades, even that makes this a modern urban though he had no difficulty making legend on campus.

158 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Second, RPGs are played sitting D&D with his fake broadsword. around a table and improvising adven­ Never mind that a steam tunnel is too ture tales (in a wide variety of genre, small a place to swing a fake broad­ although classic fantasy is the most sword, that D&D is played indoors, popular) within the constraints of a and that fake broadswords belong to set of rules. It is played with pencil, a wholly different context. This was paper, and an assortment of various- Dear's hypothesis and he promoted it sided dice, which serve as random- at numerous press conferences. number generators. The math field of There was another flaw in Dear's probability is a major factor in playing hypothesis. Neither Dear's crew nor these games. Everything is described, the campus police found any game and nothing is acted out. This is quite material in Egbert's room, even contrary to the common impression though he disappeared with only the generated by Dear and spread by clothes he was wearing. Nor could credulous mass media. they find anyone on campus who had Finally, there is the Society for ever played a game with him (Dear Creative Anachronism, which was 1985: 80). Egbert did subscribe to started in 1966 and recreates a fic­ Dragon, the official D&D magazine, tional sort of medieval life of fairy­ and had at least once registered at a tale legend. The members get some gaming convention sponsored by media attention for their jousts, but TSR, GenCon (Kask 1979: 2, 11); their equally exotic costumes, lute- although there is no real evidence he playing, juggling, and such, which actually played, it can be assumed he typify the popular concept of the late played at least some. Certainly he was medieval and early Renaissance, are not deeply involved in the game. largely ignored. Egbert eventually "found" himself Dear, putting parts of all of these about a month later—in Morgan City, folktales and campus rumors to­ Louisiana, claiming to be an oilfield gether, came up with the hypothesis roughneck (Dear 1985: 324). Since at that Egbert was lost in the steam 16 Egbert looked about 12, this does tunnels, where he had gone to play not ring true; but then very little else

Winter 1994 159 about the Egbert case does either. gates of their house (Pulling 1989: 4). While the reputation of RPG never The suicide mechanism, she claims, quite recovered from this media was a curse placed on Bink's game circus, things were a bit quieter for character during a school game. She about four years. TSR's sales did not claims that this curse compelled him double that year—they quadrupled to kill and that he heroically sacrificed (Gygax 1989: 13). TSR seemed to himself rather than carry out the think that this proved that bad pub­ curse. Classmates present at the time licity was good publicity, and it rarely of this supposed curse deny there was defends its game. Other industry any such event (Picton 1985). The watchers point out that at this time attackers consistently confuse player TSR entered into a distribution agree­ and character and try to make them ment with Random House, and this the same thing. just might have had some positive Pat Pulling then embarked on a effect on sales. decade of lectures attacking the game. Then came the second event that She has only recently abandoned this would permanently imbue RPGs with tactic. She sued the school for Bink's the same that haunts so many death, only to have the suit quashed of the subjects examined in this (Pulling v. Bracey, 1984). She teamed publication. Another 16-year-old up with the National Coalition on Television Violence (NCTV), essen­ tially a one-person organization "In the late eighties, there was headed by Illinois psychiatrist Thomas Radecki, and ultimately became a another change in emphasis. director at NCTV. Pulling also created The games now were said to her own organization, Bothered About Dungeons and Dragons cause murder." (B.A.D.D.). In January 1985, B.A.D.D. and super-genius, this one still with his NCTV jointly filed a petition with the own age-group, committed suicide. Federal Trade Commission demand­ This was Irving (Bink) Pulling II. He ing that warning labels be required on had actually played D&D as a part of the games, stating that they were the gifted/talented program at school. hazardous and could cause suicide. However, he was as troubled as The FTC forwarded the petition to the Egbert. A nominal Jew, he was appar­ Consumer Products Safety Commis­ ently a fan of Adolf Hitler (Bauerlein sion because the petition alleged an 1988). He got up one night and killed unsafe product rather than fraudulent 17 rabbits and a neighborhood cat for advertising. The CPSC finally decided no apparent reason. He was socially that there was not a close enough isolated, once failing to get even a pro- connection between the product and forma "campaign manager" to sign on the alleged danger to warrant such for him when he wanted to run for labeling. school office (Isakoff 1983). The list of "victims" submitted with Yet his mother, Patricia Pulling, this petition became the basis of described him as "a happy, well- ongoing compilation. The petition had adjusted kid" and blamed D&D when nine cases, one of which gave no name, he committed suicide with her pistol. date, place, or documenting citation. She also claims receiving ESP knowl­ Another was an accident, not a suicide edge of the event upon reaching the as stated. Three were children of

160 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 members of Pulling's B.A.D.D. group "modern urban legend," a term coined for whom Pulling's simplistic explana­ by the folklorist Jan Harold Brunvand. tion may have been a means of their Actually, it is a collective delusion. The avoiding facing the deaths of their modern urban legend is a traveling children. This is not a universal tale, in which the same story is set reaction. Three other cases were in various parts of the country and disputed by the parents of the victims, has "actually happened" to a friend of who claimed that the games had a friend, with only the names of the nothing to do with the deaths (AP people and places changing. A collec­ 1985; Grice 1985). tive delusion, on the other hand, is NCTV and seen to be a B.A.D.D. claim situation that is that 120 such "everywhere" cases implicate but "they" are role-playing keeping it a games; this fig­ secret. Thus the ure remained attacks on role- unchanged playing games from 1987 until are part of a Radecki upped it phenomenon to 128 in March that Brunvand 1993 (Gil Gross calls "satanic Show 1993). panic." During that time TSR. Inc. The attacks of stasis, they still added "cases" to the have gone through several stages. In list. They provide names, dates, the early 1980s, much was made of and/or places (rarely all three) in fewer gamers', particularly younger ones, than 25 of these. Of those few, one "casting hexes" on teachers and has never been found in any documen­ parents. Aside from assuming the tary account, and another was from in the games was not only real an item in a newspaper from a town but translatable into real life, there more than 250 miles from the alleged was another assumption: that the event, but no newspaper coverage game was teaching this real magic. could be found in the city in which Fortunately, I was actually able to it supposedly happened. In the few observe one of these cases in 1984. cases of citations, they are almost A junior high school let those students always in relatively obscure, small­ arriving early go to the lunchroom to town newspapers that, when they are escape the bad weather while waiting finally located, turn out to be based for school to start. Four students on statements from anti-game indi­ played D&D while waiting and as a viduals. The alleged dangers of playing result were verbally attacked and these games have been treated by ultimately denounced before the newspapers and TV talk shows as fact, school as "Satanists" by one of the as so often happens with claims of teachers. flying saucers, the Bermuda Triangle, Two of the students were active livestock mutilations, satanic sacri­ members of mainline Protestant fices, and all kinds of other horror denominations, one was a rather stories. nominal Roman Catholic, and the The collection of anti-game anec­ fourth was an extremely devout dotes has sometimes been called a member of a fundamentalist sect. He

Winter 1994 161 moved shortly after the episode and playing gaming requires imaginative attended a fundamentalist parochial solutions to complex problems. There­ high school that had no difficulty fore it attracts those who have some accepting role-playing games. degree of skill in doing just that. These An additional problem for the people can generally do the same in school was that the parents of one of real life and thus avoid using "a the students were both law- permanent solution to a temporary enforcement professionals. They problem," which suicide usually is. conducted an investigation of the Again, the game-bashers have their episode that totally verified the stu­ cause and effect reversed. dents' story. The teacher made an In the late eighties, there was insincere apology, and the school another change in emphasis. The principal promised it wouldn't happen games now were said to cause murder. again. However, the game is still Again some post hoc ergo propter hoc banned from the before-school free "case " were brought out, and time, and the teacher was given a again they were disproved on merit raise at the end of that year. examination. The kids found it more amusing The final change occurred around than traumatic. Mocking the credulity 1990. Building on the regular appear­ of the teacher, they would make weird ance on tabloid TV shows of multiple- gestures when they met him in the personality syndrome cases in which halls. This ridicule, I contend, is what persons claimed to have been the was really going on in the "hexing" victims of ritual satanic cult abuse, the stories. anti-game campaign came almost full With the FTC petition, the empha­ circle. Critics now claimed that RPG sis changed from magic to suicide. was the same as Satan worship. After all, magic is rather hard to prove, However, this time the anti- while suicides are a matter of public gamers went just a little too far into record. the spooky area for many followers There are more than 5,300 suicides outside the groups that provide the a year in the United States in the 15- foundation for the anti-game move­ to-24-year-old age group (National ment itself. It is true that they have Safety Council 1988), which in the had some success in "cult-awareness mid-1980s provided most of the seminars," which are closed to any gamers. The average age is climbing, dissenting viewpoints and are used to and the average age of the serious indoctrinate teachers, social workers, players may well be even higher. and police. But this initial anti-gamer Therefore, to have no connection success is slowly being countered by whatsoever, there would have had to gamer backlash and the beginning of have been at least 1,060 gamer sui­ skepticism in the general public. Even cides per year. Yet, in the whole time the mass media have been neglecting since 1979, there have been only 128 such charges of late. claimed game-related suicides, This skepticism is due to several murders, robberies, rapes, etc., com­ factors. First is common logic. With bined, and Radecki claims only one- so much evil in the world, obvious just quarter (64) are suicides (Gil Gross by turning on the TV news programs, Show 1993). The statistics are actually these games pale into insignificance. arguing that gaming prevents suicides Some 7.5 million play these games at rather than causing them. least once a month (Buettell 1990), Of course it does neither. Role- mostly in the U.S. and Canada, with

162 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 sizable numbers in Britain and Aus­ tralia, and smaller but quickly growing activity in Scandinavia (including the Baltic republics), France, New Zea­ land, and Brazil. While this is a small Intelligent. number in percentages, it means that most of the people these attacks are aimed at convincing—the upper- lower- to upper-middle-class white, religious suburbanites—personally know quite a few persons who play Thoughtful these games, and they notice the charges are definitely not true for these friends and acquaintances. Therefore, they tend to question the validity of the same charges against Curious. people they don't know. Second, in 1988, a couple of gamers who had been corresponding after meeting at a game convention decided it was time to organize in defense of gamers. This was the start of the Concerned. Committee for the Advancement of Role-Playing Games (CAR-PGa). What William Flatt and Pierre Savoie started has slowly grown since, although more in quality than in ... That's a good description numbers. After several years of of our readers and ... comparative silence, the Game Manu­ facturers Association is again taking a stand on the issue. ^% SKEPTICAL When CAR-PGa was first organ­ ized, it was assumed that at least some INQUIRER of the stories must be true, and that THE MAGAZINE OF SCIENCE AND REASON the group would find what the var­ iable was, change that, and make the games completely safe. After several years of searching the literature, it For incisive coverage became obvious that we were dealing and commentary. with a colossally successful "big lie," Unique insights supported by the mass media's ignor­ ing any opposing views. How the anti- and information. game groups gained such influence • over a generally anti-censorship mass A generation of knowledgeable, media is yet to be discovered and any demanding readers has found us such evidence would be greatly appre­ an indispensable resource. ciated. To be sure, horror stories sell papers and attract audiences, but controversy does so even more. Nevertheless, all controversy was kept

Winter 1994 163 out of the media; only the anti-game searches by CAR-PGa and the side was presented. university-based computer bulletin There was a final factor that board, UseNet. undermined the anti-game forces. Yet, since these books were pub­ During the first years of NCTV, lished, there have been two more cases Thomas Radecki claimed to be on the copying the Von Stein modus operandi faculty of the University of Illinois explicitly. In the first, the British (Champaign-Urbana) medical school. Columbia Huenemann/Leatherbar- When I checked the school, I found row case, a boy arranged for friends that he had never been on the faculty. to kill his mother and grandmother, Although at one time he had been both successfully, for a $3-million given the honorary "clinical faculty" inheritance (Mullins 1992). In the status—given to doctors who are second, the Koslow case in Texas, the accredited to practice at a teaching daughter arranged it for a $12-million hospital and not involving any faculty inheritance. The stepmother was duties, except for the answering of killed, and the father survived his occasional questions asked by medical injuries, but games were never men­ students—this was pulled in 1985 tioned (Crawford 1993). However, in (O'Morchoe 1988), long before he neither of these cases, were the two stopped claiming faculty status in "true crime" books investigated as a promoting NCTV. blueprint—but in the Von Stein case In March 1992, Radecki quit NCTV a nonexistent game scenario was and turned it over to a Beverly Hills blamed. colleague, Carole Lieberman. It is still too early to tell what effect The faltering campaign against these programs will have on public RPG was given a boost during the opinion. The original broadcast of 1992 "May sweeps" for TV audience Cruel Doubt was opposite a show ratings. On the first day of sweeps hyping flying-saucer abduction sto­ and again on May 17 and 19, two ries. One can assume that these heavily hyped TV movies were shown incredible beliefs will never die out, based on the murder of Leith Von but will live on in the minds of a Stein, in Washington, North Carolina, credulous minority, be tolerated by an in 1988. While the first was a turkey, apathetic majority, and to the rest of the second, Cruel Doubt, was better us sometimes be a source of perse­ acted, if just as hokey, and returned cution and always be a source of to network broadcast in August 1993, irritation. right after extensive play of the admittedly fictional Mazes and Mons­ References ters movie. Associated Press. 1985. Sons' deaths not tied In the Von Stein case, a boy to Dungeons & Dragons: mother. Sep­ arranged for two friends to kill his tember 18. parents. The stepfather was killed and Bauerlein, Chuck. 1988. "Bink": A victim of the mother survived. A $2-million the occult? Newport News Daily Press, April 10, G1. inheritance was barely mentioned, as Buettell, Jack. 1990. Adventure games are though it couldn't possibly have been on a roll. Toy Book, September, pp. 1-12. a motive. Both movies, and the books Crawford, Selwyn. 1993. 20-year-old found they were based on, had a "smoking guilty in Koslow beating death. Dallas gun," a game scenario describing the Morning News, 1A, 24A. Dear, William. 1985. The Dungeon Master. murder. The problem is that no such Boston: Houghton Mifflin; New York: scenario was found after exhaustive Ballantine.

164 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Flinn, R. T. 1988. Personal communication, pp. 2, 41. September 14. Flinn was in charge of Mullins, Anne. 1992. Murderers remain a physical faculties at Michigan State mystery: Shocked community stymied by University. Dungeons and Dragons style murders. Gil Gross Show. 1993. CBS Radio, March Vancouver Sun, June 5, Bl. 18. National Safety Council. 1988. Accident Facts. Grice, Royce. 1985. Personal communication O'Morchoe, Charles C. C. 1988. Personal to TSR, September 20. correspondence, August 5. Gygax, Gary. 1989. A funny thing happened Picton, John. 1985. Fantasy game linked to on the way to the boardroom. Familiar, murder, suicide. Toronto Star, March 3, Fall, p. 13. A8. September 14. Flinn was in charge of physical Pulling, Pat. 1989. Devil's Web. Lafayette, faculties at Michigan State University. La.: Hunting House. Gil Gross Show. 1993. CBS Radio, March Pulling v. Bracey. 1984. Hannover District 18. Court, Va., September 17. Grice, Royce. 1985. Personal communication to TSR, September 20. Gygax, Gary. 1989. A funny thing happened Paul Cardwell, jr., is Chair of the on the way to the boardroom. Familiar, Committee for the Advancement of Role- Fall, p. 13. Playing Games (CAR-PGa), an inter­ Isakoff, Michael. 1983. Parents sue school national network researching all aspects principal: Game cited in youth's suicide. Washington Post, August 13, 8A. of role-playing games. Its address is 111 Kask, Timothy. 1979. Dragon, October, E. 5th, Bonham, TX 75418.

Science Without Solemnity

. . . [Francis] Crick set the tone with a talk of the kind [in] which he specializes: not a wasted word. . . . The talk was deft, as deft as a double helix with the strands running in opposing directions. What was it like then? No rushing to the lab. No secretaries, but no mail to speak of either. No traveling except perhaps to Paris. No trans-Atlantic telephone. Hardly any literature to read. And no keys to the lab at night (so that people had to climb the railings if they wanted to work then). Much was done in pubs. . . . Crick's purpose—but he is too much a gentleman to have declared it—may have been dangerously nostalgic: to demonstrate by example that it is possible to do good science without being solemn, even that science can be good fun. He laughed a lot, mostly at himself.

—John Maddox, in "Watson, Crick, and the Future of DNA," writing about the fortieth anniversary celebration of the discovery of the structure of DNA, in Nature, March 11, 1993.

Winter 1994 165 Global Fortune-Telling And Bible Prophecy

TERRY TREMAINE

e are accustomed to think of fortune- telling as directed toward individuals. W Astrology, Tarot cards, , and crystal-gazing are well-known examples. When is applied to a larger group, such as a community, a nation, or the world, we are inclined to refer to it as prophecy. Examples include the more general predictions of psychics, astrologers, and futurists inclined to paranormal methods, as well as the prophecies of Nostra­ Prophecies of damus and the Bible. Many people believe in apocalyptic divine apocalyptic intervention as a remedy for the world's doom or of the problems. Most, if not all, fundamentalist and evangelical Christian sects hold such beliefs. (I Second Coming would include in the fundamentalist camp are a time- anyone who holds to the belief that the Bible is supernaturally inspired and inerrant.) Fur­ honored form of thermore, religious sects whose teachings are global fortune- often shaped by their views on Biblical prophecy telling. What are proliferating in various parts of the world. The Branch Davidian cult in Waco, Texas, happens when is a tragic example. It appears that members of you bring a this group regarded themselves as representives of the "kingdom of God" on earth, with David scientific attitude Koresh as their messiah. They apparently saw to bear upon themselves as representing a new world in opposition to the existing world order. The them? results of their confrontation with the existing power structure are now well known. They based their outlook on prophecies in the Bible, particularly the Book of Revelation. Their activities and beliefs are but one aspect of a more general phenomenon that requires, for philo­ sophical as well as practical reasons, bringing a scientific attitude to bear on this issue. Prophecies generally fall into one of two cate­ gories: precise and capable of falsification (i.e.

166 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 stated in such a way that it is capable dealt with the possibility that Jesus of being proved false if it is false, a was not the source of the prophetic key element of a scientific statement) sayings attributed to him concerning or general and not falsifiable. The the end of the age. Such books as The boundary between these two classes Historical Jesus, by J. D. Crossan, and is blurred, sometimes because of the The Lost Gospel: The Book of Q and imprecision of human language and Christian Origins, by Burton Mack, sometimes for less legitimate reasons. both present this view. Fundamental­ Examples of prophecies that are ists want nothing to do with historical precise and capable of falsification criticism, however, especially if it might include items from the tabloids presents evidence that the Gospels in which psychics give their predic­ were the product of human contri­ tions for the coming year (see SI, vance and invention. Spring 1993, p. 256, for the latest In the past few decades, there has report on their dismal results). If a been a flood of books concerning the psychic predicted last year that the events allegedly preceding the Second Queen of England would abdicate the Coming of Jesus. These books contend throne in 1993, this would be a good that events we read about in the example of a falsifiable prophecy. If newspaper and see on television are a psychic had predicted in 1985 that in fact fulfillments of biblical pro­ the Soviet Union would cease to exist phecy. It never seems to occur to these within ten years, this would be writers that the principal character another. If, however, a psychic pre­ involved in the Second Coming was dicted that invisible aliens would land himself wrong concerning its timing on the opposite side of the moon this if not its occurrence (if in fact Jesus year, it would be difficult to confirm was the source of those predictions or refute. as fundamentalists themselves be­ In the Bible we find a prophecy of lieve). The tendency in these books is the precise and falsifiable sort, where either to ignore the prophecy of Jesus Jesus predicts that his return (the so- (which is extremely ironic in itself) or called Second Coming) would occur to distort its meaning, for example, within the lifetime of at least some to imply that the reference is to the of his contemporaries. The conditions generation now alive that would not for its fulfillment were stated clearly: pass away before his return. This is that his return would be seen and the tactic adopted by Hal Lindsay, acknowledged by the whole world and whose books have enjoyed tremen­ that it would happen before that dous popularity. generation passed away (Mark 13:14- This raises the matter of the 30). This clearly did not happen and blurred boundary between prophecies must count as a precise prophecy that that are precise and falsifiable and was falsified by the passage of time. those that are not. Sometimes this This fact has been well known since blurriness is due to the natural ancient times (2 Peter 3:3-4) and has imperfections of human language and been voiced by T. H. Huxley (Huxley the fact that words can have shades 1989), (Russell of meaning, perhaps even entirely 1927), and other thinkers, for whom different meanings in different con­ it was a reason to remain unbelieving, texts. Other times it is due to the and by the biblical scholar Albert deliberate activity of those with a Schweitzer (Schweitzer 1906). vested interest in seeing that a proph­ Modern historical criticism has ecy not be falsified. For example, they

Winter 1994 167 change the meaning of words and 1977, p. 40) he stated: "I don't know phrases to accommodate the facts that how long a biblical generation is. Per­ run contrary to the original prophecy. haps somewhere between sixty and In other words, they cheat. eighty years." If we grant that a more This tendency to alter clear mean­ accommodating figure, like 80 years, ings within the Bible to preserve its is the length of a generation, then he prophecies from falsification ought to would still have until 2028 for his remind us of pseudoscientists who rig forecast to be realized. Let's be even the game so that cherished (or perhaps more daring. Medical science might profitable) beliefs can never be dis­ bring in practical immortality by then, proved. When evidence comes to light and this generation might be around contrary to their "theories," pseudo- a long time. In such a case Lindsay scientists are able to show that their might never be proved wrong, a verit­ theories can accommodate that evi­ able paradise for a pseudoscientist. dence. They are always able to rein­ Some sects avoid the problem by terpret their theories to make them simply stating that the Second Com­ accommodate any new facts. ing has occurred and their leader is In the mid-nineteenth century, a in fact Jesus Christ. This apparently man by the name of William Miller, was the ploy used by the Branch influenced by a solar eclipse in 1780 Davidian sect in Waco and it has been and a shower of meteors in 1833, came used throughout history. There were to believe that Jesus' return must be individuals claiming to be Jesus Christ near. As a result of his research into subsequent to the destruction of the the Book of Daniel, he set the time Jewish temple by the Romans in AD. for the Second Coming as the spring 70 (Mark 13:6 and Crossan 1991). of 1844. The anticipated event did not In 1992, there were predictions occur. Miller and his followers con­ that Jesus would return in the autumn cluded that they were wrong in their (see "Where's the Rapture?" SI, calculation and then contrived the Summer 1993, p. 367). This year new date to be October 1844. Again (1993) there are predictions by the it was a no-show. This time, however, well-known preacher Harold Camp­ in spite of the disappointment, Miller ing (who appeared on CNN's "Larry and the inner core of his followers King Live," March 8, 1993) that the concluded that they were only par­ great day will be in 1994. He has also tially mistaken. Although Christ had written a book defending this view­ not returned to earth, he had returned point (Camping 1993). He thinks that to an invisible heavenly sanctuary. His October is a likely month for the coming to earth then became immi­ Second Coming and the end of the age. nent (Jordan 1988). We need not hold our breath. If the More recently, Hal Lindsay (1970) fundamentalists are right that the said that Jesus would return before Bible is inerrant, then it accurately this generation passes away. He records the words of Jesus. In such originally expressed the view that a a case, Jesus would be the source of biblical generation is actually 40 years a prediction that turned out to be and the clock began ticking the day wrong. Since Jesus was wrong, he Israel became a nation. The year 1988 could not have the divine authority has come and gone with Lindsay the fundamentalists claim for him. So, caught in his error. Fortunately, he if the fundamentalists are right, then anticipated this. In an interview pub­ they are wrong. Therefore they are lished in Christianity Today (April 15, wrong.

168 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 References of Q and Christian Origins. San Francisco: Harper. Camping, H. 1992. 1994? New York: Russell, B. 1927. Why 1 Am Not a Christian. Vantage. London: Watts. Crossan, J. D. 1991. The Historical Jesus. San Schweitzer, A. 1906. The Quest of the Francisco: Harper. Historical Jesus. Reprinted in 1968 by Huxley, T. H. 1889. "Agnositicism: A Macmillan, New York. Rejoinder." Reprinted in Lectures and Essays, Watts, London, 1931. Jordan, A. D. 1988. The Seventh-day Advenl- Terry Tremaine (3280 Robinson St., ists: A History. New York: Hippocrene Regina, Saskatchewan S4S 1V7, Can­ Books. ada) was educated in mathematics and Lindsay, H. 1970. The Late Great Planet Earth Grand Rapids, Mich.: Zondervan. philosophy and is a mathematics teacher Mack, B. L. 1993. The Lost Gospel: The Book and software consultant.

Tool-Driven Scientific Revolutions

Scientific revolutions are more often driven by new tools than by new concepts. in his famous book, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, talked almost exclusively about concepts and hardly at all about tools. His idea of a is based on a single example, the revolution in the theoretical physics that occurred in the 1920s with the advent of quantum mechanics. This was a prime example of a concept- driven revolution. Kuhn's book was so brilliantly written that it became an instant classic. It misled a whole generation of students and historians of science into believing that all scientific revolutions are concept-driven. The concept-driven revolutions are the ones that attract the most attention and have the greatest impact on the public awareness of science, but in fact they are comparatively rare. In the last five hundred years we have had six major concept-driven revolutions, associated with the names of Copernicus, Newton, Darwin, Maxwell, Einstein and Freud, besides the quantum-mechanical revolution that Kuhn took as his model. During the same period there have been about 20 tool-driven revolutions, not so impressive to the general public but of equal importance to the progress of science. I will not attempt to make a complete list of tool-driven revolutions. Two prime examples are the Galilean revolution resulting from the use of the telescope in astronomy, and the Crick-Watson revolution resulting from the use of X-ray diffraction to determine the structure of big molecules in biology. The effect of a concept-driven revolution is to explain old things in new ways. The effect of a tool-driven revolution is to discover new things that have to be explained.

—Freeman Dyson, "George Green and Physics," Physics World, August 1993

Winter 1994 169 A Chernikov Pattern Puzzle

CLIFFORD A. PICKOVER

^^\emole viewing generally refers to the I •^f alleged ability of some individuals to observe, through paranormal means, an object or drawing hidden from view. The following describes an experiment I carried out to test the ability of words to describe a graphic diagram. My goal had nothing to do with remote viewing, but I was fascinated by the degree to which initial results could have been improperly construed as evidence for remote-viewing ability. The exercise can easily Experiments in be carried out by teachers in college and secondary school settings. drawing hidden Limiting myself to 75 words, I asked people figures might lead who had never seen this particular design to some wrongly to draw the target picture in Figure 1 from the following description: believe in "remote viewing." Try this experiment yourself.

FIGURE 1. The Chernikov target picture, described using 75 words.

170 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 There are four quarter-sized circles uncanny resemblance was that among arranged so they touch. They are hundreds of responses I was very on top of one larger circle with a likely to get a few that were close to thick edge, and cover the circle the original target! This became slightly. Inside each of the four apparent as additional guesses were circles is a black dot which touches sent to me. This exercise demon­ the edge of each of the circles. The four circles also contain six circles strates that researchers should be inside them. The six circles get careful not to be misled when initial smaller and smaller, but all of their results appear startling—and they edges touch the black dot. obviously should not stop an exper­ iment prematurely, before a large I called the target diagram a "Cher- sample is taken. nikov pattern," after the Russian I include some of the many draw­ mathematician/artist who has cata­ ings I received to show the range of logued hundreds of simple geometri­ results (Figures 3a and 3b). I reduced cal designs. In my description I limited the respondents' original diagrams by myself to nonmathematical terms. a uniform amount. Each diagram The survey was conducted using the represents a different respondent's electronic computer mail network. attempt to draw the target according Participants included scientists, pro­ to my description. grammers, and administrators. This Chernikov-target experiment Although the short, ambiguous provides an infinite number of pos­ description should not have been sible future experiments. Here are just sufficient for anyone to accurately a few ideas, and I would be interested reproduce the Chernikov pattern, in hearing from any readers who have many colleagues were amazed to see conducted the following tests with the the first design (Figure 2) sent to me, Chernikov figure. by Robert Guth of San Jose, Califor­ 1. How would different people nia. It came incredibly close to the describe, using no more than 75 target image. One colleague even said, words, the Chernikov target figure in "It looks like ESP." Figure 1? Perhaps some readers could much more accurate des­ criptions that would improve the respondents' diagrams. 2. Create a catalogue of figures using different numbers of words to describe the target figure. For exam­ ple, what would pictures look like if only a 50-word description were allowed? What would respondents' pictures look like if only 25 words were allowed? What would pictures look like if 500 words were allowed? 3. Conduct an experiment where you take the worst representation FIGURE 2. Robert Guth's drawing of the target. (that is, the picture most different from the target), and use this as a new However, as I started to compile target for another experiment. Con­ a collection of figures, it became clear tinue to propagate the error until the that a better explanation for the first target bears no resemblance to

Winter 1994 171 FIGURE 3. A variety of drawings of the target from many different individuals. the new images. How many genera­ Unexpected (St. Martin's Press, 1992) tions of selecting the least accurate and several other books on the creative representation would this require? and artistic use of computers. He is currently a research staff member at the Clifford A. Pickover is author of Mazes IBM Watson Research Center, Yorktown for the Mind: Computers and the Heights, NY 10598.

172 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Book Reviews T-Z&TJ*. '

Constructive Skepticism and Everyday Life

The New Skepticism: Inquiry and Reliable Knowledge. By Paul Kurtz. Prometheus Books, Buffalo, N.Y. 1992. 371 pp. Hardcover, $24.95.

JOHN M.NOVAK

t a time when a tabloid headline judgments. The cumulative nature of proudly announces "Hillary these parts comes together in a cogent AI Clinton Adopts an Alien Baby" plea for, and description of, "euprax- while also providing an official pho­ ophy," Kurtz's recently coined term tograph, and when a cultish control for development of the wisdom of of lives results in the fiery immolation good practice. Good practice is what of scores in Waco, and when more and life is about and is key in understand­ more people find it too easy or, ing the logic and necessity of his new ironically, too difficult to believe skepticism. Good practice also pro­ anything, there is an urgent need to vides a vantage point for extending reassert the necessity to live life Kurtz's thoughts on a life worth living affirmatively, guided by a sensitive, well. critical intelligence. But where are we The New Skepticism demonstrates to turn for such a perspective? that one should not use skepticism in According to Paul Kurtz, a recon­ one field only, such as the paranormal, structed skepticism provides the but that it should be applied, where attitudinal and methodological ful­ possible, to all fields of inquiry. crum to lift us out of our existential To get to the heart of the matter, knowledge crisis. But what is this Kurtz says skepticism can be pru­ "reconstructed skepticism" and what dently used "as an essential method­ is new and constructive about it? ological rule enabling us to examine According to Kurtz, the new skep­ critically all claims to knowledge and ticism is about inquiry and reliable affirmations of value" (p. 9). It is sine knowledge, two vital areas of life that qua non for the types of grounded, have been decimated by dogmatisms objective inquiry that have enabled us and older skepticisms. His four-part to make improvements in scientific, book constructs a positive perspective technological, and everyday life. on the possibilities of such a skepti­ Certainly without the judicious use cism; connects it with inquiry and of a focused, methodological, and ; applies it to the paranor­ situation-specific skepticism we would mal, religion, and fantasy; and shows have been held hostage by supersti­ how it is vital to ethical and political tion and authoritarianism. However,

Winter 1994 173 skepticism has gotten a bad rap, cisms allow irrational to take philosophically and practically, be­ hold. For if we cannot really know cause it has become associated with anything, it does not matter what we a negative or neutral attitude toward believe. Beliefs thus become fantasies vital life issues. This, according to rather than guides to effective action. Kurtz, did not, and does not, have to In the second part of the book be. Thus in the first part of the book Kurtz provides a deeper analysis of he puts his new view of skepticism inquiry and objectivity. The key to this into perspective by contrasting it with endeavor is his attempt to move us nihilism and mitigated skepticism. The beyond the egocentric predicament, former is a complete rejection or the notion that we are encapsulated neutrality regarding all claims to in our world of private experiences knowledge; the latter tells us to act and thus never really in touch with as if we had knowledge about the reality. According to Kurtz, the exigencies of life while still retaining egocentric perspective has psycholo­ the deep-seated belief that this pre­ gized knowledge, has reduced the tense would be easily seen through if world to subjectivity, and is an errone­ it were ever seriously examined. ous and dangerous intellectual and According to Kurtz, we would do practical cul de sac. In its place he better if we grounded our skepticism, offers us the notion of an "act-centric" as the scientist has, in the wisdom we perspective. Rather than viewing have gained in dealing with the knowledge as passive appearances to problems of practical life. For in our an alienated ego, he sees it as the practical life, in actual situations, we hypothetical and tested response of an do not doubt whether a real world active agent trying to act intelligently exists, or that an action may be in real situations. Instead of using as necessary on our part, or that some a guide some absolute notion of ways of conducting ourselves are religious faith, tradition, intuition, better than others. In our practical life deduction, or induction, Kurtz sug­ we have learned to use skepticism in gests that we use "co-duction," the a limited and focused way to better judicious mingling of evidence from deal with real problems; in our prac­ a variety of perspectives so we can get tical life we have learned to suspend a more adequate handle on real events judgments, question assumptions, and problematic issues. Thus know­ seek evidence, look for counter­ ing, from this perspective, is an active examples, attempt to reason accu­ affair between knower and the known rately, and form warranted assertions; and ideally involves "true beliefs in our practical life we have learned intersubjectively corroborated by the value of free and open inquiry. reference to objective factors ob­ served, examined, and tested" (p. 94). The extreme skepticisms of the nihilist and mitigated skeptic in their Kurtz next applies his criteria for classical, modern, and postmodern active, evidential, and reasonable variations are counterproductive to knowledge to the paranormal, reli­ effective and progressive functioning gion, and fantasy. All three come up in the world. They negate the gains short. Upon examination, there is no we have made constructing reliable justified reason for believing in rein­ knowledge and defensible values carnation or ; the super­ through our wise and sustained natural object of religious belief is encounters with real events. Worse either unintelligible or indefensible; yet, nihilistic and mitigated skepti­ and the disposition to seek comforting

174 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 beliefs runs deep but is fundamentally likely to emerge" (p. 325). Democracy misguided. A sensitive critical intelli­ honors the rights of individuals and gence based on self-correcting inquiry, builds on the necessity to use our although not always easy to develop social intelligence to work through our and sustain, is still our best guide to common concerns. It too is not easy, a sound and satisfying life. This but what is the alternative? enables us to critically examine knowl­ Thus Kurtz has presented a strong edge and value claims, and to better and systematic case for a new skep­ seek and extend the goods of life. ticism, one that strengthens our The last section of the book applies resolve and invites us to use our skeptical inquiry to the judgments of intelligence to live well. He builds on ethical, political, and daily practice. In his previous works and again brings the realm of ethics, Kurtz argues the intellectual high ground of phi­ against ethical nihilism and mitigated losophy down to earth. In addition, ethical skepticism. It is possible, he he also goes to the barricades and claims, to make positive knowledge deals with issues other, like-minded assertions about matters of value. thinkers ignore or attempt to wish Ethical inquiry can lead to the common away. As a public intellectual he moral decencies, that is, "prima facie presents a eupraxophy that is compell­ rules that in general apply to all ing and passionate. He says much, says civilized societies" (p. 291). These it well, and models what he argues for. rules, according to Kurtz, are trans- Dogmatists and true believers of a cultural and apply to any group that variety of stripes are taken on— is to be judged "civilized." The task theists, atheists, New Agers, Marx­ for individuals is to be able to use these ists, libertarians, laissez-faire capital­ rules as hypothetical plans for action ists—and castigated for their as they attempt to satisfy their needs unwillingness to examine their in a pluralistic and changing world. assumptions or methods of thinking Again no easy task, but one that is and acting. Fighting his proclivity for aided by a healthy unbelief and a Promethean proclamations for the sensitive and imaginative intelligence. most part, he demonstrates an This of necessity also applies to the engaged sensitivity and critical per­ political realm, where again we have spective that seeks to get to the heart to fight against nihilism and mitigated of vital existential issues and offers skepticism, which can lead to various nondogmatic, constructive ways of forms of fanaticism, alienation, or moving forward. Quite simply, he apathy. gives us a way to answer the absurdist, the fanatic, the true believer, the total The manifestation of the new skeptic, and the escapist. We have in skepticism in political processes is a succinct and cogent form arguments democracy. Democracy, for Kurtz, is against epistemological egocentrism, justified on methodological grounds; ethical nihilism, and political fanati­ it is a social method of publicly open cism. This is an important intellectual and self-correcting inquiry. According and practical contribution. What more to Kurtz, "It is tested experimentally. could we want? In the long run those societies that are open will tend to have less duplicity However, a book should be judged and cruelty and there is less likelihood not only on what it says but also on that injustice will remain hidden. In what it leaves out. In the case of The opening the public square to debate, New Skepticism what is left out is an new discoveries and new ideas are (continued on p. 179)

Winter 1994 175 Fill in the gaps in your SKEPTICAL INQUIRER collection 15% discount on orders of $100 or more ($6.25 for each copy. To order use reply card insert.)

FALL 1993 (vol. 18, no. 1): 'Perspectives on education SPRING 1992 (vol. 16, no. 3): Special Report: The in America': Sandia study challenges misconceptions, Maharishi caper: JAMA hoodwinked, Skolnick. Myths of Frazier. Do 'honesty' tests really measure honesty? subliminal persuasion: The cargo-cult science of sublim­ Lilienfeld. Astrology strikes back—but to what effect? Dean. inal persuasion, Pratkanis; Subliminal perception: Facts and Diagnoses of alien kidnappings that result from , Moore; Subliminal tapes, Phelps and Exum. The Avro conjunction effects in memory, Dawes and Mulford. VZ-9 'flying saucer/ Blake. Two 19th-century skeptics: Mathematical magic for skeptics, Benjamin and Shermer. The Augustus de Morgan and John Fiske, Rothman. blind girl who saw the flash of the first nuclear weapon WINTER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 2): On being sued: The chilliing test, Sinclair. Science: The feminists' scapegoat? Walker. of freedom of expression, Kurtz. The crop-circle phenom­ Weird water, or H2Oh! Gardner, enon, Nickell and Fischer. Update on the 'Mars effect/ Ertel. SUMMER 1993 (vol. 17, no. 4): The right hemisphere: A dissenting note on Ertel's 'Update/ Kurtz. Magic An esoteric closet? Saravi. Improving science teaching: The Melanin: Spreading scientific illiteracy among minorities, textbook problem, Padian. The eyewitness: Imperfect Part 2, de Montellano. Adventures in science and cyclosophy, interface between stimuli and story, Reich. Pathological de Jager. Searching for security in the mystical. Grimmer. science: An update, Cromer. Jack Horkheimer, "Star FALL 1991 (vol. 16, no. 1): Near-death experiences, Hustler," interview by Gabriel Seabrook. The false memory Blackmore. Multicultural pseudoscience: Spreading scien­ syndrome, Gardner. tific illiteracy, Part 1, de Montellano. Science and common- SPRING 1993 (vol. 17, no. 3): Anguished silence and sense skepticism, Aach. Spook Hill, Wilder. and helping hands: Autism and Facilitated Communication, Alexander, Rowe. 1991 CSICOP conference, Shore and Mulik, Jacobson, and Kobe. Faciliated Communication, Frazier. Autism, and , Dillon. Treading on the edge: Practicing SUMMER 1991 (vol. 15, no. 4): Lucid dreams, Blackmore. safe science with SETI, Tarter. Education for science, Gore. Nature faking in the humanities, Gallo. Carrying the war A threat to science, Schatzman. Charles Honorton's legacy into the never-never land of psi: Part 2, Gill. Coincidences, to parapsychology, Blackmore. 1993 CSICOP Conference Paulos. Locating invisible buildings, Plummer. True proceedings. believers. Bower. WINTER 1993 (vol. 17, no. 2): Special report: 3.7 million SPRING 1991 (vol. 15, no. 3): Special report: Hi-fi Americans kidnapped by aliens? Stires and Klass. Psychics: pseudoscience, Davis. Searching for extraterrestrial Do police departments really use them? Sweat and Durm. intelligence: An interview with Thomas R. McDonough. Psychic detectives: A critical examination, Walter Rowe. Getting smart about getting smarts, Faulkes. Carrying the , Bullough and Bullough. Improving war into the never-never land of psi: Part 1, Gill. Satanic science teaching in the U.S., Marek and Wayne Rowe. The cult 'survivor' stories, Victor. 'Old-solved mysteries': The Big Sur 'UFO/ George. The strange case of the New Haven Kecksburg incident, Young. Penn & Teller, the magical oysters, Quincey. iconoclasts, Gordon. Magic, medicine, and metaphysics in FALL 1992 (vol. 17, no. 1): A celebration of : Nigeria, Roder. What's wrong with science education? A man for the universe, Kendrick Frazier, Arthur C. Clarke, Look at the family. Eve. Frederik Pohl, Harlan Ellison, L Sprague de Camp, Carl Sagan,WINTE R 1991 (vol. 15, no. 2): Special report / Gallup Stephen jay Gould, Martin Gardner, Paul Kurtz, Donald Goldsmith,poll : Belief in paranormal phenomena, Gallup and Newport. , and E. C. Krupp. Gaia without mysticism. Science and self-government, Piel. West Bank collective Shannon. Gaia's scientific coming of age, Frazier. The curse hysteria episode, Stewart. Acceptance of personality test of the runestone: Deathless hoaxes, Whittaker. Night results, Thiriart. Belief in astrology: A test of the Barnum terrors, sleep paralysis, and devil-stricken telephone cords effect, French, Fowler, McCarthy, and Peers. A test of from hell, Huston. Scientific : The social agenda clairvoyance using signal-detection, McKelvie and Gagne. of a pseudoscience. Shore. Observing stars in the daytime: Intercessory prayer as medical treatment? Wittmer and The chimney myth, Sanderson. Does an ancient Jewish Zimmerman. amulet commemorate the conjunction of 2 B.C.? Rubincam. FALL 1990 (vol. 15, no. 1): Neural Organization SUMMER 1992 (vol. 16, no. 4): Freedom of scientific Technique: Treatment or torture, Worrall. The spooks inquiry under siege, Kurtz. Psychic experiences: Psychic of quantum mechanics, Stenger. Science and Sir William illusions, Blackmore. The scientist's skepticism, Bunge. The Crookes, Hoffmaster. The 'N' machine, Cumming. Biological persistent popularity of the paranormal, Lett. Self-help cycles and rhythms vs. biorhythms, Wheeler. 1990 CSICOP books: Pseudoscience in the guise of science? Gambrill. Conference. lights in Texas, Lindee. SUMMER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 4): make news: How (continued on next page) four newspapers report psychic phenomena, Klare. Budd Hopkins). The MJ-12 Papers: Part 2, Klass. Dooms­ Thinking critically and creatively. Wade and Tavris. Police day: The May 2000 prediction, Meeus. My visit to the pursuit of satanic crime. Part 2, Hicks. Order out of chaos Nevada Clinic, Barrett. Morphic resonance in silicon chips, in survival research, Berger. Piltdown, , and the Varela and Letelier. Abigail's anomalous apparition, Durm. paranormal, Feder. Auras: Searching for the light, Loftin. The riddle of the Colorado ghost lights. Bunch and White. Biorhythms and the timing of death, Lester. WINTER 1987-88 (vol. 12, no. 2): The MJ-12 papers: Part SPRING 1990 (vol. 14, no. 3): Why we need to understand I, Philip J. Klass. The aliens among us: Hypnotic regression science, Sagan. The crisis in pre-college science and math revisited. Baker. The brain and consciousness: Implications education, Seaborg. Police pursuit of satanic crime. Part for psi, Beyerstein. Past-life hypnotic regression, Spanos. 1, Hicks. The spread of satanic-cult rumors, Victor. Fantasizing under hypnosis, Reveen. The verdict on Lying about tests, Shneour. Worldwide disasters creationism, Gould. and moon phase, Kelly, Saklofske, and Culver. FALL 1987 (vol. 12, no. 1): The burden of skepticism, WINTER 1990 (vol. 14, no. 2): The new catastrophism, Sagan. Is there intelligent life on Earth? Kurtz. Medical Morrison and Chapman. A field guide to , Controversies: , Jarvis; Homeopathy, Barrett, Lett. Cold fusion: A case history in 'wishful science'? M.D.; Alternative therapies, Jones; , Pepper. Rothman. The airship hysteria of 1896-97,Bartholomew. Catching Geller in the act, Emery. Special Report: Newspaper editors and the creation-evolution contro­ CSICOP's 1987 conference. versy, Zimmerman. Special report: New evidence of SUMMER 1987 (vol. 11, no. 4): Incredible cremations: MJ-12 hoax, Klass. Investigating combustion deaths, Nickell and Fischer. FALL 1989 (vol. 14, no. 1): Myths about science, Rothman. Subliminal deception, Creed. Past tongues remembered? The relativity of wrong, Asimov. Richard Feynman on Thomason. Is the universe improbable? Shotwell. Psychics, fringe science. Luis Alvarez and the explorer's quest, computers, and psychic computers, Easton. Pseudoscience Muller. The two cultures, Jones. The 'top-secret UFO and children's fantasies, Evans. Thoughts on science and papers' NSA won't release, Klass. The metaphysics of superstrings, Gardner. Special Reports: JAL pilot's UFO Murphy's Law, Price. report, Klass; Unmasking psychic Jason Michaels, Busch. SUMMER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 4): The —An SPRING 1987 (vol. 11, no. 3): The elusive open mind: Examination: The New Age in perspective, Kurtz. A New Ten years of negative research in parapsychology, Age reflection in the magic mirror of science, O'Hara. Blackmore. Does astrology need to be true? Part 2: The The New Age: The need for myth in an age of science, answer is no. Dean. Magic, science, and : Some Schultz. Channeling, Alcock. The psychology of channeling, notes on perception, D. Sagan. Velikovsky's interpretation Reed, 'Entities' in the linguistic minefield, Thomason. of the evidence offered by China, Lo. Crystals, Lawrence. Consumer culture and the New Age, WINTER 1986-87 (vol. 11, no. 2): Case study of West Rosen. The Shirley MacLaine phenomenon, Gordon. Special Pittston 'haunted' house, Kurtz. Science, creationism and report: California court jails psychic surgeon, Brenneman. the Supreme Court, Seckel, with statements by Ayala, SPRING 1989 (vol. 13, no. 3): High school biology Gould, and Gell-Mann. The great East Coast UFO of August teachers and pseudoscientific belief, Eve and Dunn. Evidence 1986, Oberg. Does astrology need to be true? Part 1, Dean. for ? Dennett. Alleged pore structure in Sasquatch Homing abilities of bees, cats, and people, Randi. footprints, Freeland and Rowe. The lore of . Stein. FALL 1986 (vol. 11, no. 1): The path ahead: Opportunities, Levitation 'miracles' in India, Premanand. Science, pseudo- challenges, and an expanded view, Frazier. Exposing the science, and the cloth of Turin, Nickell. Rather than just faith-healers, Steiner. Was Antarctica mapped by the debunking, encourage people to think, Seckel. MJ-12 papers ancients? Jolly. Folk remedies and human belief-systems, 'authenticated'? Klass. A patently false patent myth, Sass. Reuter. Dentistry and pseudoscience, Dodes. Atmospheric WINTER 1989 (vol. 13, no. 2): Special report: The electricity, ions, and pseudoscience, Dolezalek. Noah's ark 'remembering water' controversy, Gardner and Randi; and ancient astronauts, Harrold and Eve. The Woodbridge Bibliographic guide to the 'dilution controversy.' UFO incident, Ridpath. How to bust a ghost, Baker. Pathologies of science, precognition, and modern SUMMER 1986 (vol. 10, no. 4): Occam's razor, Shneour. psychophysics, Jensen. A reaction-time test of ESP and Clever Hans redivivus, Sebeok. Parapsychology miracles, precognition. Hints and Dennison. Chinese psychic's pill- and repeatability. Flew. The Condon UFO study, Klass. bottle demonstration, Wu Xiaoping. The Kirlian technique, Four decades of fringe literature, Dutch. Some remote- Watkins and Bickel. Certainty and proof in creationist viewing recollections, Weinberg. thought, Leferriere. SPRING 1986 (vol. 10, no. 3): The perennial fringe, FALL 1988 (vol. 13, no. 1): Special report: Astrology and Asimov. The uses of credulity, de Camp. Night walkers and the presidency, Kurtz and Boh. Improving Human mystery mongers, Sagan. CSICOP after ten years, Kurtz. Performance: What about parapsychology? Frazier. The Crash of the crashed-saucers claim, Klass. A study of the China syndrome: Further reflections on the paranormal Kirlian effect, Watkins and Bickel. Ancient tales and space- in China, Kurtz. Backward masking, McIver. The validity age myths of creationist evangelism, Mclver. of graphological analysis, Furnham. The intellectual revolt WINTER 1985-86 (vol. 10, no. 2): The moon was full against science, Grove. and nothing happened, Kelly, Rotton, and Culver. Psychic SUMMER 1988 (vol. 12, no. 4): Testing psi claims studies: The Soviet dilemma. Ebon. The psychopathology in China, Kurtz, Alcock, Frazier, Karr, Klass, and Randi. The of fringe medicine, Sabbagh. Computers and rational appeal of the occult: Some thoughts on history, religion, thought, Spangenburg and Moser. and science, Stevens. Hypnosis and reincarnation, Venn. FALL 1985 (vol. 10, no. 1): Investigations of firewalking, Pitfalls of perception, Wheeler. Wegener and pseudos- Leikind and McCarthy. Firewalking: reality or illusion, cience: Some misconceptions, Edelman. An investigation Dennett. Myth of alpha consciousness, Beyerstein. Spirit- of psychic crime-busting, Emery. High-flying health quackery. rapping unmasked, V. Bullough. The Saguaro incident, Hints. The bar-code beast, Keith. Taylor and Dennett. SPRING 1988 (vol. 12, no. 3): Neuropathology and the SUMMER 1985 (vol. 9, no. 4): Guardian astrology study. legacy of spiritual possession, Beyerstein. Varieties of alien Dean, Kelly, Rotton, and Saklofske. Astrology and the commod­ experience, Ellis. Alien-abduction claims and standards of ity market, Rotton. The hundredth monkey phenomenon, inquiry (excerpts from Milton Rosenberg's radio talk- Amundsen. Responsibilities of the media, Kuril. 'Lucy' out show with guests Charles Gruder, Martin Orne, and of context, Albert. SPRING 1985 {vol. 9, no. 3): Columbus : I, SUMMER 1981 (vol. 5, no. 4): Investigation of 'psychics/ Randi. Moon and murder in Cleveland, Sanduleak. Image Randi. ESP: A conceptual analysis, Gendin. The extrover­ of Guadalupe, Nickel! and Fischer. Radar UFOs, Klass. Phren­ sion-introversion astrological effect, Kelly and Saklofske. Art, ology, McCoy. Deception by patients, Pankratz. Commun­ science, and paranormalism, Habercom. Profitable night­ ication in nature, Orstan. mare. Wells. A Maltese cross in the Aegean? Loftin. WINTER 1984-85 (vol. 9, no. 2): The muddled 'Mind Race,' SPRING 1981 (vol. 5, no. 3): Hypnosis and UFO Hyman. Searches for the , Razdan and abductions, Klass. Hypnosis not a truth serum, Hilgard. Kielar. Final interview with Milbourne Christopher, H. Schmidt's PK experiments. Hansel. Further comments Dennett. Retest of astrologer John McCall, lanna and Tolbert. on Schmidt's experiments, Hyman. Atlantean road, Randi. FALL 1984 (vol. 9, no. 1): Quantum theory and the Deciphering ancient America, McKusick. A sense of the paranormal, Shore. What is pseudoscience? Bunge. The new ridiculous, Lord. and the 'paranormal/ Toulmin. An WINTER 1980-81 (vol. 5, no. 2): Fooling some people eye-opening double encounter, Martin. Similarities all the time, Singer and Benassi. Recent between identical twins and between unrelated people, developments, Schadewald. National Enquirer astrology Wyatt et al. Effectiveness of a reading program on study, Mechler, McDaniel, and Mulloy. Science and the paranormal belief. Woods, Pseudoscientific beliefs of 6th- mountain peak, Asimov. graders, A. 5. and 5. }. Adelman. FALL 1980 (vol. 5, no. 1): The Velikovsky affair — articles SUMMER 1984 (vol. 8, no. 4): Parapsychology's past eight by Oberg, Bauer, Frazier. Academia and the occult, Green- years, Alcock. The evidence for ESP, C. £. M. Hansel. well. Belief in ESP among psychologists, Padgett, Benassi, $110,000 challenge, Randi. Sir Oliver Lodge and and Singer. Bigfoot on the loose, Kurtz. Parental expec­ the spiritualists, Hoffmaster. Misperception, folk belief, and tations of miracles, Steiner. Downfall of a would-be psychic, the occult, Connor. Psychology and UFOs, Simon. McBurney and Greenberg. Parapsychology research, Mishlove. SPRING 1984 (vol. 8, no. 3): Belief in the paranormal SUMMER 1980 (vol. 4, no. 4): , Bainbridge worldwide: Mexico, Mendez-Acosta; Netherlands, Hoebens; and Stark. , Feder. , U.K., Hutchinson; Australia, Smith; Canada, Gordon; France, Klass. Follow-up on the 'Mars effect/ Evolution vs. Route. Debunking, neutrality, and skepticism in science, creationism, and the Cottrell tests. Kurtz. University course reduces paranormal belief, Cray. SPRING 1980 (vol. 4, no. 3): Belief in ESP, Morris. UFO The Gribbin effect, Roder. Proving negatives, Pasquarello. hoax, Simpson. Don Juan vs. Piltdown man, de Mille. WINTER 1983-84 (vol. 8, no. 2): Sense and nonsense Tiptoeing beyond Darwin, Greenwell. Conjurors and the in parapsychology, Hoebens. Magicians, scientists, and psy­ psi scene, Randi. Follow-up on the Cottrell tests. chics, Ganoe and Kirwan. New dowsing experiment, Martin. WINTER 1979-80 (vol. 4, no. 2): The 'Mars effect' — The effect of TM on weather, Trumpy. The haunting of articles by Kurtz, Zelen, and Abell; Rawlins; Michel and Franchise the Ivan Vassilli, Sheaffer. Venus and Velikovsky, Forrest. Gauquelin. How I was debunked, Hoebens. The metal FALL 1983 (vol. 8, no. 1): Creationist pseudoscience, bending of Professor Taylor, Gardner. Science, intuition, Schadewald. Project Alpha: Part 2, Randi. Forecasting radio and ESP, Bauslaugh. quality by the planets. Dean. Reduction in paranormal FALL 1979 (vol. 4, no. 1): A test of dowsing, Randi. Science belief in college course, Tobacyk. Humanistic astrology, and evolution, Godfrey. Television pseudodocumentaries, Kelly and Krutzen. Bainbridge. New disciples of the paranormal, Kurtz. UFO SUMMER 1983 (vol. 7, no. 4): Project Alpha: Part 1, Randi. or UAA, Standen. The lost panda, van Kampen. , Goodman's 'American Genesis,' Feder. Battling on the air­ Randi. waves, Slavsky. Rhode Island UFO film, Emery. SUMMER 1979 (vol. 3, no. 4): The moon and the SPRING 1983 (vol. 7, no. 3): , Worrall. The Nazca' birthrate, Abell and Greenspan. Biorhythms, Hints. 'Cold drawings revisited, Nickell. People's Almanac predictions, reading,' Randi. Teacher, student, and the paranormal, Donnelly. Test of , Dlhopolsky. Pseudoscience Krai. Encounter with a sorcerer. Sack. in the name of the university, Lederer and Singer. SPRING 1979 (vol. 3, no. 3): Near-death experiences, WINTER 1982-83 (vol. 7, no. 2): Palmistry, Park. The Alcock. Television tests of Musuaki Kiyota, Scott and Hutchin­ great SRI die mystery, Gardner. The 'monster' tree-trunk son. The conversion of J. Allen Hynek, Klass. Asimov's of Loch Ness, Campbell. UFOs and the not-so-friendly corollary, Asimov. skies, Klass. In defense of skepticism, Reber. WINTER 1978-79 (vol. 3, no. 2): Is parapsychology a FALL 1982 (vol. 7, no. 1): The prophecies of Nostradamus, science? Kurtz. Chariots of the gullible, Bainbridge. The Cazeau. of all seasons, James Randi. Revival of Tunguska event, Oberg. Space travel in Bronze Age China, Nostradamitis, Hoebens. Unsolved mysteries and extra­ Keightley. ordinary phenomena, Gill. Clearing the air about psi, FALL 1978 (vol. 3, no. 1): An empirical test of astrol­ Randi. A skotography scam, Randi. ogy, Bastedo. Astronauts and UFOs, Oberg. Sleight of SUMMER 1982 (vol. 6, no. 4): Remote-viewing, Marks. tongue, Schwartz. The Sirius "mystery," Ridpath. Radio disturbances and planetary positions, Meeus. Divin­ SPRING/SUMMER 1978 (vol. 2, no. 2): Tests of three ing in Australia, Smith. "Great Lakes Triangle," Cena. psychics, Randi. Biorhythms, Bainbridge. Plant perception, Skepticism, closed-mindedness, and science fiction, Beyer- Kmetz. beyond the fringe. Cole. NASA and stein. Followup on ESP logic, Hardin and Morris and Gendin. UFOs, Klass. A second Einstein ESP letter, Gardner. SPRING 1982 (vol. 6, no. 3): The Shroud of Turin, Mueller. FALL/WINTER 1977 (vol. 2, no. 1): Von Daniken, Story, Shroud image, McCrone. Science, the public, and the The Bermuda Triangle, Kusche. Pseudoscience at Science Shroud, Schafersman. Zodiac and personality, Gauquelin. Digest, Oberg and Sheaffer. Einstein and ESP, Gardner. N- Followup on quantum PK, Hansel. rays and UFOs, Klass. Secrets of the psychics, Rawlins. WINTER 1981-82 (vol. 6, no. 2): On coincidences, Ruma SPRING/SUMMER 1977 (vol. 1, no. 2): Uri Geller, Marks Folk. Croiset: Part 2, Hoebens. Scientific creationism, Schade- and Kammann. , Hyman. Transcendental Medi­ wald. Follow-up on 'Mars effect/ Rawlins, responses by tation, Woodrum. A statistical test of astrology, McGervey. CSICOP Council and AMI and Kurtz. Cattle mutilations, Stewart. FALL 1981 (vol. 6, no. 1): : Part 1, Hoebens. FALL/WINTER 1976 (vol. 1, no. 1): , Wallis. Test of perceived horoscope accuracy. Lackey. Planetary Psychics and clairvoyance. Fine. "Objections to Astrology," positions and radio propagation, lanna and Margolin. Westrum. Astronomers and astrophysicists as astrology Bermuda Triangle, 1981, Dennett. Observation of a psychic, critics, Kurtz and Nisbet. Biorhythms and sports. Fix. Von Mclntyre. Daniken's chariots, Omohundro. (continued from p. 175) power need to be examined in the light analysis of the efforts to develop of Kurtz's new skepticism. Perhaps communicative , the type of here we will find ways to not only thinking that enables us not only to answer those with different perspec­ "get it right" but also to "get it tives but also learn to move forward together" in moving in defensible together on issues of mutual concern. directions. In particular, the discourse This too will not be easy, but I think that has developed around the work it will be well worth the new skeptic's of Jurgen Habermas, perhaps the most efforts. Paul Kurtz's The New Skep­ influential philosopher of the late ticism has laid the groundwork for twentieth century, is conspicuously such efforts. It is a book to be read, omitted in the text. Habermas's discussed, and used to construct attempts to rationally and systemat­ beliefs and practices worth having. ically connect our interest to control and manipulate the environment with John Novak is professor of education at our deep-seated interests to under­ Brock University and is editor of stand each other's perspectives and Insights, a publication of the John Dewey transform asymmetrical relations of Society.

Antidote to Science-Bashing

The Unnatural Nature of Science. By Lewis Wolpert. Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass., 1993. 191 pp. Hardcover, $19.95.

TERENCE HINES his is an important book filled with quently wrong. As he points out, many insights about science and "Commonsense provides no more Tscientists. It provides numerous than some raw material required for arguments against those who adopt scientific thinking" (p. 17). the "science-bashing" attitude so Another of Wolpert's valuable popular these days. contributions is to draw a strong One of Wolpert's major points, and distinction between science and tech­ the one reflected in his title, is that nology. It is commonly believed that the cognitive processes required for science is necessary for technology, scientific thought and progress are and this may happen to be true in very, very different from those that modern (twentieth century) times. underlie so-called common sense. This However, technology arose eons is because the world is simply too before science did. The Bronze Age complicated to be comprehended by peoples, who had learned, through the type of simple, day-to-day obser­ trial and error, how to smelt and com­ vations, never systematically made, bine copper and tin, certainly had no that result in commonsense explana­ of metallurgy. While tions for various phenomena. Thus, many nonscientific cultures have commonsense explanations are fre­ made impressive technological ad-

Winter 1994 179 vances, scientific thought developed issue of genetic engineering, specifi­ uniquely in Greece and has had an cally to the possibility, at some future influence on technology only in this date, of using such techniques to century. improve, say, intelligence, beauty, Wolpert's strong distinction be­ height, and so on. It has been argued tween science and technology has by some that such uses pose large important implications for the moral ethical problems, such as the one that responsibilities of scientists when it would arise from the fact that only comes to such issues as the develop­ a few could afford to pay for them. ment of the atomic bomb, genetic But, as Wolpert cogently points out, therapy, and the like. Wolpert argues, there are already techniques available most refreshingly it seems to me, that (plastic surgery, better education, etc.) scientists and science bear no respon­ that enhance some of these charac­ sibility for the use of the atomic bomb. teristics. They are simply less effective The bomb was based on scientific than a genetic procedure could be. principles that would have been There is little hand-wringing by discovered sooner or later had they ethicists over the fact that some people not been discovered by those working can afford to have plastic surgery or on the Manhattan Project. The deci­ to send their children to better sion to use the bomb was a political schools. The difference seems to be one and no blame or praise should that, while plastic surgery and edu­ accrue to science or scientists for the cation are understood by the ethicists, results of the decision to use it. the basic facts of the science that makes genetic engineering a possibil­ Wolpert makes a further interest­ ity are not. Thus, in typical fear of ing argument regarding the issue of the unknown, a hue and cry against the ethical responsibilities of scien­ the new technique is raised. tists. He notes that the hand-wringing (my term) of ethicists over such Wolpert does not, of course, argue matters as the atomic bomb, genetic that scientists have no responsibility engineering, and other new tech­ to the public at large. He strictly limits niques, are often the result of ignor­ that responsibility to two areas. First, ance about the basic scientific scientists must convey their findings principles that allow the new tech­ to the public in a clear fashion. Second, niques to work. No one, he points out, especially in the area of controversial tried or tries to hold science respon­ fields of research (ethnic differences sible for the deaths in World War II in IQ, for example), the reliability of caused by the fire-bombing of Ger­ the results must be made clear. many or Japan, by conventional However, the use to which any bombs, by firearms, or by artillery, in scientific finding is put is a social and spite of the fact that tens of millions political question and not the respon­ were killed by these standard weapons sibility of scientists, who are no better and the additional deaths due to the (or worse) at making such judgments two atomic bombs were a relatively than anyone else. Closely related to small addition to this horrible total. this topic is Wolpert's contention that It was, rather, the newness of the science cannot answer all types of technique that caused the moral questions. For example, moral prob­ uproar. lems are beyond the ability of science This seems to me to be a powerful to solve, although scientific informa­ and useful argument, and it is inter­ tion may play an important role in esting to see Wolpert apply it to the informing the body politic about the

180 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 issues a specific moral question in­ for example, the fact that the average volves. business person is ignorant of the Another topic tackled by Wolpert details of accountancy should have on is that of creativity in science, and the day-to-day behavior of a CPA. It again he makes some original points. turns out that scientists have, appro­ He argues that creativity in science is priately, it seems to me, largely quite different from creativity in the ignored the work of philosophers of arts. Creativity in science is limited by science and sociologists. A similar the nature of physical reality. No point is made by Steven Weinberg in matter how creative, no scientist will his excellent Dreams of a Final Theory ever discover or create an element (Pantheon, 1992). between number 4 (beryllium) and In attacking the position that number 5 (boron) on the periodic science is a purely social construction, table. Further, if a scientist isn't on an equal footing with primitive (or creative enough to discover a partic­ not so primitive) , Wolpert ular phenomenon, or to find an makes a telling point that I've also not explanation (theory) for it, some other seen made before. He points out that scientist almost certainly will. Crea­ in real science one must learn to doubt tivity in the arts is not limited in the one's own belief system. That is, one same way. If Beethoven had not must admit that there are phenomena written his Ninth Symphony between for which no explanation can be given 1822 and 1824, no one else would have in current theory and even that the written it—say, in 1902. entire theory may be wrong. Thus, Wolpert is especially critical of one is always, at least in the ideal, sociological and philosophical relativ­ searching for a theory that will ists who claim that science is not a encompass more phenomena. In special, privileged way of knowing, but strong contrast, belief systems based simply a socially constructed belief on magic and religion do not even system no more valid than the beliefs admit the possibility of being wrong, of some primitive tribe deep in the or of anything being unexplained. Any jungle. It is perhaps not surprising that question can be answered (however such silly claims have sprouted from unsatisfying the answer may be to one the fetid soil of modern sociology and trained in scientific thinking) from philosophy, two "disciplines" whose within the totally closed system. Why connections with reality seem to get did Grandma get run over by the more and more tenuous every year. cement truck? It was God's will. Or In regard to philosophy, Wolpert it was bad karma. Or her brother's makes a very interesting point that sister's son's dog was having a triple I've not seen made elsewhere. He critical biorhythm day. Why does the acknowledges that philosophers have moon move slowly across the sky? had a great deal of difficulty with the Because the great God Whozits uses problem of what constitutes truth and it as a boat to cross the sea of night. how to recognize whether something And on and on and on. is true or not. But, he argues, this is This is a wonderful book. a problem that philosophers have no business trying to impose on other Terence Hines is a professor of psychology fields. In other words, the fact that at Pace University, Pleasantville, New philosophers are still debating the York, currently on sabbatical at the Uni­ nature of truth should have no more versity of Warsaw and Nencki Institute effect on the practice of science than, of Experimental Biology, Warsaw, Poland.

Winter 1994 181 Close Encounters with Mathematical Cranks of the Third Kind

Mathematical Cranks. By Underwood Dudley. Mathematical Association of America, Washington, D.C., 1992. 372 pp.

A Budget of Trisections. By Underwood Dudley. Springer-Verlag, New York, 1987. 169 pp.

ROBERT L. FOOTE

Well, what's the excuse for this book? winds up in the wastebasket (fre­ I guess that what's in it isn't in any quently after serving as departmental other book. entertainment), occasionally a well- Like what? meaning mathematician makes the Things about mathematical cranks mistake of responding to a crank, and eccentrics. No one pays much pointing out his errors, hoping to set attention to them. . . . him straight. Thus may begin a series So this is a book about nuts? of communications between crank and No, no. They're not nuts. Well, a few are, but most aren't. . . . mathematician (mostly from crank to J see. So why would anyone want to mathematician), usually ending when read it? the mathematician is forced to be Well, cranks are interesting. . . . rude, or the crank becomes angry and What would you say if 1 said that goes in search of a more "tolerant" cranks are odd and anyone who's mathematician. The moral of the story interested in them is probably a little is: Don't get involved with a crank. peculiar too? While frequently giving this advice What? But. . . to others, Underwood Dudley, profes­ —Mathematical Cranks, p. v sor of mathematics at DePauw Uni­ versity in Greencastle, Indiana, has or better or for worse, pseudo- made it his professional hobby to mathematics does not enjoy the collect the works of modern mathe­ F popularity among cranks that matical cranks, to correspond with other subjects seem to have. It just them, and even to meet them. In these doesn't have the same appeal as two books, he shares his fascinations psychic claims, astrology, or UFOs. and frustrations with people bent on Nevertheless, mathematical cranks do pseudo-mathematics. exist, as mathematics departments at What types of things do mathe­ many major universities are well matical cranks work on? Most of aware. When I was a graduate student Dudley's examples can be placed into at the University of Michigan, it was two broad categories: (l) real mathe­ not uncommon for the departmental matics that has been twisted, has been mailboxes to be stuffed periodically misunderstood, or has had its signif­ with the local crank's most recent icance horribly exaggerated, and (2) proof of the rationality of n or impenetrable nonsense. yfl. Into the first category goes any While most crank mathematics work based on an actual mathematical

182 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 problem whose author understands, impossibility. Cranks, on the other at least at some level, the basic hand, don't understand, and appar­ mathematics behind it, but who then ently never get tired. goes on to display a lack of logical reasoning, often caused by a zeal to In more than 12,000 working hours achieve the desired result. Although I have in the course of 40 years found this solution. I am not a most of modern mathematics is safely mathematician but a retired civil beyond the reach of crankery (I don't servant, now 69 years of age. (A imagine there are many cranks work­ Budget of Trisections, p. 19) ing on problems in vector bundles over homogeneous spaces or topological The proof that these constructions supercompactifications), everyone are impossible is one of mathematics' knows some mathematics, and there triumphs. Modern mathematics is full are a number of problems whose of insightful connections between its statements can be understood by varied branches—in this case between anyone with a high-school mathe­ geometry and algebra. In brief, given matical background. an initial collection of points in a plane A Budget of Trisections, written in where coordinates have been estab­ the spirit of Augustus De Morgan's lished, the points that can be obtained A Budget of Paradoxes (see article by from them by compass and straight­ Milton Rothman, SI, Spring 1992), is edge constructions are those whose devoted entirely to attempts to trisect coordinates are related to the coordi­ the angle (given an angle, divide it into nates of the original points by solu­ three equal parts) using only compass tions of linear and quadratic and straightedge. This is one of the equations. Thus the coordinates of the three classical construction problems constructed points are formed of Greek geometry, each of which has through combinations of addition, attracted its share of cranks. The other subtraction, multiplication, division, two are squaring the circle (given a and taking square roots. Higher roots circle, construct a square having the are possible, but only in powers of 2, same area), and duplicating the cube that is, fourth roots, eighth roots, (given a cube, construct a second cube sixteenth roots, etc. The important with twice the volume), again, using fact is that no cube roots are possible. only compass and straightedge. Over Duplicating the cube would involve the years many futile attempts have constructing a segment of length been made at these constructions. In \fl, the solution of x3 = 2. Similarly, the early 1800s they were proved trisecting an angle is related to the impossible. solution of another cubic equation. Impossible? Ah, you hear the Squaring the circle would involve a cranks say, nothing is impossible. segment of length n, but n is tran­ Think of the excitement of doing scendental; that is, it is not the something no one has ever been able solution of any polynomial equation to do, and the fame and fortune that with integer coefficients, let alone surely go with it. What child has never linear or quadratic. The conclusion is thought this? Many people, some bud­ that these constructions are impossi­ ding mathematicians (the reviewer ble. included), spent some time in their Trisectors, cube duplicators, and youth attempting these constructions circle squarers balk at algebraic dis­ until they got tired or finally under­ proofs of what they think they have stood the meaning of mathematical proved. If the problem is geometric,

Winter 1994 183 they say, any refutation should be books. The note was discovered after geometric. his death, but no sign of any proof, and mathematicians have been trying Those who are skeptical should to find one ever since. offer something more than rhetoric (Perhaps Fermat's Last Theorem or argument in order to disprove has finally been proved. Shortly after geometrical facts. ... If the lines this review was written, Andrew constituting the respective pairs of trisectors of both sectors do not Wiles, professor of mathematics at intersect on the quadrantal arc they Princeton University, announced that should show by the ruler and com­ he has a proof, an event noteworthy passes where they do intersect. {A enough to be covered by the media Budget of Trisections, p. 27) (New York Times, June 24, 1993, Al, and June 29, 1993, C1). His 200-page The only thing that will convince this manuscript will no doubt be carefully trisector that his construction is scrutinized by the world's algebraic wrong is a correct trisection, which geometers and their graduate stu­ is impossible! dents over the next several months. Cranks who work on these three If no errors are found, the book may classical problems are under the be closed on this famous problem.) delusion that solutions to them would The Four Color Theorem states be of great importance and would that every map can be colored using revolutionize mathematics and sci­ at most four colors. Countries in a ence. In fact, all three problems have valid map must be connected (so simple solutions, but by constructions Michigan would not be allowed), and that are not Euclidean; that is, they different colors must be used for use more than compass and straight­ adjacent countries. This was the Four edge. For example, it is easy to trisect Color Conjecture up until 1976. Its an angle using a compass and a marked proof caused immense controversy in straightedge (i.e., a ruler). These the mathematical community since it constructions were known to the involved hundreds of hours of com­ Greeks, and Dudley includes them. puter calculations, but is now gener­ Mathematical Cranks covers a wide ally accepted. variety of pseudo-mathematics topics, The appeal of these problems for including Fermat's Last Theorem, the cranks is immediate. As with the Four Color Theorem, and the two Greek constructions they are easily remaining problems from classical understood, and when working on Greece. them they give one the feeling that Fermat's Last Theorem is inaccu­ success is imminent. Dudley observes rately named—it is really a conjecture. that many of the works of cranks It is easy to find positive integers x, contain y, and z that satisfy x2 + y2 = z2. For example, 32 + A2 = 52 and 52 + 12* = pages, in some cases a few and in 132. Fermat noticed that he could not other cases many, of elementary find any positive integers that would and correct reasoning followed by solve x3 + y3 = z3, or for that matter a quick descent into incomprehen­ sibility, then a return to the surface x" + y" = z" for any integer exponent with something like "therefore x" + n 3, and he conjectured that there y" = z" has no solutions in positive are none. He evidently thought he had integers" that does not follow from a proof, for he wrote a note to that what has gone before. (Mathe­ effect in the margin of one of his matical Cranks, p. 117)

184 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 He goes on to classify the cranks trisector gets carried away, incredible themselves. tangles of lines and circles can result. Take Figure 1 for example. Anyone Cranks of the first kind say "I am care to figure out what is going on right." Period. No reason necessary, here? no reason given. Cranks of the Others go in for arithmetic: second kind say "I am right because . . . ," and proceed to try to justify The Unity of 1 their work with mathematics. Cranks of the third kind recognize It is proposed that 1 is a unity of that what they have done conflicts 1 in itself but that 1 evolves as a with mathematics and therefore, unity of 1 in sums of 1 by ratios since either they or mathematics are of sums of 1. Thus, a simple unity incorrect, they try to change mathe­ of 1 evolves in ratios of sums of 1 matics to fit what they have as 1 111 111 and a complex unity accomplished. There are no cranks of 1 evolves in ratios of sums of 1 of the fourth kind. (p. 234) as 111 111 llli, i in in 1112, and 111 111 1113. Now, what about some of the It is proposed that the sum of 1 "impenetrable nonsense"? When a 111 111 1112 evolves further as

R •s V u

I / \ / \E) ( M-x\W VB' \ N\

HH^__/ \—-"O B_J^/

FIGURE 1

Winter 1994 185 a principle of unity in a simple to several prestigious mathematics compact ratio defining a simple departments. When errors are pointed mean value of 1 in 123 in the simple out, he rewrites his paper, making ratio (1 + 3)/2 = 2. A constant mean "corrections." He posts notices on value of 1 in 123 456 789 0 is university bulletin boards offering proposed in which the unity of 1 $1,000 to anyone who can disprove is conserved by a more complex ratio. ... (p. 264) him. Finally, in disillusionment and anger, he sends a form letter to an Dudley informs us that this continues unknown number of mathematicians, on through a stack of paper two inches claiming conspiracy: thick! We also have the "World's Most [The enclosed] report makes it unmistakably clear that I am aware Complete Mathematics Library," of the desperately shabby, dis­ which includes "Enough Mathematics honorable treatment I am receiving to Do Anything That Can Be Done." at the hands of the mathematics Dudley tells of a photograph of the community, simply because I dared author standing in front of his to be the first to solve, by a short library—more than forty loose-leaf elegant method, a problem that has binders. Here is a sample. baffled your best people for over 100 years, (p. 75) The 3 is 1 + 2 = 3 (See DIGITS.). BASE = 10, and 10 - 3 = 7; 2 CUBED Included in the letter is a threat to - 1 CUBED = 7 is the WHOLE take the matter to the media if NUMBER FRAGMENTATION acknowledgment for his work is not FORMULA for SINGLES and forthcoming. PAIRS in the first break of CON­ There is much more. One can learn TINUOUS CHANGE, (p. 17) about arthroids, bines, trines, and quanes, part of the theory of plerol- And so it goes. As Dudley says, "It ogy. There are the point's synthesis is difficult to know what to make of and the antizero, part of the philos­ it." ophy of the sphere. There are heavy In these books we get more than numbers, prayer matrices, bits of just the silly mathematics. Dudley crank physics (£ = Mc ), several describes the people who produce it, alternative values of n, and an account giving us a detailed view of the of the amazing role of the number 57 makeup of several mathematical in the American Revolution. cranks. Many of their characteristics Thank goodness mathematical will be familiar to readers of SI. In cranks are not as common as astrol­ Mathematical Cranks we get a step-by- ogers, UFO chasers, or psychics, but step account of one person's "descent they do exist, and these books belong into crankhood," as he attempts to on the shelves of both skeptics and gain recognition for his solution of the teachers of mathematics. Four Color Theorem. After some frustrating communications with a Robert Foote is an associate professor of few mathematicians at a nearby insti­ mathematics at Wabash College, Craw- tution, he sends out a mass mailing fordsville, Indiana.

186 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Saint George and the Baryonyx

Dinosaurs by Design. By Duane T. Gish. Illustrated by Earl and Bonita Snellenberger. Creation-Life Publishers, Master Books, El Cajon, Calif., 1992. 88 pp. Hardcover, $14.95.

DANIEL J. PHELPS

oth children and adults are dinosaurs not on Noah's Ark were fascinated by dinosaurs (the drowned in the Flood" (p. 8) sets the B phenomenal success of this tone for the rest of the book. To Gish's year's blockbuster Jurassic Park is just credit, no mention is made of the the latest example), and for many fraudulent Paluxy Mantracks. young people popular accounts of Fortunately, there is only a short dinosaurs are their first encounter section on geologic time; it ridicules with science. Indeed, an informal poll and misrepresents the views of le­ of paleontologists and geologists will gitimate geologists, accusing them of reveal that many were attracted to "circular reasoning." Nowhere in the their field because of an early interest book is there mention of the terms in dinosaurs. Apparently young-earth Mesozoic, Triassic, Jurassic, or Creta­ creationists are now exploiting this ceous. A post-Noah's Flood catastrophe interest in order to promote their is invoked as being responsible for the pseudoscientific beliefs. The recent formation of the Grand Canyon. publication of Dinosaurs by Design, by Moreover, the reader is misled into Duane Gish, is a prime example. believing that this concept is widely Advertised as being a "creation accepted by geologists. This section science" book aimed at junior to senior concludes by quoting Institute for high-school students, the book Creation Research geologist Steve appears to be written with an even Austin as saying, "It is reasonable to younger audience in mind. It is attrac­ think that fossils and rocks could have tively produced and filled with high- formed rapidly only thousands of quality color illustrations. The repro­ years ago" (p. 15). ductions of dinosaur paintings are A significant amount of Dinosaurs above average for juvenile literature. by Design is devoted to making strange While most accurately depict the cryptozoological claims. Apparently, dinosaurs themselves, the addition of Duane Gish wishes to convince us that people, buildings, the Ark, and mod­ dinosaurs and other Mesozoic reptiles ern animals to the illustrations help lived until recent times and that some promote fundamentalist beliefs. are still with us. He uses an example The sheer number of errors, half- of nineteenth-century tabloid journal­ truths, and outright in the ism to support one of these claims. book make it difficult to review in a Gish cites an April 26, 1890, issue of limited space. Among the more egre­ the Tombstone Epitaph that gives a gious errors are statements claiming dubious account of two cowboys that all mutations are bad, that killing a bizarre creature that Gish transitional forms do not exist, and claims may have been the pterosaur that fossilization was a product of Quetzalcoatlus. This particular ptero­ Noah's Flood. The claim that "all saur is known to have lacked teeth

Winter 1994 187 (Wellnhofer 1991: 140-145). Because 174-176; Anon. 1977: 225; Heuvel- the Tombstone Epitaph account says the mans 1968: 134-135). creature had an 8-foot-long alligator­ In one of the most absurd parts of like head with a mouth full of teeth, the book, medieval dragon legends are two separate illustrations of Quetza- said to be referring to dinosaurs. My coatlus show a pterosaur with sharp jaw dropped when I encountered the teeth. illustration of Saint George slaying Gish also dredges up several sea- the dinosaur Baryonyx (p. 81). Fire- serpent and lake-monster tales to breathing dragons are accounted for make his case. Thus the Loch Ness by claiming, with no supporting Monster becomes the Cretaceous evidence, that the unusual crest on the plesiosaur Elasmosaurus. Additionally, dinosaur Parasaurolophus contained it is suggested that the Mokele combustible liquids. Paleontologists Mbembe of the Congo River is a hypothesize that the crest on this dinosaur. (For a good acount of this dinosaur functioned as an acoustic living dinosaur legend, see Jacobs resonator and as a display structure 1993). In all seriousness, when refer­ (Weishampel 1981). Additionally, Gish ring to one sea-monster account, Gish claims that the Old Testament's Book says, "It seems you never have a of Job describes dinosaurs when camera when you need it!" (p. 87). discussing Leviathan and Behemoth. On page 86 appears a picture of Amazingly, the section describing an unusual decomposing animal individual dinosaur genera contains hauled aboard the Japanese fishing much legitimate information, but boat Zuiyo Maru in 1977 off the coast references to Noah's Flood and other of . A crewman photo­ creationist beliefs are mixed in. The graphed and took tissue samples of following examples are typical: this putrid carcass before it was Claim: The discovery of 30 Igua- thrown overboard. Ever the mystery nodon skeletons in a Belgian coal mine monger, Gish quotes Japanese scien­ are explained as resulting from the tists who believed this to be a plesi­ "great Flood of Noah" (p. 25). osaur, but Gish never mentions that Reality: Norman (1987) studied this the tissue samples showed this crea­ fossil discovery and found that "there ture was really a shark (Cohen 1982: was no catastrophic event which led 174). Moreover, similar mistaken to the accumulation of fossils. The identifications have been made many mine records indicate at least four times and, in each case, the mysterious separate depositional layers. This is creature turned out to be the filter- supported by taphonomic evidence feeding basking shark (Cetorhinus). revealed in the reconstruction of the Rotting basking sharks tend to lose excavation site" (p. 72). their jaws and gill structures, their Claim: An armored dinosaur was dorsal fin, and part of their tail fin found buried in ice in Antarctica after a short time. The long "neck" (p. 36). and "tail" are the result of decompo­ Reality: This fossil was found in sition or scavenging of the flesh sedimentary rocks known as the Santa adhering to the vertebrae (Gould Marta Formation (Weishampel 1990: 1968: 208). The resulting carcass looks 139). This fossil was not found in ice. somewhat plesiosaurlike. These cir­ Claim: Duckbill dinosaurs with skin cumstances occur so often that bask­ preserved were "buried so quickly that ing sharks have been nicknamed their flesh did not have time to decay "pseudoplesiosaurs" (Cohen 1982: before they were completely buried in

188 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 mud" (p. 39). elements when uncovered suggests Reality: These fossils are known as that they were scattered and became "hadrosaur mummies" to paleontolo­ oriented before burial. This is consis­ gists. The best specimens have a tent with the occurrence of breakage contorted appearance with the neck and loss of delicate structures, which bent back and patches of skin over suggests that scavenging took place. much of the torso. The skin impres­ . . . Such invertebrates and plants as sions cling tightly to parts of the have been found indicate deposition skeleton and tendons as if dried by the in a shallow, quiet, freshwater body" sun. Indeed, the carcasses underwent (p. 212). considerable decay and desiccation Evolution comes under direct before burial (Lull and Wright 1942: 110-117, plates 7, 8, and 9; Bakker 1986: 146-159). Claim: The "Great Flood of Noah" is the best explanation for a mass burial of allosaurs found in Utah (p. 48). Reality: Molnar and Farlow (1990: 211-212) briefly reviewed the taphon- omy (postmortem history) of the Allosaurus fragilis specimens found in Cleveland-Lloyd Quarry in the Juras­ sic Morrison Formation of central Utah. They found that although a detailed account of the formation of the fossil beds had not been formu­ lated, certain facts cannot be ignored. They said: "The orientation of the

Illustration from Dinosaurs by Design.

Winter 1994 189 attack in sections dealing with tran­ Giant Panda, gorillas, and fruit- sitional forms and the origin of birds. eating bats. No one knows for sure The section titled "Evolutionary Fairy just how and why animals started Tales" relies almost entirely upon eating meat, except that it was after ridicule and to make the Fall. (p. 69) its case. The discussion of dinosaurs and the origin of birds is not much Furthermore, an evangelical ver­ better. Gish plays word games by sion of the Flood is given wherein the claiming that evolutionists are animals are commanded to board the absurdly mistaken in saying that birds Ark by God, who then puts them into are descended from lizard-hipped a miraculous hibernation. A miracle (saurischian) dinosaurs when the is invoked to answer any possible other main group of dinosaurs is. objection. To save space, juvenile known as bird-hipped (ornithischian). dinosaurs are taken aboard. Dinosaur Although Gish has a background in extinction is explained in terms of biology, he is either unable or unwill­ post-Flood climate changes, culminat­ ing to present the concept of evolu­ ing in the Ice Age. Apparently, Gish tionary convergence to his young only believes in one ice age, while readers. geologists have evidence for several episodes of glaciation in the Pleisto­ The section on the origin of birds cene Epoch alone. is illustrated with a nice reconstruc­ tion of Archaeopteryx. However, in the Obviously the horrible science and text, Gish mentions only the claws on strong fundamentalist emphasis of the wings as reptilian features. He this book make it inappropriate for neglects to mention other features, any child and all public-school librar­ including the sharp teeth set in a ies. I do recommend this book to reptilian-looking jaw, the reptilian people combating creationism; it skull, the long bony tail, and the lack should prove to be an effective tool of an ossified sternum, all of which in stirring scientists out of their suggest that birds are descended from apathy regarding the creationist small theropod dinosaurs or some threat. Any scientists wishing to archosaur closely related to dinosaurs debate Gish can use the contents of (Benton 1990: 212-213; Wellnhofer this book as a powerful weapon to 1991: 180). force him into defending this pseudo- scientific nonsense. Fundamentalist theology is pre­ sented as science by Gish. As may be expected, this mixing of science with References inspires some bizarre Anonymous. 1977. Not a monster. New ideas. It is suggested that carnivorous Scientist, July 28, p. 225. dinosaurs were originally vegetarian Bakker, R. T. 1986. The Dinosaur Heresies. but became carnivores after the Fall New York: William Morrow. of Man. Gish says: Benton, M. J. 1990. Vertebrate Paleontology. London: Unwin Hyman. Did god design the teeth, jaws, and Cohen, D. 1982. Encyclopedia of Monsters. claws of Tyrannosaurus and other New York: Dodd, Mead. meat-eating dinosaurs so that these Gould, R. 1968. The Loch Ness Monster. creatures could kill other animals Secaucus: Citadel Press (reprint of 1934 edition). and eat their meat? Not necessarily; Heuvelmans, B. 1968. In the Wake of the Sea many of these may have been Serpents. New York: Hill & Wang. designed originally for eating plants Jacobs, L. 1993. Quest for the African and fruit, just like the teeth of the Dinosaurs. New York: Villard.

190 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Lull, R. S., and N. E. Wright. 1942. "Had- of potential vocalization in Lambeosau- rosaurian Dinosaurs of North America." rine Dinosaurs (Reptilia: Ornithischia). Geological Society of America Special Paper, Paleobiology, 7(2): 252-261. No. 40, pp. 1-242. 1990. "Dinosaurian Distribution." In Molnar, R. E., and J. O. Farlow. 1990. The Dinosauria, 63-139, ed. by Weisham­ "Carnosaur Paleobiology." In The Dino- pel et al. Berkeley and Los Angeles: sauria, 210-224, ed. by Weishampel et al. University of California Press. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of Wellnhofer, P. 1991. The Illustrated Ency­ California Press. clopedia of Pterosaurs. New York: Crescent Norman, D. B. 1987. On the history of the Books. • discovery of fossils at Bernissart in . Archives of Natural History, 14(1): 59-79. Daniel ]. Phelps lives in Lexington, Weishampel, D. B. 1981. Acoustic analyses Kentucky.

End of the 'Crop Circle7 Circus

Round in Circles: Physicists, Poltergeists, Pranksters and the Secret History of the Cropwatchers. By Jim Schnabel. Hamish Hamilton Ltd., London, 1993. 295 pp. Hardcover, £16.99 (approx. $25.00).

ROBERT A. BAKER

ometime in the future, when the meteorologist Terence Meaden, were definitive history of human scientifically trained and had estab­ S credulity is finally written, two lished respectable reputations in the names will play a prominent role: halls of science before turning their Doug Bower and Dave Chorley. These attention to the strange designs two Englishmen, both artists in their showing up in England's grain fields. mid-sixties, managed to pull off one Incredibly, what began as a prac­ of the great hoaxes of the century and tical joke soon mushroomed into a succeeded in confounding and confus­ worldwide, twelve-year-long UFO- ing hundreds of determined investi­ logical and mediae-celebrated mystery gators. The story of their of truly prodigious proportions. At the accomplishment, as carefully unfolded height of the crop-circle fervor just by Jim Schnabel in Round in Circles, about every journal, newspaper, and not only drives the final nail in the TV and radio station on earth carried coffin of the crop-circle mystery but one or more stories and news items also is a major step toward—one can about these mysterious carvings in hope—the eventual demise of the England's crops. Most thrilled of all, UFO phenomenon. of course, were those who had long Most of those who were taken in been convinced that our planet was were, admittedly, either firm believers being visited by extraterrestrials. To in the UFO extraterrestrial hypothesis these true believers all of the strange or devotees of, or dabblers in, para­ designs, the ancient and runic sym­ normal and occult practices. A few of bols, the ambiguous messages, and the the cropwatchers, however, like increasing complexity of the circles,

Winter 1994 191 accompanied by strange lights in the tively light, they could also work faster skies, were more than enough to and longer. Moreover, they decided to prove—without question—that the make circles only where people could cereal carvings were the work of a easily see them and where people superior unearthly intelligence. The would naturally associate them with believers were fully correct, however, UFOs. on only one count: the circles were These 1980 circles corralled the related to the UFO phenomenon. But attention of everyone—particularly they were created in all their clever Terence Meaden; the British UFO complexity by two very innovative Research Association (BUFORA) and earthlings. its Director of Investigations, Jenny One summer evening in the mid- Randies; a retired inventor named Pat 1970s, Doug Bower, who had long Delgado; and a young electronics been interested in UFO reports, expert named Colin Andrews. These remarked to Dave Chorley that while principals, along with Paul Fuller, a he was in Australia he had heard a UFO buff, and Busty Taylor, a com­ story about a UFO that descended in mercial pilot, all came up with their Queensland and had left a nest of own speculations about how the swirled marsh grass. Pointing to a circles were done. Vortices with nearby wheat field, Bower asked: electromagnetic powers, whirlwinds, "What do you think would happen if plasmoids, poltergeists, earth energies we put a nest over there? People coming from below the ground, alien would think a flying saucer had lasers and other such arcane rays, as landed." The two men soon after took well as a new kind of energy eman­ a steel bar that Bower used to latch ating from the human body—all were the door of his shop, walked along a suggested and vociferously defended tractor path into a virgin wheat field, by one or more of the experts. and made their first circle. Planting Schnabel's book is a step-by-step and one end of the bar and pivoting around blow-by-blow account of how these this point on their hands and knees, people were caught up in their own in approximately 40 minutes they three-ring circus for almost an entire created a circle 30 feet in diameter decade before Bower and Chorley put with neat flat swirls and a precise them out of their collective misery by perimeter, and concealed their entrace calling the news desks of the Daily trail beneath the laid stalks. Mirror and Today in September 1991 and giving them the full story. The first summer they made a dozen or more circles. A few more the In one of the saddest incidents next summer, and the next, and the reported by Schnabel, Bower and next, but no one seemed to notice. By Chorley were asked by Today to create the end of the summer of 1979, they an insectogram for them in a field at were on the verge of giving up circle- Sevenoaks, Kent. After it was com­ making. Then, in the summer of 1980, pleted, Today called in Pat Delgado, they used a different approach, since who was adamant in his belief that the iron bar was too exhausting and he could tell the "true circles" from also damaged the stalks. Using planks the "hoaxes." After inserting his audio about 4 feet long, with ropes tied at probes in the ground of the circle's each end, they could walk upright center, Delgado declared it was holding the plank between them and genuine. "In no way could this be a swish down a 4-foot swath with each hoax; no human could have done this," step. Since the planks were compara­ he said. Then adding, with perverse

192 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 prescience, "This is, without doubt, the most wonderful moment of my research." When Delgado finally heard and was confronted with the truth, he stated: "We have all been conned. Thousands of lives are going to be wrecked over this ... if everything you say is true. . . ." Unlike Delgado, Colin Andrews did not give in either gracefully or readily, arguing vehem­ ently that Bower and Chorley could not possibly have made all of the circles that were reported—especially those seen in Canada. Of course they didn't. Long before Bower and Chor­ ley threw in the towel, at least a dozen separate groups of pranksters had also taken up the hobby and were bending stalks like mad. Even Schnabel himself joined in. creating an insectogram. Bower hailed While one would assume that the policeman and walked him over Bower and Chorley might have been to Chorley's car and showed him his the target for hundreds of legal actions wildlife recording equipment and by irate farmers, this was not the case. several letters from the British Library The act of making a causes of Wildlife Sounds. The officer little or no material damage and unless promptly apologized for having inter­ a formation has been severely tram­ rupted their work. On another occa­ pled by tourists it can be harvested sion, they thought they were being without loss merely by lowering the shot at, but found that the targets blades of the harvesting machine. were rabbits instead. Such happenings Moreover, the receipts from thou­ were extremely rare, however, and in sands of tourists out to see the artistry spite of increasingly large numbers of compensated the farmers ten times cropwatchers Bower and Chorley over. Nevertheless circle-making can managed to create most of their be an annoyance to farmers who are masterpieces undetected and unmo­ opposed to crowds, and many did lested. threaten to prosecute. For this reason Although the story of the crop- Schnabel is careful not to be too circle hoax is, by far, the most enter­ specific in detailing the circles that he taining aspect of Round in Circles, and his colleagues swirled all over skeptics will also be fascinated by the southern England when the organized faulty logic and blind allegiance to competition came into full flower. Few obviously flawed hypotheses put forth fields of grain were spared. by Meaden, Delgado, Andrews, and Incredible as it may seem, Bower others in their vain pursuit of the and Chorley, as well as most of their increasingly complex circles and in competitors, managed to evade detec­ their publications: Circles from the Sky tion year in and year out. On one and The Circles Effect and Us Mysteries occasion, they were sure they had (Meaden) and Circular Evidence and been caught. A patrol car parked The Latest Evidence (Delgado and alongside the area where they were Andrews). Bower and Chorley care-

Winter 1994 193 fully monitored these various theories and I had fully replaced them in the and took particularly perverse plea­ role of "Wiltshire Circlemakers." sure in confounding them. They were highly amused to hear Delgado refer Schnabel also reports that after to their creations as the work of a nearly everyone else on the planet had "higher intelligence." accepted the fact that circles were the They were also delighted with work of mortal men, many diehards Meaden's arguments that whirlwinds refused to believe it. Some attributed and plasmoids were to blame—not strange energies to the circles, main­ only for the simple circles but also for taining that the energies cured their the triplets and quintuplets. To have arthritis or other ills. Others argued their creations attributed to a nonin- that the circles were messages from telligent meteorological mechanism God. Even in late 1992 Colin Andrews, was the last thing the artists expected. with a group of believers in extrater­ To teach Meaden a lesson they decided restrial visitors, pitched camp at to make a formation his theory Woodborough Hill and for several couldn't possibly digest. One night weeks shone lights into the night sky they went down into a lush and ripe in an attempt to make contact with grain field; and after they had swirled alien craft. Still others currently insist a simple clockwise circle they then, that the crop circles and their makers perversely, swirled an anti-clockwise are part of a vast conspiracy—a secret concentric ring. This first "ringed crop organization spanning the globe and circle" caused a sensation and baffled "comprising, among other sub- Meaden for several years. To further agencies, the CIA, M16, the Vatican, bewilder Delgado and his followers, and the Trilateral Commission." As Bower and Chorley made a circle with for Meaden, he remains confident that a ring and added a runway that jutted his basic concept of a circles-swirling out from the ring. Then, at the end vortex is corect and that his hypoth­ of the ring they dug a small hole—• eses will be confirmed in the near as if aliens had landed and pro­ future. ceeded to take earth samples. They Despite its entertainment value never dreamed that Colin Andrews Round in Circles has some technical would inspect the hole and somehow problems. Not only is there a wealth conclude that a poltergeist had made of unnecessary detail in the form of it. "he said," "she said," and "they said," In an Epilogue, Schnabel makes it which gets in the way of narrative clear that creating crop circles is flow, but its uneven pacing destroys relatively easy. In his words: the main story's dramatic impact. Fewer chapters and some judicious Actually, for all the otherworldli- editing would have improved the book ness of the pictograms, making tremendously. But, all things consid­ them requires more nerve (or ered, the book is a major contribution lunacy) than dexterity or design to the apparently never-ending story skill. It took me less than two of human gullibility and "the will to months to move, on the cerealogical believe." scale, from obvious hoaxer to super­ human intelligence, and by the end of the summer, despite the steadfast Robert A. Baker is emeritus professor of efforts, I assume of Matt and Paul psychology, University of Kentucky, and and Bart and John and other appar­ author of They Call It Hypnosis and ent veterans, a few other beginners Hidden Memories.

194 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Too Much to Swallow

The Sorcerers' Crossing: A Woman's Journey. By Taisha Abelar. Viking Penguin, New York, 1992. 252 pp. Hardcover, $21.00.

BARBARA G. WALKER

f someone deliberately set out remote corridors, but she assumes it to write a mocking parody of is only the wind. I mystical-journey literature, to What occupies Abelar through the make fun of popular trumpery like long months in this unlikely situation that of Carlos Castaneda or Lynn is the sort of activity often described Andrews, that someone could hardly as a shamanic initiation. Under the create a book any sillier than The decidedly ungentle guidance of self- Sorcerers' Crossing. Taisha Abelar appointed Clara, she is subjected would have you believe that a stranger to a kind of "teaching" consisting named Clara came up to her one day mostly of trickery, humiliation, and in the Arizona desert and invited befuddlement. She gets a series of Abelar to follow her car for 400 miles incomprehensible nonexplanations into a remote Mexican wilderness to accompanied by scolding and insults; live in Clara's house, and that this our she is given pointless exercises to test author immediately did. endurance or induce ennui; she spends On arrival at Clara's improbably many hours daily sitting still and huge and well-appointed house, Abe­ "recapitulating," which means re­ lar is absolutely forbidden to enter any membering every event in her life up of the left side of the house, or any to this point. She says that she often of the bedrooms except her own. She falls asleep. In fact, she is so frequently is also told that many other people live either sleeping or fainting into in the house, but at the moment they extended periods of unconsciousness are all traveling in India, except for that the reader might well assume that Clara herself. she was routinely drugged into zom­ Abelar swallows all this and goes bielike passivity. Certainly her incur­ on living in Clara's house for more ious acquiescence is not the behavior than a year without ever looking into of a normal human being. Her attitude those forbidden areas; nor does she is so generally limp and wimpy that wonder much about the mysterious her book will surely fail to engage the ways in which the house is kept clean feminist audience it seems to aim for. and tidy and meals regularly appear, Other "teachers" finally show up, apparently without human interven­ including a Mr. Abelar, a woman tion. Clara herself seems to do little named Nelida, and another man, who about the house. Often she disappears first describes himself as a caretaker for days or weeks at a time, leaving but turns out to be another shaman, her guest alone. No one ever seems named Emilito. These people take to do laundry or drive a car or shop turns subjecting Abelar to various for anything; no service people come bizarre "training" routines, including or go; no housekeepers or grounds an episode during which she is left for attendants are to be seen. Abelar three days, strapped unconscious into sometimes hears voicelike sounds in a leather harness and hanging from

Winter 1994 195 a tree. Eventually she wakes up and tormentor, who promises that she will figures out how to let herself down, soon "cross over," she remains envel­ only to find a note telling her that oped by "a cloud of fatigue and everyone has gone away on an desperation" and overcome by "the extended trip and that she is to stay strain of trying to understand the alone, sleeping only in her hanging inconceivable." By this time the reader harness or in the tree house, which knows all too well how she feels. she fears. Her reaction to this aban­ What is really inconceivable is what donment is indifference, "as if some­ profit anyone other than its publishers thing inside me had been turned off." can derive from this book. Apparently, Her circuits aren't working any it was published only to feed the better when she looks for some insatiable shamanic-journey genre diversion, and for the first time in a market, where much wonder-tale year and a half she decides to browse fiction masquerades as autobiography through the books in the library. and tries to convince us all that Professing to have been "always irrationality is a Higher Truth. Since fascinated" by astronomy, she tries "a the book is a product of the Castaneda thin book with plenty of pictures" on school, with a foreword by Carlos this subject; but as she begins to leaf himself, a cynic might even suppose through it, it soon puts her to sleep. that it really comes from Castaneda's On another occasion she describes prolific pen, with a female pseudonym herself as "not fond of books." Yet this to lure back feminine readers who unliterate person purports to be have been defecting to the ranks of scholarly enough, according to her Lynn Andrews fans. Since metaphys­ preface, to have acquired a Ph.D. in ical types are notoriously fickle in their anthropology. No credentials are allegiances, the author (Carlos or non- given anywhere in the book, nor any Carlos) of The Sorcerers' Crossing may biographical information, not even her hope to gain more followers from that real name. The dustjacket describes ever-shifting group. This book, how­ her as an anonymous "member of an ever, won't do it. Even the most informal society of sorcerers." credulous among us must have some By the end of the book, however, limit to the amount of guff they can the reader has found no reason to digest. think that Abelar will ever become a sorcerer, an anthropologist, or any­ Barbara G. Walker is the author of 19 thing else. Though some hope is books, including The Skeptical offered by her most recent teacher/ Feminist.

STATEMENT OF OWNERSHIP. MANAGEMENT. AND CIRCULATION (Required by 39 U.S.C. 3685) Date of filing: October 6. 1993. Title: The Skeptical Inquirer. Frequency of issue: Quarterly. Complete mailing address of known office of publication: 3965 Rensch Road. P.O. Box 703. Buffalo, NY 14226. Complete mailing address of the headquarters of general business offices of the publisher: 3965 Rensch Road. P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226. Publisher: CSICOP, Inc. (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal), 3965 Rensch Road, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226. Editor: Kendrick Frazier, 3025 Palo Alto Dr., N.E., Albuquerque, NM 87111. Managing Editor: Doris Doyle, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo, NY 14226. Owner: CSICOP, Inc. (Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal, Inc.), 3965 Rensch Road, P.O. Box 703, Buffalo. NY 14226. Known bondholders, mortgagees, and other security holders: None. Aver. no. copies of each issue during preceding 12 months: A. Total no. copies printed (net press run) 39,670. B. Paid and/or requested circulation (1) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales 3,355; (2) Mail subscriptions 32,444. C. Total paid and/or requested circulation 35,799. D. Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means, samples, complimentary, and other free copies 2,463. E. Total distribution (sum of C and D) 38,262. F. Copies not distributed (1) Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing 1,408; (2) Return from news agents 0. G. Total (Sum of E, F 1 and 2) 39.670. Actual no. copies of single issue published nearest filing date: A. Total no. copies printed (net press run) 40.000. B. Paid and/or requested circulation (1) Sales through dealers and carriers, street vendors and counter sales 3,700; (2) Mail subscriptions 32,386. C. Total paid and/or requested circulation 36,086. D. Free distribution by mail, carrier, or other means, samples, complimentary, and other free copies 2,492. E. Total distribution (Sum of C and D) 38,578. F. Copies not distributed (1) Office use, left over, unaccounted, spoiled after printing 1,422; (2) Return from news agents 0. G. Total (Sum of E, F 1 and 2) 40,000.

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A Beginner's Guide to Scientific place in the brain and awareness Method. Stephen S. Carey. Wads- during death. worth Publishing Co., Belmont, CA 94002. 1994. 124 pp. $14.25, paper­ Encyclopedia of Hoaxes. Gordon back. Excellent, brief, nontechnical Stein. Gale Research Inc., 835 Penob­ introduction to the basic methods scot Bldg., Detroit, MI 48226-4094. underlying all good scientific research. 1993. 347 pp. $49.95, hardcover. New Divided into sections on Science, reference work brings together in one Testing Explanations, Establishing place many of history's most interest­ Causal Links, Extraordinary Claims ing deceptions. Divided into 27 subject and , and Fallacies chapters (anthropology, archaeology, in the Name of Science. history, journalism, literature, psy­ chology, science, etc.) covering nearly Carlos Castaneda, Academic Oppor­ 150 incidents. Entries within chapters tunism and the Psychedelic Sixties. include background information, how Jay Courtney Fikes. Mellenia Press, the hoax was played out, how it was 207-1005 View St., Victoria, B.C., discovered, and any ramifications. Canada V8V 3L7. 1993. 285 pp. Includes 80 illustrations, index, and $19.95, paperback. A worthy new bibliography. critical examination of Carlos Cas- taneda's works and other abuses and The Evolutionary Tales. Ronald L. distortions of ethnographic practices Ecker. North Bridge Books, P.O. Box in the United States and Mexico by 1359, Palatka, FL 32178. 1993. 212 pp. New Age guru seekers and unscrup­ $10.00, paperback. Subtitled "Rhyme ulous enterprisers both within and and Reason on Creation/Evolution, outside of academia. Places the sen­ with Apologies to Chaucer and Dar­ sationalism of Native American reli­ win." Ecker, author of The Dictionary gious practices in the context of the of Science and Creationism, here pres­ psychedelic movement of the 1960s ents evolutionary theory and the and 1970s. pseudoscientific nature of "" by a recasting (complete with Dying to Live. Susan Blackmore. rhymed iambic pentameter verse) of Prometheus Books, 59 John Glenn Canterbury Tales. The travelers, Drive, Amherst, NY 14228-2197. mostly scientists, go off on a pilgrim­ 1993. 291 pp. $23.95, hardcover. A age to a creationist seminar in Ten­ valuable, evenhanded review of near- nessee. Ecker hopes it will interest death experiences and the process of readers in further study of science in dying. Based on interviews and case general and the creation/evolution histories and informed by recent controversy in particular. findings in psychology, biology, and medicine. Presents clear physical Great Mysteries of the West. Ferenc explanations for the changes that take Morton Szasz, Editor. Fulcrum Pub-

198 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 lishing, 350 Indiana St., Suite 350, Sampling Inner Experience in Dis­ Golden, CO 80401. 1993. 266 pp. turbed Affect. Russell T. Hurlburt. $19.95, paperback. Descriptions and Plenum Press, 233 Spring St., New evaluations of a variety of popular York, NY 10013.1993. 250 pp. $42.50, mysteries in the western United hardcover. The second volume in States. Sections include Creatures which the author, a psychologist, (Sasquatch, Ogopogo, etc.), the Native reports the results of his research into American World (rock art, the "van­ the nature of human inner experience. ishing" Anasazi, etc.), Unexplained Hurlburt has combined inventiveness Phenomena (the is and creativity with a scientific view­ the main one here), Legends and Lost point and statistics to originate a Treasures and Mines. The editor is a means of examining what it's like to professor of history at the University be human "from the inside." of New Mexico and most of the authors are academics. Selling Satan. Mike Hertenstein and Jon Trott. Cornerstone Press, 939 W. The Healing Revelations of Mary Wildon Ave., Suite 202C, Chicago, IL Baker Eddy. Martin Gardner. Prome­ 60640. 1993. 476 pp. $12.95, paper­ theus Books. 1993. 255 pp. $24.95, back. An expose by two evangelical hardcover. A new examination of journalists of Mike Warnke, who Mary Baker Eddy and what she called for 20 years claimed he had been her "discovery" of Christian Science. leader of a 1,500-member satanic cult An intriguing look at another example and, as author of The Satan Seller, of, as Gardner puts it, "the ease with helped spread the idea of a widespread which strong, charismatic personali­ satanic conspiracy. This is an ties can fabricate a set of beliefs that expanded version of their original seem outrageous to outsiders, yet will investigation published in 1992 in win the allegiance of millions." Cornerstone magazine, which punc­ tured gaping holes in Warnke's claims. Magic or Medicine? Dr. Robert Buck- That led to Hertenstein and Trott man and Karl Sabbagh. Macmillan being labeled the "Woodward and London, Cavaye Place, London SWlO Bernstein of Christian journalism." 9PG. 1993. 286 pp., hardcover. This investigation into healing explores the The Tree of Life. Ellen Jackson. range of medical treatments, conven­ Prometheus Books. 1993. 40 pp. tional and alternative, available today. $14.95, hardcover. A children's book Examines the reasons behind the written to acquaint youngsters with major shift away from conventional the continuing process of natural medicine and what it is that attracts evolution. Celebrates the marvels of people to homeopathy, acupuncture, evolution in a way young children can kinesiology, and other forms of com­ appreciate. Illustrated by Judeanne plementary medicine. This is a book Winter. based on the television series of the same name. —Kendrick Frazier

Winter 1994 199 Articles Of Note

Bower, Bruce. "Sudden Recall" and editor could have made a difference "The Survivor Syndrome." Science by publishing comments and rebuttal. News, September 18, 1993, pp. 184- 186, and September 25,1993, pp. 202- Diamond, John. "Something for the 204. Two-article series reports even- Weekend." Times Magazine (London), handedly on the debate among psy­ June 26, 1993. The columnist muses chologists over adult memories of on the willingness of people, including child abuse. some reporters, to accept supernatural explanations for fortune-telling, when Bynum, Joyce. "Poltergeists—A Phe­ simpler ones are available. nomenon Worthy of Serious Study." Etc. 50 (2): 221-226, Summer 1993. A French, Christopher C. "Experience of brief history of poltergeist studies, Ostensibly Paranormal Events Is ending with the proposal that "psy­ Normal: A Psychologist Replies to chophysical" activities may be the Greeley." Journal of the American source. Society for Psychical Research, 87: 193- 198, April 1993. Argues that while it Chiao, Raymond Y., Paul G. Kwiat, is true that many people report and Aephraim M. Steinberg. "Faster experiences that they interpret as than Light?" Scientific American, paranormal and that belief in the August 1993, pp. 52-60. Experiments paranormal is widespread, it is impor­ in quantum optics show that two tant to recognize that these "osten­ distant events can influence each sible experiences" may derive from other faster than any signal could have several universal cognitive biases traveled between them. Nevertheless, within our information-processing faster-than-light communication still systems. seems impossible and the theory of relativity remains neatly intact. Hansen, George P. "The Research With B.D. and the Legacy of Magical Dawkins, Richard. "Viruses of the Ignorance." Journal of Parapsychology, Mind." Free Inquiry, Summer 1993, pp. 56: 308-333, December 1992. Critical 34-41. Text of the author's keynote re-examination of research by Kan- address at 1992 CSICOP conference. thamani and Kelly with special subject Bill Delmore (B.D.), which produced Dewsbury, Donald A. "On Publishing extremely high scores and received Controversy: Norman F. Maier and wide acclaim in the parapsychology the Genesis of Seizures." American literature. Shows how the formal tests Psychologist, 48(8): 869-877, August were vulnerable to cheating in many 1993. Maier's experiments on rats ways. Contends that these and other challenged the prevailing psycholog­ technical difficulties with the tests are ical theory in the 1930s. The resulting symptomatic of deeper difficulties. In criticism caused him to change fields. particular, a few prominent parapsy- Dewsbury argues that the journal chologists have been vocally pro-

200 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 moting research involving known Research, 33 (2): 10-18, March/April tricksters, and these researchers have 1993. The majority of Americans no knowledge of conjuring. Hansen surveyed had heard of subliminal says priorities set by editors, educa­ advertising, and the majority of that tors, and research managers need to group believed it is being used and is be re-evaluated and parapsychologists effective. The authors see this as a case need to become more familiar with of boring facts not catching up with conjuring. sensational claims.

Horgan, John. "The Worst Enemy of Sandberg, Jared. "When a Penny Falls Science." Scientific American, May from Heaven, Can It Kill a Pedes­ 1993, pp. 36-37. Lively profile of Paul trian?" Wall Street Journal, September K. Feyerabend, who insinuates that 22, 1993, p. 1. Light feature about there is no logic to science, that scien­ urban legends and folklore, focusing tists develop and adhere to theories on Charles Lasner, a Queens, New for what are ultimately subjective and York, computer consultant who uses irrational reasons, and that there are an Internet computer network and the no objective standards by which to news-group name "alt.folklore, establish truth. urban" (AFU, for short) to sift fact from and disseminate findings. Nicholson, Richard S. "Postmodern­ ism." Science, 261: 143, July 9, 1993. Stephan, Karl D. "N Rays, Super- Editorial about prevalence of anti- Dielectrics, and Microwaves Faster science attitudes throughout society. than Light: Improbable Discoveries in Asks, What is the appropriate Electromagnetics." IEEE Antennas and response? Propagation, 35 (3): 13-18, June 1993. University of Massachusetts electrical Parot, Franchise. "Psychology Exper­ engineer describes two historical iments: at the Sorbonne." incidents of false "discoveries" by Journal of the History of Behavioral sincere, reputable researchers in Sciences, 29 (l): 23-28, January 1993. electromagnetics. Concludes by de­ In the early 1920s French scientists scribing an ongoing controversy studied spirit mediums under scien­ surrounding recent claims by Thomas tifically controlled conditions. Results Ishii (Marquette University) that, were predictably meager. under certain conditions, microwave signals can travel faster than the speed Porteous, Skipp. "Pseudo-Science at of light in a vacuum. Unlike the earlier CBS. Biblical Specials Trade Credi­ two cases, no one has yet visited in bility for Ratings." Extra! (Fairness & the claimant's laboratory to see first­ Accuracy in Reporting, New York hand what is really taking place. City), July/August 1993, p. 17. Com­ plaint against CBS for uncritically Young, James Harvey. "Sex Fraud." airing a series of prime-time specials Pharmacy in History, 35 (2): 65-69, claimed to present "startling and 1993. A brief review of fraudulent surprising evidence" to validate bib­ medicines and quack cures dealing lical stories viewed by many as myths. with sexual problems from the eigh­ teenth through the twentieth Rogers, Martha, and Kirk H. Smith. centuries. "Public Perceptions of Subliminal —Kendrick Trazier Advertising." Journal of Advertising and Robert Lopresti

Winter 1994 201 Forum «^L HI

Being in Philadelphia B RALPH ESTLING

ustin McQuaid, who attends may not always be so, however we Concord Elementary School in define smartness. Roger Penrose, who J Glen Mills, Pennsylvania, writes is a very smart human, thinks it will to the Philadelphia Inquirer 0uly 4) to always be so, but there are smart ask which is smarter: humans on the other sides. or an Apple IIGS computer? Of course, if a computer is fed It's a fair question, demanding a fair wrong information it will produce answer and no hanging about. The wrong answers. Garbage in, garbage Philadelphia Inquirer hangs about a bit, out—we all know that. But this is true saying that there are, well, different for most people. If they're taught sorts of smartness, and so it all errors and lies, then errors and lies depends. I personally think more is what they'll believe. At least the vast highly of Einstein's smartness, but I majority will. A few may not, so don't think that proves much, except maybe these few can be counted as that maybe I'm a human chauvinist superior to any computer. But the pig, which doesn't sound too good in majority don't fit into this critical, these earnest days of political correct­ questioning category; the majority ness. What say you, stranger? can't be bothered to ask questions, The fact is, there are a lot of very which, when you come down to it, is intelligent humans arguing over the largely what intelligence consists of. answer to Justin's question, all of So, when we talk of "the human race" whom are absolutely convinced their being smarter than computers, we had answer is the right one. Every side better bear this quantitative aspect in (there are more than just two) pos­ mind. After all, Einstein's intelligence, sesses the same endearing character­ that is to say, his inclination to ask istics, such as omniscience. It's questions about things most people particularly endearing when the knew to be so, wasn't all that typical omniscience of one side comes into of the human race's. It's like that claim conflict with the omnisciences of some that human runners can outrun a other side, so that you have two, and racehorse over a short and long sometimes five or six, contending distance (although not over a middle omnisciences battling it out. But a distance). What's really meant is that little omniscience goes a long way. maybe one in a million humans can outrun a racehorse, which isn't quite What consensus there is—and the same thing as the generalization. there isn't much—is that, for the mo­ We are right to be leery of general­ ment, humans have the edge on com­ izations, but we are making them all puters, but some humans think this

202 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 the time. I'm doing it right now. It can't be helped. The trouble with generalizations is "Scientists are among the most that we shouldn't live with them and prejudiced, biased, partisan we can't live without them. Science people who exist, and couldn't exist without them. We couldn't. Einstein made generaliza­ that is precisely what they tions all the time, about God not should he." playing dice, about the universe being comprehensible, about reality being determinate. We have his General we are we still must make gener­ Theory of Relativity, which general­ alizations that have nothing to do with izes from his Special Theory. As molecules and the life expectancy of splendid as the Special Theory is, it's aggregate humans and yet have to do not all that practical because, after all, with what's probable and what isn't. things don't move at a steady rate, Like claims of the paranormal. generally speaking—not even light, Almost all scientists dismiss the not when it nears big, massive things paranormal out of hand, and this like stars and black holes. One must strikes many fair-minded individuals generalize to make sense of existence, as unfair, as well as unscientific. After the way things are, when you really all, aren't scientists supposed to be get down to it. deeply interested in finding answers Which is where the trouble starts. to all questions, with minds wide open, When we deal with details, particulars, ready to test this hypothesis and that individual cases, we're, generally one and not come to any conclusion speaking, on safe ground, always until they do? Isn't that the way provided of course that we keep our scientists are supposed to be? wits about us. But when, as we must, Unprejudiced. we move away from the particular and No. Scientists are among the most out toward the vast, troubling uni­ prejudiced, biased, partisan people verse, we're heading for headaches, who exist, and that is precisely what and worse. Physicists assure us it's the they should be. They are prejudiced other way round: It's the generalized in favor of rationality and against situation that's easy; all those mole­ irrationality, and they don't go around cules in the box can be understood. proving it again and again each time As long as we take a general view, a spoon is bent, a UFO sighted, or a we can work things out beautifully on picture of an arrow or a square or a statistical basis, bearing all those wavy lines rightly identified by the molecules in mind and not just this person in the other room. What they one or that one. An insurance broker do is generalize from what is known takes the same view when it comes to be the case. Gravitation is known to people. Aggregates are easy to work to be the case, and so it isn't necessary with. You always know what they'll to drop a hundred or a hundred billion do; all you have to do is look at the objects to see. It is possible that all actuarial tables, the probabilities that the molecules of air will suddenly and work for the bunch, but rarely, if ever, inexplicably move so that they're all for Joe Blow. directly beneath the dropped object And that's precisely where the and support it motionless in the air, trouble is. Most of us aren't physicists even push it upward, but the chances or insurance accountants, and even if of this happening are not good. In fact.

Winter 1994 203 cial review by the Supreme Court or decided by propositions that the voters "Science is otherwise. Its go to the polls over in nice, democratic laws are strict and dogmatic fashion. Humans emerged from ape­ and not passed by an Act like ancestors through the medium of natural selection. That is what hap­ of Congress. ..." pened. It is what happened whether the sovereign state of Louisiana likes the chances are so poor that we can it or not. It is what happened whether be reasonably certain that such a thing anyone likes it or not. And it is this has never happened in the history of terrible {actuality in science, this the universe, and that it never will— attendance to what did actually occur, unless Fred Hoyle and the steady- and not what we would like to have staters are right and the universe is had occur, that drives many fair- infinite and eternal. With infinity and minded people who think they are eternity all bets are off; that is the rational to get very angry at science, nature of infinite and eternal things. call it a new religion, doctrinaire, It's hard to generalize about them. bigoted, a threat to us all, with its laws But if we believe in a universe that and rules and edicts. How unlike the has its limits in time and in space, then homelife of our own dear philos­ we must generalize about what is and ophies! what isn't probable. We don't examine We are mightily concerned about each particular individual claim of very answers. We are not nearly so inter­ high improbability. We take it for ested in questions. granted that something is wrong with In his Hitchhiker's Guide to the it—as David Hume surmised about Galaxy, Douglas Adams's megacom- miracles—forget it, and get on with puter Deep Thought comes up with other things. From the general all the answer (after six million years) to particulars must follow. If someone the riddle of Life, the Universe, and says that a particular particular once Everything. The answer, as we all now didn't—I witnessed a man dropping a know, is "42." That doesn't seem to bowling ball and saw it, actually saw tell us much. I suspect that Adams is it, float off in the direction of Phila­ saying that answers don't generally tell delphia—his claim is not investigated, us much, answers aren't really all that it is ignored, and a million voices will important. Questions are what are be raised in unison telling us how important. unfair this is, and how unscientific! We seem to have wandered a long Hey, isn't there a committee some­ way from little Justin McQuaid's where that scientifically investigates question to the Philadelphia Inquirer. such claims? Don't we need such a And it is the question that's important; committee, desperately, urgently, the answer seems—well, to depend. ineluctably? Don't we require unbi­ Justin is concerned with the particular ased, open-minded scientists to look into case, with Einstein and the Apple IIGS, these extraordinary matters and not with people and computers, which report back to the rest of us what they is what scientists are concerned with. discovered? Yes, of course we do! How Scientists might start out with a could science be otherwise? particular case, but they're not really Science is otherwise. Its laws are interested in it. What interests them strict and dogmatic and not passed by is the general pattern, because that is an Act of Congress or subject to judi­ how things are in a rational world,

204 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 ruled by rules and not happenstance most answers, when compared with and miracle. Dogmatic? Yes, of course. the questions that inspired them, and Prejudiced? Absolutely. Blinkered? No lots of people get cranky and irritable doubt about it. Unfair? Well, yes, I when they realize this. If the world suppose you could call it unfair if by is not ruled by what is generally the "fair" you mean having entirely open case, "generally" here meaning what minds to all things and all possibilities, has always been the case since the including the most unlikely, and universe began and is very likely to having to prove over and over again be the case until the universe ends, that what is highly unlikely in prin­ then the world is ruled by chaos, ciple is highly unlikely in practice. tinkered with by the gods. I don't think But above and beyond and beneath such a world is very possible or— all this is the scientific idea (but not opinion now—very desirable. Justin's) that it's questions that matter. Frankly, if such a mindless, irra­ Answers, when you come right down tional, lunatic universe existed, or to it, tend to be ... a trifle dull, could exist, I'd rather be in Phila­ perhaps? delphia. And so it turns out that the world is ruled by what generally is the case. Ralph Estling writes from llminster, This answer is pretty unexciting, like Somerset, England.

believe in good-luck charms and yrannosaurus Hex fortune-tellers. T ROBERT J. PARK In the former Soviet Union, such things were suppressed by the state. But now that they are liberated from ome scientists were so concerned authoritarian dogma, the people are by how their profession was squandering their newfound freedom S depicted in Jurassic Park that of thought on the same sort of they proposed a public-relations cam­ preposterous nonsense that afflicts paign to counter the film's "anti- the West; astrologers, psychics, palm science" message. Pshaw! They've readers, and faith healers seem to have fingered the wrong flick. The threat popped up on every street corner in to science, if there is one, comes from Moscow. Repression by the state is films like Dracula, in which evil is being replaced by the shackles of warded off with religious icons. A little superstition. science, even implausible science, is a What connects these superstitions welcome relief from the superstitious is a belief that humans occupy a twaddle Hollywood usually gives us. position of central importance in the Of course it's not just Hollywood. universe. Throughout history, scien­ One in four Americans consult the tific ideas that diminish this conceit— morning paper for their horoscope the heliocentric solar system of Coper­ before they read the headlines, accord­ nicus, Darwinian evolution, and the ing to one poll. The same poll found Big Bang—have aroused fierce resis­ that a third believe they have been in tance. touch with a dead relative. Polls Sixty-eight years have passed since conducted in Britain and Germany the Scopes trial. In that time, the found that substantial majorities genetic code has been broken, and our

Winter 1994 205 kinship to the apes is now quantifiable. that a thousand trained experts would Only about 0.4 percent of human generate a powerful antiviolence field DNA differs from that of chimps. If by meditating in unison. The field it were any closer, we would have to would not only reduce crime by offer the chimpanzees a seat in the spreading tranquility throughout the UN. Yet fundamentalists still success­ city but also make President Clinton fully oppose the teaching of evolution more effective in running the nation. in our public schools. You will not be at all surprised to Brought up in an environment in learn that the expert meditators, all which religious claims are never followers of the Maharishi Mahesh challenged, many college students Yogi, declared the experiment to have surrender their to religious been an enormous success—experi­ cults. The Branch Davidians in Waco, mental proof of the creation of an anti- Texas, after all, were not just semi- crime field by group meditation. They literate rustics. Most were college seemed genuinely convinced that they educated, some with advanced had succeeded, even though the degrees: a Harvard-trained lawyer, a murder rate in Washington soared to computer consultant, an accountant. a record level during the period of the But their education had failed to instill experiment. The murders, they cheer-, in them even the most rudimentary fully explained, were less brutal. They notion of critical thought. They had requested $5 million in public funds succumbed to the insidious teaching to continue meditating. that belief is a virtue. Their faith was How are we to account for such being tested, and they met the test. widespread nuttiness? Is it something Nor is it just fundamentalists who indelibly coded into our DNA? Maybe. reject the idea of a rational, under­ Without getting into questions of standable universe. After all, at a time technical feasibility, imagine using when telescopes peer to the very edge preserved DNA to clone one of our of the universe and giant accelerators Stone Age ancestors, instead of tyran- prepared to recreate the conditions at nosaurs. The Cro-Magnons lived in the beginning of time, most people the Pleistocene epoch some 30,000 find the old myths of creation unsat­ years before the dawn of civilization. isfying. In their place, however, the Would a Cro-Magnon clone be some New Age movement, with its peculiar savage brute that could get loose and blend of antirational mysticism and terrorize society? I'm afraid "Pleisto­ symbols borrowed from science, cene Park" wouldn't be that exciting; embraces psychokinesis, telepathy, a Cro-Magnon reared in today's channeling, pyramid power, UFOs, society would be indistinguishable cold fusion, and other modern super­ from the rest of us. stitious beliefs. Evolution, after all, is a very slow Even a Ph.D. in physics, I should business, it cannot keep up with warn you, is no inoculation -against today's pace of change. That change irrational beliefs. This past summer, comes about because language has an organization calling itself the allowed us to accumulate information Institute of Science, Technology, and over the millennia. The inescapable Public Policy, headed by John Hagelin, truth is that we are pretty much a Harvard-trained particle theorist, unchanged from savages that sur­ launched a two-month, $4-million vived in the Pleistocene forests by experiment to reduce crime in eating grubs off the bottom of rotten Washington, D.C. Hagelin explained logs. Perhaps in that primitive world

206 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 there was some evolutionary advan­ society in which we live will change tage to the unquestioning acceptance even more rapidly as we leave the of authority. century of physics and enter the It is remarkable that creatures who century of biology. Compared to the have evolved to find food and avoid supernatural nincompoopery that predators should be capable of writing gushes forth from Hollywood, cloning sonnets and doing integral calculus— Tyrannosaurus rex doesn't seem so much less operating a VCR. But no farfetched. If there is a concern raised matter how clever we are at doing by Jurassic Park, it is not that the new these things, the modern world of jet biology will create monsters, but that travel and computers bears little its enormous power will be wasted on resemblance to the primitive world in such trivial undertakings. which we evolved over hundreds of thousands of years. The wonder is not Robert L. Park is professor of physics at that some of us act strangely at times, the University of Maryland and director but that we cope at all in today's alien of the Washington office of the American world. Physical Society. This is a slightly And it's only going to get worse. expanded version of a column published Unlike our nearly stagnant DNA, the in the New York Times.

Trying to Understand Traditional Chinese Medicine D PETER HUSTON

ecently the Public Broadcasting the more surprising claims regarding Service aired a five-part tele­ the alleged powers of Chi and Chi R vision special, "Healing and the kung (also spelled and Qigong), the Mind," produced by the highly art of manipulating Chi. respected broadcast journalist Bill First, why do the Chinese continue Moyers. Overall, I think it was an to practice TCM? The answer given excellent series, covering aspects of was a simple one: "Because for the how science is beginning to explore Chinese it obviously works." This is the ways in which our minds and only partially true. China is a very feelings affect our health. large, very poor country, with a Curiously, the first program of the people, a history, and conditions that series was not on modern medicine at are very different from our own. all. Titled "The Mystery of Chi," it Traditionally the Chinese had been dealt with the ways in which Tradi­ rather self-assured about having a tional Chinese Medicine (TCM) has superior level of culture when com­ been used in the People's of pared with their neighbors. Therefore China. The hour-long program intro­ when it became obvious over the past duced TCM, showed how it was 150 years that there were many widely accepted and used even today, apsects of their civilization that were and then proceeded to delve into Chi inferior to what the West had to offer and Chi theory. In doing so it gave (for instance, military science) it a rather credulous account of some of caused what would be something of

Winter 1994 207 an understatement to describe as a other hand, if a student returned as national trauma. Combining East and a general practitioner of superior skill West has never been easy, and it is and ability, but with no particularly even more difficult in a tradition- impressive specialization, opportuni­ oriented culture like China's. ties would be limited. If the rewards In the eyes of many Chinese, TCM are small in a given area, then that is part of their national identity and aspect of medicine would be less tradition. To abandon it and accept developed. One result of this is a another form of medicine would be patchwork, ad-hoc feel to much of to question or deny this identity, an modern medicine outside the devel­ almost sacrilegious act in the eyes of oped world. This becomes most obvi­ some Chinese. ous in a place like Taiwan. Although Second, there's the matter of complex procedures, such as open and the unique medical heart surgery and the separation of situation in much of Asia today. Siamese twins, are routinely practiced Economically, it is difficult to replace there, ambulances often lack rudimen­ a traditional health system that serves tary first-aid kits and qualified such a large population with a differ­ attendants. ent system, even if change is desired Under these conditions, TCM can by the people it serves (and in China serve as a somewhat useful substitute it is only partially desired). When for underdeveloped aspects of health China became a republic in 1912, the care, such as mental health, general government proceeded to embark on practice, and the treatment of non- a naively ambitious program to mod­ threatening illnesses like digestive ernize the country. It considered problems. TCM uses a wide variety banning TCM, but decided against it, of herbal and other treatments for since to do so would be to deprive the emotional disturbances, and even if majority of the population of any sort one were to take the extreme view of . When Mao and the that they have no validity whatsoever, Communists took over in 1949, they the patient's belief that they do often had no desire to turn China into a produces a beneficial effect. carbon copy of the West and so strove China is a big and complex country. to present TCM as an alternative to Listening to various Westerners des­ Western medicine. cribe it is reminiscent of that old Furthermore, Western-style med­ parable about the four blind men and icine did not evolve naturally in Asia. the elephant. Each sees only a small It was imported piece by piece, medical part but thinks he understands the school by medical school, and at times, whole. As one looks at a given aspect doctor by doctor, This has led to of Chinese culture it must be seen in uneven medical systems, and often the proper context in order to be TCM has been quite useful in filling properly understood. Even then, it can in the gaps. become quite difficult to understand For instance, if a returning Chinese completely. medical student was quite advanced in cardiology and able to perform, say, Peter Huston has a degree in Asian a particularly new and impressive sort studies, has traveled throughout Asia and of open heart surgery, he or she would China, and lived in Taiwan for three be greeted with respect and great years, where he taught English. He is rewards in terms of money, prestige, currently working on a book, Beyond and career opportunities. On the Chinese Mysticism.

208 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 HELP US DEFEND SKEPTICISM AGAINST HARASSING SUITS CSICOP LEGAL DEFENSE FOUNDATION

n the Winter 1992 issue of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER we outlined the I difficulties that the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal is experiencing because of harassing lawsuits filed against skeptics. We feel confident that these suits will eventually be dismissed. Still, we suspect that the lawsuits were brought for reasons other than the redress of alleged grievances. For what do these suits mean? They mean that the pro- paranormalists think they have finally found a way to strike below the belt of scientists and skeptics. For years they have been unable to prove their claims of miraculous abilities. They've grown tired of hearing our challenges. Now they have turned to intimidation by lawsuit in an effort to silence their only persistent critics. It doesn't necessarily matter if the plaintiff wins or loses the suit. Their purpose is to waste their opponents' resources and to intimidate and silence them—in effect, depriving individuals or organizations of their First Amendment rights. We are by no means a wealthy organization, but we are not prepared to surrender our rights. We have vowed to fight back. To do so, we need your support. CSICOP has established the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation. Its funds will be used to help pay the costs of existing lawsuits and any that may arise in the future, and to countersue when appropriate. Don't allow the claim-mongers to destroy CSICOP (and the values of science and reason it steadfastly represents) through unjust and frivolous legal proceedings. Support the CSICOP Legal Defense Foundation today. It's the best way to blunt this frightening new weapon of the apostles of nonsense.

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The right brain ment from the same edition of the World Almanac, this one for David V. Bush Thank you very much for running (who would be totally forgotten today Fernando D. Saravi's article, "The Right but for the fact that H. P. Lovecraft Hemisphere: An Esoteric Closet?" (SI, ghostwrote some of his material), also Summer 1993). So many wild claims speaks of vast untapped resources of the have been made for the left brain/right mind, though it doesn't specify an exact brain division of function that if I hadn't percentage. also read that the concept actually had So where did the 10-percent figure some validity, I would have been con­ come from? I recall reading somewhere vinced it was just more New Age hooey. that it's a popular misunderstanding of This layman is glad to have had the the fact that at one time science only whole thing finally explained from a understood how 10 percent of the brain rational standpoint. worked. A look at the "Brain" entry in Saravi refers to Barry Beyerstein's the 1911 edition of the Encyclopaedia article in the Spring 1988 issue of SI, Britannica suggests this may be the case. in which mention was made of the The article describes efforts to map the popular belief that we only use 10 brain (that is, what areas control which percent of our brains. I've heard that bodily functions). While certain regions old saw so often that I've had to wonder of the brain were known to be associated just where it came from. Beyerstein with sight and others with smell and wrote that "origins of the 10-percent hearing, '"it is true that the greater part myth are obscure, but the concept was of the cortex remains still terra incognita widely disseminated in courses like Dale unless we are content with mere des­ Carnegie's and canonized in public criptive features concerning its coarse utterances by no less a personage than anatomy." Albert Einstein. I believe the error arose Though no specific percentage is from misinterpretation of research in given, I can see how some misunder­ the 1930s showing that, with evolution­ standing of a statement that the func­ ary advancement, a progressively tion of 90 percent of the brain was smaller proportion of the brain is tied unknown could give rise to the myth to strictly sensory or motor duties." that only 10 percent was actually used. With all due respect to Beyerstein, If any researcher has identified the I suspect there may be more to it than source of the 10-percent myth more that. I found an advertisement for a self- closely than that, I'd be glad to hear improvement outfit called the Pelmam about it. Institute, published in the 1929 edition Dwight R. Decker of the World Almanac, which shows that 20003 N. 23rd Ave., #193 the "10 percent" concept was current in Phoenix, AZ 85027 the 1920s ("Scientists and psychologists tell us we use only about ten percent of our brain power.") Further, the chatty, familiar style of the ad copy suggests that the concept was expected I compliment Alan Cromer on his to be familiar to the reader even then, excellent update (SI, Summer 1993) to as if it were already a well-known Irving Langmuir's classic work on truism. A somewhat similar advertise­ "Pathological Science." However, since

210 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 he emphasizes Langmuir's confronta­ ("sheep") tended to score positively. See tion with J. B. Rhine, I think it is only their ESP and Personality Patterns 1953. fair to point out that Rhine recounted Whatever may be the ultimate verdict this incident very differently. According on cold fusion (on which I hold no to his New Frontiers of the Mind (New opinion beyond noting that experts still York: Farrar and Rinehart, 1937): differ) there is no justification whatever for stigmatizing parapsychology as such Recently a distinguished chemist as pathological science. Could it be, how­ visited our laboratory and generously ever, that Langmuir's comments, which spent several hours arguing that there Cromer accepts so uncritically, are an must be something basically wrong example of "pathological reporting"? with our work—purely on general grounds. He had several times helped to expose error in his own field and John Beloff felt that he knew the erroneous type Department of Psychology of work by its general appearance, by University of Edinburgh certain symptoms. He did not see the Edinburgh, , U.K. particular snag in our case, but he knew it was there! (p. 133) I was particularly interested in Alan William J. Parry Cromer's article on pathological science Associate Professor of since it focuses, albeit indirectly, on the Anthropology nature of belief. Hunter College-CUNY The most important question for New York, N.Y. skeptics should be: What is it about human beings that accounts for their apparent willingness to allow a set belief Alan Cromer quotes some remarks of to influence their perception of evidence Irving Langmuir, who visited J. B. Rhine bearing on that belief? in 1934, to the effect that Rhine deceived In discussing the controversy over himself into thinking that he had cold fusion, Cromer quoted Kim Molvig produced evidence for ESP by disregard­ as saying: "I am willing to be open- ing negative (below-chance) scores as minded, but it's really inconceivable that being separately motivated. Rhine is there is anything there." He described thus accused of propagating "patholog­ this as an amusing comment, but I am ical science." afraid I missed the humor. I also missed I am convinced that these remarks, the ambiguity Cromer found in the term which Langmuir made at a colloquium, open-minded. The Oxford Illustrated some 20 years after his visit to Rhine, Dictionary (1975) defines the term as are entirely without foundation. In the accessible to new ideas, unprejudiced, or first place, it is obvious from Rhine's undecided. What other meaning is Extra-Sensory Perception (1934) that he there? Is it not the essential nature of never based the case for ESP on the skepticism to be open-minded, not overall output of scores but rather on adamantly negative as Glashow seems the fact that he had at the time some to be in his quoted statement regarding half-dozen or so individuals who were cold fusion: "I don't believe a word of each able to score positively over a it." sufficient period as to yield astronomical P. C. S. Hoaken, M.D. odds against chance. In the second place, Kingston, Ontario the problem of motivated negative Canada scoring did not become an issue at the Duke Laboratory until after Gertrude Schmeidler and Robert McConnell had Alan Cromer responds: drawn attention to their findings show­ ing that disbelievers ("goats") tended to My update of Langmuir's description of score negatively while believers pathological science includes a case from

Winter 1994 211 modern science—the erroneous splitting of as textbook authors, Padian dismisses the A2 peak—that resulted from the the "science processes" that we had systematic selection of data that supported emphasized (observing, measuring, the outcome the researchers desired. Lang- inferring, etc.) as only tools and not to muir quotes Rhine, 37 years earlier, be confused with ideas. He concludes admitting the same ("Sometimes, to spite me, that there will be little improvement they make their scores purposely low"). until future authors (guided by real Calling such low-scorers "goats" doesn't cure scientists) "center on the theories of the pathology; it just makes the diagnosis science, rather than those of pedagogy." easier. We recognize this view as a simplistic, Glashow's seven-word response to a elitist argument commonly offered by reporter summarizes, as succinctly as is "scientists." It ignores that, at the very possible, his considerable knowledge of least, quality of instructional materials, physics and of the many follies and pitfalls teacher competence, pedagogical strate­ that beset scientific research. Should the gies, and socio-polito-cultural forces evidence have proved him wrong, I'm sure need to be considered in any realistic he, and certainly I, would have gladly eaten plan to improve science education. a little humble pie in exchange for free and unlimited energy. Wayne Rowe Edmund A. Marek University of Oklahoma The textbook problem Norman, Okla.

Kevin Padian ("Improving Science Teaching: The Textbook Problem," SI, I enjoyed Kevin Padian's article "Improv­ Summer 1993) says that our hearts are ing Science Teaching: The Textbook in the right place, but claims our Problem" in the Summer 1993 issue. proposal {SI, Winter 1993) for an Five years ago, I was hired to proof­ experiential, "learning cycle" approach read a fifth-grade science textbook. I to science teaching "can have, at best, found only a few typos, but about a hun­ only limited success. . . ." The reason dred technical errors. Most were minor given is the sorry quality of current (e.g., rounding errors in English to textbooks, and "improving them is the metric conversions), but some were fastest, cheapest, and most effective way more serious. to improve learning standards for For example, the book correctly ex­ science in the United States." plained the difference between velocity Unfortunately, Padian does not seem and acceleration, and then gave six to distinguish between standards for examples, five of which were wrong. As learning and how much is actually another example, the book said that once learned. To believe that making we have hydrogen fusion technology, elementary-school science books more we will have an "unlimited" supply of accurate would remedy the lack of energy. No wonder politicians (and the interest in science and the deplorable public) can't deal with energy and level of critical thinking in our society environmental problems if they read verges on fantasy. The problem is not that science will provide us with "unlim­ that our citizens confuse the concepts ited" energy sources. of force and energy because their Although I finished the proofreading textbooks blurred the distinction. The ahead of schedule and below budget, and problem is that students report little thus gave the publishers an extra week interest in the content or procedures of to reword those sentences, they said that science and show little ability to analyze they didn't have the time and money to issues or phenomena in a rational correct the serious technical errors. manner. And, of course, the company has After a jeremiad on the use of never hired me again. "science instructors," not real scientists, For another textbook horror story,

212 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 see Surely You're Joking, Mr. Feynman! memories the American Psychological In the book, physicist Richard Feynman Association has formed a task force to recounts an incident in which a math survey all we know about memory from textbook containing only blank pages both experimentation and clinical was reviewed and given almost the same observations. rating as its competitors. Bertram P. Karon, Professor Mark Gilkey Department of Psychology Palo Alto, Calif. Michigan State University East Lansing, Mich. False Memory Syndrome For a journal purportedly devoted to Re Martin Gardner's "The False "scientific investigation of the paranor­ Memory Syndrome" (SI, Summer 1993): mal," the inclusion of "The False Some traumas for some people clearly Memory Syndrome" by Martin Gardner are repressed; other traumas for other in your summer issue is disturbing, to people are clearly not repressed. Repres­ say the least. This is an area in which sions may last for years. I can speak from some knowledge: I am In World War II, there were hundreds one of those "better trained" (will of documented cases of battlefield Harvard do?), "older" therapists, a trauma-induced neuroses, characterized writer of one book (Second Childhood, by symptoms appearing after the trauma Norton, 1989) and many journal articles, and an inability to remember the and a teacher (of memory, among other trauma. Among helpful treatments used subjects) on the post-graduate level. by the military and VA was a brief More important, however, I keep up psychotherapy utilizing hypnosis or with the literature: I would say, offhand, sodium pentothal interviews with the that I have read carefully at least 10 full- aim of quickly restoring a pre-traumatic length professional books and 200 or level of functioning. Heightened sugges­ more professional articles, as well as lay tibility of the patients was not a problem, articles on the subject of delayed since other people knew what had memory, including all of those cited in happened. Gardner's contribution. In addition, just Patients usually do try to get external this year I have, in the interests of confirmation of what they uncover skepticism, curiosity, and open- insofar as it deals with externally mindedness, attended a lecture by John observable events. With incest, how­ Mack, M.D. (surely an "older" Harvard ever, the people best able to confirm or psychiatrist, he of the UFOs) and a deny have a strong motive to lie if it conference in which Pamela Freyd (she is true. of the False Memory Syndrome Foun­ dation) played a major part. I was greatly Patients who accept false events as unimpressed—in fact, horrified—by "real" memories (during badly con­ both of them, each with an axe to grind ducted psychotherapy) do badly in their that blinded them to consideration of subsequent life. In psychoanalytic ther­ real data. Unfortunately, I feel the same apy this is not so much a problem; way about Gardner. eventually the truth will be discovered as patient and therapist investigate and In the interests of brevity, I will focus consider all possibilities. An honest on a fundamental point made by psychotherapist may not know the truth Gardner: "No one doubts that childhood for a long time; it is therapeutic for sexual assaults occur, but in almost every patients to learn to tolerate uncertainty case the event is never forgotten" (italics and to consider that the reconstructed mine). This statement is in direct memory might or might not be true. But contradiction to evidence established in courts want the "truth" immediately. myriad serious studies. Let me refer him Because of the social importance of to just one small journal article that

Winter 1994 213 summarizes a retrospective study of 200 traumatic memories can be repressed. The admissions to an emergency room in question is whether the thousands of such which the admission records recorded memories now being elicited by zealous, sexual assault of female children under untrained, self-deceived therapists are the age of 12 (Linda Meyer Williams, genuine or are the product of dubious "Adult Memories of Childhood Abuse: techniques abetted by sensational books read Preliminary Findings from a Longitud­ by the patients. inal Study," The Advisor, Summer 1992): There are many ways memories of child 38 percent of 100 of those interviewed abuse can be substantiated. A father capable 17 years later did not remember the of raping his four-year-old daughter betrays abuse or the hospitalization, which had such psychotic behavior that it is almost been objectively documented. I have, impossible for there to be no other records myself, had clients who remembered of his mental illness. Wives, siblings, and childhood sexual abuse for the first time other relatives seldom have reason to as adults, in or out of therapy, and, upon maintain a state of "denial." There can be talking to the accused, were actually confirming diaries and letters, or at times supported in their allegations by confes­ a full confession. When there is no evidence sions and, sometimes, apologies. Still at all, coupled with vigorous denials by others located witnesses, or other relatives and a history of the alleged victim's unimpeachable evidence, such as records love and admiration for the alleged perpe­ of a forgotten childbirth (due to forgot­ trators, incalculable harm can be done both ten incest) at a home for unwed mothers. to parents and their innocent families by Similar findings of corroborated accu­ therapy-induced false memories. sations are documented in Herman's Marian Kaplun Shapiro's doctorate is recent scholarly book, Trauma and in education. This does not qualify her to Recovery. So, surely Gardner's assertion practice psychiatry. She is a self-proclaimed here is blatantly incorrect. In addition, hypnotherapist. his spurious comparison of delayed Her praise of Judith Herman's book is memory of sexual abuse to claims of misplaced. Herman did indeed find that in "past lives" and UFO abductions puts a 53 cases of incest survivors, 39 found poor light on his intentions to be corroborative evidence. This seems impres­ objective and fair-minded. sive until you learn that 39 survivors had no loss of memory to begin with. "It wouldn't Marian Kaplun Shapiro, Ed.D. be surprising," said University of Arizona Licensed Psychologist psychologist John Kihlstrom in a recent Lexington, Mass. lecture, "if these individuals were able to validate their memories. Confirmation of abuse is not the same as confirmation of Martin Gardner's column about the false repressed memories." memory syndrome (SI, Summer 1993) In Herman's study, patients with is an outstanding expose of a pseudo- nonrepressed memories reported sex abuse scientific practice with devastating when they were eight or older. Those who consequences for patients and their recalled abuse only after prolonged therapy families. I commend Gardner for writing reported an average abuse age of 4 to 5 it and SKEPTICAL INQUIRER for publishing years. Why were these memories pushed so it. far back? Because, Kihlstrom suggests, they had to push them back to a time when they Forrest M. Mims III couldn't remember anything else. Seguin, Texas Shapiro objects to my comparing repressed memories of child sex abuse with similar memories of Satanic rituals, UFO Martin Gardner replies: abductions, and past incarnations. But techniques for evoking such memories are 1 have no objection to anything said by exactly the same in all four areas. In the Bertram P. Karon. No one denies that case of Satanic cult memories, the therapy

214 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 is just as widespread. will help prevent an automatic expec­ 1 urge readers to check the sensational tation that the phenomenon in question two-part article "Remembering Satan," by is going to be debunked. The most Lawrence Wright, in the New Yorker entertaining and capable people should (May 17 and 24, 1993), Leslie Bennetts' be found to be MCs. article in Vanity Fair (June 1993), Gayle The public's willing and uncritical Hanson's article in Insight (May 24, acceptance of pseudoscience has its roots 1993), and Claire Safran's piece in in other areas besides the mass media, McCall's (June 1993). Better still, write particularly education, to which Kevin for literature to the False Memory Syndrome Padian alluded in his article in the same Foundation, 3401 Market Street, Philadel­ issue. This woolly thinking crosses over phia, PA 19104. This rapidly growing into many other areas, such as political organization, supported by eminent psychi­ and economic decisions. A CSICOP atrists, was formed in 1993 to combat the television show won't solve the whole greatest witch hunt and mental health problem but it would be a big step in scandal of this half-century. the right direction.

Ron Ebert Make use of television Dept. of Physics University of California In your Summer 1993 issue, Paul Kurtz Riverside, Calif. asks in his article "Exploring the Tele­ vision Wasteland," "Is there a remedy for the continued purveyance of the The experience of Paul Kurtz with the paranormal without ?" "Shirley" show is not uncommon. Talk I think the only effective remedy is to shows consistently portray abnormal fight fire with fire. Commercial televi­ behavior as appealing and normal behav­ sion reaches many millions of people. ior as pathological. Deviation from the The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, along with "abnorm-," as it were, is perceived as CSICOP and its members' books, lec­ closed-mindedness, or bigotry, or what­ tures, seminars, and conferences, plus ever other convenient label happens to the efforts of like-minded local and come to mind. regional skeptics organizations, reach However, all that is televised is not perhaps about 100,000 people, a drop in trash. For example, "Square One T.V.," the bucket in comparison. The over­ a show on PBS, has twice aired specials whelming majority of Americans don't that demonstrate how swindlers can use even know there is a dissenting view­ math to validate their claims to para­ point derived from objective and impar­ normal powers. In one show, the tial inquiry. swindler sent letters to many people CSICOP should host a television predicting the results of an event with program similar to James Randi's two possible outcomes—half the letters "Exploring Psychic Powers—Live," predicted one result, and half the letters which aired on June 7, 1989. To keep predicted the other. The swindler public interest in the show, a variety of repeated this process a number of times, should be covered and always sending the new batch of pre­ straight debunking should be intermixed dictions to the people who previously with investigative reporting (here received the correct prediction. In this emphasizing methodologies and inves­ way, the pool was finally reduced to a tigative skills average people can use) small number of people who were easy and "attacks" on methods used in other prey for a swindle, and the swindler had programs that uncritically accept pseu- "proof" of his paranormal powers of doscience. Some topics that are valid in prediction. Let us also not forget "Mr. reality, like the ability to firewalk or Wizard," "Newton's Apple," "Beakman's animals' recognizing and reacting to like World," "National Geographic," and animals on TV, should be included. This many other productions devoted to

Winter 1994 215 showing and explaining the world to the "politically correct" left on the issue of viewing public. the heredity of intelligence. Television is currently going through The fact that the most important the same evolution the printing press issue of our day gets no bigger play than did. There are issues of government a book review toward the back of your control, uses by radical or fringe ele­ small-circulation publication, and that ments of society, pornography, censor­ speaking the truth about it can wreck ship. But there is also the quick and easy a person's career and life, in what is display of information, access to infor­ supposed to be the world's most free mation by a greater majority of the society, ought to trouble every thinking population (in the vernacular, even), and person. a more effective exchange of ideas. It is remarkable that psychometri- cians who know very well that IQ is a Edwin Heller real, measurable phenomenon, and that North Waterboro, Maine it is to a large extent inherited, don't dare say so in an arena where the general public might hear them. In no other Galileo and geocentrism branch of science today is knowledge suppressed by intimidation; theirs is In Gabriel Seabrook's interview with the reminiscent of the work of astronomers "Star Hustler" (SI, Summer 1993), Jack in the Middle Ages who knew that the Horkheimer states: "In 1610, Galileo earth circled the sun but feared to say saw the of Jupiter through a so for fear of excommunication and telescope and proved that we are not public opprobrium. a geocentric system." This observation showed that Jupiter has moons, not that John Penninger the earth is not at the center of the Canoga Park, Calif. universe. Similarly, Galileo's observa­ tion of the phases of Venus showed that Venus orbits the sun—not that the earth In advocating treating persons as indi­ does. If SKEPTICAL INQUIRER had been viduals and not members of groups, Lee around in 1610, it may have pointed out Loevinger minimizes the social problems that Galileo's observations were sugges­ laid out by Daniel Seligman's assessment tive of a heliocentric system but did not of mental testing. If racial or ethnic prove it. Conclusive observations were group averages in IQ differ by as much not available until James Bradley dis­ as one standard deviation, then only 16 covered the aberration of starlight in percent of the members of the lower 1729. group would have a higher IQ than the average of the higher group. Assume it Richard Rees takes an above average higher group IQ Yerkes Observatory to finish a college education. While half Williams Bay, Wis. the higher group typically may become college graduates, only a sixth of the lower group can aspire to this status The IQ debate with all it implies about doing well in life. It will be difficult to distinguish this Thank you for printing Lee Loevinger's outcome from ethnic or racial discrim­ review of Daniel Seligman's important ination. Considering that Loevinger's book, A Question of Intelligence: The IQ sensibilities were jarred by declining IQ Debate in America (Summer 1993). As ascribed to the aged, what is the a politically conservative skeptic, I have likelihood that a lower IQ ethnic group had to bite my tongue sometimes over will accept Seligman's reasoning in your writers' snide asides about Ronald preference to crying foul? Reagan and Dan Quayle, so it was An alternative is the practice in some refreshing to see you take on the universities of admitting students in the

216 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 same proportion as that of their ethnic seems to me to be lacking in the groups in population. These quotas are minimum of skepticism necessary for an intended to ensure equal ethnic repre­ intelligent discussion of the subject. sentation at college graduation. They do Intelligence, as tested, is a social of course result in either differential factor. If Seligman is dealing with any rates of student attrition or in watering intelligence test that is not socially down requirements to aid some mem­ conditioned, I would like to hear about bers of the lower IQ ethnic groups. At it. the same time, admission quotas do represent active discrimination against Terence W. Greene high IQ groups. Oakland, Calif. If Seligman's arguments are correct, differentials in success among ethnic groups in our society are unavoidable, From the description, it sounds as if and not necessarily the result of discrim­ Seligman's book on the IQ debate is a ination. This is true at least to the extent good introduction to the debate for the to which IQ influences success in life. layman. I doubt seriously, however, that it is "a competent and inclusive survey Wolf Roder of the best data science has produced University of Cincinnati to date in the field of mental testing." Cincinnati, Ohio While the prevailing feeling among many psychologists and psychometri- cians is that the g factor is a legitimate Lee Loevinger did a fine job reviewing interpretation of the IQ data, it is not Seligman's "A Question of Intelligence: by any stretch of the imagination wholly The IQ Debate in America." There is accepted. Psychometricians are experts another important point in Seligman's in the field, but they are biased in certain book, answering the question, "Why are directions. There are many who doubt Jews as a group more intelligent than that intelligence is a single, simple trait; gentiles?" Seligman agrees with among this number are Howard Nathaniel Weyl (in the book, The Gardner (cf. Frames of Mind), CSICOP Creative Elite in America) The reason is Fellow Stephen Jay Gould, and others. twofold: For generations gifted Jewish A recent article in Psychological Science boys were encouraged to become rabbis, (the journal of the American Psy­ who had large families. Thus intelligent chological Society) came out strongly genes were preserved. In Christendom, against a g-ocentric universe. I remain on the other hand, for many generations skeptical that there is a single unified gifted boys were steered into the clergy, measure of intelligence without more where celibacy stopped inheritance of compelling evidence than currently these high IQ genes. exists. . . . Logical. Perhaps the reduction of high Furthermore, work in the compe­ intelligence in Christendom also tency field has suggested that while explains why Japanese and other non- intelligence tests are useful measures of Christians have higher IQs than Euro­ certain cognitive abilities, they are not peans/Americans. the best, nor the most precise, nor even the preferred measures of job compe­ D. P. Tracy tence in many situations, as indeed is Toledo, Ohio noted in the degree of variance accounted for by IQ tests. . . .

I hesitate to write a criticism of a review Stephen P. Kelner,Jr. of a book I have not read. I am uncertain Director of Research whether I am criticizing the book or the and Development review. But Loevinger's review of McBer & Company Seligman's A Question of Intelligence Maiden, Mass.

Winter 1994 217 's Atlantis was a myth the elegance of his argument that Atlantis was Troy (sic), I doubt if many The basic problem with geoarchae- classical archaeologists will be persuaded ologist Eberhard Zangger's theory by it. ("Legend Deciphered? Atlantis Was Troy, Says Geoarchaeologist," News & Mary R. Lefkowitz Comment, SI, Summer 1993)—or any Andrew W. Mellon Professor theory about the location of Atlantis— in the Humanities is that Atlantis was not a real continent Wellesley College or civilization, but a construction of Wellesley, Mass. Plato's imagination. Anyone who is familiar with Plato's writings will realize that this story is what he calls in the Scientists on stamps Republic a "noble lie"—a myth meant to instruct and inspire. The Republic You invited readers to submit examples ends with such a myth, the tale of what of postage stamps that celebrate science a soldier called Er, son of Armenius, or scientists (News & Comment, a Pamphylian from the southern coast Summer 1993). I nominate any and all of modern Turkey, saw in the Lower stamps depicting or World. Er appeared to have died in bat­ Thomas Jefferson. Although their con­ tle, but came to life just as he was about tributions as Founding Fathers are to be placed on the funeral pyre, and universally recognized, we can't forget so he is able to describe what he learned that they were among the eminent while he was temporarily dead. The "natural philosophers" of their day and ancient audience would have recog­ received worldwide acclaim and honors nized immediately that this tale was for their work as scientists. I'm enclosing Plato's own invention: it is told not for you the current Jefferson stamp, part by an eyewitness, but at second-hand, of the Great Americans series, which and its narrator is a foreigner who spoke commemorates his 250th birthday. another language, long ago, once- upon-a-time. The story of Atlantis Michael Minnig has all the same characteristics: it is Carmichael, Calif. told at fourth-hand, four generations after it was originally told to Solon I wholeheartedly agree. A good book on by an Egyptian, and even then it Jefferson's contributions to natural philos­ describes events in the remote and ophy is Thomas Jefferson: Scientist, by distant past. Edwin T. Martin, Collier Books, New No one nowadays believes in the York. 1961.—EDITOR story about Er's visit to the Lower World, despite Plato's vivid descrip­ tion of that mysterious region, because Gambling on psychic power we have other ideas about what hap­ pens to the soul after death. None­ The cartoon on page 399 of the Summer theless, some archaeologists and sci­ 1993 issue, as well as the first paragraph entists tend to approach Plato as if in the "Princeton Experiments" News & he were a historian, and to take him Comment article on page 357, prompts literally at his word, at least so long these remarks: as his words can be seen to fit the It seems obvious that the existence facts that they have themselves of gambling casinos is upfront evidence assembled about the sites they have against at least certain kinds of psychic excavated and studied. But as each claims. I'm sure that thought is not modern Atlantologist has had to admit, original with me. That a university no known site resembles Plato's Atlantis would fund research having to do with in all important respects. Zangger's Flood psychically "influencing" or otherwise from Heaven is no exception, and for all "knowing" random number generation

218 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 seems a waste. Any casino does this kind nonsense about such things, claiming of experiment 24 hours a day, all year that what he is saying is based in Scrip­ long. Anyone sporting psychic abilities, ture. We should do all that we can to however mild, should quit wasting time avoid such an embarrassing situation, and verbal blather and head straight for which people see as ignorance in the Christian and laugh to scorn. Nevada. The shame is not so much that an Scarne's classic text on gambling ignorant person is laughed at, but contains an amusing description of folks rather that people outside the faith who try to influence the outcome of a believe that we hold such opinions, roulette wheel by "taking thought." The and thus . . . are rejected as ignorant casinos welcome them, of course. and unlearned. If they find a Christian mistaken in a subject that they know Norm Pos well and hear him maintaining his foolish opinions based on our teach­ San Diego, Calif. ings, how are they going to believe these teachings in matters concerning the resurrection of the dead, the hope Bad science, bad religion of eternal life, and the kingdom of heaven, when they think that these teachings are filled with fallacies about I read with interest Robert Baker's facts which they have learnt from review of Scientific Malpractice: The experience and reason. Creation/Evolution Debate, by Ivan Reckless and presumptuous Zabilka (SI, Summer 1993), which expounders of Scripture bring about argues that creationism is not only bad much harm when they are caught in science but also bad religion. I agree with their mischievous false opinions by this assessment, and I would like to add those not bound by our sacred texts. a few words from one of the great And even more so when they then try authorities in Christian theology, St. to defend their rash and obviously (354-430). untrue statements by quoting a shower of words from Scripture and Augustine wrote on "The Literal even recite from memory passages Meaning of Genesis" (De Genesi ad which they think will support their Litteram), and he poured scorn on those case "without understanding either who used the Bible to attack science what they are saying or the things (Book I, Chapter 19, my translation): about which they make assertions." (1 Timothy 1:7) Suppose that in explaining the words "And God said, 'Let there be light/ and As you see, arguments about biblical there was light" (Genesis 1:3), one literalism have been around for a long thinks that the light was material, and time. I agree with Augustine in his belief another that it was spiritual. As to the that biblical literalists do Christianity a existence of spiritual light in a spiritual disservice when they spout demonstra­ creation, our faith leaves no doubt; as bly incorrect views, and I am puzzled to the creation of a material light, by one of their assumptions. The basis . . . this supposition is not contrary to the faith unless it is shown to be for biblical inerrancy is simple: If the false. And if that should happen, this Word of God is not true, then how are teaching is not from Scripture but was we to be saved? However, the biblical a teaching proposed by man inignor- literalists apparently take this one step ance. . . . further: If every word in the Bible is Often, a non-Christian knows not taken as literally true, then the something about the earth, the heav­ entire Bible must be completely worth­ ens, and the other parts of the world, less. To me, this does not follow, but about the motions and orbits of the I have come across this mindset in any stars and even their size and distances, number of fundamentalists I have . . . and this knowledge he holds with spoken to. certainty from reason and experience. It is thus offensive and disgraceful for John A. Hobson an unbeliever to hear a Christian talk Bolingbrook, 111.

Winter 1994 219 I would like to correct some inaccura­ The blue sense cies in Robert Baker's review of Zabilka's Scientific Malpractice. First, Baker states In his reply to my critial letter (SI, that "None of the 'research' [crea­ Summer 1993), Mark W. Durm: tionists] do is peer-reviewed or sub­ (1) claims that the sources we cite for jected to criticism of any sort." A cursory a "serious scientific case" for psi are examination of the Creation Research not such; (2) states that I wrote "ambigu­ Society Quarterly or the Ex Nihilo ously" in my letter that the blue sense Technical Journal shows this to be does not necessarily refer to psi; false. At times, criticize (3) insists that their survey's questions other creationists more strongly and #4 and #5 are not biased; (4) wonders more accurately than their oppo­ what basis exists for my assertion that nents do. (Some examples may be found most previous evidence indicates greater in Ronald L. Numbers's excellent rural than urban police use of psychics; book, The Creationists.) Second, Baker and (5) claims I misinterpret as positive states that "Creationists are pre­ his finding that 35 percent of the dominantly technicians," but neither departments he surveyed used psychics Baker nor Zabilka give any evidence for since most of the specific comments this. While this may be true, it is not from these departments were dis­ true of the approximately 600 mem­ claimers. Let me respond to each point. bers of the Creation Research Society, 1. Though Durm writes that our of whom the largest group is com­ "quoting of [unspecified] anomaly posed of biologists. (Of the ten who research, Louis [sic] Rhine's research, founded the CRS in 1963, five had and the Census of Hallucinations is not biology Ph.D.s, one had a biochemistry quoting 'serious' science," his unsup­ Ph.D., and one had a master's degree ported assertion is insulting to those in biology.) If any discipline is under- researchers. Whatever Durm may think represented among creationists, it is not of their arguments and evidence, these biology but geology, as Numbers points are certainly serious science efforts and out. have been treated as such by such critics Baker concludes by assessing Zabil­ as Ray Hyman. In any case, Chapter 3 ka's book as clear, concise, and thorough. of our book deals with a great many While I agree that it is clear and concise, other examples of research, including it is not thorough. It is fairly good in laboratory studies (like the ganzfeld its treatment of the political and legal work), which CSICOP has treated history of creationism (although weak seriously in the past. Durm apparently in its intellectual history, where Num­ ignores these. bers's book excels), and in its discussion 2. Durm quite illogically tries to of theological issues. But its coverage of show my letter's supposed ambiguity by the scientific claims of creationism is quoting a passage from our book which incredibly weak—only a single chapter refers to what may be psychic powers of 22 pages is devoted to a superficial as an example of the blue sense. This coverage of the scientific evidence that does not contradict my assertion that refutes the creationists' claims. I recom­ the blue sense "does not necessarily mend the other books Baker mentions, refer to a psychic ability at all" since it but would add that the most thorough includes nonpsychic as well as what examination of creationism to date is still might be psi abilities. As most reviewers Arthur N. Strahler's Science and Earth have noted, we clearly take an agnostic- History (Prometheus Books, 1987), a skeptical (though not dismissive) view massive 558-page book that addresses that the blue sense may or may not the vast majority of creationist actually involve psi abilities. arguments. 3. The bias in Sweat and Durm's questions remains plain. The serious Jim Lippard science question is not whether psychic Tucson, Ariz. information is "more helpful" than

220 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 ordinary information. A normal source, Clear explanation of the physical prin­ such as an eyewitness, produces more ciples involved in this phenomenon has useful information for police use than helped to eradicate more complex (less that from an alleged clairvoyant's report. parsimonious and unsubstantiated) Who has claimed otherwise? I know of "mind-forces"-based explanations. And no psychics who think they should the sweet end arrives when this replace conventional police work. The "strange" phenomenon becomes availa­ real question is whether information ble to most simple humans. The July 19, from a psychic is better than no infor­ 1993, issue of Newsweek lists "walking mation from normal channels. Police on fire" among "exciting activities" for typically use psychics when they are at summer like rock climbing, sky diving, a dead end and have exhausted normal etc. means for information. Congratulations for very needed and 4. The evidence that psychics are well done work. typically used by rural departments is evident from (a) the many cases cited Antonio Garcia-Valdecasas in our book and most other books Museo Nacional de Ciencias dealing with psychic sleuths, (b) even a Naturales cursory look at newspaper and tabloid Madrid, Spain stories reporting the use of psychics by police, and (c) the fact that urban departments normally involve bureauc­ Experiment guides quantum racies that make formal approval for mechanics such unconventional methods difficult. 5. The title of the Sweat and Durm Gary McGath has accused me of har­ article asks the question "Psychics: Do boring a pseudoscientific belief (SI, Police Departments Really Use them?" Letters, Summer 1993). The authors reply in the negative, Perhaps our argument about quan­ concluding that "there is not a prevalent tum mechanics and realism is merely use of psychics." The question they semantic—I am using "realism" in the posed was not whether police successfully same sense as did Einstein, Rosen, and use psychics. I think most reasonable Podolsky in the original EPR paradox readers would find a 35-percent rate to paper: "If, without in any way disturbing be "prevalent use." They might also a system, we can predict with certainty agree with us that even a low "hit" rate, ... the value of a physical quantity, then especially in dead-end cases where there there exists an element of physical is much community pressure for a reality corresponding to this physical solution, may justify trying a previously system." What Bell—and more recently successful or police-recommended Greenberger, Zeilinger, and Home— psychic. have taught us is that this statement is not true in any meaningful sense if quantum mechanics is correct. Since I Professor of Sociology am a physicist, I am forced to face these Eastern Michigan University odd properties of quantum mechanics on Ypsilanti, Mich. a daily basis in a concrete fashion. McGath's letter is typical of the fuzzy thinking of armchair philosophers who Congratulations muse about physics but have no way to quantify their thoughts. His proposed Another thematic cycle reaches an end, test for the principle of realism—where and I am sure that part of its success two observers measure precisely the is due to the activity of the SKEPTICAL same event—illustrates McGath's ignor­ INQUIRER. Walking on fire has been the ance of the basic postulates of quantum subject of at least two demystifying mechanics. Due to the projection pos­ articles in the past issues of your journal. tulate and the collapse of the wave

Winter 1994 221 function, it is impossible for two opportunities provided by electronic- observers to measure the same event— communications technology. the measurement by one excludes the If anyone wants to join our virtual other. This is the whole point, and skeptic community (which has the McGath has missed it. advantage of being participatory), they I am reminded of a story in Richard can either do so directly by sending the Feynman's Surely You're Joking, Mr. e-mail message "subscribe skeptic first- Feynman. Feynman attends a philosophy name last-name" to the address "list- seminar where he is asked to define the [email protected]," or request "essential essence" of an electron. more information from "skeptic- Confused, Feynman asks them to define [email protected]." An anno­ for him the essential essence of a brick. tated skeptics bibliography file is also Each philosopher gives an entirely available to the public. There are about different answer. Ask a roomful of 250 subscribers at the moment, and we physicists to give the mass of an electron seek to expand our reach. and you'll get uniform agreement. Certainly philosophy has its place in science—but to turn to philosophers The Johns Hopkins University rather than experiment for the guiding Dept. of Physics and Astronomy principles of physical law? You'll forgive Baltimore, MD 21218 me if I'm a little skeptical. e-mail: [email protected]

Jonathan P. Dowling Research Associate World's birthday? National Research Council Quantum Optics Group Our member, Phil Spencer, a self- U. S. Army Missile Command confessed knucker maker, who practices Redstone Arsenal, Ala. his arcane craft on the bank of the Motueka River, near Nelson, New Zealand, draws our attention to a Electronic SKEPTIC forthcoming anniversary of great importance. Forget, says Phil, such It might be of interest to your readers arbitrary artificialities as the year 2000 to know about SKEPTIC, an electronic (or 2001). Remember, rather, Bishop discussion group on the issues the Usher's calculation that the world was SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is concerned with. created on November 25, 4004 B.C. It is on the Internet, and thus can We therefore call upon skeptics potentially reach a larger audience than everywhere to prepare themselves for similar groups on Usenet or local BBS's. 1997, when we all celebrate the six- A number of participants, such as thousandth birthday of Old Mother Robert Sheaffer, Vic Stenger, and Brian Earth. Siano, are already familiar to skeptics. Bernard Howard We also have a number of defenders of New Zealand Skeptics anomaly claims. The level of discussion Christchurch, N.Z. includes both informal exchanges and fairly serious examinations of topics of The letters column is a forum for views on skeptical concern. matters raised in previous issues. Brief letters The discussion of pseudoscience on (less than 250 words) are welcome. We SKEPTIC naturally involves much science, reserve the right to edit longer ones. They and philosophical considerations. The should be typed double-spaced. Due to the common point of view is skeptical volume of letters, not all can be published. toward the paranormal, but critical Address them to Letters to the Editor, approaches to science itself are also SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, 3025 Palo Alto encouraged. My hope is that more Dr. NE, Albuquerque, NM 87111. skeptics will take advantage of the

222 SKEPTICAL INQUIRER, Vol. 18 Local, Regional, and National Skeptics Organizations The organizations listed below have aims New England. Contact Laurence Moss, similar to those of CSICOP but are indepen­ Ho & Moss, 72 Kneeland St., Boston dent and autonomous. They are not affiliated 02111. with CSICOP, and representatives of these MICHIGAN. Great Lakes Skeptics, Carol organizations cannot speak on behalf of Lynn, contact, 1264 Bedford Rd., Grosse CSICOP. Pointe Park, MI 84230-1116. UNITED STATES MINNESOTA. Minnesota Skeptics, Robert W. ALABAMA. Alabama Skeptics, Emory Kim- McCoy, 549 Turnpike Rd., Golden Valley, brough, 3550 Watermelon Road, Apt. MN 55416. St. Kloud ESP Teaching 28A, Northport, AL 35476 (205-759- Investigation Committee (SKEPTIC), 2624). Jerry Mertens, Coordinator, Psychology ARIZONA. Tucson Skeptical Society Dept., St. Cloud State Univ., St. Cloud, (TUSKS), James McGaha, Chairman, MN 56301. 5655 E. River Rd., Suite #101-127, MISSOURI. Kansas City Committee for Tucson, AZ 85715. Phoenix Skeptics, Skeptical Inquiry, Verle Muhrer, Chair­ Michael Stackpole, Chairman, P.O. Box man, 2658 East 7th, Kansas City, MO 60333, Phoenix, AZ 85082. 64124. Gateway Skeptics, Chairperson, CALIFORNIA. Bay Area Skeptics, Wilma Steve Best, 6943 Amherst Ave., Univer­ Russell, Secretary, 17723 Buti Park Court, sity City, MO 63130. Castro Valley, CA 94546. East Bay NEW JERSEY. (See New York Area Skeptics, Skeptics Society, Daniel Sabsay, Presi­ New York.) dent, P.O. Box 20989, Oakland, CA 94620 NEW MEXICO. New Mexicans for Science & (510-420-0702). Sacramento Skeptics Reason, John Geohegan, Chairman, 450 Society, Terry Sandbek, 3838 Watt Ave., Montclaire SE, Albuquerque, NM 87108; Suite C303, Sacramento, CA 95821-2664 John Smallwood, 320 Artist Road, Santa (916-488-3772). Fe, NM 87501 (505-988-2800). COLORADO and WYOMING. Rocky Mountain NEW YORK. New York Area Skeptics Skeptics, Bela Scheiber, President, P.O. (NYASk), Wayne Tytell, contact person, Box 7277, Boulder, CO 80306. 159 Melrose Ave., E. Massapequa, NY CONNECTICUT. (See New York Area Skep­ 11758, (516) 798-6902. Western New tics, New York.) York Skeptics, Tim Madigan, Chairman, DISTRICT OF COLUMBIA, DELAWARE, MARY­ 3965 Rensch Rd., Buffalo, NY 14228. LAND, and VIRGINIA. National Capital OHIO. South Shore Skeptics, Page Stephens, Area Skeptics, c/o D. W. "Chip" Denman, 6006 Fir Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44102 8006 Valley Street, Silver Spring, MD (216-631-5987). Association for Rational 20910. Thinking (Cincinnati area), Joseph F. FLORIDA. Tampa Bay Skeptics, Gary Posner, Gastright, Contact, 111 Wallace Ave., 1113 Normandy Trace Rd., Tampa, FL Covington, KY 41014, (513) 369-4872 or 33602 (813-221-3533). (606) 581-7315. GEORGIA. Georgia Skeptics, Becky Long, PENNSYLVANIA. Paranormal Investigating President, 2277 Winding Woods Dr., Committee of Pittsburgh (PICP), Richard Tucker, GA 30084. Busch, Chairman, 5841 Morrowfield ILLINOIS. Midwest Committee for Rational Ave., #302, Pittsburgh, PA 15217 (412- Inquiry, Danielle Kafka, President, P.O. 521-2334). Box 2792, Des Plaines, IL 60017-2792. TEXAS. Houston Association for Scientific Rational Examination Assoc, of Lincoln Thinking (HAST), Darrell Kachilla, P.O. Land (REALL), David Bloomberg, Chair­ Box 541314, Houston, TX 77254. North man, P.O. Box 20302, Springfield IL 62708 Texas Skeptics, Joe Voelkering, President, (217-787-9098). P.O. Box 111794, Carrollton, TX 75011- INDIANA. Indiana Skeptics, Robert Craig, 1794. West Texas Society to Advance Chairperson, 5401 Hedgerow Drive, Rational Thought, Co-Chairmen: George Indianapolis, IN 46226. Robertson, 4700 Polo Pky., Apt. 183, KENTUCKY. Kentucky Assn. of Science Midland, TX 79705-1542. Educators and Skeptics (KASES), Chair­ WASHINGTON. The Society for Sensible man, Prof. Robert A. Baker, 3495 Cas- Explanations, P.O. Box 7121, Seattle, WA tleton Way North, Lexington, KY 40502. 98133. LOUISIANA. Baton Rouge Proponents of WISCONSIN. Wisconsin Committee for Rational Inquiry and Scientific Methods Rational Inquiry, Mary Beth Emmericks, (BR-PRISM), c/o Wayne R. Coskrey, P.O. Convenor, 8465 N. 51st St., Brown Deer, Box 82060, Baton Rouge, LA 70884-2060. WI 53223. MASSACHUSETTS. Skeptical Inquirers of (continued on next page) ARGENTINA. CAIRP, Director, Ladislao Sanal Edamaruku, 779, Pocket 5, Mayur Enrique Marquez, Jose Marti, 35 dep C, Vihar 1, New Delhi 110 091. 1406 Buenos Aires. IRELAND. Irish Skeptics, Peter O'Hara, AUSTRALIA. National: , Contact, St. Joseph's Hospital, Limerick. P.O. Box E324 St. James, NSW 2000. ITALY. Comitato Italiano per il Controllo Regional: Australian Capital Territory, delle Affermazioni sul Paranormale, P.O. Box 555, Civic Square, 2608. New­ Massimo Polidoro, Editor, Scienza & Para­ castle Skeptics, Chairperson, Colin Keay, normale, P.O. Box 60, 27058 Voghera (PV). Physics Dept., Newcastle University, JAPAN. Japan Skeptics, Jun Jugaku, Chair­ NSW 2308. Queensland, P.O. Box 2180, person, 1-31-8-527 Takadanobaba, Brisbane, 4001. South Australia, P.O. Box Shinjuku-Ku, Tokyo 169. 91, Magill, 5072. Victoria, P.O. Box 1555P, MEXICO. Mexican Association for Skeptical , 3001. Western Australia, 25 Research (SOMIE), Mario Mendez- Headingly Road, Kalamunda 6076. Acosta, Chairman, Apartado Postal 19- BELGIUM. Committee Para, J. Dommanget, 546, Mexico 03900, D.F. Chairman, Observatoire Royal de Bel- NETHERLANDS. , Rob gique, Avenue Circulaire 3, B-1180 Nanninga, Secretary, Westerkade 20, . SKEPP, W. Betz, Secretary, 9718 AS Groningen. Laarbeeklaan 103, B1090 Brussels (FAX: NEW ZEALAND. New Zealand Skeptics, 32-2-4774301). Vicki Hyde, Chairperson, South Pacific BRAZIL. Opcao Racional, Luis Gutman, Av. Publications, Box 19-760, Christchurch 5, Nossa Senhora de Copacabana, 830/904 N.Z., Fax: 64 3 384-5138. Rio de Janeiro 22050.000. NORWAY. NIVFO, K. Stenodegard, Boks 9, CANADA. Alberta Skeptics, Heidi Lloyd- N-7082, Kattem. Skepsis, Terje Ember- Price, Secretary, P.O. Box 5571, Station land, Contact, P. B. 2943 Toyen 0608, A, Calgary, Alberta T2H 1X9. British Oslo 6. Columbia Skeptics, Lee Moller, contact, RUSSIA. Contact Edward Gevorkian, Ulya- 1188 Beaufort Road, Vancouver V7G 1R7. novskaya 43, Kor 4, 109004, Moscow. Manitoba Skeptics. Contact John Toews, SOUTH AFRICA. Assn. for the Rational President, Box 92, St. Vital, Winnipeg, Investigation of the Paranormal (ARIP), Man. R2M 4A5. Ontario Skeptics, Henry Marian Laserson, Secretary, 4 Wales St., Gordon, Chairman, 343 Clark Ave West, Sandringham 2192. SOCRATES, Leon Suite 1009, Thornhill, Ontario L4J 7K5. Retief, contact, 3 Hoheizen Crescent, Sceptiques du Quebec: Jean Ouellette, Hoheizen, Bellville 7530. C.P. 202, Succ. Beaubien, Montreal H2G SPAIN. Alternativa Racional a las Pseudo- 3C9. sciencias (ARP). Contact Mercedes Quin- CZECH REPUBLIC. Contact Milos Chvojka, tana, Apartado de Correos 17.026, E-280 Inst, of Physics, Czech Academy of Sci­ 80 Madrid. El Investigador Esceptico. ences, Na Slovance 2,1 80 40 Prague 8. Contact Felix Ares De Bias, Gamez/Ares/ ESTONIA. Contact Indrek Rohtmets, Hori- Martinez, P.O. Box 904, 20080 Donostia- sont, EE 0102 Tallinn, Narva mnt. 5. San Sebastian. FINLAND. Skepsis, Lauri Grohn, Secretary, SWEDEN. Vetenskap & Folkbildning Ojahaanpolku 8 B17, SF-01600 Vantaa. (Science and People's Education), Sven FRANCE. Comite Francois pour l'Etude des Ove Hansson, Secretary, Box 185,101 23 Phenomenes Paranormaux, Claude Stockholm. Benski, Secretary-General, Merlin Gerin, TAIWAN. Tim Holmes, San Chuan Road, 98 RGE/A2 38050 Grenoble Cedex. Alley, #47, Fengyuan. GERMANY. Society for the Scientific UKRAINE. Perspectiva, Oleg G. Bakhtiarov, Investigation of Para-Science (GWUP), Director, 36 Lenin Blvd., Kiev 252001. Amardeo Sarma, Convenor, Postfach . SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 1222, D-6101 Rossdorf. Representative, Michael J. Hutchinson, 10 HONG KONG. Hong Kong Skeptics. Con­ Crescent View, Loughton, Essex IG10 tact Rebecca Bradley, P.O. Box 1010, 4PZ. The Skeptic magazine, Editors, Toby Shatin Central Post Office, Shatin, NT. Howard and Steve Donnelly, P.O. Box HUNGARY. Hungarian Skeptics, Janos 475, M60 2TH. London Szentagothai, Termeszel Vilaga, P.O. Box 25, Student Skeptics, John Lord, Univ. of Budapest 8, 1444. Fax 011-36-1-118- London Library, Senate House, Malet St., 7506. London WClE 7HU. Manchester Skep­ INDIA. Indian Skeptics, B. Premanand, tics, David Love, P.O. Box 475, Manches­ Chairman, 10, Chettipalayam Rd., ter M60 2TH. Wessex Skeptics, Robin Podanur 641-023 Coimbatore Tamil nadu. Allen, Dept. of Physics, Southampton Indian Rationalist Association, Contact Univ., Highfield, Southampton S09 5NH. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal Paul Kurtz, Chairman Scientific and Technical Consultants George Agogino, Dept. of Anthropology, Eastern New Mexico University. William Sims Bainbridge, professor of sociology, Illinois State University. Gary Bauslaugh, dean of technical and academic education and professor of chemistry, Malaspina College, Nanaimo, British Columbia, Canada. Richard E. Berendzen, astronomer, Washington, DC. Martin Bridgstock, lecturer, School of Science, Griffith Observatory, Brisbane, Australia. Richard Busch, magician, Pittsburgh, Pa. Shawn Carlson, physicist, Berkeley, Calif. Charles J. Cazeau, geologist. Deary, Idaho. Ronald J. Crowley, professor of physics, California State University, Fullerton. Roger B. Culver, professor of astronomy, Colorado State Univ. J. Dath, professor of engineering, Ecole Royale Militaire, Brussels, Belgium. Felix Ares De Bias, professor of computer science. University of Basque, San Sebastian, Spain. Sid Deutsch, Visiting Professor of electrical engineering, University of South Florida, Tampa. J. Dommanget, astronomer, Royale Observatory, Brussels, Belgium. Natham J. Duker, assistant professor of pathology, Temple University. Barbara Eisenstadt, educator, Clifton Park, NY. John F. Fischer, forensic analyst, Orlando Fla. Frederic A. Friedel, philosopher, Hamburg, West Germany. Robert E. Funk, anthropologist. New York State Museum & Science Service. Eileen Gambrill, professor of social welfare. University of California at Berkeley. Sylvio Garattini, director, Mario Negri Pharmacology Institute, Milan, Italy. Laurie Godfrey, anthropologist, University of Massa­ chusetts. Gerald Goldin, mathematician, Rutgers University, New Jersey. Donald Goldsmith, astronomer; president. Interstellar Media. Clyde F. Herreid, professor of biology, SUNY, Buffalo. Terence M. Hines, professor of psychology. Pace University, Pleasantville, N.Y. Philip A, Ianna, assoc. professor of astronomy, Univ. of Virginia. William Jarvis, chairman, Public Health Service, Loma Linda University, California. I. W. Kelly, professor of psychology, University of Saskatchewan. Richard H. Lange, MD. Mohawk Valley Physician Health Plan, Schenectady, N.Y. Gerald A. Larue, professor of biblical history and archaeology. University of So. California. Bernard J. Leikind, staff scientist, GA Technologies Inc., San Diego. William M. London, associate professor of health education, Kent State University. Thomas R. McDonough, lecturer in engineering, Caltech, and SETI Coordinator of the Planetary Society. James E. McGaha, Major, USAF; pilot. Joel A. Moskowitz, director of medical psychiatry, Catabasas Mental Health Services, Los Angeles. Robert B. Painter, professor of microbiology, School of Medicine, University of California. John W. Patterson, professor of materials science and engineering, Iowa State University. Steven Pinker, assistant professor of psychology, MIT. James Pomerantz, professor of psychology, Rice University; Gary Posner, M.D., Tampa, Fla. Daisie Radner, professor of philosophy, SUNY, Buffalo. Michael Radner, professor of philosophy, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Robert H. Romer, professor of physics, Amherst College. Milton A. Rothman, physicist, Philadelphia, Pa. Karl Sabbagh, journalist, Richmond, Surrey, England. Robert J. Samp, assistant professor of education and medicine, University of Wisconsin- Madison. Steven D. Schafersman, geologist, Houston. Bela Scheiber,* system analyst, Boulder, Colo. Chris Scott, statistician, London, England. Stuart D. Scott, Jr., associate professor of anthropology, SUNY, Buffalo. Erwin M. Segal, professor of psychology, SUNY, Buffalo. Elie A. Shneour, biochemist; director. Bio- systems Research Institute, La Jolla, California. Steven N. Shore, astronomer, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center, Md. Barry Singer, psychologist, Eugene, Oregon. Mark Slovak, astronomer. University of Wisconsin-Madison. , physiologist, author; editor of the American Rationalist. Waclaw Szybalski, professor, McArdle Laboratory, University of Wisconsin-Madison. Ernest H. Taves, psychoanalyst, Cambridge, Massachusetts. Sarah G. Thomason, professor of linguistics. University of Pittsburgh, editor of Language. 'Member of CS1COP Executive Council

Subcommittees Astrology Subcommittee: Chairman, I. W. Kelly, Dept. of Educational Psychology, University of Saskat­ chewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan S7N 0W0, Canada. Electronic Communication Subcommittee: Chairman, Page Stephens, 6006 Fir Ave., Cleveland, OH 44102. E-Mail: Jim Kutz [email protected] Paranormal Health Claims Subcommittee: Co-chairmen, William Jarvis, Professor of Health Education, Dept. of Preventive Medicine, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 93350, and Stephen Barrett, M.D., P.O. Box 1747, Allentown, PA 1810S. Parapsychology Subcommittee: Chairman, Ray Hyman, Psychology Dept., Univ. of Oregon, Eugene, OR 97402. UFO Subcommittee: Chairman, Philip J. Klass, 404 "N" Street S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024. The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal

The Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal encourages the critical investigation of paranormal and fringe-science claims from a responsible, scientific point of view and disseminates factual information about the results of such inquiries to the scientific community and the public. It also promotes science and sci­ entific inquiry, critical thinking, science education, and the use of reason in examining important issues. To carry out these objectives the Committee: • Maintains a network of people interested in critically examining paranormal, fringe- science, and other claims, and in contributing to consumer education • Prepares bibliographies of published materials that carefully examine such claims • Encourages research by objective and impartial inquiry in areas where it is needed • Convenes conferences and meetings • Publishes articles that examine claims of the paranormal • Does not reject claims on a priori grounds, antecedent to inquiry, but examines them objectively and carefully The Committee is a nonprofit scientific and educational organization. The SKEPTICAL INQUIRER is its official journal.