„he xorsemen in the

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gover sm—ge

en eighteenth ™entury engr—ving of —n eleventh ™entury runestone

È formerly in rulterst—d ghur™h on y l—ndY now lostF „he ins™ription

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„he vom˜—rds „he wongols

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„he ƒer˜s „he ermeni—ns

 ƒim— girkovi™ eF iF ‚edg—te Â

„he f—squesB „he fritons

‚oger gollins ghristopher eF ƒnyder

„he inglish „he runs

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„he qypsies „he i—rly qerm—ns

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„he fretons „he sllyri—ns

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pr—n™is tohn fyrne —nd wi™h—el rerity golin uidd 8 h—uvit frown

„he fyz—ntines „he €i™ts

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„he ƒp—nish „he engles —nd ƒ—xons

‚oger gollins rel—n— r—merow Bhenotes title now out of print

„he xorsemen in the

†iking ege iri™ ghristi—nsen

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pF ™mF ± @€eoples of iuropeA

sn™ludes ˜i˜liogr—phi™—l referen™es —nd indexF

sƒfx HETQIEPITUUER @—lkF p—perA

IF xorthmenF PF †ikingsF sF „itleF ssF ƒeriesF

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e ™—t—logue re™ord for this title is —v—il—˜le from the fritish vi˜r—ryF

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sust—in—˜le forestry poli™yD —nd whi™h h—s ˜een m—nuf—™tured from pulp

pro™essed using —™idEfree —nd element—ry ™hlorineEfree pr—™ti™esF purthermoreD

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—™™ept—˜le environment—l —™™redit—tion st—nd—rdsF

por further inform—tion on

fl—™kwell €u˜lishingD visit our we˜siteX wwwF˜l—™kwellpu˜lishingF™om

gontents

vist of w—ps vi

vii vist of e˜˜revi—tions

Acknowledgements xv

sntrodu™tionX

†ikings „heir ege „he eim I±W

xhs†sh evƒ IH Is

Pp ewsvsiƒ QV

Qg yww xs„siƒ exh e ƒƒygse„syxƒ TR

Rh sƒ„‚sg„ƒ exh „ i‚‚s„y‚siƒ VU

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IH € eƒ„ PQT

II € ‚iƒix„ PSI

IP p „ ‚i PUW

yhi‚x ‚ iƒie‚gr QHI €osts™riptX w

eppendixesX

eh ‰xeƒ„sg s hix„s„siƒ QPS

fh e„iƒ QPU

g‡ isqr„ƒ exh w ieƒ ‚iƒ QQQ

h„ riqxƒ QQS

‚eferen™es QQU

sndex QTU

w—ps

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PfigmenD™FWHH±™FIHSH US

Q rypotheti™—l territoriesD ™FUSH±™FIHHH WH

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S ƒ™—ndin—vi—n peoplesD USH±IHSH IIQ

T „he h—nish kingdom under g—nute ISI

U ghiefdoms —nd kingdomsD ™FVHH ITI

V smport±exportD VHH±WSH PII

W wigr—tionD WSH±IHSH PQR

IH gults PTH

II ‚uneEstone regionsD ™FWUH±IHUH PUU

IP furi—l ritesD ™FWHH±™FIHHH PVU

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ee e™t— er™h—eologi™—D gopenh—genF

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viii e˜˜revi—tions

e h erkñologiske udgr—vninger i h—nm—rk IWWHD

gopenh—gen IWWIF

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volsD gopenh—genD IWRI±SPF

hƒ h—nske ƒtudierD gopenh—genF

e˜˜revi—tions ix

hƒted h—nm—rks ƒtedn—vne @snstitut for x—vneforskningAD

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ƒf ƒ—g— fook of †iking ƒo™ietyD vondon IVWP±F

ƒgi ƒ™—ndin—vi—ns —nd iurope VHH±IQSHD edF tF ed—ms

—nd uF rolm—nD „urnhoutD PHHQF

ƒq ƒ—xo qr—mm—ti™usX ƒq @phAX ƒ—xo qr—mm—ti™usX

ristory of the h—nesD tr—nsF €F pisher —nd rF iF

illis h—vidsonD P volsD ‡ood˜ridgeY ƒq @igAX ƒ—xo

qr—mm—ti™usX h—norum ‚egum reroumque risE

tori—D tr—nsF iF ghristi—nsenD fe‚ sntF ƒeriesD lxxxivD ™xviii @i —nd iiAD IWVH±VIF

e˜˜revi—tions xiii

ƒreƒ „he ƒhip —s ƒym˜olD edF yF grumlin €etersen —nd fF

wF „hyeD gopenh—gen IWWSF

ƒshu ƒiedlungen im deuts™hen uustenge˜ietD edF qF uosE È

s—™k et —lD PvvD fonn IWVRF

ƒtr ƒ™—ndin—vi—n tourn—l of ristoryD ƒto™kholm IWUT±F

ƒkj@e —nd fA hen norskEisl—ndske skj—ldedigtningD edF pinnur

tonssonD R volsD gopenh—gen IWIP±ISF Â

ƒwiyv ƒtru™ture —nd we—ning in yld xorse viter—tureDedF

tF vindowD IWVTF

ƒwrh ƒ™riptores winores ristoriñ h—ni™ñDedF

wF gF qertzD gopenh—gen IWIV±PPF

ƒ€ix ƒpe™ulum xorroenumD edF F hronke et —lFD ydense

IWVIF

ƒni ƒnorri ƒturlusonX idd—D tr—nsF eF p—ulkesD vondon

IWVUF

ƒƒ ƒ™—ndin—vi—n ƒtudiesF

ƒƒrf ƒ™—ndin—vi—n ƒettlement in xorthern frit—inDedFfF

gr—wfordD vei™ester IWWSF

ƒ„x ƒtudi— xeophilologi™—D ysloGƒto™kholmD IWPV±F

„‚rƒ „r—ns—™tions of the ‚oy—l ristori™—l ƒo™ietyD

g—m˜ridgeF

„‚yq „r—dition og historieskrivningD edF uF r—strupD

e—rhus IWVUF

„† „he †ikingsD edF ‚F „F p—rrellD vondonEghi™hester

IWVPF

xre†i ntersu™hungen zu r—ndel und †erkehr der vorE und

fruhges™hi™htli™hen eitD ptF ivD edF uF huwelD rF È È

t—nkuhn et —lFD qottingen IWVUF È

†e †iking ertif—™tsD tF qr—h—mEg—mp˜ellD vondon

IWVHF

†egyx „he †iking ege in g—ithnessD yrkney —nd the xorth

etl—nti™D edF gF f—tey et —lFD idin˜urgh IWWQF

†exy †olker —n xord und ystsee und die pr—nkenD edF von È

preeden et —lD fonn IWWWF

†g V „he €ro™eedings of the iighth †iking gongressDedF

€F poote —nd yF ylsenD ydense IWVIF

†g IH €ro™eedings of the „enth †iking gongressDedF

tF iF unirk @v—rkollen IWVSAD yslo IWVUF

†g II „he €ro™eedings of the ileventh †iking gongressD see

†egyx

†g IP „he €ro™eedings of the „welfth †iking gongressDedF

fF em˜rosi—ni —nd rF gl—rkeD hevelopments eround

the f—lti™ @firk— ƒtudies iiiAD ƒto™kholm IWWRF

xiv e˜˜revi—tions

†i †iking impiresD eF porteD ‚F yrim —nd pF €edersenD

g—m˜ridge PHHSF

†su „he †ikingsD edF „F endersson —nd sF ƒ—ndredD

pps—l— IWUVF

†sxeƒ †ikings —nd the xorth etl—nti™ ƒ—g—DedF

‡F ‡F pitzhugh —nd iF ‡—rdD xew ‰ork PHHHF

†s€e †isions of the €—stD edF rF enderssonD €F g—relli —nd

Ê vF irsg—rdD ƒto™kholm IWWUF

†s‚i †iking ‚ev—lu—tionsD edF eF p—ulkes —nd ‚F €erkinsD

vondon IWWQF

†sƒy †iolen™e —nd ƒo™iety in the i—rly wediev—l ‡estDedF

qF r—ls—llD ‡ood˜ridge IWWVF

†ƒ †ikingesymposiumD e—rhusD gopenh—gen —nd ydense

IWVP±F

‡e ‡orld er™h—eologyD vondon IWTW±F

‡w ‡illi—m of w—lmes˜ury

‡yy ‡ords —nd y˜je™tsD edF qF ƒteinsl—ndD yslo IWVTF

‡‡ „he ‡orld of ‡orkD edF eF tF pr—ntzen —nd

hF woff—tD ql—sgow IWWRF

€hf um €ro˜lem der heutung fruhmittel—lterli™her È

fildinh—ltD edF rF ‚othD ƒigm—ringen IWVTF

e™knowledgements

s th—nk erthur est˜ury —˜ove —llD for his vigil—nt proofE™orre™tion

whi™h w—s too l—te to prevent the m—ny errors of the h—rd˜—™k

editionF „hen €eter ƒ—wyerD for living up to his n—me with the lum˜er

he found thereD —nd t—yne g—rrol for her p—tient ™riti™ismsF

wost of the referen™es h—ve now ˜een linked to listed sour™esD or

elimin—tedY the text h—s ˜een supplemented if not mu™h modi®ed in

the light of seven outst—nding ˜ooks on †iking ege topi™s pu˜lished from PHHI to PHHSF

sntrodu™tion

†ikings

–inough is enoughF ƒomething re—lly must ˜e done to stop pu˜lishers

putting the word ––†iking99 in the title of —ll ˜ooks th—t h—ve v—guely

mediev—l —nd f—intly qerm—ni™ su˜je™ts9D wrote the —uthor of ghronE

I

i™les of the †ikingsD in whi™hD neverthelessD the word me—ns nothing

more pre™ise th—n –person of xordi™ —spe™t —nd spee™h living in

ƒ™—ndin—vi— —nd the xorse ™olonies in the i—rly widdle eges9F re

w—s rightF €u˜lishers must h—ve their vikingsF ‡hen ueynes —nd

v—pidge tr—nsl—ted esser for the €enguin ege of uing elfredDthe

®rm m—de them mistr—nsl—te p—g—ni @whi™h me—ns he—thenA —s vikE

ingsF esser w—s ™—reful with his ™hoi™e of wordsX ˜ut so wh—tc st is

one of the most ™onvenient misnomersX –too well est—˜lished to ˜e

—˜—ndoned9 —™™ording to qwyn tonesF ‡e sl—p it on to se—Ekings of

the ninth ™enturyD l—˜orious ™rofters in the yrkneysD hillEf—rmers

holed up in the vin™olnshire woldsD protoEur˜—n —rtis—ns in ‚i˜e

—nd ‰orkD —nd most perversely of —ll to the ™olonists of qreenl—nd

—nd p—rtEtime emeri™—ns right down to their f—ding —w—y in the

®fteenth ™enturyD ˜enighted f—shionEvi™tims e—ting their own dogs

—nd f—iling to ˜e™ome like the iskimosD for fe—r of ™ontr—vening the

P

te—™hings of the ™hur™hF †iking h—s —lmost ˜e™ome —n ethni™ term

@—s if —ll ƒ ™itizens were ™—lled ™ow˜oysAD ˜ut not quiteF xo one

refers to xordi™ sl—ves —s vikingsF –†iking sl—ve9 suggests — poor

srishm—n @see ˜elowD pF PTA or ƒl—vD ™h—ined up ˜y — spe—ker of yld

I €—geD reviewing p—rrell9s †ikings in ƒfD xxiD QHTF ris ghroni™les were reissued in

PHHHF

P w™qovern9s theoryD ˜—sed on the evident —uthority —nd we—lth of e—rlier qreenE

l—nd ˜ishopsY —nd see now pitzhugh —nd ‡—rd PHH @†sxeƒA QQV±W for –˜l—me the

˜ishop9F vesley e˜r—ms9 reviewX –‡hy emeri™—n —ttempts to —ppropri—te e—rly ƒ™—nE

din—vi—n enterprise —re misguided9 @„imes viter—ry ƒupplementD QH tune PHHHA w—s timelyF

P sntrodu™tion

xorseD —nd the n—tive xorse thr—ll seems not to qu—lify ± unlike

womenD ™hildren —nd domesti™ —nim—lsF ‡hy h—s this mis™—lling

triumphedc

vong ˜efore the r—ids on the ‡est ˜eg—nD the word is found in

engloEv—tin gloss—riesD where it me—nt ro˜˜erD —nd th—t is how the

engloEƒ—xon ™hroni™lers used it in the tenth ™enturyF ‡i™ing—s were

usu—lly ™o—st—l m—r—udersD r—ther th—n mem˜ers of the horseE˜orne

l—nd —rmies of h—nes or he—then whi™h ro—med over ingl—nd from

VTTF e for™e whi™h ™—mped —t pulh—m in VUW is des™ri˜ed —s –— he—p

of vikings9Y perh—ps the —rmy whi™h h—d m—de pe—™e with elfred the

ye—r ˜efore w—s supposed not to ˜eF inglish sour™es ™ontinued to use

the word —s — synonym for pir—te or m—r—uder down to the thirteenth

™enturyF emong the xorsemen there w—s — slightly different emph—E

sisD for poetsD —t le—stD were more toler—ntF sn ƒk—ldi™ verse it ™—n

me—n –us r—iders9D ˜ut usu—lly –themD the enemy9X whether inglishD

fretonsD ‡endsD or xorsemenF „hree rune±stones ™ommend men

who went õ võkinguY –on viking r—ids9X ˜ut th—t w—s unusu—lF v—ter  Â

versi®ers pr—ise rulers who h—ng or drive out su™h pestsF †õking—r Â

o™™urs on — few h—nish —nd ƒwedish runeEstones to des™ri˜e ˜oth

respe™t—˜le sons r—iding overse—sD —nd lo™—l nuis—n™esY l—ter onD in

s™el—ndi™ s—g—sD vikings —re just pir—tesF „he origin of the word h—s

Q

˜een studied to the point of redund—n™yD —nd rem—ins un™ert—inF sts

—™™ept—n™e —s the —llEpurpose noun for most xordi™ people of —

™ert—in illEde®ned period w—s p—rtly owing to the l—™k of —ny suit—˜le

—ltern—tiveD —nd p—rtly to the ‚om—nti™ illusion th—t m—r—uding ˜y

se— w—s — no˜le pursuit in those d—ysD foresh—dowing the m—ritime

enterprise whi™h h—d m—de modern n—tions gre—tF

ƒir ‡—lter ƒ™ott did not sh—re this illusionD ˜ut his reviv—l of the

forgotten †iEking @in „he €ir—teD IVPVA ™—me in the ni™k of timeD to

me—n wh—t every˜ody else w—nted it to me—nX — sort of ˜lond

˜—r˜—ri—n with — mission to invigor—te —nd deEsophisti™—teF €rogress

Q pell IWVT est—˜lished the priority of the engloEƒ—xon ‡i™eng over re™orded uses

of yx †õ D ˜ut the p—u™ity of yx re™ords ˜efore the tenth ™entury me—ns th—t Âkingr

there is no telling who used it ®rstF „he ƒ—wyers —nd rùdne˜ù IWVU revived the

theory th—t it me—nt –person from †iken9D —nd th—t su™h persons ˜e™—me —r™hetypi™—l

pir—tesF ƒee now tes™h PHHID RR±TV for how the word w—s usedF enother possi˜ility is

th—t võ w—s ˜orrowed from the engloEprisi—n word for –™—mper9 @wi™ing± Âkingr

wõtsingAY see qrùnvik †õkingrD exp gˆsˆ PHHRD S±ITF ythers point to vik—D — spell  Â

or turn of dutyD —nd ‡esterd—hl proposes th—t vik— on™e me—nt –h—lf — ™rew9D so th—t

viking rel—y o—rsm—nF „here —re m—ny vikEwords to pl—y withD —s in eske˜erg

IWRRD IIR±VQD —nd the pro˜lem is f—irly —n—lysed in go—tes IWWWY he ™on™ludes th—t

the yi —nd yx forms —re p—r—llel developments from — ™ommon qerm—ni™ ver˜

me—ning to withdr—wD le—ve or dep—rt @VH±QAF €—r—llel p—r—llel developments would strengthen his ™—seF

sntrodu™tion Q

dem—nded r—w energyF €rogress dem—nded the ™rushing of the we—k

—nd degener—teD even ˜efore h—rwinists m—de this into — pseudoE

s™ienti®™ do™trineY —nd —˜ove —llD the rough ˜e—sts of the nineteenth

™entury needed rom—nti™ pre™ursors with simil—r tenden™ies to

R

sm—shD ˜urnD tr—velD ™—rouseD —nd s™—re nunsF „he ˜ourgeois of

ƒ™—ndin—vi— —nd xorm—ndy ™ould ™ongr—tul—te himself on —n™estors

prone to frenzy —nd sexu—l outr—geD ˜ut glori®ed ˜y history r—ther

th—n w—nted ˜y the poli™eF yverworked emigr—nts ™ould plough

winnesot— in the footsteps of im—gin—ry yl—fs —nd ƒvens who h—d

gone th—t w—y in s—g—EtimeF x—v—l p—triots of the qerm—n empire

™ould gr—nt honor—ry qerm—n ™itizenship on their remote ™ousinsD

the tomsvikings @on whom see ˜elowD ™h—pter QAF †iolen™e never

seems to ˜e so n—ked th—t it s™orns to we—r — s™r—p of historyD —nd

the lure of the uninhi˜ited tinkles through —dv—n™ed ™onsumerE™ivilE

iz—tionsY —s l—te —s the IWSHs —nd 9THsD — sus™epti˜le pren™h ˜ourE

geoisie h—s su™™um˜ed to the –sulphurous prestige of the f—irD n—ked

S

˜rute9F ‡h—t would —ll these f—nt—sists h—ve doneD if they h—d not

˜een —llowed their vikingsc end who ™—n ˜l—me them for turning

these ˜—d men into — histori™—l for™eD — gre—t ™iviliz—tionD — superE

identity for —ll e—rly mediev—l yld xorse spe—kersc st is not surprising

th—t —r™h—eologists h—ve —dopted —nd extended the me—ning of the

term to ™over in—nim—te o˜je™ts @–viking pins9D et™AD —nd th—t others

write —s if there were — r—™e or tri˜e of this n—meF iven ‚—nds˜orgD

the h—nish —r™h—eologistD put his n—me to — ™h—pter entitled –„he

†iking x—tion9F

ƒin™e —ll ethni™ n—mes —re now interpreted —s politi™—l ™onstru™E

tions of ephemer—l or mut—˜le v—lidityD this n—tion m—y seem —s good

—s —nyF ‡—llerstrom ™l—ssi®es viking —s —n ethni™ signi®er ˜—sed on È

o™™up—tion ± whi™h it m—y ˜e nowD ˜ut w—sn9t thenF „here is one ™—se

in mediev—l liter—ture of vikings —ppe—ring —s — people @in the yld

inglish poem ‡idsithA ˜ut those ‡i™ing—s —nd ‡i™ing— ™ynn were

lumped with other groups on™e n—tive to tutl—nd @‡enl—sD ‡ern—sD

re—tho˜—rdsAD not spe™i®ed —s pir—tes or gener—lized —s p—nExordi™

represent—tivesF

sn this ˜ookD viking will me—n only wh—t it me—nt thenX se—Er—iderD

pir—teD roverF xo distin™tion of sex or r—™e is m—deD sin™e spe—kers of

prisi—nD yld inglishD srishD pinnish —nd f—lti™ l—ngu—ges m—de very

R ƒee ‡—wn PHHH for —n —™™ount of †i™tori—n vikingismD whi™h is summed up ˜y

g—rlyle9s question in „he i—rly uings of xorw—y @IVUSAX –‡ho is ˜est m—nc „he

p—tes forgive mu™h ± forgive the wildestD ®er™est ™ruellest experiments ± if f—irly m—de

for the determin—tion of th—tF9

S foyer IWWID SHY his —musing sket™h of pren™h viking delusions is in e ƒe IWWID

—nd see hr—gons et hr—kk—rs @edF tF wF vevesqueD g—en IWWTA for moreF

R sntrodu™tion

good vikingsD —nd king elfred w—s qui™k to le—rn this skillF „he

eviden™e for fem—le se—Erovers is sh—dowyD ˜ut the notion is —ttr—™tive

—nd not impossi˜le @see ˜elowD pF PIAF „he gre—t m—jority of xorse

spe—kers will thus ˜e free of th—t l—˜elD —nd eligi˜le for othersD

—lthough none is ex™lusive —nd most —re question—˜leF

xorse is — linguisti™ term whi™h is sometimes —pplied to xorweE

gi—ns —nd their ™oloniesD ˜ut not to h—nes or ƒwedesF hitto for

xorsemenF xorthmen w—s used —t the timeD —nd ™overs the lotD ˜ut

m—y seem to ex™lude womenD —nd tended to ˜e used for the more

northerly xorseD just —s h—nes ˜e™—me — word for southern ƒ™—ndiE

n—vi—ns in timeD ˜ut not —t ®rstF ƒ™—ndin—vi—ns —re — ˜loodless geoE

politi™—l ®™tionF „here is no one s—tisf—™tory word for these people —t

this timeD just —s there w—s none for the engloEƒ—xons ˜efore the

tenth ™enturyD ex™ept in fede9s im—gin—tionF „hey were —ll spe—kers

of ™losely rel—ted l—ngu—ges whi™h —re now ™l—ssi®ed —s the yld

xorse f—mily of tonguesD —nd thus qu—lifyD in theoryD —s — –spee™h

™ommunity9Y they ™ould ®ght without interpretersF fy the tenth

™enturyD verseEm—king in —n s™el—ndi™ ± ‡est xorse di—le™t w—s —

skill whi™h ™omm—nded —udien™es from hu˜lin to xovgorodD if no

furtherD ˜ut these were retinues re™ruited from f—r —nd wideD re™epE

tive to new words —nd odd —™™entsD less ˜ound ˜y mother tongues

th—n othersF „he l—ter version of yld s™el—ndi™ ˜e™—me the medium

for — gre—t liter—ture in whi™h —ll the xordi™ peoples —re indeed

linked ˜y — ™ommon tr—ditionD mythologyD —nd religion or ethi™Y

˜ut th—t w—s — liter—ry ™onventionD more eloquent of thirteenthE

™entury s™el—nd th—n of the viking —geF ƒo the pro˜lem rem—insD

—nd the words xorse will ˜e used for the peopleD —nd xordi™ for

the ™ultureD for w—nt of —nything ˜etterF

sn —ny ™—seD the pl—n is to det—™h these popul—tions from the

org—nizing prin™iples whi™h —re often —pplied to themX the qerm—ni™

™ontinuumD the mythology of the xorthD the form—tion of st—tesG

ethni™ identityGur˜—niz—tionD †iking ™iviliz—tion —nd so onD with the

™re—king zeppelin of iurope—niz—tion moored overhe—dF e ™onfused

T ethni™ terminology will ˜e true to this purposeF

„heir ege

„he —ge of vikings w—s invented in ƒ™—ndin—vi— to l—˜el —rtif—™tsD —nd

—dopted ˜y those mentioned —˜ove who were ™onvin™ed th—t vikingsD

whether —s ˜ogeyEmen or gingerEmenD h—d triggered — de™isive

moment in the development of iurope —nd the ˜irth of n—tionsF T ƒee ˜elowD ™h—pter SD for more on ethni™ityF

sntrodu™tion S

„hey —pplied the iron l—w of the eitgeistD whi™h s—ys th—t those

who live in —ny histori™—l period must re¯e™t its spirit to ˜e worthy

of noti™eF e room in — museum in gopenh—gen ˜e™—me three

U

™enturies of xordi™ —nd xorthern historyD —nd — whole viking —ge

w—s ˜ornF

fut when w—s itc st h—s no —greed ˜eginning or endD no o˜vious

geogr—phi™—l ˜ound—riesD no de®ning ™h—r—™teristi™sY like the h—rk

eges or the reroi™ ege it is tr—pped ˜etween history —nd prehistoryD

— se—son for —ll men to ™onstru™t or ™onstrue —t willF ƒe—E˜orne

m—r—uders h—ve —lw—ys ˜een —™tive —ll over the worldD so th—t it

seems odd to ™—ll one epo™h —fter one sequen™e of r—idsD espe™i—lly

—s ™ontempor—ry western writers s—w them —s — mere repe—t in the

™y™le of —f¯i™tions ˜y whi™h qod ™h—stened those he lovedD not —s —

V

new dep—rtureF †iking r—ids h—d pestered the ‚om—n impireD —nd

would ™ontinue in the f—lti™ to the ‚eform—tionD —s in the se—s off

xorth frit—inY shoreEdwellers in ƒouth frit—in were no s—fer from

r—ids during the rundred ‰e—rs9 ‡—r th—n they h—d ˜een in the d—ys

of elfred —nd ithelredF €ir—tes no longer ™onquered kingdomsD ˜ut

this w—s ˜e™—use governments like idw—rd sss9s —nd renry †9s h—d

˜e™ome ˜etter vikings th—n the old se—EkingsF „he fourth ™rus—deD

whi™h s—™ked gonst—ntinople in IPHRD showed wh—t priv—te enterE

prise ™ould do in —n ege of p—ith to ex™eed the —™hievements of the

vikingsF

ƒo it h—s ˜een ™l—imed th—t denoting periods –˜y lo—ded termsD F F F

su™h —s engloEƒ—xonD xorm—nD werovingi—nD †iking F F F is ™le—rly —

redund—nt —nd misle—ding st—rting point whi™h needs to ˜e —˜—nE

W

doned9F ‚—nds˜org m—de — st—rtD for the h—nesD ˜y giving them —

new set of periodsD in whi™h the ege of the €loughE€eople @™FIHHH

˜™±PHH —dA is followed ˜y —n ege of the ‡—rriors @PHH±UHHAD —nd

th—t ˜y the ege of the ƒe—E‚ulers @UHH±WHHA —nd the ege of the

uingdomEfuilders @WHH±IPHHAD e—™h with — distin™t so™i—l stru™tureD

e™onomy —nd domesti™ —r™hite™tureF ƒo the tr—nsition to ƒe—E‚uler

time me—nt more sowing of ryeD ˜etter ploughsD ™—rtsD —nd shipsD

˜igger houses —nd m—ny more pigsY so mu™h so th—t –never ˜efore

or sin™e in the history of henm—rk h—s the prim—ry produ™er h—d

U ‡ors——e used the ™on™ept in gopenh—gen during the IVRHsY du gh—illu9s „he ege

of the †ikings @IVVWA spre—d it —˜ro—dD —lthough with — mu™h wider timeElimitY —nd

ƒ—wyer9s „he ege of the †ikings @IWTPA n—iled it to the m—stF „here is now —n

in™y™lopedi— of the †e ˜y tohn r—ywood @„h—mes —nd rudson PHHHAF e ƒo™i—lE

h—rwinist view of vikingtid —s — ne™ess—ry ph—se of tr—nsition from — gre—ter to —

lesser st—te of dependen™y on n—tur—l for™es w—s pre—™hed ˜y the xorwegi—n

elex—nder fugge @IVUH±IWPWAF

V vund IWVW —nd goupl—nd IWWHF W ƒ—unders in xe‚ iF

T sntrodu™tion

IH su™h good ™onditions ± rel—tively spe—king9F re did not expl—in why

the golden —ge of the pigEf—rmer should ˜e ™—lled the ege of the ƒe—E

‚ulersD —nd this s™heme h—s not proved popul—rF ythers h—ve stu™k to

the viking l—˜elD ˜ut h—ve dis—greed —˜out when —nd wh—tF sf it me—ns

—n —ge of ur˜—niz—tionD migr—tionD gre—t e—rthEworks —nd new vilE

l—gesD —s ‚—nds˜org —nd wyhre ™l—imD —r™h—eology dem—nds th—t it

˜egin ne—rer UHH th—n VHHY ˜ut if it is to ˜e —n —ge of m—ssEprodu™E

tion in met—l —nd stoneD gl—rke —nd em˜rosi—ni st—nd up for ™FUTH —s

the d—te of te™hnologi™—l ™h—nge —t firk—F „o whi™h ƒ—wyer —nd

‚oesd—hl reply th—t r—ids on western iurope —re wh—t g—ve —nd

give the —ge its n—meD —nd —s none —re re™orded ˜efore the UWHsD —

de™—de when there w—s — –™h—nge of rel—tionship ˜etween ˜etween

‡estern iurope —nd ƒ™—ndin—vi—9D ™F UWH is —s good — st—rt —s —nyF

fesidesD –wh—t distinguished the viking period in iurope—n history

II

w—s not ˜roo™hesD gripping ˜e—stsD or empori—D ˜ut vikings9F ƒo it

˜egins with r—ids to the westD —nd ends when they end ± whi™h is not

—s re—son—˜le — view —s it seemsF

st is not o˜vious why r—ids on illiter—te or p—g—n peoples @other

xorthmenD ƒ—xonsD prisi—nsD ƒl—vs —nd f—ltsA su™h —s h—d ˜een ™omE

mon in the eighth ™entury —nd e—rlier should ˜elong to — different —ge

from those whi™h hit the re™ordEkeepers of srel—ndD frit—in —nd q—ulY

—nd it is h—rd to ˜e sure when these re™ordEkeepers were ®n—lly s—fe

from r—idsD sin™e one xorwegi—n king w—s plundering vin™olnshire in

IISQ —nd —nother w—s inv—ding western ƒ™otl—nd in IPTQF ƒ™—ndiE

n—vi—n s™hol—rs —re prone to rede®ne the —ge in terms of developE

ment—l theoryD so th—t when h—nish or xorse so™iety re—™h — ™ert—in

–level of politi™—l org—niz—tion9 the ™hiefs go west in longships —s p—rt

of the pl—nX this is –history spe—king9@see ˜elowD ppF IPHD QITAF ‡hen

ƒ—wyer —nd others noti™ed differen™es ˜etween the r—ids of the ninth

—nd those of the l—te tenth ™enturies they offered — ®rst —nd se™ond

viking —ge to r—tion—lize the dis™rep—n™yD —nd so led others to –dr—w

the dividing line —t the —ppropri—te time for e—™h ™onstituent

IP

region9F qr—h—m±g—mp˜ell ™uts it three w—ysX

i—rlyX l—te eighth to l—te ninth ™enturies

widdleX l—te ninth to se™ond h—lf of tenth ™entury

v—teX se™ond h—lf of tenth to ˜eginning of twelfth ™entury

IH eeD lxD IWVW –„he €eriods of h—nish entiquity9D espF IVU±WPD —nd see ˜elow ppF

IWT±VF

P

D gl—rke —nd em˜rosi—ni in ƒehy IWWVD II ‚oesd—hl IP †g IHT±ITD ƒ—wyer IWWS

QUY dissent from wyhre ˜egins sƒgi†e @IWWVA Q±QTF

IP ƒo humville @IWWUD sA ˜egins the ƒe™ond †iking ege in xorth frit—in ™FWPSD h—lfE

w—y through qr—h—mEg—mp˜ell9s widdleD —nd ˜efore the end of ƒ—wyer9s pirstF srish —uthors tend to stret™h their own †e to IIUIF

sntrodu™tion U

fut qr—h—m g—mp˜ell is prim—rily ™on™erned with the d—ting of

—rtif—™ts r—ther th—n so™i—l evolution or politi™—l org—niz—tionF ƒo he

puts the ®n—l d—te quite l—teD —pp—rently ˜e™—use one style of orn—E

mentD the rnesD w—s still ™urrent in xorw—y —nd srel—nd —fter

IQ

™FIIHHF ƒwedes who use runeEstones —s m—rkers of this —ge —re

—lso o˜liged to end it l—teD —lthough re™ent revisions in styleE™hronE

ology —dd further un™ert—intyF ‚uneEstonesD spe—rEhe—dsD —xeEhe—dsD

swordsD woodE™—rvings —nd the qotl—nd pi™tureEstones —ll h—ve their

own slightly dis™ord—nt d—tes ®xed ˜y —uthorities @irik woltkeD t—n

€etersenD h—vid ‡ilsonD ƒune vindqvistD et —lFA on the ˜—sis of ˜uri—lE

IR d—tings su˜sequently found in—™™ur—teD or of d—t— now multipliedF

xeverthelessD here —re the ™urrent d—ting ™onventions for the viking

—ge @whi™h some in™lude in the ‰oungerD or v—terD or vong sron egeD

—nd some don9tAX

eh RHH to SSH or THH wigr—tion ege or i—rly qerm—ni™ sron egeF

eh SSHGTHH±USHGVHH v—ter qerm—ni™ sron egeD werovingi—nD v—te

wigr—tion or @in ƒwedenA †endel periodF

„he †endel is su˜divided into ®ve ph—ses with disputed d—tesX @—A

SSH±THHGTSHD @˜A THHGTSH±UHHGUPSD @™A UHHGPS±USHD @dA USH±VHHD

@eA VHH±VSHY ˜—sed on question—˜le distin™tions of styleF

eh UHHGVHH±IHQHGIIPS †iking egeD depending on where —nd who

you —reF ƒtill l—ter sron egeD sometimesF

en unfortun—te tr—veller s—iling from fremen to xovgorod shortly

—fter the ye—r IIHH would p—ss from the ƒ—li—n period to the i—rly

wediev—l to the v—te †iking to the grus—ding @west pinl—ndA to the

†iking —g—in @e—st pinl—ndA to the uiev—nF hoes it m—tterc st

wouldn9tD if n—mes —tt—™hed to periods —nd —ges were not t—ken to

˜e settled verdi™ts on the n—ture of those timesF ren™e the lust for

more me—ningful l—˜els expressed ˜y those who think they know

how —nd when hum—n so™ieties developedF „here —re more –l—˜els9

˜elowD ˜ut me—nwhile it is worth noting th—t the s™el—nders m—n—ge

very well without — viking —geF „hey ™—ll the period from ™FWQH to

™FIHQH the s—g— —geD ˜e™—use of the f—mous stories —sso™i—ted with it

˜y their thirteenthE™entury —uthorsY —nd the sixty ye—rs ˜efore th—t

IQ †iking ertif—™ts @IWVHA S±UY ˜ut in „he †ikings in ƒ™otl—nd @IWWVA v—te †iking

yields to –v—te xorse9 —˜out IHSHF

IR por the d—teEw—rs ˜etween xordi™ —r™h—eologists see now tF rines @edFAD „he

p—™e of gh—nge @yx˜ow IWWWA —nd for the m—king of the ™onventions rùilund

xielsen IWWI —nd IWWU —nd rede—ger IWWP V±PIF por revisions of styleEd—tes in

gener—l see ƒki˜sted ulñsùe IWWUY of qotl—nd —rtif—™tsD see „hunm—rk xylen@„orD Â

Ê xxiiiD IWWH±IAY of spe—rsD „h—lin in ghristi—nsson —nd ryenstr—nd xordsvensk porE

ntid @ me— IWTWA —nd of —rrowE he—dsD ‡egr—eus in firk— @IWVTA PI±QRF

V sntrodu™tion

—re ™—lled the ege of ƒettlementD ˜e™—use th—t is wh—t it w—sF xot

th—t the viking —ge is — ™omplete misnomerY there were times for

r—iding ˜y se— @in srel—nd VPS±VSD WIH±WWWY in pr—n™e VQR±VWHsY in

ƒouthern ingl—nd VRHs±WIH were the ˜—d timesD with — repl—y for the

inglish WWH±IHITY the prisi—ns were hit frequently in the ninth

™enturyD the ƒ—xons only r—relyD ex™ept in the VVHsAF „he h—˜it of

pir—™y for its own s—keD r—ther th—n r—iding —s — n—v—l str—tegyD is

dif®™ult to qu—ntify or d—teF sn ƒ™—ndin—vi—D r—iding ˜y se— h—d — long

history —nd — ˜right futureD ˜efore —nd —fter the d—tes of this —geY ˜utD

for the s—ke of ™onvenien™eD this ˜ook will ˜e ™on™erned with the

ye—rs ˜etween USH —nd IHSH reg—rdless of —ny unifying prin™iple or

themeF

IS

et present there —re ®ve su™h unifying prin™iples on offerD —ll of

them seen —s –tr—nsform—tions9 of xordi™ so™ietiesD ˜ut none of them

®tting the ™onvention—l d—tes of the —geX

I from p—g—nism to ™hristi—nityX UHH±IPSH would ˜e — re—listi™

time for th—tD ˜ut it w—sn9t — su˜stitution of one for the other

until IHSH or soF

P ™entr—liz—tion of —uthorityY no perm—nent shift ˜efore IHSHF

Q nonEur˜—n to p—rtly ur˜—n settlementX USH onw—rdsD in pl—™esD

˜ut see ™h—pter Q for the limits of this movementX not espe™i—lly

xorseF

R nonEm—rket to m—rket ex™h—ngeX ™oEexistent ™FTHH±™FIPHHc

Sin™re—sed produ™tivityD in™re—sed surplusesX ™FTHH±™FIQHHF

„hese ™h—nges were so slow —nd v—ri—˜le th—t it seems perverse to

pin them to this —geD —nd vi™e vers—D or to interpret it in terms of their

ful®lmentF

„he eim

„his ˜ook presents sket™hes of xordi™ people in viking times less

®rmly fr—med th—n usu—lF „he ™on™epts of tr—nsition —nd developE

ment from one st—te of so™iety to —notherD or from one politi™—l

system to —notherD will not ˜e relied onD or used —s expl—n—tory

me™h—nisms in themselvesD ˜e™—use they h—ve ˜een too often used

with un™onvin™ing resultsF „hese popul—tions of f—rmers —nd ®ghters

IS„he six —uthors of f—rrett PHHH offer — ™onvenient re sume of these ™h—ngesD —nd  Â

then test them in rel—tion to the history of yrkney @seen —s periphery to — xorwegi—n

™entreAD with ™ourteous dev—st—tionY eFgF –the ®ve ™h—r—™teristi™s F F F did not o™™ur —s — ™ontempor—ry st—teEform—tion p—™k—ge9F

sntrodu™tion W

h—ve ˜een hit™hed to the su˜je™ts th—t interest histori—ns ± the disE

™overy of emeri™—D the development of yld xorse liter—tureD the

evolution of the n—tions of ƒ™—ndin—vi—D the ˜irth of the inglish

st—teD the tri˜ul—tions of the i—rly ghristi—n srishD the de™line of the

g—rolingi—n empireD the rise of the ‚ussi—nsD the pl—™eEn—mes of

the h—nel—wD et™F ± e—™h of whi™h dem—nds — different sort of vikingF

w—ny ®ne ˜ooks h—ve ˜een written on those m—jor histori™—l themesD

˜ut it seems worth trying to ®nd other —ppro—™hesX to ex—mine with

questions r—ther th—n —nswersD —nd to disreg—rd the hold of the

development—l theories whi™h h—ve ˜een ™l—mped over those o™™—E

sion—lly ple—s—nt l—ndsF –ivery —pprehension of the p—st whi™h proE

poses to underst—nd it ˜etter ˜y ™onstruing it h—s only the more

thoroughly misunderstood it9 wrote tohn glim—™usD —li—s ƒùren uierE

IT

keg——rdD in €hilosophi™—l pr—gments @IVRQAY —s true toEd—y —s it

w—s thenD ˜ut —ll the s—meD here goesF

„he ®rst ®ve ™h—pters —re m—inly des™riptiveD —nd survey the geoE

gr—phyD e™ologyD so™i—l ™onventions —nd selfE—w—reness of individu—ls

—nd groups insof—r —s they —re reve—led in ™ontempor—ry sour™esF „he

su˜je™ts of ™h—pters T to W —re wh—t seem the import—nt —re—s of

xorse —™tivityX politi™sD w—rD work —nd migr—tionF gh—pters IH to IP

™on™ern €—stD €resent —nd puture not ˜e™—use these were of p—rti™ul—r

interest to xorsemenD ˜ut some of their thoughts on these st—tes ™—n

˜e ™omp—red with those of more e—sily —ppro—™h—˜le peoplesD —nd

form some sort of guide to ment—litiesF ‚eligion is not given its own

™h—pterY it is everywhereF

xo ™onsistent prin™iple will ˜e followed in the spelling of person—l

or pl—™eEn—mesD —nd —pologies —re offered to —ll je—lous lovers of

xorm—lized yld xorse or gurrent s—geF

IT „r—nsF ƒwenson —nd rongD @€rin™eton IWTWAD WVF fut in this ™ontext ™onstruere

must me—n ™onstru™tF „he development—l —ppro—™h to the e—rly ƒ™—ndin—vi—ns @h—nes

in p—rti™ul—rA is loud —nd ™le—r in ghris ‡i™kh—m pr—ming the i—rly widdle egesD

@yxford PHHSAD QTR±UTD —nd in „he g—m˜ridge ristory of ƒ™—ndin—vi—D volF ID edF unut relle @g—m˜ridge PHHQAD ITH±PHIF

I

sndividu—ls

xow must sD from wood to wood

greep with sm—ll renownY

‡ho knows if s will not win

‡ide —™™l—im here—fterc

„he verses —re —ttri˜uted to the future king r—r—ld r—rdr—d—D slinkE

ing from xorw—y —fter the defe—t —nd de—th of his ˜rother yl—f @ƒt

I

yl—veA in IHQHF „hey —re l—teD in—uthenti™D —nd true to the experiE

en™e of —ll hunted no˜odies who live to ˜e™ome ri™h —nd f—mous

some˜odiesF „hey would do for king elfredD hiding from the h—nes

in the e—rly spring of VUVD —lre—dy — king ˜ut down on his lu™kD or for

the h—nish pretenderD ƒweyn istrithsonD running —w—y to the woods

in the IHRHs in ¯ight from the invin™i˜le king w—gnus yl—fssonF

„hey epitomize the selfE™on®den™e needed ˜y survivors in h—rd

timesY —nd yet this is not — good pl—™e to ˜eginF

„wo pre™on™eptions dog the ide— of individu—lity in the e—rly

mediev—l periodF yne is th—t the very ide— w—s not invented until

the twelfthD ®fteenthD or eighteenth ™enturyF „he other is th—t everyE

one h—d — pl—™e in the so™i—l world —nd knew wh—t it w—sF „here —re

re—sons for ˜elieving ˜othD in some ™ir™umst—n™esY ˜ut for the time

˜eing they ™—n ˜e ignoredD or s—mpled in the in™isive survey of yexle

@IWWWAD who tr—™es the do™trine of mediev—l ™ommunit—ri—nism from

xov—lis to „onnies to wiegel to win™F por there is —nother theoryX È

th—t viking times were good for rel—tively un˜ridled individu—lismD

whether or no the ™on™ept existedF ‚—idingD tr—dingD l—ndEt—king —nd

v—lour in ˜—ttle were opportunities for men —nd women to le—ve the

herdD —nd get somewhereF ƒo to™hens ™l—ims th—t e—rly s™el—nd w—s

–like the emeri™—n ‡est F F F ™ongeni—l to the uninhi˜ited exer™ise of

I pound in the ™olle™tion of stories —˜out kings —nd others ™—lled workinskinn— @wksA W verse RSF

sndividu—ls II

tr—dition—l heroi™ qu—lities9D —nd —dmirers of the qreenl—nd —nd †inE

l—nd venturers h—ve dr—ped them with the m—ntle of golum˜usD

o˜sessive lonerF v—ter heroi™ legends —nd poems —re ™—lled in eviE

den™eX they –re¯e™t the wouldE˜e heroi™ individu—l in life9 —™™ording

P

to von ƒee —nd m—ny othersF

e weight of s™hol—rship nevertheless insists th—t —mong –qerm—ni™9

peoplesD from st—rt to ®nishD the ™olle™tive ruled —nd sh—ped the

individu—lX –the individu—l —™quires —ll his v—lue ˜y virtue of his

˜elonging to the ™ommunity9 —nd –the prin™iple of —sso™i—tion9 ruled

the lives of —ll ˜ut the outl—wD who w—s the ex™eption th—t proved the

ruleF qeneti™s —nd ™ulture reinfor™ed e—™h other through institutions

—lre—dy old ˜efore the ®rst viking r—idX the —utonomous kinEgroupD or

ñttY ™olle™tive responsi˜ility for ™ompens—tion owed to injured p—rE

ties outside the kinEgroupD or ˜y outsiders to its mem˜ersY —nd the

herit—˜ility of —lmost everything m—teri—l —nd spiritu—l down p—triE

line—r des™entsD re™ited ˜y revered keepers of tr—ditionF „he xorseE

m—n w—s n—medD tr—inedD dressedD equippedD ledD entert—ined —nd

®n—lly ˜uried or ™rem—ted under rules pres™ri˜ed to m—int—in so™i—l

™ohesionD not individu—l enterpriseD —nd in d—ily life –o˜edien™e to

stri™t ™odes of ˜eh—viour is reve—led in —ll re™ords of qerm—ni™

Q

™ulture9F ƒo runs the qerm—nist ™—te™hismD still dutifully ™h—nted to

®ll — silen™eD —s we re—lly know very little —˜out —ll thisF „he ™onE

®dent gener—liz—tions —re distilled from — liter—ture produ™ed ˜efore

this periodD or —fterD or elsewhereF

„here is some middle groundF „wo developments —re —llowed to

h—ve loosened the hold of the tri˜—l ™olle™tiveD ˜y offering —t le—st

—ltern—tive ™onformitiesF goloniz—tion w—s oneY —nd the forming of

w—rE˜—nds of young w—rriors the otherF fut neither re—lly lightened

the preponder—n™e of so™iety over selfF ƒettlers merely ™re—ted new

™ommunities —nd f—miliesY te—mEspirit —nd lordship ™l—mped the w—rE

rior even more ®rmly to his fellowsF ghristi—n missions m—y h—ve

®ngered the individu—lD —s mor—lly uniqueD ˜ut up in these p—rts

P von ƒee IWVI ISR±WQD —nd to™hens IWWSD PHHF xeil €ri™e ™l—ims th—t –—n emph—sis

on person—l identity9 w—s –— de®ning ™h—r—™teristi™ of the —ge9 @†sxeƒ PHHHD RIAF

Q f—us™h—tz IWVPD TIY see —lso the hurkheimer f—etke in h—s reilige im qerE

m—nis™hen @IWRPAD —nd the f—r more re—d—˜le †ilhelm qrùn˜e™h in „he gulture of

the „eutonsF yn ƒ™—ndin—vi—n l—w —s —n™estr—l ™ustom with religious —uthority see

penger IWVQD SUD represent—tive of — deepErooted leg—lEhistori™—l tr—dition of diminE

ishing momentumF w—rx —nd hurkheim dis—greed over the ™olle™tive dyn—mi™X for

w—rx –the ™olle™tive lifeEforms —re holyD the priv—te stru™tures —re —lien—tion —nd

unre—lity9Y for hurkheim the ™olle™tive ™—n only ˜e —™hieved ˜y the ™onsent or

™on™urren™e of wideE—w—ke individu—lsD even ifD on™e —™hievedD it ˜e™omes holy

@qust—fsson IWUPD PH±QQAF st ™omes to mu™h the s—me thing in the viking —geD whi™h would h—ve inherited its ™olle™tives from w—y ˜—™kF

IP sndividu—ls

˜—ptism w—s viewed —s — ™olle™tive experien™eD whi™h merged ™onE

verts into — ™hristi—n ™ommunity wholes—leF pew would oppose

ƒteens˜erger9s ™l—im th—t th—t ™re—tive pioneers —re essenti—l to the

m—inten—n™e of the vi—˜le groupD ˜e™—use m—ny —ssume th—t so™i—l

utility is the st—nd—rd ˜y whi™h ™re—tivity is to ˜e judgedY th—tD or the

endur—n™e of the group through prudent modi®™—tion or qu—siE

˜iologi™—l renew—lF „he loud merde whi™h ensured the glory —nd

—nnihil—tion of the yld qu—rd —t ‡—terloo ± one m—n9s indign—tion

R

± is not wel™ome in this s™heme of thingsF

„o judge how thoroughly self —nd so™iety were integr—ted in viking

timesD it m—y help to —ssess the for™e of the four ™ommonest inhi˜iE

tors or moder—tors of individu—lities in other timesX

I —n™estry —nd kinshipD whi™h m—ke one ˜eing in theory merely the

represent—tive of —n™estors —nd des™end—ntsD inheritor —nd tr—nsE

mitter of st—tus —nd ™h—r—™ter —nd —ppe—r—n™eY

P ™ommun—l ™onformityX the ™ustom of the ™ountryD how we doD did

—nd will do things hereY

Q genderY

Q —nd

R servitudeD the person —s propertyF

row f—r these pressures were resistedD —nd how e—sy were solo ¯ights

for the inspiredD the powerfulD —nd the devi—ntD will ˜e ™onsidered in

turnD ˜efore looking through one of the exits from ™olle™tivity usu—lly

open to —ll individu—lsX sui™ideF ‡ere these so™ieties like the ‚om—nD

in whi™h f—milies ™ould ˜e proud of their selfEdestroyersc

en™estry —nd uin

„he usu—l identity ™—rd of the xorse w—s the pl—in p—tronymi™D —s in

qe „ ƒyx yp fty‚x or „ry‚qi‚h ƒ„isxe‚9ƒ he qr„i‚D

two of m—ny runeEstone ex—mplesD —nd this h—˜it w—s exported to

the fritish ssles —nd persists —ll over the world in tohnson —nd tensen

—nd r—nsenF fut su™h n—mes were not like modern surn—mesD —

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