Volume 24, Issue 2 August 2017 JIAEE Journal of International Agricultural & Extension Education

AIAEE A publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2

Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education ISSN 1077-0755 DOI Prefix 10.5191 aiaee.org

The Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education (JIAEE) is the official refereed publication of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE). The purpose of the JIAEE is to enhance the research and knowledge base of agricultural and extension education from an international perspective. Acceptance rates for the past three volumes are: Volume 19 = 20%, Volume 20 = 21%. Volume 21 = 13%. Volume 22 = 18%. Volume 23 = 18%.

Articles intended for publication should focus on international agricultural education and/or international extension education. Articles should relate to current or emerging issues, cite appropriate literature, and develop implications for international agricultural and extension education. Manuscripts, or portions of manuscripts, must not have been published or be under consideration for publication by another journal. Three types of articles are solicited for the JIAEE: Feature Articles, Tools of the Profession Articles, and Book Reviews.

Feature Articles Feature articles focus on philosophy, current or emerging issues, and the methodology and practical application of specific research and appropriate technologies, which have implications for developed and developing countries. For publication in the JIAEE, feature articles must pass the JIAEE’s double blind, referee process, where peer reviewers evaluate manuscript content and ensure readability. Reviewers are selected from the AIAEE membership. In the double blind, referee process, all references to authors are removed before the manuscript is sent to reviewers. Feature articles may be submitted for peer review a total of three times before they are no longer acceptable for publication in the JIAEE. Failure to meet the submission formatting guidelines will result in an automatic first rejection.

Other Article Types Commentary articles state an opinion, offer a challenge, or present a thought-provoking idea on an issue of concern to international agricultural and extension education, including a published article in the JIAEE. These articles are invited by the editors. Tools of the Profession articles report specific techniques, materials, books and technologies that can be useful for agricultural and extension educators in a global context and/or in a country/region. Book Reviews provide insight on current books related to international agricultural education.

Subscriptions Subscriptions may be acquired online at https://www.aiaee.org/index.php?Itemid=147. The individual membership rate of $70 provides a yearly subscription to the online journal. Domestic and international libraries and subscription agencies may register their IP range for online access for subscribers for $150 per year.

Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2

Editorial Board and Leadership Team ...... 1

From the Executive Editor ...... 3

Feature Articles Challenges to Sustaining University-Community Partnerships in War-Torn, Northern Uganda: Investigating Resistance, Negative Stereotyping, and Gender Bias in Agricultural Students’ Attachments ...... 4 Richie Roberts, North Carolina A&T State University M. Craig Edwards, Oklahoma State University

Small-Scale Farmers’ Decision-Making for Crop Selection and Production Practices in Northern Haiti ...... 22 Priscilla Zelaya, University of Florida Amy Harder, University of Florida T. Grady Roberts, University of Florida

Building Social Capital and Leadership Skills for Sustainable Farmer Associations in Morocco ...... 35 Catherine M. Rasmussen, University of Minnesota Extension Renee M. Pardello, University of Minnesota Extension John R. Vreyens, University of Minnesota Extension Scott Chazdon, University of Minnesota Extension Somongkol Teng, University of Minnesota Extension Michael Liepold, University of Minnesota Extension

Evaluation of an International Entrepreneur Exchange Program: Impacts, Lessons Learned, and Implications for Agricultural Development ...... 50 K. S. U. Jayaratne, North Carolina State University Lisa K. Taylor, University of Nevada-Reno M. Craig Edwards, Oklahoma State University Shelly Sitton, Oklahoma State University D. Dwayne Cartmell II, Oklahoma State University Craig E. Watters, Oklahoma State University Shida R. Henneberry, Oklahoma State University

International Agricultural Concepts through the Eyes of School-Based Agriculture Education Students ...... 65 Nathan W. Conner, University of Nebraska-Lincoln Sarah Greer, The University of Tennessee Christopher T. Stripling, The University of Tennessee

United States and Latin American Undergraduate Students’ Knowledge, Attitudes and Perception of Global Agricultural Issues ...... 78 Sarahi Morales, Texas Tech University M. Todd Brashears, Texas Tech University Cindy Akers, Texas Tech University Jaime Malaga, Texas Tech University Gary Wingenbach, Texas A&M University

Identifying Knowledge Management Capacity Needs of Rural Advisory Service Networks ...... 93 Kevan W. Lamm, LR Brand, Inc Alexa J. Lamm, University of Florida Kristin Davis, International Food Policy Research Institute B. Jyothi Swaroop, University of Florida

Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 Career Development Influences of Employees Working in Haiti’s Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services . 107 Bertrhude Albert, University of Florida T. Grady Roberts, University of Florida Amy Harder, University of Florida

Empowering youth and communities through 4-H School Gardening Programs: Results of focus groups in Burundi, Africa ...... 122 Mary Katherine Deen, Washington State University Lauren Hrncirik Scanga, Washington State University Kevin Wright, Washington State University Charles Berahino, Trauma Healing and Reconciliation Services Bujumbura, Burundi

Competency Assessment as a Way of Determining Training and Educational Needs of Extension Professionals in Nepal ...... 137 Ramjee P. Ghimire, Michigan State University Murari Suvedi, Michigan State University Michael Kaplowitz, Michigan State University Robert Richardson, Michigan State University

Manuscript Submission Guidelines ...... 152

Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 Editorial Board and Leadership Team

The editorial board consists of the editors, the past editor and other members representing regions of the world.

Editors Robert Strong Jr., Executive Editor Kristina Ricketts, Managing Editor Texas A&M University University of Kentucky 2116 TAMU 713 Garrigus Building College Station, TX 77843-2116 Lexington, KY 40546-0215 [email protected] [email protected]

Amy Harder, Past Editor Craig Edwards, Associate Editor University of Florida Oklahoma State University P.O. Box 112060 456 Agricultural Hall Gainesville, FL 32611-2060 Stillwater, OK 74078

Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education Officers

Kim Dooley, President Emily Perdue, Secretary Texas A&M University West Virginia University 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Ste 515 G210 Agricultural Sciences Building College Station, TX 77843-2402 Morgantown, WV 26505-6108

Amy Harder, Past-President Anita Zavodska, Treasurer University of Florida Barry University P.O. Box 112060 4900 S. University Drive Gainesville, FL 32611-2060 Suites 203-205 Davie, FL 33328 Robert Strong Jr., President-Elect Texas A&M University Mercy Akeredolu 600 John Kimbrough Blvd., Ste 231 Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education College Station, TX 77843-2116 (SAFE) Gurd Sholla, Daminarof Bldg 4th Floor Sarahi Morales Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Graduate Student Representative Texas Tech University Box 42131 Lubbock, TX 9409-2131

1 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 U.S./World Representative

J. C. Bunch Mercy Akeredolu Louisiana State University Sasakawa Africa Fund for Extension Education Baton Rouge, LA, USA (SAFE) Gurd Sholla, Daminarof Bldg 4th Floor David Dolly Addis Ababa, Ethiopia University of West Indies St. Augustine, Trinidad and Tobago Martin Mulder Wageningen UR Tim Kock Wageningen, The Netherlands Northern Marianas College Saipan, MP Chukiat Ruksorn Kasetsart University Mike McGirr Nakorn Pathom, Thailand USDA-CSREES Washington, DC, USA Anita Zavodska Barry University Leslie Edgar Davie, FL, USA University of Arkansas Fayetteville, AR, USA Todd Brashears Texas Tech University Lubbock, TX, USA

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From the Executive Editor

I am pleased to present volume 24, issue 2 of the Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education. This issue includes studies by seasoned and budding scholars in academia as well as practical use and research from the private sector. You will notice some emerging themes but a lot of diversity in this set of articles, and this issue reminds me of the scope and depth of international agricultural and extension education.

This second issue of volume 24 includes 10 feature articles from inquiries across the globe, including Burundi, Haiti, Honduras, Ireland, Morocco, Nepal, Philippines, Uganda, and the United States. The topics include entrepreneurship, career development, advisory networks, 4-H gardening programs, partnerships in post-conflict settings, student exchange programs, decision- making, developing social capital and leadership skills and utilizing competency assessments. I hope you discover this issue as explanatory, thought-provoking, and produced by researchers with application to your interests.

Do not forget to submit your work to the JIAEE for review. The editorial team enjoys the diverse amount of scholarship that is submitted to the journal on a regular basis. Submission guidelines are located at: https://aiaee.org/index.php/submission-guidelines. Please remember that we accept submissions for tools for the profession, book reviews, commentaries, and feature articles. The profession wants to learn how you are working to advance agriculture and extension education.

Next year is the 25th anniversary of our journal, and we will be sending information related to a special issue of the JIAEE to commemorate this milestone.

Have a great rest of the year!

Sincerely,

Robert Strong Jr. Executive Editor, JIAEE

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24201

Challenges to Sustaining University-Community Partnerships in War-Torn, Northern Uganda: Investigating Resistance, Negative Stereotyping, and Gender Bias in Agricultural Students’ Attachments

Richie Roberts North Carolina A&T State University

M. Craig Edwards Oklahoma State University

Abstract Gulu Town (Gulu) served as a site of refuge for many during northern Uganda’s armed conflict that spanned from 1986 to 2006. Since then, Gulu transitioned into a region with sprawling slums and deteriorating social conditions. To combat these trends, the Faculty of Agriculture and Environment (FAE) at Gulu University adopted a development approach emphasizing community transformation. The FAE conceptualizes community transformation as the building of Gulu community members’ capacity to transition from a subsistence agrarian lifestyle to one more economically sustainable. One mechanism the FAE uses to enact their commitment to community transformation are university-community partnerships established to facilitate agricultural student attachments, or internships. Because of the myriad ways university-community partnerships are manifested, we examined the challenges to sustaining such partnerships in this post-conflict region. When interpreting findings through Foucauldian (1972) discourse theory, three themes emerged: (a) resistance, (b) reinforcement of stereotypes, and (c) gender bias. Moving forward, we recommend training opportunities be developed to promote more collaborative, contextually grounded strategies to overcome the challenges and enhance the partnerships such that all participants benefit.

Keywords: attachments; gender bias; Uganda; university-community partnerships

Acknowledgement. We wish to acknowledge Oklahoma State University’s Humphrey’s International Travel Fellowship and Robberson Summer Dissertation Fellowship that furnished funding for travel and the collection of data for this article.

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Introduction Mugonola, Odongo, & Ongeng, 2014). The Gulu Town (Gulu) served as a site of FAE conceptualizes community refuge for many during northern Uganda’s transformation as the building of Gulu armed conflict that spanned from 1986 to community members’ capacities to 2006 (Branch, 2011, 2013; McKibben & transition from a subsistence agrarian Bean, 2010). Across Uganda’s northern lifestyle to one more economically region it is estimated the Lord’s Resistance sustainable (Mugonola & Baliddawa, 2014). Army (LRA) and other rebel groups One mechanism the FAE uses to abducted thousands of men, women, and operationalize their commitment to children and killed more than 100,000 community transformation is through civilians (Dolan, 2009). In the early 1990s, university-community partnerships the Ugandan military forced more than established to facilitate agricultural student 130,000 individuals into displacement attachments, or internships. Mugonola and camps intended to house only a quarter of Baliddawa (2014) outlined three key that number (Dolan, 2009). At the war’s objectives that guide the program’s design: peak, the containment camps accommodated (a) building smallholder farmers’ capacities, nearly 1 million refugees (Branch, 2009). In (b) allowing students to acquire essential the decade after the war’s end, the camps training and facilitation experience with transitioned into sprawling slums with farmers, and (c) improving the visibility of deteriorating social conditions (Branch, Gulu University in the local community 2011, 2013). As a result, Gulu’s new through viable partnerships. After the population is relatively struggling and program’s inception in 2006, anecdotal young. Moreover, in the midst of the war, evidence reported by faculty, students, and land grabbing arose as a common practice community cooperators, i.e., smallholder that left a number of displaced Ugandans farmers, demonstrates its successes. For stripped of their property (McKibben & example, reported outcomes for the program Bean, 2010). Many northern Ugandan include improved community relationships, families are now landless and unable to enhanced practical and problem-solving secure a steady income (Sjogren, 2011). The skills for students, as well as increased conditions surrounding this earning potential for community cooperators disproportionally marginalized population through value-addition to their agricultural appeared to have also intensified frustration outputs (Mugonola & Baliddawa, 2014). among an increasing number of youth who However, these achievements come as the report feeling ostracized from society result of more than a decade of difficult (Finnstrom, 2008). labor put forth by developers of and To combat these trends, the Ugandan participants in the program. Investigating the government passed a statuary instrument, challenges of sustaining viable university- i.e., a legislative act, in 2003 that led to the community partnerships may hold valuable creation of a public institution, Gulu implications for other post-conflict regions. University, intended to meet the needs of this embattled region (Mugonola & Review of Literature Baliddawa, 2014). The Faculty of Today, higher education institutions Agriculture and Environment (FAE) at Gulu find themselves in need of clarifying and University has attempted to fulfill this reaffirming their roles to the local mission by adopting a motto emphasizing communities in which they reside (Tsui & community transformation (Kalule, Wong, 2006). This stems from increasing

5 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 criticism that the aims of many universities while also helping the related partnerships are disconnected from their local become more relevant and practical. communities’ needs, diminished public Therefore, universities should strive to funding, and discussions about institutions attune their objectives to ensure clear taking on greater responsibilities to research, linkages can be made likely to stimulate teach, and serve in their local contexts sources of local livelihoods and economic (Aronowitz, 2000; Checkoway, 2000; wherewithal (Keith, 2011). Mounting Suarez-Balcazar, Harper, & Lewis, 2005). evidence (Barrick, Samy, Gunderson, & As a result, calls for universities to become Thoron, 2009; Shoulders, Barrick, & more actively engaged in their communities Meyers, 2011; Thoron, Barrick, Roberts, & are intensifying (Asifiwe, 2011; Huggins, Samy, 2008) in the international agriculture Tadesse, & Tadesse, 2015; Makkawi, 2013). development literature demonstrates these This position has special resonance for connections may be accomplished through institutions situated in post-conflict contexts student internships, such as the attachment (Costandius & Bitzer, 2014; Makkawi, program investigated. However, Thoron et 2013; Tavanti, 2011). Huggins et al. (2015) al. (2008) argued university faculty in took this call a step further by arguing that developing nations often lack the necessary universities’ community engagement efforts training to facilitate quality internships. To should be grounded in collaborative better prepare agricultural workers in relationships. The literature, however, international settings, Barrick et al. (2009) contradicts a tidy establishment of proposed a model that included student university-community partnerships (Archer- internships as a critical element but the Kuhn & Grant, 2014; Harkavy & Romer, model gave little attention to the challenges 1999; Stewart & Alrutz, 2012; Strier, 2011). implicit in forming and sustaining For example, the cultures of universities university-community partnerships to ensure often support a privileged stance in which successful internship experiences. Another officials adopt a position of power as the gap in the literature exists in regard to the experts in their local communities (Bringle concept of relationships among faculty, & Hatcher, 2002). By transitioning to a students, and community volunteers through position of mutual respect and balance with internship experiences. The nature of these the local community, Cozza and Blessinger partnerships have been shown to be crucial (2015) argued university-community in influencing not only the quality of partnerships could be more beneficial for all learning experiences but also the degree to stakeholders. As discussions foment which real-world issues and problems are surrounding the nature of university- addressed (Annor-Frempong, Zinnah, & community partnerships, VanderDussen Akuamoah-Boaten, 2002; Archer-Kuhn & (2009) suggested these collaborations might Grant, 2014; Miller, 2007). even serve as a way to enact revolutionary The emphasis on relevant conditions change and reform within the institutions of in university-community partnerships has higher education. different meanings depending on how One source of potential change is the stakeholders conceptualize their endeavors role of private markets in local communities (Keith, 2015; Sandy & Holland, 2006). of developing countries (Keith, 2011; Tsui Despite the divergences and similarities & Wong, 2006). For example, private among conceptualizations, it is apparent markets can translate into economic universities can no longer ignore the livelihood opportunities for local citizens importance of social responsibility and

6 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 applicability of partnerships to their local Lincoln, 2008). Critical constructionists contexts (Keith, 2011). Therefore, believe the world is systematically defined contemporary university-community by societal norms, which are heavily partnerships should be based on citizenship, influenced by systems of power (Denzin & reciprocal learning and power, ethical Lincoln, 2008). Therefore, individuals responsibility, and social justice (Keith, espousing this philosophical perspective 2015). These pillars of success for challenge the belief that knowledge is an university-community partnerships may be “objective unbiased observation of truth” especially true for post-conflict regions, (Burr, 2003, p. 3). Rather, it is held that such as northern Uganda, concerning their society can be transformed if individuals call creation to support the facilitation of student these norms into question. Then, by bringing internships (Wallace, 2007). Empirical awareness to the silences, injustices, and evidence supports the concept of students inequities existing in reality, traditions and gaining work and life skills in the context of transactional practices can become more their local communities (Kaye et al., 2011). inclusive (Denzin & Lincoln, 2003). However, Butterwick and Harper (2006) In this study, the researchers demonstrated university-community challenged the underlying assumptions of partnerships are not as successful as university-community partnerships, frequently depicted. In fact, sustaining especially in regard to how power structures partnerships has been shown to be difficult mediate such relationships. As a result, the and messy. A need existed, therefore, to critical constructionist worldview influenced explore the complexities regarding how various aspects of this study’s design, these partnerships may influence student including its grounding in Foucauldian internships in the context of Gulu discourse theory [FDT] (Foucault, 1972). University’s surrounding community. To Foucault (1972) explained that discourse is achieve that aim, this investigation sought to the construction of knowledge through situate the challenges of these partnerships language and other forms of communication. within the larger debate surrounding Gulu Therefore, discourse is a subjective glimpse University’s identity, role, and mission in its into reality (Foucault, 1972). Nevertheless, it post-conflict context. provides crucial insight into both the dominant and concealed views existing in Purpose the social world (Foucault, 1972). For Because of the myriad ways example, Foucault (1972) explained that university-community partnerships are society uses discourse to exert social power, manifested, we examined the challenges to discipline, and control, and some discourses sustaining such collaborations in the post- may assist in upholding the status quo while conflict region of northern Uganda. We diminishing important aspects of agency for specifically focused this investigation to the less powerful. examine how actors storied and articulated Discourse is also viewed as an the multiple ways in which the challenges to account heavily influenced by a socially community partnerships were experienced. classed, raced, and gendered context (Foucault, 1972). In the current study, Theoretical Lens discourse played a significant role because The current study is the way in which the actors chose to story epistemologically situated in the critical their challenges to sustaining university- constructionist perspective (Denzin & community partnerships formed a salient

7 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 body of knowledge uniquely shaping the development project’s involving nature of such collaborations. Therefore, faculty members of Gulu University through the lens of FDT, the underlying and visited northern Uganda several assumption of this study was that university- times. Both researchers have also community partnerships are part of the worked with and conducted research social world producing the discourse. The involving marginalized populations. actors involved in university-community And, as a result, we believe these partnerships contributed to the construction experiences influenced our thoughts of this discourse, and critiquing their talk in and ideas in regard to interpreting regard to the partnerships holds value for the data associated with this study. informing the literature and the context under study. These assumptions profoundly We are mindful that our experiences and influenced our decision-making throughout biases influenced this study. However, this investigation. questioning existing power structures and bringing awareness to important issues are Reflexivity key tenets of critically positioned inquiries We developed the reflexivity section (Lather, 1986; Popkewitz, 1999). In fact, to own the biases, assumptions, and critical theorists consider their biases as perspectives embedded in this study. powerful strengths in the research process, Because the critical constructionist rather than weaknesses (Ladson-Billings, worldview deeply influenced this 2000). Nonetheless, it is important to investigation, it is important to reveal that emphasize that ethical decision-making was our beliefs about inequity and injustice may upheld in this study. To demonstrate, we have influenced resulting interpretations. To explicitly outline our methodological that end, we developed the following influences and also describe the standards disclosure to acknowledge our positions in for rigor and trustworthiness designed into collecting, interpreting, and representing the this investigation. data. It is important to acknowledge the Methodology lead researcher comes from a To achieve the purpose of this study, relatively privileged background. He we conducted a systemic inquiry grounded is a White male who grew up in in Stake’s (1995) instrumental case study middle-class family in the United methodology. This qualitative approach States. He was employed as a provides unique understandings in regard to school-based, agricultural education bounded systems (Stake, 1995). For teacher for four years; and, as a example, in the current study, Gulu consequence, has dedicated a University’s internship program served as significant amount of thought to the unit of analysis (Stake, 1995). Although teaching and learning in the context most qualitative case studies are not of agriculture. Therefore, his gender, generalizable, we made attempts to ensure race, upbringing, and education the findings may be transferable to other greatly influence how he perceives post-conflict contexts by upholding and interacts with the world. His standards of qualitative quality. advisor, the other author, mentored him from the study’s early Building Quality into the Study conceptualization. He has conducted

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Ensuring quality is implemented in the study’s purpose. The final standard, qualitative investigations is essential (Miles, confirmability, refers to whether the Huberman, & Saldaña, 2014; Patton, 2002). researchers have been explicit about their Therefore, we sought to provide findings decision-making (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). that not only rang-true to practitioners and To achieve that aim, we sought to scholars but were also grounded in ethical adequately describe the participants, and rigorous decision-making. To that aim, methods, and procedures employed in this we chose to ensure rigor and trustworthiness study. by using Lincoln’s and Guba’s (1985) four principles of qualitative quality: (a) Participants credibility; (b) transferability; (c) Participants (n = 22) were directly dependability; and (d) confirmability. involved with the student internship Credibility refers to the importance of program at Gulu University. After receiving producing trustworthy findings. We strove IRB approval from Oklahoma State to achieve credibility through prolonged University, we used a combination of engagement in the field during an eight- purposive and snowball sampling week period. Through this experience, the procedures to recruit participants (Miles et lead researcher was able to conduct al., 2014). This process began by contacting persistent observations, perform member Gulu University officials who coordinate the checking, and triangulate emergent findings attachment program. We asked the through multiple sources of data (Lincoln & coordinators to recommend faculty, Guba, 1985). In regard to transferability, or students, and community cooperators whom connecting the study’s findings to other they perceived could provide diverse and contexts, we sought to provide accurate rich insights into this program. In all, six descriptions of participants and the context university faculty, six undergraduate in which they were situated while also students, six program alumni, and four attempting to obtain a diverse sample community cooperators agreed to (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). To ensure participate. To protect participants’ dependability, we fully described our roles identities, we assigned each individual a in the research process and also specified the participant number rather than reporting paradigms influencing the design of this their names. Table 1 offers a profile of the study (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). Further, we study’s participants. only collected data that directly connected to

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Table 1 Profile of Study Participants Participant Gender Age Group/Tribal Length of Role Number Affiliationa Involvement

1 Male 36 Mukonzo 4 years Faculty 2 Male 37 Lango 10 years Faculty 3 Male 67 Bantu 10 years Faculty 4 Male 41 Bantu 4 years Faculty 5 Male 42 Acholi 10 years Faculty 6 Male 39 Luo 10 years Faculty 7 Female 59 Acholi 5 years Cooperator 8 Female 37 Acholi 3 years Cooperator 9 Female 35 Acholi 3 years Cooperator 10 Female 47 Acholi 7 years Cooperator 11 Male 26 Muganda 3 years Alumnus 12 Male 34 Acholi 4 years Alumnus 13 Male 26 Acholi 2.5 years Alumnus 14 Female 27 Muganda 2.5 years Alumna 15 Male 32 Acholi 3 years Alumnus 16 Female 28 Karamajong 2.5 years Alumna 17 Male 27 Lango 2 months Student 18 Male 21 Buganda 2 months Student 19 Male 22 Buganda 2 months Student 20 Male 25 Buganda 2 months Student 21 Male 24 Mutoorro 2 months Student 22 Female 23 Muganda 2 months Student aAcholi is the dominant tribe in northern Uganda; however, students from across the country attend Gulu University based on a career placement system coordinated by Uganda’s government.

Data Sources, Methods, and Analysis To understand this phenomenon more Strategies intimately, the investigation required direct experience and interaction with the

10 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 internship program and its many actors. As a began by employing Corbin’s and Strauss’ result, the lead researcher was immersed in (2015) constant comparative method the program for an eight-week period. through the process of immersion and Through this experience, he was able to incubation as we coded, categorized, and position himself as a “participant observer” created themes. We initiated this technique (Patton, 2002, p. 265) during the peak of the by employing three levels of coding: (a) program’s activities. As a consequence, he open, (b) axial, and (c) selective (Corbin & assumed both an insider’s and outsider’s Strauss, 2015). We began the open coding position (Saldaña, 2015). For example, process by reading data sources line-by-line being an outsider of a different nationality, (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). Then, to view the race, and background than the subjects data through various frames of reference, we meant he was able to enter the setting with a employed both descriptive and in vivo relatively fresh perspective. Meanwhile, he coding techniques outlined by Saldaña was also able to assume the role of an (2012). By using such an approach, we insider by participating in the day-to-day preserved important layers of context and activities of the attachment program as well richness while also making meaning of the as meetings concerning the program’s data (Saldaña, 2012). organization, design, and revision. Through To initiate the second cycle of these experiences, he collected multiple analysis, we engaged Corbin’s and Strauss’ sources of data to gain a rounded view (2015) axial coding technique in which we (Patton, 2002) of participants’ perspectives scrutinized relationships across the data regarding their experiences with the corpus. In this stage, we were able to attachment program. collapse the open codes into non- In this study, we analyzed data overlapping categories. We also weaved derived from four sources: (a) interviews, indigenous concepts (Emerson, et al., 2011) (b) documents, (c) observation/field notes, into the codes to ensure context and that and (d) photographs. To gain insight into participants’ meanings were not lost. In the participants’ unique perspectives, the lead final phase of analysis, we developed researcher facilitated initial semi-structured evidentiary warrants that aligned with the interviews that ranged from 60 to 85 categories developed through axial coding minutes in length. He also conducted (Saldaña, 2012). Participants’ words and additional follow-up interview sessions with other accompanying sources supported these participants to clarify conversations as well warrants. Next, we conducted an alternate as further understand observations from the reading of the data by “thinking with field. To systematically facilitate theory” (Jackson & Mazzei, 2012, p. 6). observations, we followed procedures Therefore, we were able to consider the data outlined by Emerson, Shaw, and Fretz through the lens of Foucault (1972) and (2011) by which jottings and field notes begin to make sense of how power structures were recorded. We also collected visual may have influenced the university- evidence (Pink, 2007) and organizational community partnerships. To further assess documents (Linde, 2009) to triangulate these categories, we deductively scrutinized findings and ensure data saturation was the concepts against “confirming and achieved. disconfirming evidence” (Erickson, 1985, p. To analyze the data, we grounded 90) in the selective coding phase. procedures in Patton’s (2002) concept of a Ultimately, through continual analysis and layered analytic approach. This process data reduction, we arrived at three

11 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 empirically saturated themes to represent the 6 described how locals became dependent study’s findings. on hand-outs. Therefore, when Gulu University officials attempted to introduce Findings the internship program, many farmers The analysis of data revealed three expected to be paid for their participation. major challenges to sustaining university- Participant 1, a university lecturer, explained community partnerships: (a) resistance, (b) that “farmers were scared of [the] conditions reinforcement of stereotypes, and (c) gender but [also] lazy” because of the aid they had bias. Therefore, when interpreting these received. Participant 2 provided further findings through Foucault’s (1972) lens, it insight on the attitudes of farmers regarding appeared that gender and class seemed to the program: uniquely shape the challenges associated [They would say] here is the with the partnerships examined in this study. university coming and they're not To situate these factors in the northern paying people any money. So Ugandan context, the discussion of themes eventually the farmers started saying, draws on relevant examples from the study’s ‘[w]e are not going to help you. We findings. want you to pay us some money.’ There was that resistance. And also Resistance being a post-war situation, people Although resistance is often were suspicious of us. conceptualized as existing within macro- structures of power, i.e., where the However, suspicion and skepticism oppressed struggle against the powerful, were not only limited to farmers but also Foucault (1972) argued that resistance also extended to the program’s students. For may be situated in less visible spaces. For instance, Participant 5 explained students instance, everyday resistance may be were suspicious of the program’s value due hidden, overlooked, and obscured from to its “intensive workload.” Meanwhile, view. Despite the ambiguousness of micro- Participant 14, a program alumna, explained resistances, these small acts can provide that many of her peers complained about insight into the silenced views and being “required to participate.” She perspectives of the oppressed, especially continued: “They were skeptical of the regarding the underlying challenges and program because they felt like they were barriers related to partnerships. In having to do extra work that students in interviews, participants articulated that similar programs were not having to do.” resistance occurred through actors’ Similarly, Participant 13 expounded that suspicions and skepticisms of both many of his peers were resistant to the university officials and the internship program because they did not understand its program in the aftermath of armed conflict intent. He further stated that students in their region. For example, the violent persistently posed questions such as “‘What conditions of the Gulu region throughout the is this all about?’ and ‘When will it end?’” 20-year war left many individuals, including The webs of resistance brought forth in the farmers, dependent on foreign aid and non- first theme revealed participants’ “reactive governmental organizations (NGOs). acts of opposition” (Foucault, 1972, p. 141) Although the aid was deeply appreciated, it to the internship program in its early phase. also created unintended consequences in Although these acts were ephemeral at northern Uganda. Participants 1, 2, 3, 5, and times, they continually reappeared well after

12 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 the program’s establishment as both viewed farmers as “simple and unknowing.” community cooperators and students Moreover, without forming a deeper, more struggled to understand and come to terms close-knit bond in the partnership, both with its aims and expectations. students’ and cooperators’ “opinions never change,” according to Participant 1. The Reinforcement of Stereotypes extent to which stereotypes were reinforced Participants in this study often in the partnerships also extended to the voiced the difficulties involved with attachment cooperators. For example, maintaining university-community several community cooperators viewed the partnerships. However, they also articulated concepts emphasized by the university the relationship-building phase as worth it faculty members were sometimes “not because of the many positive outcomes important.” Participant 8, a community associated with the program. Nevertheless, cooperator, revealed that some of her at times, the internship program seemed to negative views of the university were reinforce negative stereotypes regarding reinforced through her involvement with the agriculture and the university. Foucault program: (1972) espoused that stereotypes can work I really enjoy my experience with the as a form of oppression by inscribing [attachment] program. I have learned negative depictions of people, issues, and a lot from the students that attach to traditions in the public’s consciousness. me, but some of the information I Therefore, negative representations of hear they are learning is not so agriculture and the university arose. For important. They miss out on example, Participant 22 expressed that some important information. The farmers did not view students as university should focus more on knowledgeable about agricultural practices; information that will help us survive, rather they are viewed as “free labor.” not silly things. Therefore, the view that agriculture is only for laborers, and not educated professionals, As voiced by some participants, was reinforced for some students in the certain aspects of the internship program program. Participant 22 explained: seemed to reinforce the stigmas perpetuated To some of the farmers we are only by Ugandan society concerning agriculture providing them free labor. We are and university education as the students and not able to apply what we are community cooperators engaged with one studying because farming is just another. As a result, this unintended work. There is not much thinking. reinforcement of negative stereotypes You go there, the farmer expects you presented a unique challenge to sustaining to weed, to open up land, maybe viable university-community partnerships plant something new. So you ride intended to serve the needs and interests of your bicycle for 10 kilometers and all stakeholders. you just work, not think. Gender Bias Participant 4, a university official, Through field observations, an echoed the view that “attitude issues” emergent pattern was the concept of female existed with the program. He stressed that silence and lack of representation in the sometimes farmers did not view “students as attachment program. In 2016, only five of colleagues.” And, conversely, some students the 36 students in the program were female.

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Conversely, roughly 80% of Uganda’s This study explored the challenges to farmers are female (Ali, Bowen, Deininger, sustaining university-community & Duponchel, 2015). Foucault (1972) partnerships in a post-conflict context. Three explained that silence is often the result of challenges were identified: (a) resistance, (b) being oppressed as well as the existing reinforcement of stereotypes, and (c) gender gender rules within a given context. In this bias. The findings illustrate how these regard, we asked participants to express challenges are positioned within the existing their opinions on this issue during discourse of university-community interviews. Participant 6, a faculty member, partnerships in Gulu, Uganda. By grounding explained this bias was connected to a this study in FDT(1972), implicit challenges “concerning trend” in Ugandan society. emerged as associated with power and Through additional interviews, 15 privilege. Further, the findings may hold participants echoed similar views. valuable contributions to the literature in Participant 3’s explanation is representative: regard to understanding the complexities of First of all, there’s a misconception university-community partnerships and their and attitude that agriculture majors implications for students’ internship are for males. Now, with that experiences. Although internships have been attitude, many girls already grow up depicted as overwhelmingly positive in knowing they’ll go [to school] for international contexts (Shoulders et al., arts or nursing. They don’t want to 2012; Thoron et al., 2008), limited attention do agriculture, physics, chemistry, is given to their potential challenges. To math, or biology. They just grow up provide additional perspective into how the and they say to Hell with it, it’s for Foucauldian (1972) lens opened up new men. Agriculture is for men; I don’t insights into this phenomenon, we next need to do it. I think the main thing provide conclusions based on the study’s is attitude, but also there is a lack of major findings. social pressure on the girl child to The first theme, resistance, stay in school. Especially here in demonstrated the suspicions (Foucault, Uganda, girls drop out. 1972) displayed by both community cooperators and students in their early University officials, community engagement with Gulu University’s cooperators, alumni, and students all attachment program. In particular, this expressed thoughts concerning the negative finding provides important insights into the stigma associated with women in role that perceptions play in shaping agriculture. Participant 22, an undergraduate university-community partnerships. For student, explained that while growing up example, findings of this study illuminated agriculture was regarded as “man’s work” in the importance participants’ contextually her family despite the relatively small situated experiences had in influencing the number of men in the farming profession. construction and evolution of the As a result, she was encouraged to pursue partnerships. We, therefore, conclude that more “appropriate careers” such as nursing, social tensions, relations of power, as well teaching, or a job in the arts. This gendered as group dynamics influenced the resistance issue presents a unique challenge to Gulu experienced by stakeholders in their University’s attachment program. attempts to collaborate through the attachments. Conclusions

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Moreover, the partnerships leading vocation is considered more appropriate for to student internship opportunities in men – a notion supported by existing northern Uganda were predominantly literature (Houweling, Christie, & Abdel- depicted and voiced as high-quality Rahim, 2015; Minde et al., 2015). Foucault experiences. However, in regard to the (1972) suggested that the silence associated second theme, findings illustrated the with issues of gender exist when one sex partnerships could also uphold negative lacks agency in their private or professional stereotypes perpetuated by Ugandan society. lives. In accord, findings of this study For instance, negative views on agriculture indicated that women’s sense of agency was and the university’s role in the local limited in both domains. The struggles of community emerged as challenges as women in agricultural careers as well as amplified by community cooperators’ and related academic majors in developing students’ lived experiences – a view countries has been documented (Beintema, supported by existing literature (Costandius 2006; James & Denis, 2015), and in Uganda & Bitzer, 2014; Makkawi, 2013; Tavanti, in particular (Mukembo, Uscanga, Edwards, 2011). Of central importance to this finding & Brown, 2017). However, the challenge of is the role of relationships among faculty, engaging women in university-community students, and community cooperators. partnerships, such as through student Relationships are recognized as factors internship programs, warrants more influencing partnership-building (Annor- attention. Frempong, et al., 2002; Hoyt, 2010), but less attention has been paid to the social and Recommendations, Implications, and historical features influencing the Discussion construction of such collaborations and how University-community partnerships that can serve as a basis for preserving are vital to the success of agricultural negative stereotypes. In this study, development in post-conflict areas (Harkavy relationships seemed to naturalize negative & Romer, 1999; Stewart & Alrutz, 2012; stereotypes of agriculture and the university Strier, 2011). Therefore, it is imperative to on the part of students and their attachment understand their complexities more fully. As cooperators while simultaneously limiting such, the findings of this study suggest the their mutual possibilities. challenges to partnerships are nested in The dominance of women in broader socio-political issues of power, agricultural roles throughout Ugandan injustice, and inequality (Foucault, 1972). society (Ali et al., 2015) stands in sharp These implications expand possibilities for contrast to existing trends in the student future research and practice. First, future attachment program. Through in-depth investigations should examine the intricacies ethnographic fieldwork and individual involved with stakeholder resistance interviews, the silence and lack of throughout the various phases of university- representation of women emerged as a community partnerships. For instance, challenge to successful university- researchers might explore the extent to community partnerships. Participants which dialogue, co-construction of articulated this trend is connected to broader knowledge, role conflicts, and social social issues that often mute the discourses tensions shape how stakeholders negotiate of women in Uganda. Further, women the conflicting agendas embedded within appear to be discouraged from selecting partnerships. Other researchers (Hart & careers related to agriculture because the Wolff, 2006; Miller, 2007) suggested

15 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 university-community partnerships promote equitable, inclusive culture can be created in egalitarian dialogue and social action. the university-community partnerships However, when considering the findings of facilitated by Gulu University. By silencing this study, perhaps more attention should be and obscuring the roles of women in placed on understanding how intersections agriculture, feelings of exclusion and of tribal affiliation, native language, rejection are likely to emerge (Foucault, experiences, and existing relationships, 1972). However, by questioning the source including gendered roles and other norms, of this discourse and discovering its promote various forms of resistance. By structures of power, we can begin to more deeply understanding the influence of understand how such serves as an these factors, perhaps Gulu officials can impediment to successful and inclusive begin to make the necessary adjustments to university-community partnerships. gain more widespread acceptance of the Gendered labels, stigmas, and taboos limit attachment program’s objectives and thereby opportunities for women (Foucault, 1972), facilitate the relationships needed to achieve but by raising awareness of these issues, the such. same also can be used to stir a doubled In this study, university officials consciousness. Britzman (2003) explained developed community partnerships to that a double consciousness is attained when promote the application of theoretical oppressed individuals are able to “watc[h] knowledge while building the capacities of themselves through the eyes of the both students and smallholder farmers. powerful” (p. 51). Therefore, we suggest However, these partnerships also led to university officials design tailored unintended consequences such as campaigns aimed at promoting opportunities reinforcing negative stereotypes. More for women through participation in study, therefore, is needed to determine the agricultural internships. Moving forward, we extent to which reinforcing negative also recommend training be offered to stereotypes through partnerships may address the three identified challenges by function as a challenge to enacting promoting more collaborative, contextually community transformation. By grounded strategies calibrated to preserve understanding the boundaries this feature while enhancing Gulu University’s may impose on the partnerships, perhaps the community partnerships. institution could develop approaches to minimize such influence. Therefore, we References recommend regular stakeholder meetings be Ali, D. A., Bowen, D., Deininger, K., & implemented so actors can dialogue, reflect, Duponchel, M. (2015). Investigating and pose critical questions concerning how the gender gap in agricultural the potential of partnerships may be productivity: Evidence from Uganda. diminished by their participants’ adherence Washington, DC: The World Bank. to negative stereotypes. Further, discussions Retrieved from should also explore how partnerships can http://documents.worldbank.org/cura begin to move past this particular challenge ted/pt/ to alter structures of power and oppression 172861468184777211/pdf/WPS7262 at a macro level (Foucault, 1972) in .pdf Ugandan society. Annor-Frempong, F., Zinnah, M. M., & Issues of gender also should be Akuamoah-Boaten, S. (2002). examined to explore ways that a more Analysis of the partnership between

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the University of Cape Coast, http://www.asti.cgiar.org/pdf/Wome Ministry of Food and Agriculture, nResearchers.pdf and GTZ in an integrated crop Branch, A. (2009). Uganda’s civil war and protection project in Brong Ahafo the politics of ICC intervention. Region of Ghana. Paper presented at Ethics & International Affairs, 21(2), the 18th Annual Conference of 179-200. doi:10.1111/j.1747- Association for International 7093.2007.000069.x Agricultural and Extension Branch, A. (2011). Humanitarianism, Education, Durbin, South Africa. violence, and the camp in Northern Archer-Kuhn, B., & Grant, J. (2014). Uganda. Civil Wars, 11(4), 477-501. Challenging contextual factors in doi:10.1080/13698240903403857 university-community partnerships. Branch, A. (2013). Gulu in war…and peace? Journal of Community Engagement The town as camp in northern and Scholarship, 7(2), 40-49. Uganda. Urban Studies, 50(15), Retrieved from 3152-3167. http://search.proquest.com/openview doi:10.1177/0042098013487777 /2d0f480c0d84c8b9bfd6902c8c318a Bringle, R. G., & Hatcher, J. A. (2002). 44/1?pq-origsite=gscholar Campus-community partnerships: Aronowitz, S. (2000). The corporate The terms of engagement. Journal of university and the politics of Social Issues, 58(3), 503-516. education. The Educational Forum, doi:10.1111/1540-4560.00273 64(4), 332-339. Britzman, D. (2003). Practice makes doi:10.1080/00131720008984778 practice: A critical study of learning Asifiwe, C. (2011). The contribution of to teach. Albany: State University of higher education to socio-economic New York Press. development of the local community: Burr, V. (2003). Social A case study of Makerere University, constructionism (2nd ed.). New Kampala (Unpublished master's York, NY: Routledge. thesis). Retrieved from Butterwick, S., & Harper, L. (2006). An https://www.duo.uio.no/handle/1085 ‘inter-cultural’ view of community- 2/30564 academic partnerships: Tales from Barrick, R. K., Samy, M. M., Gunderson, M. the field. Proceedings of the 36th A., & Thoron, A. C. (2009). A model Annual SCUTREA Conference, for developing a well prepared Ontario, Canada. Retrieved from agricultural workforce in an http://wall.oise.utoronto.ca/resources international setting. Journal of / Butterwick International Agricultural and _etalSCUTREA2006.pdf Extension Education, 16(3), 25-31. Checkoway, B. (2000). Public service: Our doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2009.16303 new mission. Academe, 86(4), 24-28. Beintema, N. M. (2006). Participation of Retrieved from female agricultural scientists in http://search.proquest.com/openview developing countries. Agricultural /095adff8b53e6faf2e6be3e4dab7c74 Science and Technology Indicators b/1?pq-origsite=gscholar (ASTI), Rome, Italy and International Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2015). Basics of Food Policy Research Institute, qualitative research: Techniques and Washington, DC. Retrieved from procedures for developing grounded

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ndle/10852/30564/ FinalxThesis%5b1%5d.pdf?sequenc e=1&isAllowed=y Thoron, A. C., Barrick, R. K., Roberts, T. G., & Samy, M. M. (2008). Establishing technical internship programs for agricultural technical school students in Egypt. In Proceedings of the 24th Annual Meeting of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education, San Jose, Costa Rica. Retrieved from https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/ article/682/468.pdf Tsui, A. B., & Wong, A. T. (2006). Issues in school-university partnership. In C. K. Lee & M. Williams (Eds.), School improvement: International perspectives (pp. 175– 192). New York, NY: Nova Science Publishers. VanderDussen, E. (2009). “A spirit of service:” Conceptualizing service in learning through the preparation for social action program in Uganda (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://hdl.handle.net/1807/18111 Wallace, I. (2007). A framework for revitalisation of rural education and training systems in sub-Saharan Africa: Strengthening the human resource base for food security and sustainable livelihoods. International Journal of Educational Development, 27(5), 581-590. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2006.08.003

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24202

Small-Scale Farmers’ Decision-Making for Crop Selection and Production Practices in Northern Haiti

Priscilla Zelaya Amy Harder T. Grady Roberts University of Florida

Abstract Decision-making is an essential aspect of farming. The decisions farmers make affect their overall yield and, ultimately, impact their livelihoods. Understanding the different factors impacting farmer decision-making can provide insight for extension providers to improve the quality of service. In Haiti, the vast majority of farms are smallholder farms averaging less than 1.5 hectares (Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, and Rural Development [MARNDR], 2010). The purpose of this study was to determine the decision-making practices of small-scale farmers in Northern Haiti related to crop production. The following research objectives guided the study: (a) identify the factors associated with crop selection, and (b) identify reasons farmers engage in specific practices for crop production. Results from this study found that small-scale farmers in the North Department reported using the following factors to determine crop selection: financial security, familial traditions, concern for family, and availability of financial resources. When determining practices for crop production, farmers relied on the following drivers: financial limitations and previous learning experiences. Recommendations include increasing the availability of resources to the farmers in this region in order to create a solid foundation for behavior adoption and increased farmer capabilities.

Keywords: Haiti, Food Security, Small-Scale, Farmers, Decision-Making

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Introduction (Asante, Sefa, & Sarpong, 2011; Ilbery, Decision-making is an essential 1977; Öhlmér, Olson & Brehmer, 1998). aspect of farming. The decisions farmers The decision-making process small-scale make affect their overall yield and, farmers use in Haiti is not well documented. ultimately, impact their livelihoods. By identifying the factors which impact the Decisions can be made on the basis of past decisions of farmers in Haiti, extension experiences, newly presented information, service providers and nongovernmental financial pressures, and even imposed organizations (NGOs) can create regulations (Ilbery, 1978). Extension in the programming which addresses the current developing world faces increasingly practices of farmers, debunk myths that complex challenges; this is particularly true could have negative impacts on farmer in Haiti (Arias, Leguía, & Sy, 2013; Ponnia, yields, and create learning experiences that Puskur, Workneh, & Hoekstra, 2008). Rural affirm the cultural nuances of the farmers farmers may base their decision-making on while teaching new practices to improve culturally-held beliefs, which may differ their livelihoods. The focus of this study is from one region to the next. Understanding to understand small-scale Haitian farmers’ the different factors impacting farmer decision-making processes for crop decision-making can provide insight for production. extension providers to improve the quality of service. Literature Review In Haiti, the vast majority of farms Ilbery (1977) conceptualized the are smallholder farms averaging less than decision-making process in agriculture as 1.5 hectares (Ministry of Agriculture, being influenced by three categories of Natural Resources, and Rural Development factors: socio-personal, economic, and [MARNDR], 2010). The majority of physical. Socio-personal factors included smallholder farms are polyculture in nature. items such as personal risk, free time, Producing diverse crops allows the farmer to personal experience, personal preference, increase economic benefits by cutting losses and agricultural training. Economic factors (Fuller-Wimbush & Fils-Aimé, 2014). included market/demand, capital, income, Haiti’s agricultural landscape has gone labor, or under-used land available. Physical through changes in the past few years. factors included soil type, soil drainage, Despite the reforms instituted by the amount of rainfall, and temperature government, little change has come to the variations. In Ilbery’s (1977) study, farmers small-scale farmers in Haiti. Haiti’s were given a list of 19 factors and asked to extension services are barely seen rank each factor from irrelevant to essential throughout the country (Arias et al., 2013). in their decision-making process. Results Although regional agricultural assistance indicated farmers felt as though offices do exist within each of the ten market/demand and income were extremely departments, services are rarely provided to important influences in their decision- small-scale farmers (Zelaya, Harder, & making process, highlighting the Roberts, 2016). With little assistance, many “importance of social and personal farmers must independently make important considerations in the decision-making decisions which will affect the outcomes of process” (Ilbery, 1977, p. 71). Therefore, their livelihoods. decision-making is linked to the contextual The process of making agricultural situations of farmers. decisions has been of interest for many years

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Similar factors as the ones identified sources is also significant for decision- in Ilbery’s (1977) study can be linked to the making processes. Social thresholds refer to decision-making practices of small-scale the extent to which a particular innovation is farmers in developing countries (Asante et diffused through a social system (Valente, al., 2011). Comoé and Siegrist (2015) found 1996). Farmers who are a part of that farmers considered their decisions in organizations have more contact with peers light of their potential economic benefit in who may use different practices and may Cote d’Ivoire. The farmers in this study therefore base decisions on previous based their decisions on income and knowledge of farmers’ peer successes potential for financial gain in the future. The (Meijer et al., 2015). The social capital climate change perceptions of farmers were achieved through these contacts impacts also significant factors in the decision to farmers’ practices. adopt practices that would improve the The previously discussed factors climate, such as planting more trees on their leading to farmers’ decisions can be land (Comoé & Siegrist, 2015). Wealth was perceived in different ways by service a factor impacting farmer decisions in other providers. Local knowledge can often be studies (Sebatta, Mugisha, Katungi, seen as backwards or contrary to popular Kashaaru, & Kyomugisha, 2014; Wood, practices (Beckford, Barker, & Bailey, Jina, Jain, Kristjanson, & DeFries, 2014). 2007). However, the importance of local Farmers were also less likely to participate knowledge in the decision-making practices in new farming practices if the financial of small-scale farmers has been noted in the resources available were needed for familial literature (Beckford et al., 2007; Nyong, responsibilities. This finding highlights an Adesina, & Elasha, 2007; Segnon, Achigan- important factor in diffusion practices: Dako, Gaoue, & Ahanchédé, 2015). Masere monetary constraints will create barriers for and Worth (2015) found small-scale farmers small-scale farmers to adopt an innovation in Zimbabwe were more likely to consider (Meijer, Catacutan, Sileshi, & Nieuwenhuis, adopting computer-based modeling for crop 2015). production when they believed indigenous In addition to money, access to systems were no longer sufficient. information emerged as a significant factor Findings from a study by Kiros- in Sebatta et al.’s (2014) study on small- Meles and Abang (2008) led to scale farmers’ decisions to participate in the recommendations for extension agents to potato market in Uganda. Small-scale use farmers’ indigenous knowledge and farmers who had limited access to practices associated with local knowledge of information sources, or who were further crop disease management in future away from central markets, experienced programs. Similarly, a study by Obetta and deficits in effective practices in crop Asogwa (2013) found farmers were better production. The impacts of social able to apply sustainable agricultural interactions in the decision-making process practices in Nigeria when agricultural of farmers are seen through Sebatta et al.’s training incorporated indigenous knowledge study (2014). Farmers were more likely to practices. Saito, Linquist, Keobualapha, adopt practices if they were a part of farmer Shiraiwa, and Horie (2006) studied farmers’ organizations (Sebatta et al., 2014). knowledge of soils in relation to cropping Although these findings are similar practices. In their study, Saito et al. (2006) to Valente’s (1996) findings of social found farmers’ indigenous knowledge could thresholds, connection to information help “facilitate collaboration between

24 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 farmers, extension workers, and researchers and the capital, compounded by poor road to improve crop production” (p. 64). conditions, creates a unique situation for the Indigenous knowledge related to production Northern farmers due to the separation they has an impact on farmer decision making. face from centralized resources located in By utilizing this knowledge in future Port-au-Prince. programming, farmers in developing nations Each department in Haiti is further may adopt different practices in the future separated into arrondissements or districts. (Saito et al., 2006). Within the North there are seven arrondissements. The arrondissements in Purpose and Objectives this study were Cap-Haïtien, Acul-du-Nord, The purpose of this study was to and Grand Rivière du Nord. Farmers from determine the decision-making practices of the following communes within the small-scale farmers in Northern Haiti related arrondissements participated in the study: to crop selection and production. The Milot, Limonade, and Grand-Riviere du following research objectives guided the Nord. These areas were selected for the study: (a) identify the factors associated with study on the recommendation of a local crop selection, and (b) identify reasons Haitian agronomist on the basis of each farmers engage in specific practices for crop area’s agricultural productivity and production. accessibility to the target populations. The population for this study was Methodology comprised of small-scale farmers in the This qualitative study sought to North Department of Haiti. For the purposes explore the experiences and practices of of this study, small-scale refers to farmers small-scale farmers in the North Department who have two or less hectares of land of Haiti using a constructivist approach. (United States Agency for International Constructivism holds to the belief that Development, 2011). The distinction of two individuals reconstruct “understandings of or less hectares of land was selected for this the social world” (Lincoln, Lynham, & study in order to include more participants Guba, 2011, p. 92) in order to build their within the study. The parameter of small- own knowledge. Therefore, a constructivist scale was chosen due to the current farming approach was appropriate because the small- demographics in Haiti. The majority of scale farmers in the North Department of farmers in Haiti fall into the category of Haiti hold knowledge which they have small-scale (Philius, 2013). constructed through their interactions and Specific descriptive statistics for the experiences in the social world and use this agricultural sector in Haiti are very limited. knowledge as a basis for their decisions. The lack of information is also true of specific information about the North Population Department of Haiti. According to a 2014 Haiti is separated into ten report conducted by MARDNR, 49% of the departments, which are large areas of land population resided in rural Haiti. There were with distinct characteristics. The participants approximately 1,018,951 farms in Haiti, of this study were located in the North 74.35% operated by men and 25.3% Department of Haiti. The North Department operated by women (Philius, 2013). Over is approximately 251 kilometers by road half (52%) of farmers were between the ages from the nation’s capital, Port-au-Prince. of 35 and 54 years old (Philius, 2013). In The distance between the North Department 2014, 38.1% of the farmers in Haiti grew

25 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 grain crops and 26.5% of farmers grew the open-ended questions explored farmers’ legumes. Together, grain crops and legumes decision-making processes. The interview make up the majority (64.6%) of agricultural guide was then given to a Haitian vegetation in Haiti. agronomist, who was consulted about the specific experiences of small-scale farmers Sampling Methods in the North of Haiti. Following A combination of convenience and consultation, the questions in the interview snowball sampling (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, guide were revised to reflect the cultural and & Walker, 2014; Merriam, 1998, 2009) contextual nuances of the North Department were used to recruit participants for the in Haiti. For example, many older people in study. In order to accomplish the task of Haiti struggle to identify the year they were gaining access to the population and based born. As an alternative, it was suggested to on lessons learned from prior experience ask who Haiti’s president was when they interviewing farmers in the North were born. Department, a native Haitian male research assistant was employed to conduct Sample Size interviews. Initial contact was first made According to Merriam (1998), with a willing farmer and an interview was sample size for a qualitative study relies on conducted. Then, the farmer would the purpose of the study, the type of data physically walk the research assistant to the being collected, and the resources available. next potential participant. The farmer would For this study, a sample size was determined then introduce the research assistant to the based on the extent of saturation within the new farmer and initiate friendly data, following Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) conversation. The research assistant would guidance that redundancy (e.g. farmers then commence the interview with the new repeatedly mentioning the same factors farmer. Using peers to gain access to other influencing their decision-making) is a cue small-scale farmers increased trust and that saturation has been reached. The sample allowed for greater ease in interviewing. size for this study was 14 small-scale farmers spread throughout the three Interview Guide arrondissements of interest. Participants in The semi-structured interview the study were males between the ages of method was selected in order to allow for 32-67 years old. Eleven participants were greater interaction between the interviewer married. All members in the sample had and farmer as well as to allow for added children. The farmers in this study engaged information which would supplement the in polyculture and farmed combinations of data. The interview guide used for this study plantains, corn, pigeon peas, sugar cane, was conceptually framed based on the black beans, cassava, sweet potatoes, rice, decision-making factor categories suggested and malanga. by Ilbery (1977): economic, socio-personal, and physical. Open-ended questions covered Data Collection choice in farming practices related to crop Data collection occurred in two selection and production, familial and stages. The first stage was in March 2016 communal responsibilities, barriers faced, and the second stage occurred in June 2016. and underlying reasons for making specific Data were collected in two stages due to choices on their land. Close-ended questions time constraints which limited the amount of gathered demographic information, while interviews conducted in March 2016. Data

26 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 were collected through semi-structured Department of Haiti through involvement in personal interviews with small-scale a local non-governmental organization farmers. The interviews were conducted on (NGO). The lead researcher’s involvement the farms of the participants. The interviews with the NGO has allowed for extensive ranged from 10 - 24 minutes and were experience with individuals who have not conducted in Haitian-Creole. As non- received outside help from governmental Haitians, the authors did not accompany the agencies, including extension service research assistant to the interviews due to providers. Leading in to this particular the potential to influence participant study, the lead researcher believed the lack responses. Previous experience conducting of resources available to small-scale farmers research with farmers in the North would cause them to rely on cultural Department showed cultural beliefs held practices in crop production. One of the towards members outside of the native researchers in this study had over 10 years Haitian community created potentials for of experience in U.S. Extension. The third biases in responses and limited participation researcher in this study had significant in the study if an outsider was present. The experience in Agricultural Education and research assistant audio recorded the had been involved in capacity development interviews with participant permission. in Haiti. The research assistant was a current The research assistant was an student at a local university in his third year agronomy student at a local university in the studying agronomy. The lead researcher North Department. He grew up working on trained the research assistant through his parent’s small-scale farm in Cap-Haitian. modeling exercises to conduct the semi- His experiences brought a depth of structured interviews. The research assistant knowledge to the study as well as certain was also trained in appropriate probing biases which come from experiencing the questions. The semi-structured interviews work of his parents. Additionally, as a male, were conducted by first explaining the his presence may have impacted the purpose of the study and the rights of the willingness of females to participate in the participant. A time for participant questions study. about the study was allowed. Following the introduction to the study, the interviewer Data Analysis began asking questions from the interview Data were analyzed using the guide. constant comparative method (Merriam, 2009). Glaser and Strauss (1967) described Subjectivity and Bias the four stages of the constant comparative Since the researcher is a critical method as including comparing incidents, element of qualitative research (Merriam, integrating categories, delimiting the theory, 2009), a certain level of subjectivity may and writing the theory (Glaser & Strauss, occur within a study. The experiences and 1967). Since the study was not conducted to perspectives of the researchers lead to develop grounded theory, only the first two certain interpretations of the data which may stages of the constant comparative method conflict with the intended viewpoints of the were used. participants. The potential biases present The recordings of the interviews within the researchers should be addressed. were transcribed into Haitian-Creole by an The lead researcher had spent English professor in Haiti. After the considerable time within the North interviews were transcribed, recognizable

27 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 information was removed in order to protect debriefing among the researchers was also the identities of the participants. The lead helpful in establishing credibility. The researcher is proficient in Haitian-Creole methods used for establishing credibility can and analyzed the data in their original also be used to establish dependability. In language. Selected quotes within this paper order to establish transferability, the were translated in the analysis. The analysis researchers used thick description to explain was then confirmed with the transcriber to the results of the study. Confirmability was confirm the accuracy of the analysis with the accomplished through an audit trail audio transcription. consisting of notes, reflective practices, and The lead researcher aimed to become analysis. well-acquainted with the data (Ary et al., 2014). To accomplish this task, the lead Results researcher read the transcriptions several Themes identified from the times. After achieving a substantial level of interviews were categorized into two major comfort with the data, the lead researcher categories: factors related to crop selection began to use phrase-by-phrase open coding. and factors related to crop production. This means that when a sentence ended, a Coding was used for direct quotes from the code was assigned to the phrase (Strauss & farmer interviews. Participant interviews Corbin, 1990). These open codes formed the were assigned pseudonyms in order to basis of the initial categories. Once the protect their privacy. initial categories were created for all transcriptions, the lead researcher created a Factors Related to Crop Selection digital spreadsheet of the initial categories Financial security. Farmers in the and quotes which applied. This spreadsheet study were concerned with their financial was used to compare the data and create security. The amount of financial larger categories and subcategories. The data uncertainties they faced caused many of the was analyzed using coding a total of three farmers to feel as though they were at the times. “mercy of God” (Andrel) and had “no assurance” (Ronal) for the outcome of their Trustworthiness current harvest. These uncertainties drove Lincoln and Guba (1985) established farmers to find ways in which to ensure the concept of trustworthiness for quality some vestige of security with their harvest. measures in qualitative studies. The When speaking of the decision to choose concepts that make up trustworthiness in maize as the main crop for their land, Jean qualitative studies are credibility, stated “other crops take too long, maize I transferability, dependability, and wait three months and it is ready.” Jean went confirmability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). In on to describe how the quick turn-around this study, credibility was achieved through from the maize allowed him to gain more the triangulation of data through multiple money than other crops. sources of data collection. Data were The quick turn-around times were collected using interviewer notes, pictures, not the only factors leading to crop selection and audio recordings. After the data were as many farmers also stated they knew they transcribed the lead researcher consulted could “make the most money” (Julio, Isaac, with the Haitian research assistant who Yves) from investing in sugar cane. One conducted the interviews in order to farmer, Isaac, also stated being “obligated” establish accuracy in the transcription. Peer to take the market prices into consideration

28 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 when selecting what to plant in a particular “responsibilities” (Andrel, Isaac, Getro, season. Farmers were conscious of what Luckson) of feeding their family members. their neighbors were planting and would One farmer, Julio, stated that he “plants decide to “buy the same [seed] in order to enough for his family and a little to sell.” also make a gain” (Joslen). In the same way, Similarly, Andrel stated, “the size of my farmers avoided the risk of planting crops family makes a big impact, the amount of which they were not confident in the food you need to eat, you cannot find.” outcome, choosing to rely on familiar crops Delekson stated the need to choose crops which they knew how to plant. As Andrel which had high yields to ensure his “family stated, “I know how to plant the pigeon peas had food to eat.” In addition to providing so I chose to plant them again.” Andrel went food for their families, some farmers on to explain, “I know I made money with mentioned the responsibility for sending [the seeds] in the past.” Another farmer, their children to school. Yves mentioned, “I Joslen, noted that if his “crop did not have two children in school now, I must succeed enough, all the food” would go to have money for them to go to school.” The feed his family and he would not make any concern for the future of their families money. weighed heavy on Yves who said, “I want my children to learn and I have to make sure Familial traditions. When asked they are able [to learn].” about reasons for selecting certain crops to plant, farmers readily mentioned what their Availability of financial resources. family or community typically produced The scarcity of some resources influenced (Ronal, Isaac, Stenio, Mytto). Stenio stated, farmers’ crop selection in this study. The “my parents have always grown corn so I vast majority of farmers cited money as one grow corn.” Another farmer, Luckson, of the most influential factors in crop boasted of growing crops which he had selection (Jean, Stevenson, Mytto). The lack grown since being “a child watching” his of money influenced the type of seeds the parents. Farmers expressed a sense of pride farmers selected. One farmer, Yves, stated, in their adherence to familial practices “I did not have the money to buy sugar cane (Ronal, David) and desired to continue these this year” since it was more expensive for practices into the future (Mytto). Pride was him. Ronal noted, “if I don’t have the seen in the following comment made by money, I don’t buy” excess seeds. Isaac also Mytto, “you see me, I grew up learning from noted the difficulty of finding enough my parents, I do this now the way my money to “buy yam plants to grow.” When parents did.” asked why he selected to grow cassava in a particular area on his land, Stenio Concern for family welfare. In mentioned, “if I have only this money, I addition to citing familial traditions as cannot do anything else. I must grow what I sources for decision-making, farmers also can with my money.” referenced the size of their families as drivers for crop selection. Farmer families, Drivers Related to Crop Production within this study, ranged in size from 4-14 Financial Limitations. In addition members. Farmers claimed nutritional to money directly affecting the type of crops responsibility for these family members by farmers selected, farmers also noted the addressing who they fed on a daily basis. difficulty of hiring help with limited money. Farmers continually mentioned the Jean noted, “if God gives me the money, I

29 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 can pay for three people to help me.” Jean farmers with whom they share information continued to explain how the amount of on how to grow their crops (Isaac, Luckson, workers impacts how well he can clean the Stevenson). The data revealed a lack of land and prepare the land for production. learning experiences from NGOs or other One farmer, Mytto, mentioned how organizations, including the government. sometimes he does not have time to Joslen stated, “I am by myself, the only maintain his crops so he needs “pay information I have is from my hands.” someone to come and help.” The money Mytto could have used for tools or Conclusions, Implications, and irrigation, was instead used “to find Recommendations workers.” Lack of money directly impacted The Haitian farmers in this study access to specific resources, such as water. based their decision-making on a variety of When asked about their irrigation practices, factors. These factors include needs for an overwhelming majority of farmers stated financial security, familial traditions, that they had “no practice” (Jean, Ronal, concern for family welfare, availability of Julio, Stenio). When probed further, Julio resources, financial limitations, and previous noted, “well, I wait for the rain” and experiences. The factors identified in this described how the weather was his only study were consistent with previous research source of water. With the lack of money to conducted with other small-scale farmer provide irrigation sources, Stevenson noted populations in developing countries (e.g. “the rain is our water.” Another farmer, Ilberry, 1997; Meijer et al., 2015; Sebatta et Andrel, went on to say that lack of money al., 2014; Wood et al., 2014). made him “live at the mercy of the rain.” Many of the farmers in this study Previous learning experiences. were the main income earners in their Farmers regularly mentioned learning from homes. The pressures to meet their families’ their parents when asked to explain where needs were a driving force for decision- they learned the practices they implement on making. Farmers thought critically about their land (Ronal, Stenio, Getro, Delekson). how their money was spent and what Getro explained how his mother and father benefits their crop selection would reap to taught him all the practices he currently uses meet the financial responsibilities of their and said he “always holds on to” what they families. In addition to feeding the family, taught him. When describing the method he the farmers were responsible for sending used to clean the land prior to planting, their children to school and having enough Stenio mentioned “my father woke up every resources to ensure their futures. The morning and I worked with him, he taught connection to family as a driver for me.” Additionally, when probed further to decision-making is not surprising for the describe the practices they learned from Haitian community where the culture their parents, Delekson stated, “the way I am emphasizes familial financial responsibility now is how my parents worked.” and familial tradition (Smith, 1963). Farmers also mentioned different Ilbery (1978) stated “an individual sources of information for how they grow farmer makes decisions with respect to the their crops. Andrel said he learned how to available resources at his disposal” (p. 454). diversify his land from his personal Farmers in this study had difficulty networks by finding “people that have the acquiring the necessary funds to purchase all knowledge to give me the information.” the seeds which they would require, could Farmers noted working with other groups of not pay for irrigation technologies, and

30 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 lacked funds to hire adequate help during achieve increased food security in the the production cycle. These findings are region. consistent with Comoé and Siegrist’s (2015) assertion that financial resources impact References farmer decisions. The financial limitations Arias, D., Leguía, J. J., & Sy, A. (2013). of small-scale farmers are evident; 80% of Determinants of agricultural individuals in rural areas in Haiti live in extension services: The case of Haiti poverty (World Bank, 2013). Rural (LCSSD Occasional Paper Series on development practitioners focused on Food Prices). Retrieved from improving the livelihoods of small-scale http://documents.worldbank.org/cura farmers in Haiti’s North Department should ted/en/2013/05/18170053/determina take into consideration financial constraints nts-agricultural-extension-services- when planning interventions. case-haiti In Haiti, the reliance on God to bring Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C., & about successful crops is an example of a Walker, D. A. (2014). Introduction strong indigenous knowledge system to research in education (9th ed.). (Beckford et al., 2007). These strongly held Belmont, CA: Wadsworth. beliefs are valued within Haitian culture Asante, B. O., Sefa, V. A., & Sarpong, D. B. (Drexler, 2008) and permeate the (2011). Determinants of small scale agricultural atmosphere. Similarly, farmers’ decision to join farmer adherence to traditional family crop based organizations in Ghana. production practices was noted. In order to African Journal of Agricultural fully address the needs of small-scale Research, 6(10), 2273-2279. farmers, service providers must Retrieved from acknowledge the tightly held beliefs and http://www.academicjournals.org/AJ offer suggestions to increase farmers’ AR perception of control (Obetta & Asogwa, Beckford, C., Barker, D., & Bailey, S. 2013). Connecting new information to local (2007). Adaptation, innovation and indigenous knowledge would help to domestic food production in increase adoption rates (Saito et al., 2006). Jamaica: Some examples of survival Additional research is needed to strategies of small‐scale farmers. expand upon the localized findings of this Singapore Journal of Tropical qualitative study in order to determine the Geography, 28(3), 273-286. doi: extent to which other small-scale farmers in 10.1111/j.1467-9493.2007.00301.x Haiti consider the same factors when Comoé, H., & Siegrist, M. (2015). Relevant making decisions regarding crop selection drivers of farmers’ decision behavior and production. In particular, the frequency regarding their adaptation to climate with which this study’s farmers felt change: a case study of two regions constrained by financial limitations warrants in Côte d’Ivoire. Mitigation and further investigation into how these Adaptation Strategies for Global constraints influence Haitian farmers’ Change, 20(2), 179-199. doi: willingness to adopt new crop varieties or 10.1007/s11027-013-9486-7 production practices. Understanding Drexler, M. J. (2008). Haiti, modernity, and decision-making practices is an essential U.S. identities. Early American part of the broader goal to improve farmer Literature, 43(2), 453-465. doi: livelihoods in the North Department and 10.1353/eal.0.0004

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Fuller-Wimbush, D., & Fils-Aimé, C. Lower Gweru communal area, (2014). Feed the future investment in Zimbabwe. Journal of International Haiti: Implications for sustainable Agricultural and Extension food security and poverty reduction. Education, 22(3), 20-34. doi: Retrieved from 10.5191/jiaee.2015.22302 http://www.oxfamamerica.org/public Meijer, S. S., Catacutan, D., Sileshi, G. W., ations/feed-the-future-investment-in- & Nieuwenhuis, M. (2015). Tree haiti planting by smallholder farmers in Glaser, B. G., & Strauss, A. L. (1967). The Malawi: Using the theory of planned discovery of grounded theory: behaviour to examine the Strategies for qualitative research. relationship between attitudes and Chicago, IL; Aldine. behaviour. Journal of Environmental Ilbery, B. W. (1977). Point score analysis: A Psychology, 43, 1-12. doi: methodological framework for 10.1016/j.jenvp.2015.05.008 analyzing the decision-making Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research process in agriculture. Tijdschrift and case study applications in voor Economische en Sociale education. San Francisco, CA: Geografie, 68(2), 66-71. doi: Jossey-Bass. 10.1111/j.1467-9663.1977.tb01396.x Merriam, S. B. (2009) Qualitative research: Ilbery, B. W. (1978). Agricultural decision- A guide to design and making a behavioural perspective. implementation. San Francisco, CA: Progress in Human Geography, 2(3), Jossey-Bass. 448-466. doi: Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, 10.1177/030913257800200303 and Rural Development Kiros-Meles, A., & Abang, M. M. (2008). [MARNDR]. (2010). Haiti: National Farmers’ knowledge of crop diseases Agricultural Investment Plan. and control strategies in the regional Retrieved from state of Tigrai, northern Ethiopia: https://www.gafspfund.org/sites/gafs Implications for farmer–researcher pfund.org/files/Documents/Haiti_Nat collaboration in disease ionalAgricultureInvestmentPlan.pdf management. Agriculture and Nyong, A., Adesina, F., & Elasha, B. O. Human Values, 25(3), 433-452. doi: (2007). The value of indigenous 10.1007/s10460-007-9109-6 knowledge in climate change Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). mitigation and adaptation strategies Naturalistic inquiry. Beverly Hills, in the African Sahel. Mitigation and CA: Sage. Adaptation Strategies for Global Lincoln, Y. S., Lynham, S. A., & Guba, E. Change, 12(5), 787-797. doi: G. (2011). Paradigmatic 10.1007/s11027-007-9099-0 controversies, contradictions, and Obetta, C. O., & Asogwa, V. C. (2013). emerging confluences, revisited. The Utilization of indigenous knowledge Sage Handbook of Qualitative (IK) by farmers for sustainable Research, 4, 97-128. agricultural production in Enugu Masere, T. P., & Worth, S. (2015). State, Nigeria. International Journal Applicability of APSIM in decision- of Agriculture Innovations and making by small-scale resource- Research, 1(5), 146-155. Retrieved constrained farmers: A case of from

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http://www.ijair.org/administrator/co Segnon, A. C., Achigan-Dako, E.G., Gaoue, mponents/com_jresearch/files/public O. G. & Ahanchédé, A. (2015). ations/IJAIR_93_Final.pdf Farmer’s knowledge and perception Öhlmér, B., Olson, K., & Brehmer, B. of diversified farming systems in (1998). Understanding farmers' sub-humid and semi-arid areas in decision making processes and Benin. Sustainability, 7(1), 6573- improving managerial assistance. 6592. doi: 10.3390/su7066573 Agricultural Economics, 18(3), 273- Smith, R. T. (1963). Culture and social 290. doi: 10.1016/S0169- structure in the Caribbean: Some 5150(97)00052-2 recent work on family and kinship Philius, R. (2013, June). The census of studies. Comparative studies in agriculture in Haiti: Overview. society and history, 6(1), 24-46. Paper session presented at the Retrieved meeting of Workshop for the from http://www.jstor.org/stable/177 Caribbean by the FAO/ UNFPA, 885 Trinidad & Tobago. Retrieved from Strauss, A. L., & Corbin, J. M. (1990). http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templa Basics of qualitative research. tes/ess/documents/meetings_and_wo London, UK: Sage. rkshops/IICA_2013/Linkages_TT_1 United States Agency for International 0- Development [USAID]. (2011). 12June2013/Presentations/Haiti_10- Haiti: FY 2011-2015 multi-year 12_June_2013_Integrated_Censuses. strategy. Retrieved from the Feed pdf the Future website: Ponnia, A., Puskur, R., Workneh, S., & http://feedthefuture.gov/resource/ha Hoekstra, D. (2008). Concepts and iti-feed-future-multi-year-strategy practices in agricultural extension in Valente, T. W. (1996). Social network developing countries: A source book. thresholds in the diffusion of Retrieved from innovations. Social etworks, 18(1), http://ebrary.ifpri.org/cdm/ref/collect 69-89. doi: 10.1016/0378- ion/p15738coll2/id/125973 8733(95)00256-1 Saito, K., Linquist, B., Keobualapha, B., Wood, S. A., Jina, A. S., Jain, M., Shiraiwa, T., & Horie, T. (2006). Kristjanson, P., & DeFries, R. S. Farmers' knowledge of soils in (2014). Smallholder farmer cropping relation to cropping practices: A case decisions related to climate study of farmers in upland rice based variability across multiple regions. slash-and-burn systems of northern Global Environmental Change, 25, Laos. Geoderma, 136(1), 64-74. doi: 163-172. doi: 10.1016/j.geoderma.2006.02.003 10.106/j.gloevcha.2013.12.011 Sebatta, C., Mugisha, J., Katungi, E., World Bank. (2013). Investing in people to Kashaaru, A., & Kyomugisha, H. fight poverty in Haiti. Retrieved from (2014). Smallholder farmers' http://www.worldbank.org/content/d decision and level of participation in am/Worldbank/document/Poverty%2 the potato market in Uganda. 0documents/Haiti_PA_overview_we Modern Economy, 5(8), 895-906. b_EN.pdf doi: 10.4236/me.2014.58082 Zelaya, P., Harder, A., & Roberts, T. G. (2016). Small-scale farmers'

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perceptions of agricultural information sources in Northern Haiti. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 23(2), 63-77. doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2016.23205

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24203

Building Social Capital and Leadership Skills for Sustainable Farmer Associations in Morocco

Catherine M. Rasmussen Renee M. Pardello John R. Vreyens Scott Chazdon Somongkol Teng Michael Liepold University of Minnesota Extension

Abstract Agricultural development in Morocco relies on the economic strength of the country’s rural regions. Recently, government programs have focused special attention on actions encouraging farmer associations and strengthening value-chains for agricultural commodities. Small rural producers, however, lack the leadership skills and strategic planning capabilities to accomplish this initiative. The Morocco Rural Leadership Program connects University of Minnesota Extension staff with faculty at the National School of Agriculture, Meknès (ENA) in Morocco to co-design and teach a leadership cohort program for farmers. Its intent is to build social capital for sustainable value-chain development. Program evaluation revealed that the program not only increased leadership capacity but also grew farmers’ social capital and led to behavioral and procedural change in farmer associations.

Key Words: social capital, networks, leadership, sustainability, farmer associations, value chains, Morocco

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Introduction leadership and strategic planning capabilities In Morocco, as in many countries, of farmer associations in several value agricultural development relies on the chains in the Meknès-Tafilalet region. The economic strength of its rural regions. program connected University of Minnesota During the past several decades, the Extension staff with faculty at the National emphasis on agricultural development in School of Agriculture, Meknès (ENA) in Morocco and beyond has shifted from Morocco to co-design and teach a leadership commodity production to value-chain cohort program for farmers to build social development (USAID, 2013). A value capital for sustainable value chain chain is a model developed by Michael development. The leadership program Porter (1985) used to describe the series of developed a cohort of trainers, as well as a activities by which businesses receive raw cohort of decision makers with common materials, add value to the raw materials to responsibilities to govern, manage, and create a finished product, and then sell the operate strong associations and affiliated end product to customers. The value chain enterprises. Funding for this program was approach emphasizes the relationships supported by the U.S. Agency for among the chain of organizations that add International Development (USAID) and value to raw agricultural products. The supported through the John Ogonowski and transition to supporting value-chain Doug Bereuter Farmer-to-Farmer Program development accompanied a programmatic through the Volunteers for Economic shift to positioning farmers for export Growth Alliance (VEGA). markets. The Morocco Green Plan (Agence The context for this program is built pour le Développement Agricole, 2013) on the relationship between the University strengthens value-chain efforts by of Minnesota and higher education and aggregating small-scale farmers into research institutions in the Kingdom of cooperative associations, as well as Morocco. Over four decades, Moroccan integrating commodity production with the citizens were educated through a program processing and marketing industries of local coordinated through the University of commodities. As a result of this plan, rural Minnesota that focused on agricultural systems were restructured, creating the sciences. A network of alumni provided a formation of more than 250 farmer-based, link for continued collaboration in the value-chain associations in rain-fed areas country, including a 30-member cohort across the country. In December 2013, the group of Minnesota citizens visiting 12,022 cooperatives in the country Morocco as a part of their own leadership mobilized 440,372 individuals. training program in March 2011. Through collective action, farmer In support of the Morocco Green associations and cooperatives can be highly Plan to establish and develop a value chain successful at leveraging resources, cutting approach across the agriculture sector, input costs, accessing financial and continued growth has occurred in farmer marketing services, and solving common associations and cooperatives. The long- challenges. The difficulty in achieving term viability of the associations was success for these associations, however, is a important for sustained development of lack of leadership, planning, and collective agriculture. From this initiative, the decision-making skills. Morocco Rural Leadership Program was The Morocco Rural Leadership proposed. program was designed to strengthen the

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This article presents a literature heard by policymakers and the public review examining the scholarly influences (Birchall, 2004; IFAP, 2004; Marsh, 2003). of the program, a detailed description of Unfortunately, until recently, the program design, including implementation social dimension has been widely perceived and evaluation efforts, and evaluation as “the weakest ‘pillar’ of sustainable results. The study concludes by highlighting development” (Lehtonen, 2004, p. 199). For the implications and applications of this type a long time, sustainable development was of leadership program for international thought to address mostly environmental Extension professionals. issues regarding the integration of environmental concerns into economic Literature Review decision-making. Socio-political and The Morocco Rural Leadership economic changes in the past two decades, Program is a new type of international however, have created a renewed interest in Extension program informed by, and the role of the social dimensions of contributing to, literature on the role of development (Woolcock, 2001; Lehtonen, farmer associations in sustainable 2004). development, leadership development, and According to Lay (2007), sustainable social capital. The literature influencing this development has two main pillars; "learning approach to agricultural development for sustainability" and "leading change differentiates from much of the existing towards sustainability" (p. 1052). For an literature, which has tended to emphasize organization to prosper and have a the role of NGOs and the private sector in sustainable future, it must be purposefully agricultural development (Swanson & managed rather than spontaneous. A critical Samy, 2002), workforce development part of accomplishing this is to involve a (Barrick, Samy, Gunderson, & Thoron, group of social actors who internalize 2009), and internationalization of sustainability, life preservation, and survival agricultural and Extension education as the ultimate value and special interest. curriculum (Ricketts & Morgan, 2009). They also systematically "feed themselves with new knowledge" (p. 1053). Sustainable Development More recently, Missimer and While multiple perspectives of Connell (2012) discussed social learning sustainable development exist, this rural within education for the sustainable leadership training program was developed development field based on the idea that we to build capacity within farmer associations learn best through learning with and through in Morocco. This effort was intended to others. They argue that, “When people learn contribute to long-term sustainable together, the collective knowledge and skill development through skill development to are far greater than what can be achieved by strengthen rural associations and an individual” (p. 174). cooperatives. According to the Food and Agricultural Organization (2007), farmer- Leadership Development and Social based associations (FBAs) are instrumental Capital in promoting empowerment and equitable Community leadership development development. Through FBAs, farmers can literature influenced the design of the strengthen their political power as a group program, specifically its emphasis on the and ensure that their needs and voices are importance of both human and social capital in leadership development. Human capital

37 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 refers to the collective power of individual groups with similar backgrounds, while knowledge, skills, abilities, and social bridging networks refer to weaker competencies. Communities can enhance connections among individuals and groups their human capital by improving the skills with diverse backgrounds. Organizations of individual leaders. Social capital, on the with strong bonding but weak bridging other hand, refers to the collective power of networks tend to exclude new or non- relationships, connections, and networks traditional leaders. The potential drawback among and between people. Individuals and of emphasizing bonding over bridging social communities acquire social capital through capital is also highlighted in several articles relationship-building among people who are about farmer associations that point out the similar, people who are different, and people limited benefits they provide to smaller with varying levels of political power producers. A small group of larger (Rasmussen, Armstrong & Chazdon, 2011). producers tend to control and benefit the Aspects of human and social capital most from the associations (Attwood, 1987; are also central to the distinction between Fox & Hernandez, 1989; Lele, 1981). “leader” and “leadership” development. Day Chamala and Shingi (1997) argue that, “The (2000) asserts that leader development traditional approaches to organizing farmers emphasizes human capital—the skills and and forming cooperatives need to be revised abilities of individuals associated with to meet the development challenges of the formal leadership roles. Leadership twenty-first century” (p. 193). development, on the other hand, focuses on In addition to bonding and bridging resources that are embedded in relationships, networks, linking networks are crucial in bearing more resemblance to social capital. rural development contexts. Based on the Day notes, “The primary emphasis in work of Szreter and Woolcock (2004), leadership development is on building and linking networks are defined as “networks using interpersonal competence” (p. 585). and institutionalized relationships among According to Day, interpersonal competence unequal agents” (Szreter, 2002, p. 579). has two distinct skill sets: (a) social Compared with bridging networks, which awareness, which includes empathy, connect individuals who are not alike yet are political awareness, and service orientation more or less equal in terms of status or and (b) social skills, which includes the power, linking networks are based on ability to collaborate, manage conflict, and explicit "vertical" power differentials. catalyze change. Bantilan and Padmaja Linking networks are considered strong (2008) support this notion of leadership when residents trust leaders of public and development by stating: “…social capital private institutions and are able to engage plays an important role in fostering the with those leaders. Leadership programs, social networks and information exchange therefore, should focus on the strengthening needed to achieve collective action and of bridging, as well as linking networks by sustain a social and institutional promoting wider engagement among environment that is ready to adapt and program participants with stakeholders change” (p. 63). (Abbey, Tomlinson, & Branston, 2016). When reviewing the literature on Purpose and Objectives social capital, the distinction between The purpose of the Morocco bonding, bridging, and linking social capital Leadership Program was to increase is also relevant. Bonding networks refer to networks and social capital among farmers strong connections among individuals and while also providing leadership skill training

38 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 to build leadership competencies. The learning and social capital building goals. intention to build social capital was to help For one, knowledge and skills are more Moroccan farmers learn about working efficiently acquired and readily retained cooperatively as a way to strengthen value when information is distributed over spaced chains and enhance their incomes. By time intervals rather than disseminated all at linking a large number of small farms to once. This was especially helpful with the market as a group, small producers would be long-distance logistical nature of the able to sell to a national or even program. Additionally, a cohort model international market. encourages exploration and exchange of Specific objectives that were views with others while also enabling people measured and evaluated in building social to develop broader individual networks. This capital and the leadership capacity of the was magnified in the program, as each farmers were: individual farmer also represented a network of individuals connected through their 1. Increase of networking capacity association. These connections, both pre- among the members of farmer existing and formed in the cohort associations; environment, make it easier for participants 2. Increase of effective communication to move outside of their comfort zone and between members of different further engage in the program material. associations; Cohorts also build the trust and support 3. Increase of leadership competencies necessary for the depth of group reflection of individual farmers; and and meaning-making following disorienting 4. Increase of leadership capacity of dilemmas that individuals experience in farmer associations through project these kinds of programs. Along with these implementation. benefits for program participants, the cohort Although not evaluated for this model encourages the sustainability of the article, it is important to note that a train- program as a whole. the-trainer model was used for the purpose While using the cohort model for of ensuring the program’s sustainability. The structure, the program applied an integrative objective was to develop the leadership leadership content model that included four skills and capacity of the ENA faculty in core competency areas to build both order for them to lead and sustain future leadership skills and social capital: Linking cohorts. Furthermore, the give and take Engagement, Contextual Understanding, discussions following the sessions with the Leader Attributes, and Relationship farmers promoted mutual cultural Building. Twelve specific leadership understanding between Minnesota educators competencies were identified to integrate and ENA faculty. throughout the training to reinforce the four core areas. Table 1 lists the themes and Methods competencies woven throughout the three Cohort Model sessions. The Morocco Rural Leadership program was based on a cohort model that Program Design also takes into consideration the context of The program design was developed small, rural Moroccan cooperatives. The using an iterative, three-tiered process. The cohort model is preferred for leadership first tier involved University of Minnesota development programs because, both Extension educators preparing drafts of explicitly and by design, it helps achieve

39 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 agendas and activities to present to the team decision-making, preparing and facilitating a of four faculty from the National School of meeting agenda, creating a shared vision, Agriculture, Meknès (ENA). and developing action steps to reach their The second tier was a train-the- vision. Between the workshops, cohort trainer component in which Extension members were given assignments to practice educators and alumni from the Minnesota the tools they learned, including the Agriculture and Rural Leadership (MARL) application of a strategic planning process to program provided training and shared lead their cooperative or association. farmer association experiences with four Moroccan professors from ENA. This Training Sessions process included both virtual and in-person The program was conducted during working sessions to develop the curriculum. three consecutive sessions implemented over Working together, Minnesota educators and nine months: June 2014, October 2014, and Moroccan faculty incorporated Moroccan February 2015. The same scheduling format examples (i.e., educational videos, field was used for each session. The first three trips, and local guest speakers) to ensure that days focused on Tier 2 of the design concepts were introduced in the correct process. Through a collaborative process, order and reinforced throughout the training. the University of Minnesota and ENA The third tier of the program design faculty revised the agenda and activites to was the give-and-take that occurred when better target the farmer participants. The ENA professors delivered the curriculum to following three days focused on Tier 3 in farmers. The 22 farmer participants which the ENA faculty implemented the represented 17 different associations across training for particpants. After each set of six eight value chains: honey, milk, apples, days, there was a debriefing to identify what olives, seeds, dates, medicinal plants, and was working well and what needed to be meat. The training sessions were delivered changed for future sessions. Table 1 presents in Arabic and Berber. Members learned and an overview of the content and focus of each practiced a number of tools, including group of the program sessions.

Table 1 Workshop Session Framework by Themes and Learning Objectives Dates Theme Learning objectives June 4-6, 2014 Introduction to To understand cohorts and get to know one another Leadership and To develop ground rules and shared values Mapping the To better understand the association’s strengths, Environment problems, opportunities, and threats What is Leadership To analyze the characteristics of leaders and the Value of To explain the importance of a group having a clear Vision vision To learn a process of developing a vision for the association To identify action steps for change

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Creating a Vision and To understand the skills needed for effective planning Steps for Action To identify high-level strategies and actions steps for reaching a shared vision To use a process to gather facts and reactions of others to a group’s vision and strategies October 15-17, Reconnecting with the To understand different communication styles 2014 Leadership Cohort To build communication with others, mindful of individual talents and strengths To understand and practice having a focused conversation (or construct questions that encourage responsibility for action) To determine how to will move forward with 5 Bold Steps Mapping Your To analyze what information or tasks are needed to Strategy achieve a goal – one of the 5 Bold Steps To practice improving communication and listening skills To compare and contrast various principles of leadership and management To understand some group decision-making methods Meetings that Work To understand principles of effective facilitation To apply techniques for making meetings productive To plan an effective meeting agenda February 4-6, Communicating To analyze what information or tasks are needed 2015 Your Strategies to achieve a goal To identify leadership strengths and opportunities for growth To seek out different perspectives to be informed Leading Group To practice using various decision making processes Decision Making To determine the value of working with a diverse group of people To practice conflict management skills Taking the Next Step To use a critical thinking tool to seek out different perspectives To identify immediate next steps in order to take action To practice the skill of reflection to build new insights To celebrate accomplishments During each session, educational the curriculum was taught using creative content and activities were used to teach both teaching methods rather than traditional ones leadership skills and strategic planning while (i.e., PowerPoint presentations, handouts, or also taking into consideration the context of lectures). Content delivery was selected the Moroccan farmers and the area’s small based on simplicity, use of graphic rural cooperatives. Because of challenges illustrations, experiential learning, and raised by language and cultural differences, applicability to the farmers’ small rural

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cooperatives. The flexible, interactive nature associations. Evaluation data based on a of the tiered design process was vital to mixed methods design were collected at three ensure materials developed by Extension points in time during and after the program. staff were translated and presented in an One key component was a leadership accessible way to the Moroccan farmers. capacity survey administered to each farmer participating in the program. The survey Program Evaluation and Results included 14 Likert-scale survey items The evaluation of the Morocco Rural measuring leadership competencies across Leadership Program was designed to measure each of the four core focus areas of the achievement of leadership competency program curriculum. These competencies and outcomes, changes in behavior among the questions used to address them are listed farmers in their associations, and changes in in Table 2. bridging networks among farmer

Table 2 Leadership Competency Scales and Associated Survey Items

Competency scale English translation of competency statement Linking engagement I am comfortable approaching local authority representatives. Linking engagement I have people in my community who look to me for advice. Linking engagement I actively participate in other organizations in my community. Contextual I identify key developments and trends that are likely to have an impact on my organization. Contextual I plan and take strategic action to move my association forward. Contextual I break down large projects into manageable tasks. Leader attributes I seek and invite different ideas from others. Leader attributes I encourage leadership by women in my community. Leader attributes I communicate a positive image about my association. Leader attributes I encourage leadership by men in my community Relationship I adapt how I communicate to different audiences. Relationship I serve as an effective group member. Relationship I am good at dealing with conflict in group situations. Relationship I support others in identifying and using their strengths.

Leadership Competency Change in February 2016. Figure 1 shows the Leadership competency data were farmers’ self-reported leadership skills at the collected during the baseline session in June three points in time. During the baseline 2014, at the final session in February 2015, session, the strongest area of self-reported and at the one-year after program completion leadership skill was in Relationship (see

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Table 2 for the specific items used to Association Network Change measure these competencies). The weakest Along with collecting information on self-reported skills were Linking Engagement individual leadership capacity, surveys also competencies. At the end of the program, the evaluated the capacity and social networks strongest area of self-reported skill was in of the participants’ FBAs. Social Network Leader Attributes, which likely reflected the Analysis (SNA) is a method for focusing on leadership content of the program. relationship patterns and potentially patterns Interestingly, self-reported skills in over time. It helps visualize, as well as Contextual Understanding fell from the quantify, the depth and breadth of baseline measurement, suggesting the relationships within or among organizations farmers may have overestimated their (Borgatti, Everett, & Johnson, 2013; understanding of the larger strategic Durland & Fredericks, 2006). A SNA survey environment affecting their cooperatives. was conducted to examine the relationships One year after the program, all four and information flows among the various competency areas showed marked FBAs represented in the program. The improvement from the baseline measurement. survey asked farmers about the frequency of Linking Engagement skills increased from a their contact with representatives from other mean of 4.2 to a mean of 5.4 (a 29% increase farmer associations, as well as the frequency in the mean). Contextual skills increased of their contact within their own association. from a mean of 4.5 to a mean of 5.6 (a 25% During the final two evaluation increase in the mean). Relationship skills periods, an additional measure of behavior increased by 14% from the baseline change was also included. While the first measurement to the one-year follow up. Self- two areas focused on capacity building, the reported Leadership skills leveled off third focused on how farmers and between the end of the program and the one- associations were using this increased year follow-up but still increased by 13%. capacity in their work.

Figure 1. Farmer self-reported leadership skills at three points in time, by category (n=22) 43 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2

The SNA survey visually displays thinnest lines represent once or twice per the increase in network connections among year, thicker lines represent quarterly to the FBAs. Using the same points in time as monthly, and the thickest lines represent the other assessments, participants were weekly exchanges. For example, in the asked to rate the frequency with which they baseline network, APPM indicates an connected with members of other infrequent connection to Difat Ziz. associations. Their options included the Comparing the initial and final following: never, once or twice per year, SNAs, it is clear the density of the network about quarterly, about monthly, and weekly and the thickness of lines are important or more often. The network diagrams in metrics to measure program impacts. At the Figure 2 show the relationships reported by baseline measurement, the association members of 17 different associations in June network had a density of 20%. This means 2014 at the beginning of the program, in about 80% of the possible connections February 2015 at the end of the program, among associations either did not exist or and in February 2016 one-year after the were not reported. In the post-survey, the program. The lines between the names density of the network rose to 51%, and at represent reported connections between the one-year follow up, the density had

Figure 2. Connections among Cooperative Associations during the past twelve months (n=16) participants, and the thickness of the lines increased to 60%. In addition to an increase reflects the frequency of exchanges. The in density, analysis of the three network

44 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 diagrams shows an increase in the number At the baseline measurement, a substantial of connections and the frequency of percentage of internal contacts were exchanges that cut across value-change and infrequent—only once or twice per year. At size of associations—an indicator of an the end of the program, only 0.6% of effective leadership cohort. Along with the internal connections were this infrequent, connection lines, the squares that anchor with more than 80% of connections each of the association names are also an occurring weekly or more often. At the one- important metric. Square size is based on an year follow up, some of this frequency association’s strategic importance diminished but more than 85% of (Eigenvector centrality) in the association connections were still monthly or more network. Eigenvector centrality specifically often. measures how well an association is connected to other well-connected Behavior and Association Changes associations in the network. Changes in individual behavior were In addition to questions about measured at two points in time. The first external connections with other associations, time was at the end of the last session in the SNA survey asked participants to report February 2015. Farmers were asked to the frequency of contact with members of answer the following three questions on a their own cooperatives. As with the other blank card: 1) What is one thing you surveys, these questions were asked at three learned? 2) How will you apply it/use it? 3) points in time to document changes. Figure What are some next steps? The majority of 3 shows the change in frequency of internal farmers stated they learned how to be a connections during the evaluation periods. better leader as a result of gaining skills in strategic planning, listening, conflict management, and decision making.

Figure 3. Frequency of contact with members of their own Cooperatives during the past twelve months (n=17)

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The cards were collected and then mailed to farmers in Arabic and French to measure the farmers three months later as a reminder individual, organizational, and cohort of their commitment to action. impact, as well as the training process and One year after the program, in- content. Table 3 shows the questions that person interviews were conducted with the were asked to evaluate these impacts.

Table 3 Interview Questions for One-Year Post-Training Evaluation

Impact Questions Individual • How have you applied what you learned during the past 12 months? • Within the association, what different activities are you doing since you completed the program? • What do you think has changed most about you after participating in the farmer-to-farmer rural leadership training? Organizational • As a result of your leadership training, what, if any, procedures does your cooperative or association do differently now? • What change do you see in how your cooperative or association makes decisions? Results revealed that individual there is an importance. I plan for meetings changes among farmers centered on their now.” individual self-awareness and abilities, Individual and organizational critical thinking, and communication skills. changes converged for many farmers who The majority of farmers indicated improved mentioned that after the leadership program, communication skills, specifically listening. there was a major change in the decision- After improved communication, the farmers making process their association uses. identified the following changes in order of Reflecting on the application of critical frequency: better understanding of the thinking and leadership skills, farmers importance of a strategic plan, seeking reported an increased participation in different points of view, and meeting meetings via discussion and active listening. management. A few farmers also indicated Of the farmers interviewed, 15 of the 20 an increase in their confidence. One farmer stated a change in discussion among said, “I am less shy than before; before I did members. A common sentiment was, not share my opinion in front of people and “Everyone participates in discussions. This now I can talk easily and spontaneously.” is a big change.” If they could not reach a During the follow-up interviews, consensus by discussion, many changes were reported in procedural matters organizations voted on the matter at hand. as well. Farmers reported a change in how This reflects an entirely new way of making their association communicates, makes decisions, because for many associations, decisions, and solves problems. The number decision-making power used to rest in the one change concerned meeting management, hands of presidents and boards of directors. specifically in creating agendas, Making this change required an increase in encouraging members to participate, and organizational and member leadership recording meeting minutes. One participant explained, “There is a change in attitude;

46 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 capacity to absorb a new way of doing More study and development is business. needed in this area moving forward. One area for further research is refining the Educational Importance, Implications, curriculum design and adaptation process. and Application The cross-cultural, three-tiered process The importance of this program rests evolved naturally throughout the course of on concrete outcomes identified above. this project. More research into the theory Farmers are making changes in their and best practices for international cross- organizations and associations due to cultural curriculum development would increased leadership capacity developed in bring clarity and introduce a stronger model the Morocco Rural Leadership program. for this process. Along with process-focused This targeted program accomplished its research, additional output-focused research objectives while also bridging the gap across would be useful, specifically on the culture and language to introduce economic impact of this program. Follow-up curriculum and experiences that allowed studies demonstrated that leadership farmers to grow in their leadership and capacity and social capital remained higher strategic planning capacity. The leadership than the baseline measurement even one program also created an environment, year after the program was completed. It is through the use of a cohort model, that unknown at this time, however, how that resulted in increased social capital both increased capacity translates into the within and across the associations economic output of the farmers’ represented in the program. The focus on associations. building social capital will certainly have Without the addition of future long-term impacts as these networks research, though, this study is immediately continue to be used by farmers going applicable to other international Extension forward. professionals. An observation from the As a whole, this model of leadership program revealed that similar tools can be and sustainable economic development is used in both domestic and international one of the first of its kind. The success of leadership programs, so long as they are this initial cohort suggests implications for adapted for local culture and context. other Cooperative Extension Services and Furthermore, the tools used in both settings international Extension partnerships going increased leadership and strategic planning forward. The Morocco Rural Leadership capacity among individuals and program was successful, and a large part of organizations. Along with building specific its success rested on the three-tiered design skills, this kind of model also creates and process. Curriculum was developed based strengthens social capital among individuals on best practices that University of in one association, as well as across different Minnesota Extension had developed in their associations and organizations. Extension domestic community leadership programs, professionals from both countries which was collaboratively adapted and then contributed key roles in facilitating this passed on to participants and faculty at process, and by working together with the ENA. Not only did this ensure material was targeted population, are ultimately able to culturally applicable, it also created a built- strengthen the capacity of the agricultural in method of sustainability for ENA faculty sector in rural regions. Furthermore, the to provide this kind of training for other same strategies created and implemented in farmers in Morocco. the Morocco leadership program can be

47 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24. Issue 2 modified to work in multiple cultures around 193-201). Rome: Food and the globe. Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. References Day, D. V. (2001). Leadership development: Abbey, P., Tomlinson, P. R., & Branston, J. A review in context. Leadership R. (2016). Perceptions of governance Quarterly, 11(4), 581-613. and social capital in Ghana’s cocoa Durland, M., & Fredericks, K. A. (Eds.). industry. Journal of Rural Studies, 44, (2006). Social network analysis in 153-163. program evaluation. New Directions Agence pour le Développement for Program Evaluation, 107, 5-14. Agricole. (2013). La stratégie Plan FAO. (2007). SARD and farmers’ Maroc Vert [Morocco’s Green Plan organizations: Sustainable agriculture Strategy]. and rural development policy brief 12. Attwood, D. (1987). Social and political pre- Retrieved from conditions for successful cooperatives: ftp://ftp.fao.org/SD/SDA/SDAR/sard/ The co-operative sugar factories of SARD-farmers-orgs%20- western India. In D. Attwood & B.S. %20english.pdf. Baviskar (Eds), Cooperatives in rural Fox, J., & Hernandez, L. (1989). Offsetting development. Delhi: Oxford the iron law of oligarchy: The ebbs University Press. and flows of leadership accountability Bantilan, M. C. S., & Padmaja, R. in a regional peasant organization. (2008). Empowerment through social Grassroots Development, 13(2), 8-15. capital build-up: Gender dimensions in IFAP. (2004). IFAP recommendations for technology uptake. Experimental eliminating rural poverty and Agriculture, 44(1), 61-80. achieving food security. Paper doi: 10.1017/S0014479717115947 presented at the 36th World Farmers’ Barrick, R. K., Samy, M. M., Gunderson, M. Congress, Washington, DC. A., & Thoron, A. C. (2009). A model Lay, V. (2007). Održivi razvoj i vođenje for developing a well-prepared [Development and Leadership]. agricultural workforce in an Institut društvenih znanosti [Institute international setting. Journal of of Social Sciences]. Abstract. The International Agricultural and Central and Eastern European Online Extension Education, 16(3), 25-31. Library, 16(6), 1031-1053. Birchall, J. (2004). Cooperatives and the Lehtonen, M. (2004). The environmental- Millennium Development Goals. social interface of sustainable Geneva: International Labour development: Capabilities, social Organisation. spatial, institutions. Ecological Borgatti, S.P., Everett, M.G., & Johnson, Economics, 49(2), 199-214. J.C. (2013). Analyzing social doi: 10.1016/j.ecolecon.2004.03.019 networks. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Lele, U. (1981). Cooperatives and the poor: Chamala, S., & Shingi, P. M. A comparative perspective. World (1997). Establishing and strengthening Development, 9, 55-72. farmer organizations. In B. Swanson, Marsh, R. (2003). Working with local R. Bentz, & A. Sofranko, institutions to support sustainable (Eds.), Improving agricultural livelihood. Rome: FAO, Rural extension: A reference manual (pp. Development Unit.

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Missimer, M. M., & Connell, Canadian Journal of Policy Research, T. (2012). Pedagogical approaches and 2(1), 11-17. design aspects to enable leadership for sustainable development. Sustainability, 5(3), 172-181. Porter, M. E. (1985). In Competitive Advantage, (pp. 11-15. New York: The Free Press. Rasmussen, C. M., Armstrong, J., & Chazdon, S. A. (2011). Bridging Brown County: Captivating social capital as a means to community change. Journal of Leadership Education, 10(1), 63-82. Ricketts, K. G., & Morgan, C. (2009). Internationalizing leadership development: Important components within educational leadership experiences. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 16(2), 21-33. Swanson, B. E., & Samy, M. M. (2002). Developing an Extension partnership among public, private, and nongovernmental organizations. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 9(1), 5-10. U. S. Agency for International Development. (2013). USAID’s legacy in agricultural development: 50 years of progress. Washington, DC: U. S. Agency for International Development. Szreter, S. (2002). The state of social capital: Bringing back in power, politics, and history. Theory and Society, 31(5), 573-621. Szreter, S., & Woolcock, M. (2004). Health by association? Social capital, social theory, and the political economy of public health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 33(4), 650-667. Woolcock, M. (2001). The place of social capital in understanding social and economic outcomes. ISUMA

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24204

Evaluation of an International Entrepreneur Exchange Program: Impacts, Lessons Learned, and Implications for Agricultural Development

K. S. U. Jayaratne North Carolina State University

Lisa K. Taylor University of Nevada-Reno

M. Craig Edwards Shelly Sitton D. Dwayne Cartmell II Craig E. Watters Shida R. Henneberry Oklahoma State University

Abstract This study evaluated a two-way, visitor exchange project for entrepreneurship development between three African countries and the United States. The study’s purpose was to determine outcomes, understand lessons learned, and derive implications for international agricultural development. Findings of the study confirm visiting African Entrepreneur Fellows (AEFs) developed entrepreneurial knowledge, gained business skills, and acquired positive attitudes toward U.S. business and culture. The majority of AEFs had applied acquired knowledge and skills to improve their businesses and promoted open economic ideals, business ethics, and human rights in their businesses. As a result, AEFs were able to expand their business into new ventures, improve customer services, establish communication networks, and serve their communities. Visitor exchange, entrepreneurship-building programs are effective strategies in contributing to development efforts in developing countries. Paying due attention to the selection and matching of U.S. mentors with the business interests and learning needs of international fellows is necessary to ensure their learning expectations are met. It is important to assign international participants with suitable mentors for longer periods of time to increase the likelihood of receiving more in-depth learning experiences and develop lasting professional relationships to further collaboration. Realization of the potential of entrepreneurship-focused, visitor exchange programs between nations as a strategy for international agricultural development is the major implication of this study.

Keywords: entrepreneurship development; Sub-Saharan Africa; visitor exchange programs

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Introduction participation in income-generating activities “Entrepreneurship is a dynamic (Mujuru, 2014). process of vision, change, and creation. It According to Kuratko and Hodgetts requires an application of energy and (2007), entrepreneurs are both thinkers and passion towards the creation and doers and their entrepreneurship can be implementation of new ideas and creative improved through learning experiences. solutions” (Kuratko & Hodgetts, 2004, p. Entrepreneurship education requires a 30). Four characteristics of an entrepreneur unique pedagogy for balancing both theory include (a) motivation, (b) opportunity and experiential learning to develop identification, (c) willingness to take risks “reflexive practitioners” (Greene & Rice, and accept uncertainty, and (d) the ability to 2007, p. xix). Further, Rae (1997) asserted network (Rigley & Rönnqvist, 2010). entrepreneurship education programs should Entrepreneurship education is a necessary focus on building skills related to effective strategy to cultivate business development communication and persuasion, creativity, culture for creating jobs, increasing critical thinking, leadership, negotiation, incomes, and achieving economic problem-solving, social networking, and development in a country (Mkala & Wanjau, time-management to achieve the desired 2013). Nations that have promoted learning outcomes. To develop these entrepreneurship reduced unemployment competencies, educators should create and achieved economic development learning environments that change the way (Alakbarov, 2010). Entrepreneurship participants learn and reinforce the development can contribute to job creation, development of such competencies (Kirby, innovation, and economic development 2002). (Kuratko, 2003). Lack of international cooperation is Due to the development potential considered one of the major challenges to associated with entrepreneurship, a trend has overcome in achieving global agricultural emerged to use entrepreneurship training development in the 21st century (Acker, programs as a development strategy 1999). The U.S. Department of State (Canziani, Welsh, Hsieh, & Tullar, 2015). sponsored a grant proposal competition More attention has been paid to called the Professional Fellows entrepreneurship than ever before due to the Program in 2013 to address this challenge: effects of globalization (Şeşen & Pruett, “A two-way, global exchange program 2016). Swanson (2006) asserted shifting designed to promote mutual understanding, attention from production-focused extension enhance leadership skills, and build lasting policies toward the entrepreneurship and sustainable partnerships between mid- development of small farmers is needed for level emerging leaders from foreign achieving the agricultural development countries and the United States” expectations of developing countries. A (ECA/PE/C-13-01, p. 2). The objective was study conducted in Nigeria found farmers to enable economic empowerment of young lacked the entrepreneurship knowledge and entrepreneurs in selected regions of the skills necessary for selecting appropriate world, including Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). agribusinesses (Esiobu, Onubuogu, & Ibe, To achieve that aim, a proposal was funded 2015). Another study conducted in to create professional collaborations and Zimbabwe with farmers revealed that learning experiences between mid-level, entrepreneurial agriculture improves farmer emerging entrepreneurs from Kenya, South Africa, and Uganda and U.S. entrepreneurs

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as part of a two-way exchange program. each of three countries visiting the United Most of the African Entrepreneur Fellows States during one of two Fellowship cycles (AEFs) had an agricultural focus or business (12 in cycle one; 11 in cycle two) and a total interests in allied sectors. The project of 11 U.S. citizens visiting Kenya, South facilitated entrepreneurship development of Africa, and Uganda over two cycles. In May 23 AEFs in the United States for four weeks of 2014, the first group of 12 AEFs trained and provided international business in Oklahoma for four weeks and a second experience for 11 U.S. participants in SSA group of 11 participated during October of during a two-week period. 2014. Each of the AEFs’ groups received a Canziani, Welsh, Hsieh, and Tullar fifth week of professional development in (2015) investigated the effectiveness of Washington, DC. While in the U.S. capitol, different pedagogical methods for teaching they interacted with 200-plus Fellows from entrepreneurship and found that experiential more than 40 countries and territories and learning methods are effective in fostering “worked together to address issues of mutual entrepreneurial motivation. This finding importance, develop[ed] new insights into highlights the need for using experiential professional approaches to common issues, learning concepts and opportunities when and broadened their understanding of designing training programs for foreign working environments, practices and professionals working in agricultural society” (Harrison, Cecchini, Aabye, & development (George, Edwards, Sitton, Ettinger, 2014, p. 5). Cartmell II, Blackwell, & Robertson, 2014), including entrepreneurs. The AEFs’ training AEFs’ U.S. Experiences in Regard to program was mainly designed based on Entrepreneurship experiential learning concepts to achieve its During the five-week U.S.-based desired outcomes. fellowships, the AEFs were initially engaged in an intensive five-day training program Description of the International Exchange focused on a variety of topics, including Program enhancement of their understanding of Funded by the U.S. Department of entrepreneurial venture development; State, this project facilitated experiences for successful business planning, practices, and learning and collaboration among emerging skills; ethical business leadership principles; agricultural and allied sector, mid-level applications of new media in various Kenyan, South African, and Ugandan entrepreneurial settings; and propositions of entrepreneurs, i.e., AEFs, and U.S. business venture financing, among others. In leaders as part of a reciprocal exchange. addition, a three-week internship or series of Numerous opportunities for enhanced job shadowing experiences were specifically education and cross-cultural exchanges with tailored to the AEFs’ entrepreneurial goals, U.S. citizens were also provided to the aspirations, and resources. More than 60 AEFs. The project was guided by six goals internship providers from agricultural ranging from delivery of professional enterprises, educational institutions, leadership and entrepreneurial training to entrepreneurial ventures, government facilitating three-week internship/job entities, and non-profit organizations shadowing experiences to building capacity voluntarily participated as mentors for the among the AEFs, their U.S. mentors, and 23 AEFs. other interested parties. Team teaching jointly by The program supported AEFs from academicians and successful entrepreneurs

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is a recommended practice for opportunities to engage in active entrepreneurship education (McMullan & experimentation of learned concepts. Gillin, 2001). The project team used this Evaluation of the outcomes of this pedagogical strategy in planning the entrepreneur exchange program was educational program. The focus of this conceptualized based on Donald evaluation study was to ascertain the Kirkpatrick’s evaluation framework outcomes of a two-way, visitor exchange, emphasizing four levels of training entrepreneurship development project and outcomes (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, determine ways to improve similar programs 2006): (a) participants’ levels of satisfaction in the future. with the program; (b) changes in participants’ knowledge, attitudes, skills, Conceptual Framework and aspirations; (c) changes in participants’ This international entrepreneur professional behavior and practices; and (d) exchange training program was developed institutional impacts of participants’ based on Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning behavior changes. The study focused on conceptual model. “Learning is the process these four levels of outcomes. Level one and whereby knowledge is created through the two outcomes were direct results of the transformation of experience” (Kolb, 1984, training and expected to manifest p. 38). Experiential learning is a immediately after the training. If level one transformative adaptation process involving and two outcomes were accomplished then four phases: (a) concrete experience, (b) level three outcomes would materialize. reflective observation, (c) abstract Achievement of level three outcomes would conceptualization, and (d) active contribute to the occurrence of level four experimentation (Kolb, 1984). Experience outcomes. The level four outcomes included plays a central role in the experiential improvements and changes in participants’ learning process and leads to successively business institutions and workplaces. The creating reflective observation, abstract level four outcomes are referred to as conceptualization, and active institutional impacts in this evaluation study. experimentation phases through a cyclic process. Concrete experiences will lead to Purpose and Objectives reflective observations on such. Then, The study’s purpose was to evaluate reflective observations will augment abstract the program implementation process and conceptualizations of what was learned. If outcomes of the international exchange the experiential learning is conducive, this program designed to empower young phase will foment active experimentation entrepreneurs to increase economic contributing to the learner apprehending and development in SSA. Four objectives guided more deeply understanding the meaning of this study: (a) determine immediate, their experiences (Kolb, 1984). The intermediate, and long-term outcomes of the entrepreneur exchange program was project; (b) describe factors that contributed designed to facilitate the four phases of to successful implementation of the project; Kolb’s (1984) experiential learning model (c) determine lessons learned to improve by providing hands-on learning similar projects in the future; and (d) discuss internship/job shadowing placements to gain implications for international agricultural concrete learning experiences, discussions to development. facilitate reflective observations, lectures to stimulate conceptualizations, and Methods

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This was a descriptive evaluation recorded on a 10-item instrument with a 5- study. A mixed-method approach was used point Likert scale (1, strongly disagree to 5, to collect evaluation data. Mixed-methods strongly agree). Participants’ levels of employ quantitative and qualitative aspirations (readiness to apply what they approaches to data collection for learned in their work) were recorded using complementing the weaknesses of each nine potential practices with four possible method with strengths of the other method responses. Participants were asked to (Creswell & Clark, 2011). Survey indicate whether they intended to implement instruments, focus group interviews, each of the nine practices as a result of reflections, and observations were used to completing the training program using four collect evaluation data. Survey instruments possible answers: 1) no, 2) maybe, 3) yes, included quantitative data collection scales and 4) already doing. Validity of the scales as well as open-ended narrative type was established by a panel of experts. questions for gathering qualitative Cronbach alpha reliability estimates for the information. Focus group interviews, scales measuring knowledge, attitudes, and reflections, and observations were employed skills were .85, .67, and .90, respectively. to collect qualitative data. The pretest was administered to AEFs on the A pre and posttest, quasi- first day of their program in the U.S. and the experimental design was used to determine posttest was given at the program’s end. immediate outcomes. Evaluation survey In addition to survey instruments, tools were developed with scales for focus group interviews were conducted with measuring participants’ levels of the AEFs at the conclusion of their satisfaction, knowledge, attitudes, skills, and respective cohort’s program. (The AEFs aspirations. The satisfaction measure came to the U.S. in two groups during 2014: consisted of four items and a four-point 12 and 11, respectively.) A three-month, Likert-type scale (1, not satisfied to 4, very follow-up survey instrument was developed satisfied). to assess participants’ practice changes and AEFs’ knowledge improvement was administered online using Qualtrics. assessed using a retrospective pre and Continuous communication was maintained posttest instrument containing nine items with the participants for tracing long-term and a 5-point Likert scale (1, very low to 5, outcomes. very high). If the concepts taught were new Quantitative data analysis was done to the group, and participants had limited by using IBM SPSS 24®. Descriptive knowledge about such, testing the AEFs at statistics and paired samples t-tests were the beginning may not have been valid used to analyze the study’s quantitative data. (Rockwell & Kohn, 1989). This notion Post-hoc analysis of Cronbach alpha rationalized the use of a retrospective pre reliability estimates was done for the scales and posttest design for determining changes measuring knowledge, attitudes, and skills. in participants’ knowledge. Trustworthiness of qualitative data Pre and posttest instruments were gathering and analysis for this study was used to determine changes in AEFs’ established by using the qualities of attitudes and skills. The skill assessment credibility, transferability, and instrument included six items related to confirmability procedure specified in the business and a 5-point Likert scale (1, not literature (Berg, 2004; Dooley, 2007; confident to 5, very confident). Attitudes Lincoln & Guba, 1985). We used three toward U.S. culture and businesses were different methods to establish the credibility

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of qualitative data collection and analysis. analysis (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005) and These methods were (a) prolonged thematic coding to identify major emergent engagement with participants to understand themes (Creswell, 2007). the situation accurately (Lincoln & Guba, 1985), (b) persistent observation to explore Findings the situation realistically (Lincoln & Guba, The findings of outcome evaluation 1985), and (c) triangulation of the situation were organized under the four levels through multiple methods of data collection specified in Kirkpatrick’s evaluation model (Berg, 2004). (Kirkpatrick & Kirkpatrick, 2006). These The researchers engaged with levels were participants’ levels of participants extensively for nearly one satisfaction with the program; changes in month and thereafter continued knowledge, attitudes, skills, and aspirations communication through information of the participants; changes in participants’ technology for more than six months, thus, professional practices or behaviors; and the enabling the research team to develop a changes participants’ made in their better understanding of the AEFs and gain institutions or workplaces, i.e., institutional their trust which led to sincere and credible impacts. feedback. This study achieved triangulation by using three different methods for AEFs’ Levels of Satisfaction with the collecting information: (a) surveys with Overall Exchange Program in the United open-ended questions, (b) semi-structured States interviews, and (c) document analysis that The AEFs indicated they were either allowed the researchers to compare satisfied or very satisfied with the program information to triangulate the data and gain for all four items measured. Table 1 a deeper understanding of the findings that summarizes their responses. All of the AEFs emerged during data analysis (Berg, 2004). indicated the program met their learning Qualitative data also underwent content expectations.

Table 1 AEFs’ Levels of Satisfaction with the Training Program (N = 23) Percentage of AEFs said How satisfied are you with: Not Somewhat Satisfied Very Satisfied Satisfied Satisfied The professional interactions with the U.S. 0 0 39 61 participants? The relevance of experience to your business 0 0 26 74 needs? The usefulness of your learning experience in 0 0 26 74 the U.S.? The overall experience you received during this 0 0 32 68 program? Note. Scale: 1 = Not Satisfied, 2 = Somewhat Satisfied, 3 = Satisfied, and 4 = Very Satisfied

The interviews conducted with the project’s leadership team had paid special AEFs and their U.S. mentors revealed the attention to address individual interests of

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the AEFs when assigning them to respective in knowledge, attitudes, skills, and mentors and internship/job shadowing aspirations of the AEFs. experiences. For example, a female participant from Uganda interested in the Changes in knowledge. Responses textile and clothing apparel industry was to nine items in the instrument’s knowledge assigned to a faculty member in the Design, recording scale were aggregated to calculate Housing, and Merchandising Department of an overall knowledge score. The overall Oklahoma State University. The matching of knowledge score could range from 9 = very each AEF with the appropriate U.S. low overall knowledge to 45 = very high mentor(s) based on the AEFs’ overall knowledge. The comparison of pre entrepreneurial interests contributed to their and posttest overall scores for each AEF high-level of satisfaction with the program. indicated all were able to improve their However, the AEFs expressed the desire to entrepreneurial knowledge as a result of the have additional time with their mentors to training. The overall entrepreneurial gain more in-depth experiences and build knowledge of the AEFs was slightly above lasting professional linkages. low level before the program. After completing the program, their overall Changes in Participants’ Knowledge, knowledge was between high and very high Attitudes, Skills, and Aspirations indicating the program was effective in According to the evaluation’s building the participants’ entrepreneurial framework, the second level of outcome knowledge (see Table 2). Estimated effect evaluation focused on documenting changes size was 3.99, which, according to Cohen’s convention, is a large effect size.

Table 2 Comparison of AEFs’ Aggregated Knowledge Score Before and After Completing the Training Program (N = 23) Variable Mean t p Before After Aggregated knowledge score 20.1 36.6 12.5 0.000* Note. *p ≤ .05; Aggregated Scale: 9 = Very Low, 18 = Low, 27 = Moderate, 36 = High, and 45 = Very High. Effect size: Cohen’s d = 3.99

Changes in attitudes. Table 3 positive. However, when comparing the displays a comparison of AEFs’ attitudinal overall attitudinal score of each AEF before mean scores before and after completing the and after completing the program, it was program using paired sample t-test. Data found that 8 of 23 (35%) of the AEFs indicated the AEFs’ overall mean attitude developed even more positive attitudes score did not change significantly. Their toward U.S. business and culture after pre-training view was already somewhat completing the program.

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Table 3 Comparison of AEFs’ Overall Attitudes toward U.S. Business and Culture Before and After Completing the Training Program (N = 23) Variable Mean t p Before After Overall attitudinal score of AEFs 38.9 38.0 0.93 0.36 Note. Attitudinal Scale: 10 = Very Negative attitudes toward U.S. Business and Culture, 50 = Very Positive attitudes toward U.S. Business and Culture

Changes in skills. As described in confident after completing the program. The the methods section, skill development was estimated effect size was 0.52, which, evaluated by measuring the AEFs’ according to Cohen’s convention, is a confidence to apply six specific business medium effect size. The comparison of skills. Responses to the six-item recording overall pre and posttests mean scores scale were aggregated to calculate the indicated the AEFs’ entrepreneurial skills overall skill of AEFs before and after developed significantly during the training completing the program. Table 4 compares program. When comparing the aggregated the overall mean score of skills before and skills score of each AEF before and after after completing the program. AEFs’ overall completing the program, it was found that business confidence score was between 12 of 23 (52%) reported developing somewhat confident and confident before the additional entrepreneurial and business skills program. Their overall business confidence as a result of completing the program. score was between confident and very

Table 4 Comparison of AEFs’ Aggregated Skills Score Before and After Completing the Program (N = 23) Variable Mean t p Before After Aggregated skills score 23.2 25.4 2.07 0.05* Note. *p ≤ .05; Aggregated Scale: 6 = Not Confident, 12 = A Little Confident, 18 = Somewhat Confident, 24 = Confident, and 30 = Very Confident. Effect size: Cohen’s d = 0.52

Entrepreneurial aspirations. At the partners using social media such as end of their program, the AEFs’ intentions electronic mail, Facebook, and LinkedIn to apply nine entrepreneurial practices profiles. The remainder of the AEFs (48%) related to the training were evaluated. Data reported they would strengthen professional presented in Table 5 confirmed that more linkages with U.S. partners using social than 90% of the AEFs said Yes they media. In addition, more than 78% of the intended to apply or were already applying AEFs said they would apply entrepreneurial those entrepreneurial practices. More than ideas learned in the U.S. after returning to 52% of the AEFs indicated they had already their home countries (see Table 5). strengthened professional linkages with U.S.

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Table 5 AEFs’ Readiness to Apply Learned Entrepreneurial Practices (N = 23) Percentage of AEFs said: As a result of this program, do you intend to: No Maybe Yes Already doing this Apply entrepreneurial ideas you learned in the U.S. 0 0 78.3 21.7 when you return to your home country? Strengthen professional linkages with the U.S. partners 0 0 47.8 52.2 using social media such as e-mail, Facebook, and LinkedIn profiles? Promote open economic ideals in your business? 0 4.3 87.0 8.7 Apply learned business ethics in your business? 0 0 73.9 26.1 Promote human values and rights in your workplace? 0 0 60.9 39.1 Expand your business into new ventures? 0 8.7 82.6 8.7 Share your learning experience with co-workers? 0 0 69.6 30.4 Advocate against all forms of discrimination at your 0 0 60.9 39.1 work place? Develop a business plan to collaborate with U.S. 0 8.7 69.6 21.7 participants?

Overall learning outcomes. The analysis of efforts.” AEFs indicated they were exposed qualitative data indicated the AEFs gained to new knowledge and skills for business new business ideas and knowledge; expansion. For example, one AEF said: “I broadened their vision for business; was exposed to GAP (Good Agricultural developed confidence for expanding their Practices) that have not been applied in my businesses; and aspired to expand their country by the smallholder farmers. I was businesses. For example, one AEF said: “I able to understand business management gained an insight about how to efficiently skills and expansion.” The AEFs also run a dairy enterprise.” Another African learned how to use communication Fellow stated: “I was able to broaden my technology for business improvement. To vision and perspective of the [organic] that point, one AEF explained: “I understand composting activity.” business communication and marketing will When AEFs were asked how the take you ahead in business.” overall learning experience and networking AEFs also said they were inspired to impacted them professionally, the most apply learned business concepts, new ideas, frequent responses were building work-related ethics, and technology to entrepreneurial capacity by improving their improve their businesses, especially in motivation, vision, confidence, knowledge, regard to efficiency. In accord, one AEF skills, communication, work ethics, and stated: “I will introduce drip irrigation business ideas. For instance, one AEF said: system to the food garden team members “With this experience, I feel inspired to there I work with, I will also teach them how achieve more, invest more, and multiply my to plant using a tractor.” Another AEF

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indicated: “I learnt a lot on food labeling. I Eighteen AEFs responded to the would like to apply that in my business for three-month follow-up evaluation survey better and transparent traceability of conducted online. Table 6 summarizes their products.” Referring to work-related ethics, responses. The three-month follow up an AEF said: “I intend to continue to share evaluation data indicated a majority of the with co-workers the importance of good responding AEFs had applied gained business ethics and always being on time.” knowledge to improve their businesses; The AEFs also expressed intentions to promoted open economic ideals, business expand their businesses with agricultural ethics, and human rights in their businesses; mechanization ideas learned in the U.S. To shared their learning experiences with co- that aim, one AEF indicated: “I intend to workers; and advocated against invest through loans to acquire a small discrimination at their workplaces. These tractor and increase production.” findings indicate that the visitor exchange program resulted in positive impacts on the Changes in Professional Behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the AEFs as well Practices as their institutions and communities.

Table 6 AEFs’ Entrepreneurial Practice Improvements after Three Months As a result of the fellowship program, have you made any progress with No Yes regard to the following practices? n % n % Applying entrepreneurial knowledge to improve your business? 0 0 18 100 Sustaining communication linkages with the U.S. partners? 4 22 14 78 Promoting open economic ideals through your business? 0 0 18 100 Promoting business ethics in your business? 0 0 18 100 Promoting human values and rights in your workplace? 0 0 18 100 Expanding your business in new ventures? 1 6 17 94 Sharing your learning experience with co-workers? 0 0 18 100 Advocating against all forms of discrimination at your workplace? 0 0 18 100 Establishing any collaborative partnership with the U.S. participants? 8 47 9 53 Using of social media such as e-mail, Facebook, and LinkedIn profiles 2 13 14 88 for communicating with your business partners?

The AEFs acknowledged the application of Institutional impacts were documented by business concepts, communication skills, analyzing the three-month follow-up and networking skills gained during the evaluation information and electronic mail training program as important changes in communications received from the AEFs. their daily workplace practices. The most noticeable institutional impact was the AEFs’ business expansions as a result of Institutional Impacts putting their learning experiences into For the purpose this study, practice. For example, one AEF mentioned: institutional impacts were the changes or “I have utilized a lot of skills acquired in the improvements AEFs made in their business U.S. in my work. We have initiated four organizations or workplaces as a result of agribusiness projects.” Another AEF said: “I the program’s learning experiences. engaged with small businesses value

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addition programs and created employment techniques to community members I serve.” opportunities for two youths along the value Another notable impact was enhanced chain.” service to their communities. For example, An additional institutional impact an AEF said: “I have opened my project to was expanded business networks of the my community as a learning center for AEFs due to improved communication. For women to acquire design skills with the instance, an AEF said: “I am more fluent intent that they will become entrepreneurs.” and efficient in communication, and my These findings highlight that the exchange people relations have improved.” Planning program contributed to expanding the AEFs’ to develop business collaborations between businesses; improving their business Africa and the U.S. was another important communications, including ongoing institutional impact. To that aim, an AEF networking with other AEFs; improving shared: “I shadowed my U.S. mentor. I am their customer service; enhancing service to working on hosting him in two years in their communities; and establishing business Uganda, for him to experience agri-business linkages with their U.S. contacts. in this part of the world, and give him an appropriate stage to share.” This statement Conclusions reflects the strengthening of business Outcome Evaluation linkages between the AEFs and their U.S. Conclusions related to outcomes collaborators as a result of the exchange were organized under four headings, program. including (a) levels of satisfaction; (b) A strong professional network had changes in knowledge, attitudes, skills, and been developed among the AEFs and with aspirations; (c) practice and behavior the project’s U.S. participants. This improvements; and (d) institutional impacts, professional network represents an as specified in the study’s outcomes expansion of social capital for the AEFs and evaluation conceptual framework. their U.S. counterparts which supports an ongoing exchange of ideas on business, Levels of satisfaction. The overall research, and development work. In addition program was well-received by AEFs to the AEFs’-U.S. participants’ network, the acknowledging it was effective in AEFs alumni members have developed a facilitating their achievement of learning professional network called Partnership for needs and expectations. African Youth in Agriculture (PAYA) to support youth development in their Learning. Comparison of pre and countries. One AEF said: “We constantly post evaluation data confirmed the AEFs consult regarding our work, and encourage developed entrepreneurial knowledge, each other to grow our collaborations with gained business skills, and acquired positive our U.S. counterparts, as well as the other attitudes toward U.S. business and culture. Fellows from Africa.” The AEFs acquired new business ideas and Improved customer service in AEFs’ learned about aspects of U.S. work ethics, businesses was another institutional impact. such as being punctual and a service To this point, an AEF described his view: orientation when dealing with customers, “The fellowship experience has increased and broadened their entrepreneurial capacity my capacity to understand the dynamics in and vision, which helped them develop the my business that I little knew. A case in confidence needed for expanding their point was the application of customer care businesses. Learning assessment data further

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confirmed the program was effective in established by the AEFs represents their inspiring AEFs to apply learned business attempt to leverage significant social capital concepts, new ideas, work ethics, and to augment the exchange of ideas between technology to improve the efficiency of their them and U.S. contacts regarding additional businesses. business, research, and development opportunities. The AEFs, as fellowship Practice and behavior alumni members, creation of the Partnership improvements. The review of three-month for African Youth in Agriculture (PAYA) follow-up evaluation data leads to conclude organization to support youth development a majority of AEFs had applied gained in and for the agriculture sectors of their knowledge and skills to improve their respective countries was another significant businesses and customer service; promoted social impact resulting from the exchange open economic ideals, business ethics, and program. (The organization’s name was later human rights in their businesses; shared modified to Glo [, i.e., Global]–PAYA.) their learning experience with co-workers; A review of this evaluation study’s and advocated against discrimination at their findings lead to conclude the “Empowering workplaces. Qualitative data further Aspiring Entrepreneurs for Economic confirmed that the AEFs became more Success in Sub-Saharan Africa: A customer-focused, transparent, humble, and Professional Fellows Program for Kenya, community service-oriented. Some of the South Africa, and Uganda” project was AEFs reported plans to build business successfully implemented and achieved all collaborations with their U.S. contacts. The of its major goals and objectives. findings confirmed the program had positive Accomplishment of these objectives impacts on the AEFs’ entrepreneurial confirms the visitor exchange program was behaviors and practices. effective in contributing to development efforts in SSA by further developing young Institutional impacts. According to entrepreneurs in the context of agriculture the Kirkpatrick (2006) evaluation and its allied sectors. framework, the fourth level of program outcome was focused on determining the Recommendations and Implications institutional impacts of the training. An entrepreneurship-focused, visitor Analysis of the AEFs’ responses to a follow- exchange program was an effective strategy up evaluation and other feedback received for contributing to agribusiness development after returning home confirmed their in developing countries such as Kenya, application of learning acquired during the South Africa, and Uganda. Such programs training program. The most notable can be used to develop knowledge, skills, institutional impacts were AEFs’ expanding and attitudes supporting the expansion of their current businesses, starting new agricultural businesses and serving rural ventures, improving customer services, communities in developing countries. establishing communication networks, and Literature (Mujuru, 2014; Swanson, 2006) serving their communities. George et al. emphasizes the pressing need to enhance the (2014) reported similar impacts related to entrepreneurial knowledge and skills of communication and community outreach smallholder farmers and allied agribusiness from an exchange program involving food operators if the agriculture development security fellows representing Kenya and goals of lesser-developed countries are to be Uganda. The communication network achieved. Experiential learning methods are

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effective in fostering entrepreneurship challenges facing Kenya, South Africa, development (Canziani, Welsh, Hsieh, & Uganda and alike. Tullar, 2015). Therefore, it is important to use experiential learning methods, such as References job shadowing and internship placements, in Acker, D. G. (1999). Improving the quality designing entrepreneurship development of higher education in agriculture programs likely to achieve the desired globally in the 21st century: learning outcomes. Constraints and opportunities. The AEFs’ suggestions can be used Proceedings of the 15th Annual to make important recommendations for Conference of the International improving similar exchange programs in the Association for Agricultural and future. First, it is important to pay due Extension Education, 47-53. Port of attention to the selection and matching of Spain, Trinidad-Tobago. U.S. mentors with the business interests and Alakbarov, I. (2010, June). Azerbaijan's learning needs of international participants success story on sustainable to ensure their learning expectations are met. entrepreneurship development Second, the participants, based on their through adoption of policies, entrepreneurial interests, should be assigned financing and innovative strategies. mentors for longer periods of time to Paper presented at the International increase the likelihood of receiving more in- Conference on Policies to Address depth learning experiences and develop Financing and Entrepreneurial lasting professional relationships. Third, it is Challenges in High-growth worth doing additional follow-up with the Innovative Firms, Helsinki, Finland. program’s participants to determine whether Retrieved from they achieve their expected, long-term http://www.unece.org/fileadmin/DA results from participating in an exchange M/ceci/ppt_presentations/2010/ic/He program on entrepreneurship in the United lsinki/alakbarov.pdf States. Berg, B. L. (2004). Qualitative research Entrepreneurship education is a methods (5th ed.). Boston, MA: tested development strategy effective in Pearson Education, Inc. creating jobs, alleviating poverty, improving Canziani, B., Welsh, D. H. B., Hsieh, Y., & living standards, and achieving economic Tullar, W. (2015). What pedagogical development (Alakbarov, 2010; Mkala & methods impact students’ Wanjau, 2013; Smith & Paton, 2011). This entrepreneurial propensity. Journal study’s findings highlight the potential of of Small Business Strategy, 25(2), two-way, entrepreneurship-themed 97-113. Retrieved from exchange programs between developing http://libjournals.mtsu.edu/index.php countries and the U.S. as a comprehensive /jsbs/article/download/563/525 strategy for building entrepreneurial Creswell, J. W. (2007). Qualitative inquiry capacity and linkages to address agricultural and research design: Choosing development challenges. Therefore, it is among five approaches (2nd ed.). important to use entrepreneurship-focused Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage exchange programs between lesser- Publications, Inc. developed countries and developed nations Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. as a comprehensive strategy to overcome the (2011). Designing and conducting agricultural and rural development mixed methods research (2nd ed.).

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Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE http://issuu.com/worldlearning/docs/ Publications, Inc. Professional_fellows_congress_prog Dooley, K. E. (2007). Viewing agricultural r/0 education research through a Hsieh, H., & Shannon, S. E. (2005). Three qualitative lens. Journal of approaches to qualitative content Agricultural Education, 48(4), 32- analysis. Qualitative Health 42. doi:10.5032/jae.2007.04032 Research, 15(9), 1277-1288. ECA/PE/C-13-01 grant program. (2013). doi:10.1177/1049732305276687 Bureau of Educational and Cultural Kirby, D. A. (2002, June). Entrepreneurship Affairs (ECA) request for grant education: Can business schools proposals for professional fellows meet the challenge? Paper presented program. Washington, DC: United at the International Council for States Department of State. Small Business 47th World Esiobu, N. S., Onubuogu, G. C., & Ibe, G. Conference, San Juan, Puerto Rico. O. (2015). Analysis of Retrieved from entrepreneurship development in http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/d agriculture among arable crop ownload?doi=10.1.1.496.9023&rep= farmers in Imo State, Nigeria. rep1&type=pdf International Journal of African and Kirkpatrick, D., & Kirkpatrick, J. D. (2006). Asian Studies, 7, 92-99. Retrieved Evaluating training programs: The from four levels (3rd ed.). San Francisco, http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/d CA: Better-Koehler Publishers, Inc. ownload?doi=10.1.1.1019.2625&rep Kolb, D. A. (1984). Experiential learning. =rep1&type=pdf Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, George, D., Edwards, M. C., Sitton, S., Inc. Cartmell II, D. D., Blackwell, C., & Kuratko, D. F. (2003). Entrepreneurship Robertson, J. T. (2014). African education: Emerging trends and food security fellows’ perceptions of challenges for the 21st century. their experiences in the United Retrieved from States: Reflective journaling as a http://www.unm.edu/~asalazar/Kauff way to interpret and understand an man/Entrep_research/e_ed.pdf international experience. Journal of Kuratko, D. F., & Hodgetts, R. M. (2004). International Agricultural and Entrepreneurship: Theory, process, Extension Education, 21(1), 33-45. and practice (6th ed.). Mason, OH: doi:10.5191/jiaee.2014.20103 South-Western Publishers. Greene, P. G., & Rice, M. P. (2007). Kuratko, D. F., & Hodgetts, R. M. (2007). Entrepreneurship education: Moving Entrepreneurship: Theory, process, from ‘whether’ to ‘what’, ‘how’ and and practice (7th ed.). Mason, OH: ‘why’. In P. G. Greene & M. P. Rice South-Western Publishers. (Eds.), Entrepreneurship education Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). (pp. xiii-xxviii). Cheltenham, UK: Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, An Elgar Reference Collection. CA: Sage Publications, Inc. Harrison, P., Cecchini, E., Aabye, M., & McMullan, W. E., & Gillin, L. M. (2001). Ettinger, L. (2014). 2014 fall Entrepreneurship education in the professional fellows congress nineties: Revisited. In R.H. program book. Retrieved from Brockhaus, G. E. Hills, H. Klandt, &

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H.P. Welsch (Eds.), on entrepreneurial motives, barriers, Entrepreneurship education: A and intentions: A comparative study global view (pp. 57-77). Aldershot, of the United States and Turkey. The UK: Ashgate Publishing Limited. Journal of Entrepreneurship, 23(2), Mkala, D. M., & Wanjau, K. (2013). 231-261. Transforming implementation of doi:10.1177/0971355714535309 entrepreneurship education Smith, A. M., & Paton, R. A. (2011). programme in technical training Delivering enterprise: A institutions in Kenya. European collaborative international approach Journal of Business and Innovation to the development, implementation Research, 1(3), 18-27. Retrieved and assessment of entrepreneurship. from http://www.eajournals.org/wp- International Journal of content/uploads/TRANSFORMING- Entrepreneurial Behaviour and IMPLEMENTATION-OF- Research, 17 (1), 104-118. ENTREPRENEURSHIP- doi:10.1108/13552551111107534 EDUCATION-PROGRAMME-IN- Swanson, B. (2006). The changing role of TECHNICAL-TRAINING- agricultural extension in a global INSTITUTIONS-IN-KENY.pdf economy. Journal of International Mujuru, J. T. R. (2014). Entrepreneurial Agricultural and Extension agriculture for human development: Education, 13(3), 5-17. Retrieved A case study of Dotito irrigation from scheme, Mt. Darwin. International https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/1 Journal of Humanities and Social 60_Swanson-Vol-13.3.pdf Science, 4(4), 121-131. Retrieved from http://www.ijhssnet.com/journals/Vo l_4_No_4_Special_Issue_February_ 2014/14.pdf Rae, D. M. (1997). Teaching entrepreneurship in Asia: Impact of a pedagogical innovation. Entrepreneurship, Innovation and Change, (6)3, 193-227. Rigley, B., & Rönnqvist, R. (2010). Entrepreneurship education and its outcomes. Retrieved from http://umu.diva- portal.org/smash/get/diva2:356975/F ULLTEXT01.pdf Rockwell, S. K., & Kohn, H. (1989). Post- then-pre evaluation. Journal of Extension, 27(2), Retrieved from http://www.joe.org/joe/1989summer/ a5.php Şeşen, H., & Pruett, M. (2016). The impact of education, economy, and culture

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24205

International Agricultural Concepts through the Eyes of School-Based Agriculture Education Students

Nathan W. Conner University of Nebraska-Lincoln

Sarah Greer Christopher T. Stripling The University of Tennessee

Abstract As demands to participate in a global economy increase, American students, who have limited knowledge of international agriculture concepts, must be better educated in terms of international awareness and understanding. The purpose of this study was to identify the attitudes, beliefs, understanding, and desired instructional methods of Tennessee school-based agricultural education students in regards to international agriculture. A descriptive questionnaire comprised of 46 items, which measured four constructs, was used to collect data. The summated means of all students for attitudes, beliefs, understanding, and instruction were 3.81 (SD = .46), 3.81 (SD = .57), 3.76 (SD = .51), and 3.76 (SD = .47), respectively. Findings indicated students hold positive attitudes and beliefs toward international agricultural concepts. In an effort to remain a global leader in science and innovation and to meet the needs of the agricultural employers, State Departments of Education should consider providing resources for the development, testing, and implementation of internationalized curricula. If not currently internationalized, other countries should also consider internationalizing their curricula and determine how best to equip students with the skills and knowledge necessary to work in a globalized economy.

Keywords: Globalization, International Agriculture, School-Based Agriculture Education

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Introduction/Literature Review manufacturing, teaching to transportation – The United States faces the daunting are increasingly reliant on international reality that many high school students are business relationships,” (p. 3). Young adults not adequately prepared to successfully meet entering the workforce will have to the demands of a global economy (Jackson, collaborate, sell, and purchase products with 2008). In the early 1900s, agricultural people from around the world and compete education in the United States was a means at a global level to meet future agricultural to educate farmers on basic production and challenges (CIF, 2005). Acker and Scanes efficiency, but modern agricultural (1998) stated, “international trade is education must focus on educating increasingly becoming the economic engine producers to solve larger, global issues responsible for improving standards of (Mercier, 2015). As outlined by Mercier living at home and overseas” (p.61), and (2015), the biggest challenges in the future agriculture is the driving force for the of agriculture are to “meet future demand betterment of our entire world and its for food, conserve and enhance water, soil, increasing population. Agricultural growth and habitat, improve nutrition and public around the world directly correlates to health, and strengthen farms and reduced poverty (Acker & Scanes, 1998) communities to improve livelihoods,” (p.1). and the creation of a larger class of people According to predictions by the Food and that can afford a better quality of life (FAO, Agriculture Organization of the United 2009). Agriculture, on the global level, must Nations (FAO; 2009), today’s world increase to meet increased demands from the population will grow by over a third by new larger middleclass (FAO, 2009) and 2050. An estimated 9.1 billion humans will “increases in the movement of finance, inhabit Earth, and worldwide agriculture inputs, output, information, and science will be required to raise overall food across vast geographic areas,” (FAO, 2003, production by 70% in order to meet the new p.99). demands set forth by the projected To meet global demands, population (FAO, 2009). Moreover, 70% of investments are needed in education the world’s population will live in surrounding agriculture – from production to metropolitan areas by 2050 as developing logistics (FAO, 2003). Stewart (2009) counties rapidly build larger, more purported American students are not being populated cities (FAO, 2009). FAO posited properly prepared to work and thrive in a the move to metropolitan areas will leave globalized society. Students in the United smaller labor forces to work towards an States have less knowledge of world issues increase in production. Furthermore, FAO than students in other industrialized suggested the following are prerequisites to countries (Stewart, 2009). This lack of global food security: (a) increased knowledge places students at a disadvantage investments in developing country for jobs and our country at a disadvantage agriculture through the public and private for economic growth (Stewart, 2009). sectors; (b) priority given to agricultural Furthermore, students in the United States research, development, and extension; and rarely learn the world’s most spoken (c) effectively functioning global markets. languages and are expected to foster respect According to the Center for for different cultures less than any other International Understanding (CIF; 2005), industrialized country (Stewart, 2009). “all fields – from agriculture to auto repair, Moreover, young Americans lack basic banking to biotech, medicine to geographical knowledge and struggle to

66 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 identify states or countries on a map, and are Elliot and Yanik (2004) found American therefore, unprepared to work on a global students did not hold a high value for scale (Roper, 2002). concepts at the international level. To In order for the United States to address this issue, Elliot and Yanik proposed produce graduates that are competitive in the more attention be given to international workplace and for schools in the United concerns by incorporating them into States to increase their quality of education, curriculum to help student understand the globalization must be an active factor in importance of international issues. In their mission (Acker & Scanes, 1998). To Radhakrishna, Leite, and Domer’s (2003) compete in a global economy, the United study, American students agreed they States educational system should focus on needed more information concerning internationalizing the curricula (Stewart, international agricultural concepts. These 2009). Stewart (2009) proposed an students desired to know more about the educational response that appears early in a world market in order to be prepared and child’s education. Instead of superficial obtain future employment in a more cultural aspects like “food, fun and globalized world (Radhakrishna, et al., festivals,” (Stewart, 2009, p.185), education 2003). Heinert et al. (2014) found attitudes should focus on global economic trends, and beliefs among United States students cultural connections and international trade. were also positive towards international Congruently, the National Research Council concepts. (2009) challenged academic institutions to This study seeks to build upon these update curricula to keep pace with the early works and explore the attitudes, globalization of agriculture and produce beliefs, understanding, and desired graduates capable of addressing issues in the instructional methods of Tennessee school- world’s systems of food and agriculture. The based agricultural education students in National Research Council (2009) also regards to international agriculture. Results indicated how teaching and learning occurs from this study could serve as a first step in should be improved and opportunities understanding, establishing, and improving should be provided that allow faculty and instruction of international agricultural students to “learn about the complexities of concepts in Tennessee. agriculture and grapple with its evolution and change” (p. 3) Conceptual Framework Furthermore, three recent studies Awareness and understanding of support the need for an internationalized international agricultural concepts can be school-based agricultural education influenced by a number of factors, and with curriculum in the United States by that in mind, Radhakrishna et al.’s (2003) documenting attitudes and beliefs towards conceptual framework for global awareness international agricultural concepts (Elliot & and understanding of international Yanik, 2004; Heinert, Lavery, & Roberts, agriculture (Figure 1) framed this study. 2014; Radhakrishna, Leite, & Domer, 2003).

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Knowledge International Assessment Experience Awareness and Understanding of Demographic International Characteristics Agricultural Concepts

School Characteristics Attitudes and Beliefs

Figure 1. Global awareness and understanding of international agriculture (Radhakrishna, et al., 2003).

Radhakrishna et al. (2003) stated “global agricultural concepts (Harbstreit & Welton, awareness and understanding of 1992). While “high school agriculture international agricultural concepts by high student awareness about international school and college students can be linked to agriculture in the areas of agricultural several factors — international experience products, agricultural policy, geography, and and participation, school characteristics, and people and cultures is limited,” (Harbstreit demographic characteristics, knowledge & Welton, 1992, p. 15) continuing in assessment, and attitude and beliefs toward agricultural classes allows for the student to international agricultural concepts” (p. 542). be exposed to and gain a deeper Referring to the global illiteracy of even the understanding for the topics. Harbstreit and best of agricultural students as a “crisis” Welton (1992) found “the longer a student is (Radhakrishna et al, 2003, p. 558), a part of a high school agricultural program Radhakrishna et al. purported the only and involved with a supervised occupational solution is more education and exposure. experience, awareness about international Exposure to international agriculture can agriculture increases,” (p. 15). Grade point come through a variety of experiences: averages, year in secondary school, and “study abroad programs, travel, including involvement in supervised occupational intercultural field trips, foreign language experiences (known as supervised skills, hosting foreign exchange students, agricultural experiences today) were international foreign youth exchange, and positively correlated to levels of awareness courses in international agriculture” (Harbstreit & Welton, 1992). Furthermore, (Radhakrishna et al, 2003, p. 551). attitudes and beliefs play a large role in the A preliminary study, concerning understanding and awareness of any concept factors leading to awareness of international (Silva, 2015), including those regarding agricultural concepts in secondary students, international agricultural. When students suggested demographics of students and feel interest (Hidi, 2001) or even awe schools had an effect on students’ awareness (Stewart, 2009) towards a subject, in the and understanding of international form of positive attitudes and beliefs, they

68 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 are more likely to retain information in a location. The researchers wanted to deeper, fuller capacity (Silva, 2015). represent both rural and urban schools in Tennessee. School 1 and 2 have Purpose and Objectives approximately 2000 students each and are The purpose of this study was to located in urban communities. The school- identify the attitudes, beliefs, understanding, based agricultural education programs at and desired instructional methods of both school 1 and 2 are comprised of two Tennessee school-based agricultural agriculture teachers. Whereas, school 3 has education students in regards to international approximately 300 students and is located agriculture. The objectives of the study were within a rural community with only one to: agriculture teacher. The school-based agricultural education program at school 1 1. Determine the attitudes of students consisted of 105 students, and thirty-eight of toward international agricultural the students participated in the study. School concepts. 2 had 128 students in their school-based 2. Determine the beliefs of students toward agricultural education program, and 61 of international agricultural concepts. the students participated in the study. School 3. Determine student’s understanding of 3 had 75 students in their school-based international agricultural concepts. agricultural program, and 24 of the students 4. Determine student’s views of desired participated in the study. The total response instructional methods for learning rate for this study was 40%. The lack of international agricultural concepts. returned parental consent forms prevented 5. Determine if attitudes, beliefs, some of the students from participating. The understanding, and desired instruction informed consent forms were delivered in methods toward international agriculture person to an agriculture teacher at each of concepts differ based on gender and the selected schools. The agriculture teacher school. introduced the potential student participants to the opportunity to participate in the study Methods and passed out the informed consent forms. This descriptive study utilized an The students took the consent forms home in instrument that Radhakrishna et al. (2003) order to seek their parent’s permission to adapted from Elliot and Yanik (2002). The participate in the study. If the student was 18 instrument was comprised of 46 items, years of age, parental consent was not which measured four constructs and used a required per Institutional Review Board five-point Likert scale (1 = strongly requirements. After each agriculture teacher disagree to 5 = strongly agree) and collected the informed consent forms, the contained demographic questions. lead researcher or the high school Reliability of the constructs were assessed agriculture teacher administered the pen and post-hoc for this study: attitudes (14 items, α paper instrument. The data were analyzed =.83), understanding (6 items, .78), attitudes using SPSS 22, and descriptive statistics toward instruction (13 items, .86), and were reported. beliefs (13 items, α =.78). Demographic information on the Three school-based agricultural students surveyed are presented in Table 1. education programs were purposively The majority of the students surveyed were selected to participate in this study based on males (54.5%) and located in a rural location the size of the school and their rural or urban (72.6%). Despite a large percentage of

69 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 students attending school in a rural location, only 35.5% of the students lived on a farm.

Table 1 Demographic Profile of Students Variable ƒ % Gender Female 55 45.5 Male 66 54.5 Class Standing Freshman 37 30.1 Sophomore 31 25.2 Junior 24 19.5 Senior 29 23.6 School Location Rural 85 72.6 Urban 32 27.4 Live on Farm Yes 43 35.5 No 78 64.5

Results 89% of students agreed or strongly agreed Objective 1: Determine the attitudes of with the statement, I should understand students toward international about agriculture and its importance to the agricultural concepts. world economy. However 12.2% and 11.4% The attitudes of students toward of students disagreed or strongly disagreed international agricultural concepts were with the statements I should know more generally agreeable and positive, and about the cultures of other countries and majority agreement was recorded on all learning more about agriculture in other attitude items (Table 2). The summated countries will help me understand future mean for attitudes was 3.81 (SD = 0.46), and changes in world agriculture, respectively.

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Table 2 Attitudes Toward International Agricultural Concepts Item Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree % Agree or % Agree % Disagree % % I should understand about agriculture 0.0 0.0 10.6 43.9 45.1 and its importance to the world economy. I should understand more about the 0.8 4.1 41.5 42.3 11.4 differences between developing and developed countries. I should know more about other 1.6 4.9 35.0 47.2 11.4 countries as markets for U.S. agricultural products. I should have a better understanding 1.6 6.5 26.8 45.5 19.5 about how politics affect world agriculture. I should know more about the 3.3 8.9 32.5 40.7 14.6 cultures of other countries. I should understand how the culture 1.6 6.5 30.1 48.0 13.8 of other countries impact agriculture in those countries. Learning more about agriculture in 4.1 7.3 22.0 50.4 16.3 other countries will help me understand future changes in world agriculture. I need to know more about world 1.6 1.6 32.5 46.3 17.9 agriculture. I should know more about how 0.0 2.4 22.0 55.3 20.3 world events affect local agriculture in my community. I should know more about how 0.0 1.6 18.0 53.3 27.0 world agriculture affects food prices in the local grocery store. Marketing U.S. agricultural products 2.4 4.9 36.6 39.8 16.3 to other countries will help the U.S. economy. Coming changes in world agriculture 0.0 5.7 17.1 53.7 23.6 will have some impact on me in the future. World events have some impact on 0.0 5.7 24.4 51.2 18.7 agriculture in my community.

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Objective 2: Determine the beliefs of learn more about world agriculture, students students toward international predicted they would be exposed to agricultural concepts. concepts, indicated by agreeing or strongly A majority of students provided agreeing, through fairs and trade shows positive agreeance with statements regarding (74.4%), audio-visual materials (72.9%), international agricultural concepts (Table 3). and guest speakers (62.5%). While these The statements below yielded a summated items could be considered as supplements to mean of 3.81 (SD = 0.57). A majority of classroom teachings, they are also seen as students agreed or strongly agreed (88.5%) opportunities for students to see real-world agriculture involves more than farming. examples outside of the classroom When questioned about where they could . Table 3 Beliefs Towards International Agricultural Concepts Items Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree % Agree or % Agree % Disagree % % Agriculture involves more than farming. 0.8 2.5 8.2 28.7 59.8 Natural disasters affect the price of food in 0.8 2.5 22.1 45.9 28.7 my local grocery store. The U.S. should help other countries with 3.3 4.9 30.3 36.9 24.6 food aid in times of famine. U.S. trade partners (customers) help U.S. 1.6 4.1 24.6 50.0 19.7 agriculture. Competition with other producers 4.1 6.6 30.6 42.1 16.5 worldwide help keep food prices rather reasonable. An understanding of other cultures will help 1.7 4.1 40.5 42.1 11.6 U.S. food producers to market their products abroad. An understanding of international political 1.7 5.8 40.0 43.3 9.2 issues will help U.S. producers market their products abroad. That guest speakers who are knowledgeable 0.8 5.8 30.8 45.0 17.5 regarding international events would help me learn more about world agriculture That variety of audio-visual materials (web- 2.5 3.3 22.3 51.2 20.7 sites, slides, videos, films, etc.) would help me learn more about world agriculture. That computer programs that are 2.5 7.4 32.2 39.7 18.2 internationally oriented would help me learn more about world agriculture. That I can learn about world agriculture 4.1 4.1 28.9 46.3 16.5 from watching selected television programs.

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That I can learn about world agriculture 6.6 9.1 43.0 30.6 10.7 from listening to selected radio programs. That I can learn about world agriculture 0.8 1.7 23.1 44.6 29.8 from attending events such as fairs or trade shows

Objective 3: Determine the understanding agreed with a need to understand major of geography in relation to international regions in the United States and location of agricultural concepts in students. states and major regions in the United The summated mean for States. The average percentage of students understanding geography mirrored the agreeing or strongly agreeing to the generally agreeableness of prior constructs importance of geography related to the seven (M = 3.76; SD = .51; See Table 4). continents in the world, locations of However, most students were more countries in the world, major waterways concerned with geography only related to used in shipping agricultural products, and the United States – 78.7% and 73% of counties that are the most densely populated students respectively agreed or strongly was 62.7%.

Table 4 Understanding of Geography in Relation to International Agricultural Concepts Items Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree % Agree or % Agree % Disagree % % To help me understand agriculture from a global perspective, I should have a basic understanding of the United States and world geography, such as: Major regions in the United States. 2.5 0.8 18.0 54.9 23.8 Location of states and major regions in the 0.0 4.1 23.0 49.2 23.8 United States. The seven continents in the world. 1.7 1.7 31.4 41.3 24.0 Location of countries in the world. 2.5 2.5 32.0 49.2 13.9 Major waterways used in shipping 0.8 3.3 26.2 50.8 18.9 agricultural products. Countries that are the most densely 4.1 3.3 39.8 38.2 14.6 populated.

Objective 4: Determine student’s views in agriculture and the effects on American desired instructional methods in learning agriculture yielded the most agreeable international agricultural concepts. results with 70.5% and 69.1%, respectively, When asked about more specific agreeing and strongly agreeing. In addition, instructional topics, students agreed on the 55.8 % of students agreed or strongly agreed propositions in Table 5 with an average that lessons in international agriculture score of 3.76 (SD = 0.47; See Table 5). would help me function better as citizens in Instruction on major agriculture products a global society. produced in my country, and global

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Table 5 Attitudes Towards Instruction for Understanding International Agricultural Concepts Items Strongly Disagree Neither Agree Strongly Disagree % Agree or % Agree % Disagree % % I am more likely to understand global agriculture if given instruction about: Major agricultural products that are 0.8 5.7 22.8 51.6 18.9 produced in my country. What happens to local products once they 0.0 4.2 28.3 46.7 20.8 leave the community? How the U.S. works with other countries on 3.3 4.1 33.1 45.5 14.0 economic issues How the U.S. works with other countries on 1.7 10.0 35.0 38.3 15.0 political issues. How the U.S. works with other countries on 2.5 4.1 30.3 49.2 13.9 humanitarian issues. Global agriculture and the effects on 0.0 4.9 26.0 48.0 21.1 American agriculture. A proposed set of lessons on international issues should: Not be too complex for me. 0.8 6.5 31.7 42.3 18.7 Provide me with an appreciation of the 1.6 4.9 36.1 45.9 11.5 interdependency of nations around the world. Prepare me for future changes in global 0.8 0.0 23.1 54.5 21.5 agriculture. Provide an opportunity to interact with 1.6 6.6 31.1 41.8 18.9 people in other parts of the world Help me understand global agricultural 1.6 3.3 26.2 53.3 15.6 marketing systems. Help me function better as citizens in a 4.1 5.7 34.4 44.3 11.5 global society. Prepare me for future changes in global 1.6 2.5 27.0 47.5 21.3 agriculture.

Objective 5: Determine if attitudes, School 1 showed higher summated means beliefs, understanding, and desired among attitudes, beliefs, understanding and instruction methods toward international instruction. School 2 and School 3 were tied agricultural concepts differ based on or within 0.03 points of each other on 75% gender and school. of the constructs. As far as gender, similar Variance of attitudes, beliefs, results were recorded. Females achieved a understanding and instruction among slightly higher summated mean on three of schools and gender showed slight trends but the four constructs and tied on the other no significant differences. Among schools, construct with males.

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Table 6 Variance of Attitudes, Beliefs, Understanding and Instruction Among Schools School 1 School 2 School 3 M SD M SD M SD Attitudes 3.88 0.35 3.77 0.49 3.80 0.52 Beliefs 3.91 0.42 3.70 0.50 3.70 0.50 Understanding 3.91 0.56 3.76 0.61 3.78 0.48 Instruction 3.83 0.42 3.76 0.56 3.64 0.49 Note. Scale was 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Table 7 Variance of Attitudes, Beliefs, Understanding and Instruction Among Gender Females Males M SD M SD Attitudes 3.83 0.45 3.79 0.47 Beliefs 3.82 0.43 3.72 0.50 Understanding 3.83 0.57 3.80 0.57 Instruction 3.72 0.46 3.72 0.55 Note. Scale was 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree.

Conclusions States’ geographical features, while they The purpose of this study was to were only generally interested in global identify the attitudes and beliefs of school- geography. This is consistent with Roper based agricultural education students in (2002), who suggests United States’ students Tennessee in regards to international are lacking in global perspectives. agriculture. We found the generally Finally, students provided insight agreeable and positive beliefs and attitudes into their desired instructional methods in were consistent with prior research (Yanik learning international agricultural concepts. & Elliot, 2002; Radhakrishna, et al., 2003; This information may be valuable to the Heinert, Lavery & Roberts, 2014.). When development of appropriate curricula in the surveyed about their general attitude toward future. Students believed lessons should international agricultural concepts, a show how the United States works with majority of students agreed or strongly other countries and how global agriculture agreed with all attitude items, which effects the United States, which may be a reinforces both Elliot and Yanik (2002, way of making the concepts more concrete 2004) and Radhakrishna et al. (2003). rather than abstract for the students. In addition, students portrayed Students indicated with strong agreeableness agreeableness in their beliefs of the that they wish to see how countries, importance of international agricultural including their own, work together to concepts. Students conveyed positive overcome agricultural issues. responses in both beliefs of international In regards to differences among agriculture as well as where they may school characteristics and gender, slight encounter international agriculture. difference were found. Demographically, Furthermore, in the case of geographical School 1 and School 2 were more similar in understanding, students tended to be the fact that they were large urban schools, overwhelmingly positive about the United while School 3 was a small rural school;

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however, School 2 and School 3 achieved should be conducted to identify specific more similar results. Differences in gender concepts that should be included in an seemed negligible as well. While females internationalized school-based agricultural achieved a higher summated score for three education curricula. Furthermore, replication of the four constructs, the difference was of this study should be done in order to minimal. This suggests negligible or no represent other regions of the United States differences exist in attitudes, beliefs, and investigation of how and if other understanding, and instruction in regards to countries internationalize their curricula international agriculture concepts among the would be beneficial. students in this study. References Recommendations for Practice Acker, D. G., & Scanes, C. G. (1998). A State Departments of Education case for globalizing U.S. colleges of should consider providing resources for the agriculture. Journal of International development, testing, and implementation of and Agricultural and Extension internationalized curricula. Curriculum Education, 5(1), 59-62. doi: writers should use information from this 10.5191/jiaee.1998.05107 study and others to gather concepts that Center for International Understanding. should be included in school-based (2005). North Carolina in the world: agricultural education curricula. Educators A plan to increase student should work towards collaboration between knowledge and skills about the school-based agricultural education, world. Raleigh, NC: Author. agricultural companies and organizations, Elliot, J., & Yanik, R. (2004). A and higher education to enhance the school- Longitudinal Study of Secondary based agricultural education student Student Attitudes and Beliefs experience in regards to international Relative to International agricultural attitudes, beliefs, understanding, Agricultural Issues. Paper presented and instruction. at the 20th Annual Conference of the Furthermore, if not currently Association for International and internationalized, other countries should Agricultural and Extension consider internationalizing their curricula Education, Dublin, Ireland. and determine how best to equip students Food and Agricultural Organizations of the with the skills and knowledge necessary to United Nations (2003). Trade work in a globalized economy. Additionally, reforms and food security: curriculum writers in the United States Conceptualizing the linkages. Rome: should look at curricula from other counties Commodity Policy and Projections to understand which concepts are being Service. taught. Food and Agricultural Organizations of the United Nations (2009). How to feed Recommendations for Further Research the world in 2050. Rome: Further research should be conducted Commodity Policy and Projections to determine school-based agricultural Service. education teachers’ perceptions of Harbstreit, S. R., & Welton, R. F. (1992). globalized curricula and their content Secondary agriculture student knowledge and pedagogical needs related to awareness of international international agricultural concepts. Research agriculture and factors influencing

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student awareness. Journal of Silva, P. (2015). Knowledge emotions: Agricultural Education, 33(1), 10- Feelings that foster learning, 16. doi: 10.5032/jae.1992.01010 exploring, and reflecting. Heinert, S., Lavery, D., & Roberts, T. G. Noba. Retrieved from (2014). An analysis of high school http://nobaproject.com/modules/kno students’ attitudes and beliefs toward wledge-emotions-feelings-that- international agricultural concepts. foster-learning-exploring-and- Presentation abstracts from the reflecting#content. Annual Conference for the Stewart, V. (2009). Becoming citizens of the Association for International world. In M. Scherer, Challenging Agriculture and Extension the whole child: Reflections on the Education, 2014, 31-33. best practices in learning, teaching Hidi, S. (2001). Interest, reading, and and leadership (pp.182-194). ASCD. learning: Theoretical and practical considerations. Educational Psychology Review, 13, 191-209. Jackson, A. (2008). High schools in the global age. Educational Leadership, 65(8), 58-62. Mercier, S. (2015). Food and agricultural education in the United States. AGree. Retrieved from http://www.foodandagpolicy.org/site s/default/files/AGree_Food%20and %20Ag%20Ed%20in%20the%20US .pdf National Research Council. (2009). Transforming agricultural education for a changing world. Washington, DC: National Academies Press. Radhakrishna, R. B., Leite, F. C., & Domer S. L. (2003). An analysis of high school students’ attitudes and beliefs toward international agricultural concepts. Proceedings of the 19th Annual Conference of the Association for International and Agricultural and Extension Education, 19, 540-549. Roper, A. S. W. (2002). National Geographic – Roper 2002 global geographic literacy survey (C510007671). Retrieved from http://www.nationalgeographic.com/ geosurvey2002/download/RoperSurv ey.pdf

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24206

United States and Latin American Undergraduate Students’ Knowledge, Attitudes and Perception of Global Agricultural Issues

Sarahi Morales M. Todd Brashears Cindy Akers Jaime Malaga Texas Tech University

Gary Wingenbach Texas A&M University

Abstract Global trends are demanding agricultural students have a broader perspective of agriculture and competitiveness and they become responsible global citizens. This study compared United States and Latin American undergraduate students’ knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs regarding international agricultural issues, as well as their attitudes about global citizenship. Overall, students’ results indicated a lack of knowledge regarding international agricultural issues, with only 3.6% obtaining a score above 60%. Students’ recorded positive attitudes and beliefs about international agricultural issues but had mixed feelings regarding global citizenship attitudes. Scores on all constructs were found to be significantly different between the studied academic institutions (p < .05). The stepwise multiple linear regression indicated the predictors of university of enrollment and students’ attitudes and beliefs about international agricultural issues were significantly related to their global citizenship attitudes: F (3, 1194) = 83.04, p = .01, explaining 17% of the variance in the model. The obtained results suggest students hold positive and open-minded attitudes and beliefs regarding international agricultural issues. These attitudes should be balanced by academic institutions with the knowledge needed by students to meet the demands of the agricultural industry. A global understanding can potentially enable future professionals to succeed in both local and global settings, and furthermore, help them become global citizens.

Keywords: international agricultural issues, global citizenship, knowledge, undergraduate education.

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Introduction Scholars have suggested a primary The interaction between goal of universities should be to globalize globalization and agriculture continues to undergraduate education (Bruenning & increase as interrelations among countries Shao, 2005; Bruening & Frick, 2004; Acker and regions expand. For example, large & Scanes, 2000). The most effective way to agribusinesses have a presence in multiple add a global component to undergraduate countries and employ large numbers of studies is through the use of study abroad people, especially agriculturalists. programs (Brooks, Frick, & Bruening, Therefore, it is not surprising agribusinesses 2006). Even though several studies have expect college and university graduates to be evaluated the significance and impact of prepared for global competence within their study abroad programs (Klein & Lawver, fields (Whigham & Acker, 2003). 2007; Brooks et al., 2006; Kitsantas, 2004; Conversely, the global agricultural system Opper, 1990), less than two percent of faces many issues, ranging from climate students majoring in agricultural sciences change, reduction in soil fertility, reduction participated in study abroad programs in biological diversity, and a rapidly during the 2013-2014 academic year growing world population (McIntyre, (Institute of International Education, 2015). Herren, Wakhungu & Watson, 2009). The This level of involvement has been similar proceeding literature highlights the many in previous years suggesting more effective ways agriculture is connected to the global ways should be explored to internationalize community (Bruening & Shao, 2005). students’ curriculum in agricultural sciences. Current pressing world issues have In recent years an emphasis has been led countries, business leaders, and placed on education regarding global educators to discuss the need for schools to citizenship that aims to engage citizens in meet the needs of globalization and prepare the understanding and resolution of social, students for international work (Spring, cultural, and political issues worldwide (The 2008; Olson & Evans, 2007). Students may United Nations Educational, Scientific and potentially fill work positions worldwide Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2013). that require international knowledge and Indicators of global citizenship have existed awareness (Anthony, Bederman, & Yarrish, since the year 450 (Carabain, Keulemans, 2013). The 2011 – 2015 National Research Van Gent, & Spitz, 2012). Currently, the Agenda of the American Association for term is widely used in international Agricultural Education (AAAE) indicated in education and various others disciplines order to meet global food, fiber, and energy (Reysen & Katzarska, 2013; Morais & needs, it is essential to prepare new Ogden, 2011), but an “agreed definition is scientists and professionals in the yet to be developed” (UNESCO, 2013, p. 3). appropriate academic settings (Doerfert, Morais and Ogden (2011) pointed out global 2011). The 2016 – 2020 AAAE National citizenship is “rarely conceptually or Research Agenda expanded on this, operationally defined” (p. 445, 2011). Some indicating agricultural graduates will be have used the term to describe a human required to function in global settings. condition of belonging to the global Therefore, the agricultural curricula should community and a feeling of responsible for incorporate international topics in order the world that goes beyond borders, nation- allow students to explore agriculture matters states, and even cosmopolitanism from multiple perspectives and in a global (UNESCO, 2013). For the purpose of this setting (Stripling & Ricketts, 2016). study, the definition established by Morais

79 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 and Ogden (2011) was used, which indicates leads to individual and national economic global citizenship is a multidimensional growth” (Sweetland, 1996, p. 356). Moriba construct built from the interaction and (2011) proposed investments in the display of three major components: social educational systems by governments and responsibility, global competence, and stakeholders have taken place to prepare global civic engagement. students with international awareness and Academic institutions and their global competence. This leads to national faculty members must take a pro-active role productivity and prepares future to effectively teach students how to professionals for a globalized world. contribute to the solution of issues around the world (Bruening & Shao, 2005). Elting Purpose and Objectives (2001) recommended the undergraduate The purpose of this study was to education curriculum in agricultural sciences compare United States (U.S.) and Latin should aim to prepare aware and American (L.A.) students’ knowledge, knowledgeable students for a global context. attitudes, and beliefs toward international Additionally, Wingenbach et al. (2003) agricultural issues and their attitudes to suggested an agricultural curriculum needed engage in society as global citizens. The to expand students’ knowledge of following research objectives were created international agriculture issues and to guide this study: (a) describe understanding of “policies, products, people, undergraduate students enrolled in and cultures to prepared students for their agricultural sciences in Texas Tech careers (2003). Furthermore, an adequate University (TTU) and The Panamerican internationalization of the agricultural Agricultural University, Zamorano (EAP); curriculum will most likely foster positive (b) assess undergraduate students’ attitudinal change in students, thus knowledge of international agricultural increasing their international awareness issues in TTU and EAP; (c) determine (Moriba, Edwards, Robinson, Cartmell, & undergraduate students’ attitudes regarding Henneberry, 2012). international agricultural issues in TTU and EAP; (d) determine undergraduate students’ Theoretical Framework beliefs about international agricultural issues This research study is based on the in TTU and EAP; (e) assess undergraduate Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1985), students’ attitudes toward global citizenship which explains “individuals’ intentions to in TTU and EAP; and (f) establish the perform a given behavior; intentions are relationship between undergraduate assumed to capture the motivational factors students’ global citizenship and the students’ that influence behavior” (Ajzen, p. 181). university of enrollment, gender, and their According to Ajzen (1991), the elements of knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about this theory have been found to accurately international agricultural issues. predict a person’s behaviors. In addition, this research study is supported Methods by the Theory of Human Capital applied to This study design was causal – education by Schultz in 1961, which comparative; which is used to identify cause indicates “individuals and society derive and effect relations, with the critical feature economic benefits from investments in of an independent categorical variable (Gall, people” (Sweetland, 1996, p. 341). This Gall, & Borg, 2007). To evaluate students’ theory suggests “[the] pursuit of education knowledge and attitudes toward global

80 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 agricultural issues and their attitudes to Sax et al. (2003), 22% on paper-only engage in society as global citizens, we used surveys and 17% on web surveys. The modified versions of the International increased sample helped compensate Agricultural Awareness and Understanding potential non-response and ensure an survey instrument by Wingenbach et al. adequate sample to conduct the study. (2003) and Hurst (2013), and the Global Data collection procedures in this Citizenship Scale by Morais and Ogden research study were specific to the sub-sets (2011). Knowledge items that were outdated of the targeted population, TTU and EAP, were replaced with others addressing the nonetheless general procedures were main issues highlighted by the Food and established to maintain as much consistency Agriculture Organization of the United as possible between the groups. Data Nations (FAO) in 2014, in the post-2015 collection at both academic institutions was development agenda, and the Millennium gathered within the initial three weeks of the Development Goals (MDG). Remaining semester, fall 2014 in TTU and the 2014 items regarding the students’ attitudes third regular period in EAP. Students from toward global agricultural issues and global all academic standings were recruited in citizenship were revised and changed for both academic institutions. Students had the applicability to the target population. Items option to accept or decline participation in not applicable were removed. The final the study. Those participating completed the instrument quantified the student’ paper instrument after a regularly scheduled knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs about class period. A total of 1,300 students international agricultural issues, their voluntarily completed the instrument. This attitudes toward global citizenship, and included 659 students from TTU and 641 demographics. A non-probabilistic students from EAP. Instruments with less convenience sample of students in classes than 90% completion were considered with large numbers of enrollment was taken invalid and eliminated resulting in 1,218 at TTU and EAP. We used this procedure to valid instruments; 612 from TTU and 606 ensure participants response rate. Other from [L.A. University). Students who opted benefits of this sampling procedure included not to participate in this research study were low cost and collecting data in a short period considered non-respondents. Based on of time (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Walker, enrollment records at both academic 2013). institutions, an overall response rate of 90% The sample size was determined was obtained. Those in more than one class based on Cochran’s formula as suggested by were considered duplicates and were asked Bartlett, Kotrlik, and Higgins (2001). An not to complete the instrument more than a alpha level of .05 was established a priori. single time. No control for non-response The sample size was determined to be 310 error was implemented as participants were students at TTU and 294 students at EAP, part of a convenience sample with no way to for a total sample of 604. However, taking contact the non-respondents given IRB into consideration the findings by Sax, constraints. Gilmartin, and Bryant (2003) regarding low Data collected from the paper response rates among college students, we instruments were entered into an Excel® over-sampled the population following the spreadsheet, coded according to each recommendations by Bartlett et al. (2001). section, and transferred into a SPSS® for We estimated a response rate of 50% Windows database. Items negatively worded considering the low response rates found by on the global citizenship scale (SR 1.1, SR

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1.2, and SR 1.3) were reverse-coded as majority of these were considered established by the authors (Morais & Ogden, acceptable for newly developed instruments 2011) prior to conducting the statistical (Nunnally & Bernstein, 1994). The obtained analysis. data was analyzed based on the research About 1% of missing data was objectives established in the study using found. Missing values can decrease the descriptive and variability statistics, statistical power, however less than 2% of independent t – test, and a linear multiple missing data is considered a minimal loss to regression. An alpha level of .05 was the dataset (Roth, 1994). To address the established a priori. missing values in the knowledge section, the researcher considered any unanswered Findings/Results question as incorrect answers as the correct The purpose of this study was to answer was not identified. Meanwhile, compare U.S and L.A. students’ knowledge, missing values in the Likert scale sections of attitudes, and beliefs toward international the global citizenship, attitudes and beliefs agricultural issues, and their attitudes to about international agricultural issues were engage in society as global citizens. U.S. mitigated using mean substitution, which participants were represented by allows using the mean value of the variable undergraduate students enrolled at TTU in in place of the missing data point. Even an undergraduate program of the College of though this technique can alter variance Agricultural Sciences and Natural Resources estimates, it is a simple technique worth (CASNR), while L.A. participants were considering when missing data is less than represented by undergraduate students 10% such as in this case (Donner, 1982). enrolled at EAP, an agricultural university The final instrument was pilot tested located in Honduras. to assess the internal consistency and Research objective (a) sought to compared it to the reported reliability describe participating students of both coefficients by the instruments authors and academic institutions. Students’ other researchers. A post-hoc reliability demographic characteristics collected in this analysis was also conducted. Findings of the study included gender, academic standing, reliability analysis were consistent, and and ethnic background. The majority of the considered acceptable, in the pilot test and at participants were males (n = 644) in contrast post-hoc for the international agricultural to the female participants (n = 554). Males awareness and understanding survey were also the majority at EAP (n = 382); sections of: attitudes (α = .94; α = .96), however, females were the majority of the beliefs (α = .81; α = .90) and knowledge participants at TTU (n = 345). Regarding the (KR = .23; KR = .14). Knowledge reliability students’ ethnic background, the largest results were considered understandable classification of students identified considering interdependence of items tend to themselves as Latin (n = 539), followed by reduce reliability coefficients (Frisbie, Caucasian/white (n = 475), Hispanic (n = 1988). Findings in the global citizenship 76), Native-American (n = 39), African- scale section were lower than the reported American (n = 32), other ethnic background reliability coefficients by the authors in the (n = 12), and Asian/Pacific Islander (n = 6). pilot test and at post-hoc: social The majority of the students’ at EAP responsibility (α = .69; α = .26); global classified themselves with a Latin competence (α = .59; α = .79); and, global background (n = 538) but in TTU the civic engagement (α = .68; α = .79). The majority considered themselves

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Caucasian/white (n = 472). Students world’s population,” 45% versus 24%, classified their academic standing according “Which of the following languages are the to their university of enrollment, overall the four most spoken languages worldwide?” largest group classified themselves as 64% versus 48%, and, “Considering freshmen (n = 356), followed by developing and developed countries, the sophomores (n = 324), juniors (n = 261), projection of the world population for the and seniors (n = 255). Freshmen were also year 2050 shows that the largest segment the largest group at TTU (n = 214) but in will be in,” 46% versus 30%. Whereas EAP EAP seniors made up the largest group (n = students presented higher scores of corrected 195). answers than TTU students for the following Research objective (b) assessed questions: “What is the primary household undergraduate students’ knowledge of fuel in lower income groups in Latin global agricultural issues in the target America,” 86% versus 58%, “The economic population. Within the instrument, students strength of a country can be measured by,” completed a knowledge section consisting of 45% versus 24%, and, “Which country is the 20 multiple-choice items. Students were largest producer of tea,” 43% versus 29%. instructed to select the correct answer The overall mean score of correct among 4 options. Results were recorded as answers was 7.6 (SD = 2.1) with a median correct or incorrect answers with a binary and mode score of 7 (Mdn = 7, Mode = 7). code of 1 and 0 respectively; therefore, the TTU students’ knowledge of international sum of correct answers resulted in the agricultural issues mean score was lower (M overall knowledge of international = 7.24; SD = 2.20) than EAP students’ mean agricultural issues score based out of 20 score (M = 7.89; SD = 2.00). An possible points. Results by question varied independent t-test was used to assess the according to the students’ university of statistical significance in the differences of enrollment. No identical frequency students’ knowledge scores based on their percentage of correct answer by item was university of enrollment. The null found between TTU and EAP. hypothesis stated there would be no Overall, 90.4% of the students (N = difference in the participants’ knowledge 1218) responded correctly to the question: scores (Ho: µ1 = µ2). The alpha level was “The ___ desert is the world’s largest hot set at .05 a priori. Levene’s test for equality desert,” while 95% incorrectly answered the of variances violated the assumption of following question: “Although large areas of homogeneity of variance (p = .03). The land are brought into cultivation throughout corrected t-test was used not assuming the world each year, large amounts are also homogeneity of variance. The independent t- rendered useless or are reduced in test recorded a t value of -5.46 (p < .05). productive capacity because of the following Therefore, the null hypothesis was rejected reasons.” TTU students’ frequency in favor of the research hypothesis stating, in percentage of responding correctly to the the population, there is a difference in the questions varied from 6.7% to 86.9%, while participants’ knowledge based on the EAP student’s frequency percentages of university of enrollment (Ho: µ1 ≠ µ2). correct answers varied from 3.3% to 93.9%. Cohen’s d effect size value (d = .33) TTU students’ posted higher scores of suggested a small to medium effect size correct answers than EAP students for the (Kotrlik, Williams, & Jabor, 2011). following questions: “Which cereal grain is Quantifying undergraduate students’ the basic food for more than half of the attitudes regarding global agricultural issues

83 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 in the target population was the purpose of attitudes toward international agricultural research objective (c). Students completed issues depending on their enrollment at TTU an attitudes section of 25 Likert-type items or EAP (Ho: µ1 ≠ µ2). Cohen’s d effect size on a 6-point scale (1=strongly disagree, value (d = .49) suggested a medium effect 2=disagree, 3=slightly disagree, 4=slightly size (Kotrlik, et al., 2011). agree, 5=agree, 6=strongly agree). The mean Research objective (d) sought to score of the attitudes section represented the assess undergraduate students’ beliefs about overall attitudes toward international international agricultural issues. Students agricultural issues held by the students. provided responses to items within a beliefs Overall, the lowest mean score of this section of 17 Likert-type items in a 6-point section was 4.44 (SD = 1.27) corresponding scale (1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, to the statement: “Lessons on international 3=slightly disagree, 4=slightly agree, agricultural issues should not be too 5=agree, 6=strongly agree). The summated complex for me,” whereas, the highest was mean score of the beliefs section represented 5.08 (SD = 1.03) corresponding to the the overall beliefs toward international statement: “Considering my home country agricultural issues held by the students; in agricultural exports, I should be instructed addition, 10 items indicated the students’ on other countries agricultural production educational method of preference to learn practices.” TTU students’ mean scores about international agricultural issues. ranged from 4.34 (SD = 1.27) to 4.85 (SD = Overall mean scores of items in the beliefs 1.10), whereas EAP students’ mean score section varied from 4.24 (SD = 1.32) to 5.25 ranged from to 4.54 (SD = 1.35) to 5.35 (SD (SD = 1.00), values corresponding to the = .91). The overall students’ means score of statements: “I learn about international attitudes was 4.88 (SD = .76), with a median agricultural issues from listening to selected of 5 and a range of 4.92. TTU students mean radio programs,” and “International score was lower (M = 4.70; SD = .78) than agriculture involves more than farming.” EAP students mean score (M = 5.06; SD = Variations were observed between TTU and .68) EAP students’ scores; however, results were An independent t-test was used to similar between the subsets of the assess the statistical significance in the population. TTU students’ mean scores students’ attitudes toward international ranged from 4.02 (SD = 1.29) to 5.08 (SD = agricultural issues based on their university 1.05), while EAP students’ mean score of enrollment. The null hypothesis stated ranged from 4.44 (SD = 1.49) to 5.42 (SD = there would be no difference in the .94). The overall students’ mean score in the participants’ attitudes of international beliefs section was 4.76 (SD = .71). Similar agricultural issues (Ho: µ1 = µ2). The alpha to the attitudes section, TTU students’ mean level was set at .05 a priori. Levene’s test score was lower (M = 4.56; SD = .72) than for equality of variances violated the EAP students’ means score (M = 4.97; SD = assumption of homogeneity of variance (p = .64). The range was similar between the .01). The corrected t-test was used not subsets of the population. assuming homogeneity of variance. The An independent t-test was used to independent t-test recorded a t value of -8.45 assess the statistical significance in the (p < .05), therefore, the null hypothesis was students’ beliefs toward international rejected in favor of the research hypothesis agricultural issues based on their university stating that, in the population, there was a of enrollment. The null hypothesis indicated significant difference in the participants’ there was no difference in the participants’

84 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 beliefs toward international agricultural world get the punishments they deserve.” issues (Ho: µ1 = µ2). The alpha level was set TTU students’ scores by item ranged from a at .05 a priori. Because Levene’s test for mean value of 2.12 (SD = 1.07) to 4.98 (SD equality of variances violated the = 1.02) whereas EAP students’ scores varied assumption of homogeneity of variance (p = from 2.19 (SD = 1.42) to 5.05 (SD = 1.19). .01), the corrected t-test was used not The overall mean of students’ global assuming homogeneity of variance. The citizenship scores was 3.71 (SD = .63) with independent t-test recorded a t value of - a median of 3.75. TTU students’ scores were 10.36 (p < .05). Therefore, the null lower (M = 3.55; SD = .62) than EAP hypothesis was rejected in favor of the students’ mean scores (M = 3.87; SD = .61) research hypothesis that stated, in the An independent t-test was used to population, the participants’ beliefs toward assess statistical significance in the students’ international agricultural issues differ attitudes toward global citizenship based on depending on if they are enrolled at TTU or their university of enrollment. The null EAP (Ho: µ1 ≠ µ2). Cohen’s d effect size hypothesis stated there would be no value (d = .60) suggested a medium effect difference in the participants’ attitudes size (Kotrlik, et al., 2011). toward global citizenship (Ho: µ1 = µ2). The Research objective (e) sought to alpha level was set at .05 a priori. Levene’s assess undergraduate students’ attitudes test for equality of variances met the toward global citizenship. Within the assumption of homogeneity of variance (p = instrument, students completed a global .92). The independent t-test recorded a t citizenship section of 21 items using a 6- value of -8.86 (p < .05), therefore the null points Likert-type scale (1=strongly hypothesis was rejected in favor of the disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly disagree, research hypothesis that stated, in the 4=slightly agree, 5=agree, 6=strongly population, the participants’ attitudes toward agree). The overall score of global global citizenship differed depending on the citizenship represented the level of global university of enrollment (Ho: µ1 ≠ µ2). citizenship held by the students. Overall Cohen’s d effect size value (d = .52) suggest mean scores of items varied from 2.35 (SD a medium effect size (Kotrlik, et al., 2011). = 1.23) to 5.02 (SD = 1.11), values Table 1 summarized the findings corresponding to the statements, “Over the regarding the students’ knowledge, attitudes, next 6 months, I will contact a newspaper or and beliefs toward international agriculture radio to express my concerns about global issues, and the students’ attitudes toward environmental, social, or political global citizenship. problems,” and “I think people around the

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Table 1 Summary of Mean Difference of Students’ Knowledge, Attitudes, and Beliefs toward International Agricultural Issues and Attitudes toward Global Citizenship (N = 1218) TTU EAP n = 612 n = 606 Variable M SD M SD df t p Cohen’s d Knowledge a 7.24 2.20 7.89 2.00 1207.62 -5.46 > .01* .33 Attitudesb 4.70 .78 5.06 .68 1196.08 -8.45 > .01* .49 Beliefsb 4.56 .72 4.97 .64 1199.35 -10.36 > .01* .60 Global Citizenshipb 3.55 .62 3.87 .61 1216.00 -8.86 > .01* .52 Note. a = 20 multiple choice items coded: 0 incorrect, 1 as correct, total possible = 20. b = Likert-type scale: 1=strongly disagree, 2=disagree, 3=slightly disagree, 4=slightly agree, 5=agree, 6=strongly agree. * p < .05 Research objective (f) sought to establish the .01. Participants’ predicted global relationship between undergraduate citizenship is equal to the constant 1.87 + students’ global citizenship attitudes and the .18 (students’ attitudes toward international university of enrollment, gender, agricultural issues) + .19 (students’ knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs concerning university of enrollment) + .14 (students’ international agricultural issues. A stepwise beliefs of international agricultural issues). multiple regression analysis was conducted The dependent variables of knowledge and to predict the global citizenship score gender were excluded from the multiple students may hold. The predictors were the linear regression model as they did not students’ gender, university of enrollment, significantly impact the model’s ability to and their attitudes, beliefs, and knowledge of predict students’ attitudes toward global international agricultural issues; the criterion citizenship (t = .79, p > .05; t = .87, p > .05). variable was global citizenship. Table 2 The multiple correlation coefficient was .42, displays the regression model summary. The indicating approximately 17% of the linear combination of students’ attitudes (t = variance in the students’ global citizenship 5.78, p < .05) and beliefs (t = 4.30, p < .05) attitudes within the sample population can toward international agricultural issues, and be accounted by the linear combination of university of enrollment (t = 5.49, p < .05) students’ university of enrollment, and their was significantly related to the students’ attitudes and beliefs regarding international global citizenship, F (3, 1194) = 83.04, p = agricultural issues.

Table 2

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Regression of Global Citizenship on Characteristics (N = 1218) Variable R R2 B SE B β pr Model .42 .17 Attitudes .18 .03 .21* .17 University .19 .04 .15* .16 Beliefs .14 .03 .16* .12 (Constant) 1.87 .12 Excluded Variables Gender .02 .03 Knowledge .02 .02 2 Note. Adjusted R = .17. Model: F(3, 1194) = 83.04; p < .05. *p < .05

A multicollinearity diagnosis was disadvantageous for students entering a conducted to identify if the model presented labor force which demands skillful collinearity issues. The Variance Inflation employees who are able to apply their Factor (VIF) for each of the predictors was technical knowledge and show less than 2.0 and the tolerance was above .2. internationally proficiency. VIF values greater than 10.0 and tolerance Olson and Evans suggested “students values lower than .2 are reasons of concern should be able to think, work, and operate (Bowerman & O’Connell, 1990; Myers, across boundaries” (2007, p. 14). 1990). Therefore, the model to predict Furthermore, global citizenship attitudes, global citizenship does not present which assessed students’ social multicollinearity issues. responsibility, global competence, and global civic engagement, were found to be Conclusions, Recommendations, and toward the mid-point of the scale. These Implications findings suggest students may not The results obtained in this research necessarily fully understand and exhibit the study should be considered with caution and behaviors of global citizenship as prescribed should not be generalized to other by Morais and Ogden (2011). This is populations as non-random assignment supported by the conspicuously low scores procedures were used; however, these obtained in items such as, “Over the next 6 results describe TTU and EAP students well. months, I will work informally toward The positive attitudes and beliefs, solving a global humanitarian issue.” toward international agricultural issues The linear combination of students’ found in this study may be effectively attitudes and beliefs toward international increasing and strengthening students’ open- agricultural issues, and university of minded attitudes, allowing them to become enrollment were significantly related to the comfortable in global settings, and even students’ global citizenship, and explained more importantly, aware of international approximately 17% of the variance agricultural issues. However, their observed. Researchers indicate variance (r2) knowledge was found to be deficient. These in social sciences models generally range findings suggest students at both academic from .15 to .40. This range of variance institutions may not be connecting the actual might not indicate the goodness of models in information learned in classes to an some fields; however, when examining international context, as suggested by human behaviors is considered appropriate Wingenbach et al. in 2003. This may be (Aneshensel, 2012), especially when taking

87 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 into consideration human behaviors are developed countries in the upcoming years. highly unpredictable (Westfall & Henning, This relationship was suggested by the 2013). UNESCO in 2013, and supports the goals Ajzen (2006) indicated when proposed by philanthropic projects, such as following the Theory of Planned Behavior the Gates Foundation 2015 challenge to that “as a general rule, the more favorable improve the lives of people in poor countries the attitude and subjective norm, and the in the next 15 years in a faster manner than greater the perceived control, the stronger in the past (Gates Annual Letter, 2015). should be the person’s intention to perform It is recommended to emphasize the behavior in question” (2006, p. 1). This actions that may reinforce students’ research study results imply that the knowledge of international agricultural students’ attitudes (attitudes toward the issues and may consequently impact their behavior) and beliefs (subjective norms) of attitudes of global citizenship, in addition to international agricultural issues do explain the already established activities at both 17% of the variance in the students’ academic institutions to infuse international intentions to engage as global citizens in the dimensions into the students’ curriculum agricultural sciences (intentions). However, and experience in college. Over the years, knowledge of international agricultural researchers have suggested multiple issues (perceived behavioral control) was mechanisms to internationalize the students’ found to have minimal contributions to the curriculum, such as the infusion of students’ intentions. These findings partially international dimensions into core courses; support what previous researchers have combining domestic and global issues or suggested regarding global citizenship and topics in classes; international agricultural future behaviors, which are built from the majors and minors, and certificates; and students’ attitudes, beliefs and knowledge foreign language and culture courses (Reysen & Katzarska, 2013; Carabain et al., (Brooks el al., 2006; Navarro, 2004; 2012). Whigham & Acker, 2003; Radhakrishna & These results indicate students at Dominguez, 1999). Therefore, it is both academic institutions are building suggested to explore these alternatives in positive attitudes and beliefs toward both academic institutions. international agricultural issues. These can The researchers encourage further potentially influence the students’ analysis on students’ knowledge, attitudes, understanding of global citizenship and their and beliefs of international agricultural surroundings, and consequently they may issues, and their attitude to engage as global display in the future attitudes of global citizens, using randomization sampling citizenship. The Theory of Human Capital techniques and experimental procedures. suggests investments in education are done Moreover, it is recommended to explore for the purpose of advancing a nation’s faculty according to the constructs assessed economy, and consequently help a nation to in this study and their international keep up with a globalized world (Sweetland, experiences. This can help to identify the 1996), therefore, it is important to balance transferability of professors’ attitudinal students’ attitudinal conditions with the conditions regarding attitudes and beliefs of needed knowledge to prepare them as global international agricultural issues and attitudes citizens for the demands of the agricultural of global citizenship, and their knowledge of industry, locally and globally, especially to international agricultural issues while build a better world in both developing and teaching.

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Further research is needed to identify Bartlett, J., Kotrlik, J., & Higgins, C. (2001). variables that may contribute to explain the Organizational research: determining global citizenship unaccounted variance in appropriate sample size in survey agricultural sciences students (83%). In research appropriate sample size in addition, knowledge of international survey research. Information agricultural issues should not be yet Technology, Learning, and discarded as a potential predictor as previous Performance Journal, 19(1), 43. researchers found knowledge to be an Bowerman, B., & O’Connell, R. (1990). important contributor to global citizenship Linear statistical models: an applied attitudes. approach (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Duxbury References Brooks, S., Frick, M., & Bruening, T. Acker, D., & Scanes, C. (2000). A case for (2006). How are land grant globalizing undergraduate education institutions internationalizing and student learning at colleges of undergraduate agricultural studies? agriculture. Journal of International Journal of International Agricultural Agricultural and Extension and Extension Education, 13(3). 91- Education, 7(1), 47-51. 102. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2006.13307 doi:10.5191/jiaee.2000.07106 Bruening, T., & Frick, M. (2004). Ajzen, I. (1985). From Intentions to Actions: Globalizing the U.S. undergraduate a Theory of Planned Behavior. In J. experience: a case study of the Kuhl & J. Beckman (Eds.), Action- benefits of an international control: From cognition to behavior agriculture field-based course. (pp. 11- 39). Heidelberg, Germany: Journal of International Agricultural Springer and Extension Education, 11(1). 89- Ajzen, I. (1991). The theory of planned 96. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2004.11110 behavior. Organizational Behavior Bruening, T., & Shao, X. (2005). What and Human Decision Processes, should be included in an 50(2), 179-211. doi:10.1016/0749- international agriculture 5978(91)90020-t undergraduate course? Journal of Aneshensel, C. S. (2012). Theory-based International Agricultural and data analysis for the social sciences. Extension Education, 12(1). 47-54. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. doi:10.5191/jiaee.2005.12105 doi:10.4135/9781506335094 Carabain, C., Keulemans, S., van Gent, M., Anthony, D., Bederman Miller, P., & & Spitz, G. (2012). Global Yarrish, K. K. (2013). An analysis of citizenship: From public support to initial global citizenship in a liberal active participation [Adobe Digitals arts college in northeastern Edition version] The Netherlands: Pennsylvania. Journal of Amsterdam. Retrieved from International Education Research http://repub.eur.nl/pub/50555/ (JIER), 10(1), 23-28. Doerfert, D. L. (Ed.). 2011. National doi:10.19030/jier.v10i1.8346 research agenda: American Ary, D., Jacobs, L., Sorensen, C., & Walker, Association for Agricultural D. (2013). Introduction to research Education’s research priority areas in education. Belmont, CA: Cengage for 2011-2015. Lubbock, TX: Texas Learning. Tech University, Department of

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Agricultural Education and Institute of International Education Communications. Retrieved from the website: American Association for http://www.iie.org/opendoors Agricultural Education (AAAE) Kitsantas, A. (2004). Studying abroad: the website: role of college students' goals on the http://aaaeonline.org/files/research_a development of cross-cultural skills genda/AAAE_NRA_(2011- and global understanding. College 15)_interactive_full_report.pdf Student Journal, 38(3), 441-452. Donner, A. (1982). The relative Retrieved from effectiveness of procedures http://search.ebscohost.com/login.as commonly used in multiple px?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14669 regression analysis for dealing with 496&site=ehost-live missing values. The American Klein, C., & Lawver, D. (2007). Statistician, 36(4), 378. Community-based ecotourism design doi:10.2307/2683092 studio in the Yucatan Peninsula: Food and Agriculture Organization of the enhancing study abroad with a United Nations [FAO]. (2014, service-learning component. Journal March). Post 2015 and SDGs: of International Agricultural and nourishing people, nurturing the Extension Education, 14(3), 97-107. planet (Issue Brief), Rome: FAO doi:10.5191/jiaee.2007.14308 Frisbie, D. A. (1988). Reliability of scores Kotrlik, J. W., Williams, H. A., & Jabor, M. from teacher-made tests. Educational K. (2011). Reporting and interpreting Measurement: Issues and Practice, effect size in quantitative agricultural 7(1), 25-35. doi:10.1111/j.1745- education research. Journal of 3992.1988.tb00422.x Agricultural Education, 52(1), 132- Gates Annual Letter. (2015). Our Big bet for 142. doi: 10.5032/jae.2011.01132 the future [Web log post]. Retrieved McIntyre, B. D., Herren, H. R., Wakhungu, from J., & Watson, R. T. (2009). http://www.gatesnotes.com/2015- Agriculture at a Crossroads. annual- International assessment of letter?WT.mc_id=01_21_2015_DO_ agricultural knowledge, science and com_domain_0_00&page=0&lang=e technology for development n (IAASTD): global report. Synthesis Hurst, S. (2013). Knowledge, perceptions, Report. Washington DC: Island and experiences of secondary Press. Retrieved from FAO website: agriculture teachers and 4-h agents http://www.fao.org/fileadmin/templa regarding global agricultural issues tes/est/Investment/Agriculture_at_a_ (Master’s thesis, University of Crossroads_Global_Report_IAAST Florida). Retrieved from D.pdf http://ufdc.ufl.edu/UFE0045533/000 Morais, D. & Ogden, A. (2011). Initial 01 development and validation of the Institute of International Education. (2015). global citizenship scale. Journal of Open doors report on international studies in international education, educational exchange: fields of study 15(5), 445- of U.S. Study abroad students, 466.doi:10.1177/1028315310375308 2003/04-2013/14. Retrieved from the

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Moriba, S., Edwards, M., Robinson, J., course-embedded, faculty-led Cartmell, D., & Henneberry, D. international programming (2012). Investigating the (Doctoral dissertation, Pennsylvania international awareness of students State University). Retrieved from meeting their international https://etda.libraries.psu.edu/paper/1 dimension requirement through 0524/ course offerings in a college of Opper, S. (1990). Impacts of Study Abroad agriculture. Journal of Agricultural Programmes on Students and Education, 53(4), 98–111. Graduates. Higher Education Policy doi:10.5032/jae.2012.04098 Series (Vol. 2). England: Jessica Moriba, S. (2011). Investigating the Kingsley Publishers international awareness and global Radhakrishna, R., & Dominguez, D. (1999). competence of students meeting their Global awareness and understanding international dimension requirement of governor school scholars: a four- through course offerings in a college year study. Journal of International of agricultural sciences and natural Agricultural and Extension resources: a descriptive and Education, 6(3), 19-25. comparative study (Doctoral doi:10.5191/jiaee.1999.06303 dissertation, Oklahoma State Reysen, S., & Katzarska-Miller, I. (2013). A University). Retrieved from model of global citizenship: https://shareok.org/handle/11244/656 Antecedents and outcomes. 7 International Journal of Psychology, Navarro, M. (2004). Analysis of factors 48(5), 858–870. affecting participation of faculty and doi:10.1080/00207594.2012.701749 choice of strategies for the Roth, P. (1994). Missing data: a conceptual internationalization of the review for applied psychologists. undergraduate agricultural Personnel Psychology, 47(3), 537– curriculum: the case in two land 560. doi:10.1111/j.1744- grant universities (Doctoral 6570.1994.tb01736.x dissertation, University of Texas Sax, L., Gilmartin, S., & Bryant, A. (2003). A&M). Retrieved from Assessing response rates and http://repository.tamu.edu/bitstream/ nonresponse bias in web and paper handle/1969.1/580/etd-tamu-2004A- surveys. Research in higher AGED-Navarro- education, 44(4), 409-432. 1.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y Spring, J. (2008). Research on globalization Nunnally, J. & Bernstein, I. (1994). and education. Review of Psychometric Theory (3rd ed.). New Educational Research, 78(2), 330- York: McGraw-Hill 363. Olson, C. L., & Evans, R. (2007). At home doi:10.3102/0034654308317846 in the world: Bridging the gap Stripling, C. T., & Ricketts, J. C. (2016). between internationalization and Research priority 3: sufficient multicultural education. American scientific and professional workforce Council on Education. that addresses the challenges of the Ogden, A. (2010). Education abroad and 21st century, American Association the making of global citizens: for Agricultural Education national assessing learning outcomes of research agenda: 2016-2020 (pp. 29

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– 35). Gainesville, FL: Department of Agricultural Education and Communication. Stromquist, N., & Monkman, K. (Eds.). (2014). Globalization & education: integration and contestation across cultures. United Kingdom: Rowman & Littlefield Education Sweetland, S. R. (1996). Human capital theory: foundations of a field of inquiry. Review of Educational Research, 66(3), 341–359. doi:10.3102/00346543066003341 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO]. (2013). Outcome document of the technical consultation on global, citizenship education: Global citizenship education: an emerging perspective. (ED/2013/PSD/PHR/PI/4). Retrieved from http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/00 22/002241/224115E.pdf Westfall, P., & Henning, K. S. (2013). Understanding advanced statistical methods. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press. Whigham, K., & Acker, D. (2003). Globalization of agriculture. South African Journal of Plant and Soil, 20(4), 209-214. doi:10.1080/02571862.2003.106349 38 Wingenbach, G., Boyd, B., Linder, J., Dick, S., Arispe, S., & Haba, S. (2003). Students´ knowledge and attitudes about international agricultural issues. Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 10(3), 25-35.doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2003.10304

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24207

Identifying Knowledge Management Capacity Needs of Rural Advisory Service Networks

Kevan W. Lamm LR Brand, Inc.

Alexa J. Lamm University of Florida

Kristin Davis International Food Policy Research Institute

B. Jyothi Swaroop University of Florida

Abstract Knowledge management is the creation, coordination, transfer, and integration of knowledge so it is accessible and usable by specific stakeholders. Knowledge management has been shown to facilitate the development of networks, as well as to sustain established networks, based on the appropriate collection and subsequent application of embedded social capital. For rural advisory service (RAS) networks, knowledge management can be an important tool to ensure that both explicit and tacit knowledge is shared amongst network members with the anticipated benefit of increased capacity of the network. Although the importance of knowledge management is well documented within the literature, there are limited guidelines for what specific knowledge management capacities a RAS network should develop. Using the Delphi process, a panel of 31 experts from 24 countries arrived at consensus on 34 specific knowledge management capacities associated with effective RAS networks. The results of the research provide a practical framework for RAS providers and networks to focus knowledge management capacity assessment and capacity-building activities.

Keywords: knowledge management, Delphi, evaluation, capacity assessment

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Introduction providers, thus establishing RAS networks Farmers must dedicate time and pay (Christoplos, 2010; Davis & Sulaiman, attention to management decisions, along 2014). For example, country-level national with the development of management skills RAS networks are supported by thirteen to be successful and engaged in sustainable regional networks across the world, which production (Kay, Edwards, & Duffy, 2015). are in turn supported by the GFRAS The World Bank (2007) has emphasized that organization (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014). “using agriculture as the basis for economic GFRAS strives to support small farmers’ growth in the agriculture-based countries development of management skills through requires a productivity revolution in the regional and national RAS networks that smallholder farming” (p. 1). Extension provide training and resources, including professionals, also known as rural advisory knowledge products and platforms to share service (RAS) providers, offer the global knowledge about RAS and management skill training necessary for agricultural production (Davis & Sulaiman, farmers to revolutionize and have been 2014). Therefore, RAS networks at all levels recognized as indispensable for agricultural require the tools and methods necessary to development (Anderson, 2007). manage and share knowledge, often referred Unfortunately, Bezemer and Headey (2008) to as knowledge management (Davis & found “over the last three decades, there has Sulaiman, 2014). been an inefficient and systemic bias against Knowledge management is the agriculture and the rural economy in the creation, coordination, transfer, and allocation of developmental resources” (p. integration of knowledge so it is accessible 1342). and usable by specific stakeholders (Paulin Despite limited resources, RAS & Suneson, 2015). It is an organizational providers are empowering farmers around asset which must be recognized for its the world through educational programming utilization to reach its full potential (Groff & (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014), often referred to Jones, 2012). There are many social aspects as extension education. RAS providers to knowledge management with multiple (extension educators in some parts of the scientific fields contributing to its world) are most often supported by advancement including philosophy, government agencies, non-profit cognitive science, social science, organizations, farmers’ unions, and for management science, information science, profit organizations. They have diverse economics, and artificial intelligence educational backgrounds and perspectives (Kakabadse, Kakabadse, & Kouzmin, 2003). on agricultural production practices, but they Dalkir and Liebowitz (2011) all have the same intent: to help farmers identified that knowledge has two become more productive and sustainable dimensions; tacit and explicit, with tacit (Davis & Sulaiman, 2014). difficult to articulate and explicit more To provide support, guidance, and tangible. Given that many agricultural harmonization amongst disparate RAS practices are modified to local conditions, providers, different organizations have agricultural knowledge tends to be tacit emerged; one such organizing entity is the (Schreiber et al., 2000). One of the main Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services tenants of knowledge management is to (GFRAS; Davis & Sulaiman, 2014). transform tacit knowledge assets to provide Organizations such as GFRAS serve to value within specific contexts (Metcalfe, facilitate interconnections amongst RAS 2005), therefore knowledge management

94 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 could be extremely useful within the The network provides the conditions agricultural domain if applied correctly. necessary to access and use embedded As an additional benefit, knowledge resources (Lin, 2008). Previous literature has management has been shown to facilitate the recommended organizational networks, like development of new networks, as well as to RAS networks, should be leveraged to sustain established networks, based on the harness their insights and social capital appropriate collection and subsequent potential (Nahapiet & Ghosal, 1998). application of embedded social capital Additionally, Bodin and Crona (2009) found (Woodhouse, 2006). The benefits of that when networks connect diverse knowledge management systems should stakeholders from multiple perspectives and therefore accrue to the primary clientele of institutions, the embedded social capital RAS services as farmers and smallholders resulted in more effective problem solving continue to take an active role in knowledge than from groups composed of homogenous acquisition and application resulting from institutions. the shift from production-oriented to Nevertheless, integrating knowledge, market-oriented agriculture (Phillipson, in the form of social capital, from multiple Gorton, Raley, & Moxey, 2004). specializations into a single harmonized However, there is very limited system requires specialized knowledge research available to provide knowledge integration. Previous research has shown management guidance within the RAS that knowledge integration can be more of a context. Identifying the characteristics of challenge than original knowledge creation effective knowledge management systems (Grant, 1996). Furthermore, for the and practices within RAS would ensure integrated knowledge to be valuable, there RAS providers have access to the must be some way for the accumulated information necessary to best serve RAS knowledge to be transferred back out; clientele (Hartwich, Perez, Ramos & Soto, therefore, there must be sufficient 2007). A study focused on identifying the transmission channels available (Paulin & characteristics, and specifically the Suneson, 2015). capacities, associated with effective Knowledge management, and the knowledge management within the RAS focus on knowledge transfer among various context would provide a robust platform for levels of a system, or network, uses multiple RAS practitioners as well as a novel instruments and skills to accomplish the framework for theoretical consideration integration and transmission process (Engel, (OECD, 2006). 1990). The complexity of linking social capital acquired through networks to Theoretical Framework knowledge management systems capable of This study used social capital theory effectively integrating and transmitting as the theoretical framework. Woolcock and knowledge has been vexing; a fundamental Narayan (2000) identified four views of challenge has been the lack of a common social capital: communitarian, network, understanding of effective knowledge institutional and synergy. Specifically, a management (Paulin & Suneson, 2015). network view of social capital theory was For well-known, but not well- utilized for this study. In a network, social understood concepts such as knowledge capital represents resources embedded management, previous literature has within the network which can be accessed or suggested the identification of specific mobilized through network ties (Lin, 2003). capacities as an operative way to improve

95 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 clarity and structure (OECD, 2006). For this been used for the purpose of content purpose, the Organisation for Economic Co- validation of constructs to be used in operation and Development (2006) has quantitative research” (Garson, 2014, defined ‘capacity’ as the “ability of people, Chapter 8, para. 1). organisations, and society as a whole to The RAND Corporation developed manage their affairs successfully” (p. 18), the Delphi method to collect knowledge and and ‘capacity development’ as “the process create consensus on a specific topic from a whereby people, organisations, and society group of experts (Dalkey & Helmer, 1963; as a whole unleash, strengthen, create, adapt, Ziglio, 1996). Previously, the Delphi method and maintain capacity over time” (p. 18). has been used to gain insight into topics that The use of capacity identification may are otherwise difficult to analyze (e.g. Okoli therefore serve as an effective tool to clarify & Pawlowski, 2004). The Delphi method somewhat ambiguous topics such as has been used extensively since the 1960s effective knowledge management (OECD, (Garson, 2014) to analyze numerous topics, 2006). Consequently, a set of capacities for example, trends in social science associated with effective knowledge (Gliddon, 2006; LeClerc, LeFrancois, Dube, management within a RAS context may be Hebert, & Gaulin, 1998) and technology best extracted from the social capital of a (Okoli & Pawlowski, 2004). network of individuals familiar with the According to Czinkota and context (Paulin & Suneson, 2015; Woolcock Ronkainen (1997), “the selection of the & Narayan, 2000). experts is critical to the success of a Delphic study” (p. 152). Consequently, “the Purpose and Research Objectives individuals comprising the expert panel The purpose of this study was to should represent the research purpose in a identify the capacities needed for a RAS way that legitimates the outcome of the network to be effective in knowledge Delphi process” (Garson, 2014, Chapter 6, management. The study was driven by the para. 2). To ensure the appropriate experts following research objectives: were included in this study, the selection criteria identified by Okoli and Pawlowski 1. Create a comprehensive list of (2004) were followed. First, the expertise potential knowledge management domain was defined as an individual capacities. actively engaged in RAS from differing 2. Arrive at a consensus on the specific geographies, organizational maturity and capacities necessary for a RAS experience. Next, nominations of individual network to be effective in experts were solicited from the GFRAS knowledge management. organization (Okoli & Pawlowski, 2004). The GFRAS organization was identified as Methods the appropriate source for the expert panel The research objectives were based on the global coverage of the network addressed using a modified Delphi method and the diversity of experiences within the research design. Specifically, the researchers population of interest (Garson, 2014). In conducted the Delphi method to gain total a purposive sample of 31 RAS experts’ opinions regarding the development professionals constituted the expert panel. of a consensus listing of the capacities The 31 experts that participated in needed for a RAS network to be effective in the panel represented RAS practitioners, knowledge management. “Delphi has often funding organizations, farmer and advocacy

96 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 groups, academic institutions, research important capacity for RAS networks to institutes, policy makers, and other affiliated have on a five point Likert-type scale (1 = RAS support organizations (for example Strongly Disagree, 2 = Disagree, 3 = consultants and agricultural supply Neither Agree nor Disagree, 4 = Agree, 5 = companies). Panelists had a range of Strongly Agree). The scores for each item experience with RAS exposure ranging from were then averaged. An item had to receive four to 45 years, with an average tenure of a mean score greater than 3.25 for the item 18 years. Panelists represented the following to continue to the third round (Garson, countries: Bangladesh, Belgium, Bulgaria, 2014). Ecuador, Fiji, Georgia, Ghana, Guyana, The third round of the Delphi was India, Ireland, Italy, Lao People's used to establish the expert panel members’ Democratic Republic, Malawi, Nicaragua, level of consensus with the capacities that Nigeria, Pakistan, Philippines, Samoa, made it through the second round. Solomon Islands, South Africa, Switzerland, Specifically, the expert panel was asked to Uganda, United States of America, and “Please indicate whether or not the Uzbekistan. Heterogeneity in amount of following knowledge management items experience helped to ensure the panel had a should be kept or removed as it relates to the diversity of perspectives represented following statement. A country fora or (Garson, 2014). regional RAS network should…”. Each item Three iterations of the Delphi that had 75% of the expert members agree it method were used to complete the study. should be kept was retained (Garson, 2014). The researchers followed recommendations Prior to research engagement in the literature to develop the processes and Internal Review Board approval was instrumentation (e.g. Delbecq, Van de Ven, obtained from the University of Florida. All & Gustafson, 1975; Nistler, Lamm, & three rounds of the Delphi were Stedman, 2011). During the first round of administered online. Using online or “E- the process, experts were asked to list five Delphi addresses some of the shortcomings (5) of the most important capacities a RAS of traditional Delphi, notably greatly network should possess to be effective in speeding up the time required for multiple knowledge management using a short phrase iterations of the estimation-feedback- or word (Gliddon, 2006). The expert reestimation process” (Garson, 2014, responses were analyzed and aggregated, or Chapter 44, para. 1). All three rounds of the expanded, where appropriate (Garson, 2014; Delphi were administered using the Tailored Gliddon, 2006) using the Dedoose Design Method (Dillman, Smyth, & qualitative analysis software (Dedoose, Christian, 2008). 2016). Responses from the first round were Throughout the process the results then used to develop the second-round were downloaded and analyzed using the questionnaire. Statistical Package for the Social Sciences The second round of the Delphi was (SPSS) version 21. For round one, data used to capture the expert panel members’ analysis included updating spelling and level of agreement with the capacities grammatical errors as well as thematic identified in the initial round. The analysis and consolidated the results prior to questionnaire listed the capacities identified round two to improve clarity and reduce and members of the expert panel were asked redundancy (Garson, 2014). Thematic to indicate their level of agreement or analysis was conducted using the Dedoose disagreement that each item was an qualitative analysis software (Dedoose,

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2016). This process was also undertaken to Results reduce the cognitive load required for At the end of the first round of the panelists to respond in the second round Delphi, including the consolidation process, (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & Razavieh, 2010). there were 42 capacities identified by the There were 29 respondents to the first round expert panel (Table 1). Panelists were then for a response rate of 94%. Descriptive asked to indicate the level of importance statistics were calculated based on data they associated with each capacity in Round collected during round two of the Delphi to Two of the Delphi. Of the 42 capacities determine the level of agreement with from the first round, there were three items behaviors (Ary et al., 2010). There were 27 that did not achieve the post hoc threshold responses to the second round for a response with a mean score greater than or equal to rate of 87%. Lastly, descriptive statistics 3.25 to be retained in Round Two; therefore were calculated at the end of round three to 39 capacities were included in the third and determine consensus amongst panelists final round. The mean values for the across capacities (Ary et al., 2010). There capacities ranged from 4.38 to 2.59 (Table were 29 respondents in the third and final 1). Experts associated the highest level of round for a response rate of 94%. Response importance with the statement “A country rates of greater than 70% per round within fora or regional RAS network should…share Delphi research have been found to be information openly and honestly.” acceptable (Keeney, Hasson, & McKenna, 2011).

Table 1 Delphi Round One and Two Results: Level of Importance for Knowledge Management Capacities (n = 42) Capacity M SD Share information openly and honestly 4.38 0.75 Make activities, products, best practices, and success stories 4.26 0.81 accessible to stakeholders in a format they can use Have members that are actively engaged in sharing knowledge 4.22 0.75 Have individuals working collaboratively and sharing information 4.19 0.74 freely Have stakeholders that are expected and encouraged to input their 4.19 0.68 ideas and suggestions to strengthen the network Have a culture that supports sharing among all levels of staff within 4.15 0.66 the organization Provide opportunities for networking through shared 4.04 0.71 information/resources Support stakeholders using the knowledge available to them to 4.00 0.78 inform RAS practice Have financial resources available to organize meetings, exchanges 4.00 1.00 and peer learning events. Have feedback mechanisms in place to provide useable formative 3.96 0.90 data Provide an effective platform for enhanced learning and information 3.96 0.59 exchange through face to face opportunities (e.g. meetings)

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Use data to provide insight into challenges and opportunities 3.92 0.98 Articulate an established knowledge management strategy including 3.89 0.89 the knowledge being managed, the purpose of the knowledge, and who the information is for Have network personnel that are available to organize meetings, 3.89 0.97 exchanges and peer learning events. Have information available in annual report format 3.85 1.13 Provide documentation of knowledge (activities, products, best 3.85 0.77 practices, success stories) to RAS professionals through a centralized platform Correctly identify the knowledge needs of RAS professionals 3.85 0.99 Offer an understanding of knowledge management 3.81 0.88 Provide an effective platform for peer-to-peer learning 3.78 0.89 Provide network level needs assessments 3.78 1.01 Offer training on how to use information and data 3.78 1.15 Communicate in local language(s) 3.70 1.10 Readily recognize knowledge creators 3.69 0.74 Provide the ability to develop content from a variety of information 3.67 1.04 sources Provide an effective platform for enhanced learning through 3.67 1.11 asynchronous online platforms (e.g. website) Have RAS professionals that use the available knowledge 3.63 0.79 Provide network level monitoring and evaluating 3.63 0.93 Have network personnel that are technically skilled in their use of 3.59 1.05 knowledge management resources Provide network level reporting skills 3.59 0.69 Provide training based on network level needs assessments 3.59 1.12 Establish a stable internet platform for knowledge management 3.59 1.05 Establish connections with research institutes 3.56 0.89 Have network personnel that are capable of sifting, selecting, 3.56 1.01 prioritizing, refining, organizing, packaging and disseminating knowledge Provide innovation thinking experts 3.52 1.25 Provide an effective platform for enhanced learning through 3.48 0.98 synchronous online platforms (e.g. Skype) Use software and monitoring tools specifically for knowledge 3.41 1.12 management Have information available in quarterly report format 3.41 0.75 Resolve conflicts that result from knowledge management 3.41 1.05 Provide database archiving 3.37 1.28 Communicate in English 3.11 1.05 Provide network level research 3.00 1.24 Have information available in monthly report format 2.59 1.05

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For the third and final round of the Amongst the 39 capacities from Round Two Delphi, panelists were asked to indicate there were 34 capacities that achieved a whether each of the capacities should be level of consensus greater than the post hoc kept or removed to establish consensus. threshold of 75% (Table 2).

Table 2 Delphi Round Three Results: Level of Consensus with Knowledge Management Capacities (n = 39) Capacity Consensus % Provide an effective platform for enhanced learning and information exchange 96.6 through face to face opportunities (e.g. meetings) Provide opportunities for networking through shared information/resources 96.6 Make activities, products, best practices, and success stories accessible to 96.6 stakeholders in a format they can use Have a culture that supports sharing among all levels of staff within the 96.6 organization Provide documentation of knowledge (activities, products, best practices, 96.6 success stories) to RAS professionals through a centralized platform Have feedback mechanisms in place to provide useable formative data 93.1 Have members that are actively engaged in sharing knowledge 93.1 Have network personnel that are available to organize meetings, exchanges 93.1 and peer learning events. Provide network level monitoring and evaluating 89.7 Provide network level reporting skills 89.7 Correctly identify the knowledge needs of RAS professionals 89.7 Have stakeholders that are expected and encouraged to input their ideas and 89.7 suggestions to strengthen the network Provide an effective platform for peer-to-peer learning 89.7 Share information openly and honestly 86.2 Provide an effective platform for enhanced learning through asynchronous 86.2 online platforms (e.g. website) Provide an effective platform for enhanced learning through synchronous 86.2 online platforms (e.g. Skype) Have information available in annual report format 86.2 Have network personnel that are technically skilled in their use of knowledge 86.2 management resources Offer an understanding of knowledge management 86.2 Use data to provide insight into challenges and opportunities 86.2 Have financial resources available to organize meetings, exchanges and peer 86.2 learning events. Have individuals working collaboratively and sharing information freely 82.8 Have RAS professionals that use the available knowledge 82.8 Establish a stable internet platform for knowledge management 82.8 Have network personnel that are capable of sifting, selecting, prioritizing, 82.8 refining, organizing, packaging and disseminating knowledge Articulate an established knowledge management strategy including the 82.8

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knowledge being managed, the purpose of the knowledge, and who the information is for Support stakeholders using the knowledge available to them to inform RAS 82.8 practice Provide network level needs assessments 82.1 Establish connections with research institutes 82.1 Provide database archiving 79.3 Provide the ability to develop content from a variety of information sources 79.3 Readily recognize knowledge creators 78.6 Communicate in local language(s) 75.9 Use software and monitoring tools specifically for knowledge management 75.9 Offer training on how to use information and data 72.4 Resolve conflicts that result from knowledge management 71.4 Provide innovation thinking experts 69.0 Provide training based on network level needs assessments 65.5 Have information available in quarterly report format 62.1

Conclusions, Implications, and applicable to RAS networks generally Recommendations (Bodin & Crona, 2009). Although there has been extensive Previously, one of the main research into knowledge management theory challenges with defining effective and practice within the literature (Metcalfe, knowledge management has been a lack of a 2005), there has been a notable lack of common understanding (Paulin & Suneson, knowledge management research within the 2015). This study sought to resolve this RAS context. The results of this study issue by focusing on the competencies indicated that it is possible to develop a list associated with effective knowledge of capacities associated with effective management in RAS networks (OECD, knowledge management within RAS 2006). By identifying the necessary networks using a social capital theoretical competencies, RAS networks should have a foundation (Woolcock & Narayan, 2000). framework to better evaluate their This study employed a network view knowledge management (Paulin & Suneson, of social capital where experts within a RAS 2015). Based on the results for the study, network were identified and asked to knowledge management capacity might be participate in a Delphi process. The results defined as the ability to successfully collect, of the study were consistent with the categorize, use, and distribute knowledge existing literature indicating that social within a defined context. Additionally, capital accessed through RAS network effective knowledge management may be resources was an effective way to identify defined as the successful application of the capacities needed for a RAS network to knowledge to achieve a desired result. From be effective in knowledge management this perspective, knowledge management since the experts were able to build should be considered as a range of consensus despite their global differences processes, not limited to specific tool. For (Lin, 2008). An implication from these example, a knowledge management results is that capacities derived from a technical platform might include software, panel composed of RAS network experts hardware, and infrastructure used to support from across the globe are appropriate and knowledge management activities; however,

101 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 the technical platform is subsumed within Specific to RAS networks, the results the larger context of knowledge indicated knowledge management efforts management. should include both technical and A potential limitation of the study facilitation platforms. Given the nature of was the selection of experts for the Delphi RAS networks, this result may be logical. panel. Despite efforts to be as inclusive as For example, when access to the internet or possible, and provide a platform for other technologies are limited, the most individuals representing RAS networks from effective method for sharing knowledge across the globe (Bodin & Crona, 2009), the amongst network members is through quality of the result is still dependent on the meetings or events attended in person. The knowledge and expertise of the panel. This facilitation, or non-technological, aspect of risk was mitigated by including experts with knowledge management is critical under a diversity of experience levels as well as a these conditions. This result is also variety of RAS networks represented from consistent with the theoretical foundation for both a maturity and resources perspective the study identifying that the network aspect (Garson, 2014). of social capital is a relevant consideration There were five capacity areas the for knowledge management in RAS expert panel almost unanimously agreed networks (Woolcock & Narayan, 2000). RAS networks should possess for effective A secondary theme that emerged knowledge management. First, providing an across multiple capacities was the effective platform for enhanced learning and importance of networks ensuring members information exchange through face-to-face are participating in knowledge management opportunities (e.g. meetings). Second, activities. Specifically, individuals should providing opportunities for networking share information freely, and stakeholders through shared information and resources. should be expected and encouraged to input Third, making activities, products, best their ideas and suggestions to strengthen the practices, and success stories accessible to network. Knowledge management, by stakeholders in a format they can use. definition, is based on aggregated Fourth, having a culture that supports knowledge (Girard & Girard, 2015). If sharing among all levels of staff within the networks do not have a culture where organization. Finally, providing members readily contribute to the documentation of knowledge (activities, aggregated knowledge base, the value of any products, best practices, success stories) to subsequent knowledge management efforts RAS professionals through a centralized would be limited (Girard & Girard, 2015). platform. Although previous knowledge RAS networks should ensure there is a management research has tended to focus on sufficient culture of knowledge sharing and tools and technology (e.g. Metcalfe, 2005), contribution amongst members as a pre- the results of this study were less technology condition for knowledge management centric and more interaction oriented. These activities. Any knowledge management results indicated RAS networks have a activities should be preceded by an different set of needs and criteria than other evaluation of the network culture to contexts. Scholars and practitioners need to determine if the necessary support exists. develop systems and processes that are more The capacities identified in this study related contextually appropriate for a RAS to culture would be a suggested starting audience. point.

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Although the organizational and develop an instrument for measuring cultural aspects of effective knowledge knowledge management capacity within management in RAS networks emerged, RAS networks to identify areas of strength there were also more process centric themes. and those worth investing time and finances These results indicated that although to build upon. A standardized instrument particular technical platforms for knowledge validated under multiple RAS network management in RAS networks were not conditions would be a tremendous asset for identified, there still must be some platform future RAS capacity assessment and for knowledge to be sifted, selected, subsequent extension efforts (Girard & prioritized, refined, organized, packaged, Girard, 2015). and disseminated. To improve knowledge management effectiveness, RAS networks References should establish a dedicated platform that is Anderson, J. R. (2007). Agricultural appropriate for their membership and advisory services. In World context. The results of this research Development Report 2008: identified that the specifics of the platform Agriculture for Development. are less germane than the utility of the Washington. DC: Work Bank. platform and the ultimate accessibility of Retrieved from knowledge. https://openknowledge.worldbank.or An additional methodological g/handle/10986/5990. recommendation is to use the Delphi process Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C., & to gather insights from RAS experts for Razavieh, A. (2010). Introduction to future research. The results of this research research in education. Belmont, CA: indicated the Delphi process was effective at Wadsworth Cengage Learning. generating a sufficient number of potential Bezemer, D., & Headey, D. (2008). knowledge management capacities, as well Agriculture, development, and urban as ultimately coming to a consensus on the bias. World Development, 36(8), importance of the solicited capacities. Future 1342-1364. doi: research is recommended to use the Delphi 10.1016/j.worlddev.2007.07.001 process when analyzing research questions Bodin, Ö., & Crona, B. I. (2009). The role of within a RAS context, especially for topic social networks in natural resource areas that do not have a strong theoretical governance: What relational patterns foundation within RAS. For example, the make a difference? Global use of information and communication Environmental Change, 19(3), 366- technologies in RAS networks, the 374. doi: organizational and institutional functioning 10.1016/j.gloenvcha.2009.05.002 of RAS networks, the professionalization of Cheng, S., Kuo, C., Lin, K., & Lee-Hsieh, J. RAS within RAS networks, and RAS (2001). Development and network’s capacity to advocate on behalf of preliminary testing of a self-rating RAS would be recommended areas of instrument to measure self-directed further inquiry. learning ability of nursing students. Finally, results from Delphi studies International Journal of Nursing have served as the basis for instrument Studies, 47(9), 1152-1158. development in the past (Cheng, Kuo, Lin, doi:10.1016/j.ijnurstu.2001.02.002 & Lee-Hsieh, 2001). It is recommended that Christoplos, I. (2010). Mobilizing the the results from this study be used to potential of rural and agricultural

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24208

Career Development Influences of Employees Working in Haiti’s Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services

Bertrhude Albert T. Grady Roberts Amy Harder University of Florida

Abstract Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services (EAS) provide vital services to individuals within the developing world. Extension personnel are at the heart of extension services because they are the ones who provide essential support, training, and skills to farmers in rural areas. The capacity of extension personnel, therefore, is an essential component of having a robust AET system. The purpose of this research was to explore and describe influences on career development among extension personnel in Haiti. To achieve this purpose, the set objectives of the research were: (a) describe career development influences in a government run extension agency in Haiti; (b) describe career development influences in a private run extension agency in Haiti; (c) describe career development influences in a grassroots extension agency in Haiti; and (d) compare and contrast career development influences in these agencies. Qualitative data from across the agencies showed common positive influences of: (a) educational background, (b) in- service training, (c) intrinsic motivation, and (d) extrinsic motivation. The common negative influences included: (a) lack of resources and (b) environmental hindrances.

Keywords: Haiti; career development; extension education; Caribbean; advisory services

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Introduction on Organizations and Policy [ECOP], 2002; Agricultural Extension and Advisory Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). Minimal Services (EAS) provide vital services to research has been conducted on career individuals in the developing world development influences of extension (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). As one half of personnel in Haiti and this research aimed to the world’s hungry and poor are small-scale fill the gap. farmers, EAS help to provide information, training, linkages to markets, and price Review of Literature and Theoretical discovery skills that help farmers create a Framework mechanism for combating poverty (Global According to Dalton, Thomas, and Forum for Rural Advisory Services Price (1977), an individual must be able to [GFRAS], n.d.). Through these services, change or he or she will stagnate. With a farmers are able to find the education and growing and changing world, employees and training needed to help improve his or her institutions have an urgent need to either capacity to increase crop yields and secure a grow or become obsolete (Rennekamp & viable future (Jiggins, Samanta, & Olawoye, Nall, 1993). EAS employees, in particular, 1997). According to Anderson and Feder must experience growth and development in (2004), “extension services have the order to address the contemporary potential to improve agricultural challenges that face the agricultural sector productivity and increase farmers’ incomes, (FAO, n.d.). Career development is a especially in developing economies where concept that allows EAS employees to more than 90% of the world’s nearly one develop within his or her career through life- million extension personnel are located” (p. long learning so he or she is best equipped 41). EAS play a fundament role in to do his or her job (FAO, n.d.; Rennekamp agricultural development around the globe & Nall, 1993). and as such, the importance of these services Career development can be defined could not be emphasized enough (Davis, as the “act of acquiring information and 2008). resources that enables one to plan a program The present study investigated career of lifelong learning related to his or her development influences of employees within work life” (Malone, 1984, p. 216). It spans Haiti’s EAS. The levels of extreme poverty one's entire lifetime. Career development in Haiti indicate a dire need for quality EAS allows for an employee to grow in his or her throughout the country. EAS services in respective field over a period of time, which developing countries like Haiti have solidifies who he or she is and how he or she contributed to the “reduction of hunger and operates at work. poverty, increase adoption of improved Many career development models technologies, and increase productive and have emerged in an attempt to understand capacity of clientele” (Swanson & Davis, the dynamics of career development within 2014, p. 2). Because EAS has profound role EAS (Conklin, Hook, Kelbaugh, & Nieto, in agricultural development, it is necessary 2002; Flavell 1971; Kohlberg & Kramer, for extension personnel to experience career 1969; Rennekamp & Nall, 1993; Stone & development. The quality and development Coppernoll, 2004). Most of these career of these extension personnel, after all, development models can be classified into determines the overall quality of EAS one of two categories: (a) competency institutions (Personnel and Organizational based, and (b) career stages. Competency Sub-Committee of the Extension Committee based models emphasize knowledge, skills,

1 108 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 attitudes, and behaviors needed by extension only way to reward him. More and more personnel in order to experience career firms began to set up special new pay and development (Cooper & Graham, 2001; promotion schemes such as the dual ladder Stone & Coppernoll, 2004). Conversely, for their professional employees in order to career stage models address the needs, recognize the critical contributions they motivators, and organizational strategies could make as individuals. (p. 21) EAS institutions should focus on to help As a result, Dalton et al. (1977) extension employees progress through the developed the following four successive multiple phases of career growth (Kutilek, career stages: (a) apprentice, (b) colleague, 2002). (c) mentor, and (d) sponsor. Each stage Stone and Bieber (1997) defined involves different tasks, relationships, and competency as the “application of psychological changes. knowledge, technical skills, and personal Change and challenges are inevitable characteristics that lead to outstanding components of working within EAS performance” (p. 1). Stone and Bieber (Rennekamp & Nall, 1993). As such, career suggested competencies ought to be used to development can offer a practical approach help improve the performance and for extension personnel to adapt and develop development of extension personnel. as a professional (Burke, 2002). Both career Competency models have been created in development models, the competency based order to identify specific core skills and and career stages, offer a framework for characteristics needed by EAS employees employees to experience career (Rennekamp & Nall, 1994; Stone & development. Despite which model is used, Coppernoll, 2004). These models have been it is important to investigate the influences used to help leaders within EAS institutions that impact extension personnel’s career facilitate the professional development of development journey. Understanding these extension employees, which can improve the influences may help professionals create overall quality of services offered by EAS strategies that use positive influences to (Suvedi & Kaplowitz, 2016) facilitate career development. The second common category for Research has been conducted on the career development models is career stages. positive and negative influences that impact Dalton et al. (1977) provided the original career development of extension personnel. framework for understanding career Herzberg, Mausner, and Snyderman (1959) development through their Four Stage of investigated the foundations of job Professional Career Model. The researchers motivation in the workplace. Herzberg et al. created this four-part model of career (1959) proposed the Motivation-Hygiene development because of the concerns they Theory, which states that employees are had with the existing career models, influenced by two independent dimensions: specifically the pyramid model. Dalton et al. (a) workplace factors that cause job (1977) argued that the commonly used satisfaction, and (b) workplace factors that pyramid model did not consider important prevent job dissatisfaction. Herzberg et al. realities. Dalton et al. (1977) claimed, proposed that these two dimensions are not Organizations found that the pyramidal opposites, but instead entirely different model failed to take important realities into components. Motivators produce job account. Too often, they found themselves satisfaction. Hygienes prevent job promoting a key technical specialist to a dissatisfaction. Herzberg et al. concluded management position because it was the that employees are more encouraged by

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motivators than they are by hygienes. The It is important to note that the three present researched used the Motivation- main types of EAS institutions around the Hygiene Theory as a framework to classify globe are public, private, and civil society positive and negative influences on organizations such as grassroots extension personnel’s career development. organizations and NGOs (Swanson & Also using the Motivation-Hygiene Rajalahti, 2010). Public extension Theory as a framework, Strong and Harder institutions are often operated by the (2009) investigated factors that influence government. In most developing countries extension personnel’s decision to remain in public extension is organized as ministries his or her career. They found salary, job of agriculture (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). stress, heavy work-loads, balancing work Due to inadequate government resources and family, other financial opportunities, most public institutions cannot and job dissatisfaction were factors that independently provide the services that are negatively impacted extension personnel needed within developing countries retention (Strong & Harder, 2009). On the (Swanson & Rajalahti, 2010). Private and other hand, mentoring programs, training, civil society organizations, therefore, are staff development, accolades, and having needed to support agricultural development. support in the work place were motivators Understanding the career development of that positively influenced extension personnel in these groups is an important personnel retention (Strong & Harder, component to overall effectiveness. 2009). They concluded Extension should use the positive and negative factors as a guide Purpose for creating strategies to decrease extension The purpose of this research was to personnel’s stress levels and job explore and describe influences on career dissatisfaction over time (Strong & Harder, development among extension personnel in 2009). Haiti. The objectives of the research were as Arnold and Place (2010) explored follows: the influences that shape Florida extension 1. Describe career development agent’s employment decisions at different influences in a government run career stages. The researchers found that extension agency in Haiti; positive influences at the across all levels of 2. Describe career development the career development stages included: (a) influences in a private run extension personal traits, skills, and knowledge, (b) agency in Haiti; motivators, (c) support systems, (d) career 3. Describe career development growth opportunities, (e) collaboration, and influences in a grassroots extension (f) career management strategies. Negative agency in Haiti and influences across all stage levels included: 4. Compare and contrast career (a) lack of direction, (b) job pressures, (c) development influences in these personal work management issues, (d) agencies. mandated work requirements, (e) work issues, (f) salary disparity, (g) performance Methodology measures, (h) career overload, and (i) job This study used a qualitative design dissatisfies. Arnold and Place suggested that in order to achieve the research purpose and further research should be conducted on objectives (Merriam, 1998). This approach career influences on extension personnel in is most appropriate when a researcher aims other U.S. states and internationally. to “discover and understand a phenomenon,

3 110 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 a process, or the perspective and worldviews which means many different types of of the people involved” (Merriam, 1998, p. organizations offering extension services to 11). Specifically, this research used an Haitian farmers at the same time (GFRAS, interpretive case study methodology to n.d.). Therefore, the quality and structure of describe the influences on career each EAS organization may not be development among Haitian extension consistent with others around the country personnel. A case study is “an intensive (Arias et al., 2013). Bahal et al. (1992) holistic description and analysis of a single provided a broad framework that applies to entity, phenomenon, or social unit” most extension systems around the world, (Merriam, 1998, p. 34). which was appropriate for the present study. In order to understand the According to Bahal et al. (1992), phenomenon of career development worldwide, there are more than 600,000 influences of Haitian extension personnel, extension workers that fit into one of four three case studies were conducted, focusing categories: (a) administrative staff, (b) on: (a) public, or governmental, (b) private, subject-matter specialist (SMS), (c) and (c) grassroots. For the purposes of this fieldworkers, and (d) multipurpose research grassroots organizations can be unidentified people. Although there are defined as bottom-up, local development regional differences within extension organizations (Uphoff, 1993). Grassroots are systems around the world, per Swanson, distinguished from national or regional Farner, and Bahal (1990), the breakdown of organizations by their accessibility to locals. extension personnel is as follows: 7% are Grassroots organizations and private administrative staff, 14% are SMS, and 79% institutions have both played an important are fieldworkers. The present study, role in supporting agricultural development therefore, selected a distribution of in ways the Haitian government has been extension personnel that had administrative, unable to (Arias, Leguía, & Sy, 2013). As a SMS, and fieldwork positions. result, public, private, and grassroots The first case was the public organizations represent the three major types extension institution, the Ministry of of EAS institutions in Haiti (GFRAS, n.d.). Agriculture, Natural Resources and Rural For this reason, these three types of Development (MARNDR, n.d.). MARNDR institutions were the focus of the present is the primary institution responsible for study. A semi-structured interview agricultural development within the country technique was used in order to provide an (GFRAS, n.d.). Haiti is divided avenue for the informants to explore their administratively into 10 departments, and experiences. This fairly open framework MARNDR is located in Damien, near the allowed for the interview to be focused, but capital city of Port-au-Prince, which is in the conversational (Merriam, 1998). West Department (Arias et al., 2013). To select the specific employees MARNDR shares a campus with the within Haiti’s public, private, and grassroots University of Haiti, which allows for EAS organizations, this study used a broad collaboration between the two institutions structure of extension systems that was (GFRAS, n.d.). A total of 7 informants were outlined by Bahal, Swanson, and Earner selected from MARNDR: 3 administrative (1992). Haiti’s agricultural sector does not staff, 2 SMS, and 2 fieldworkers. follow the familiar and established U.S. The second case was a private Extension system structure. Furthermore, institution called Darbouco S.A. The private Haiti follows a pluralistic extension system, sector plays a critical role within Haiti’s

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EAS (GFRAS, n.d.). Although they are Haitians are rural work in the agricultural small and fragmented, private agricultural sector (MPP, n.d.). A total of 7 individuals institutions have helped significantly in the were interviewed at MPP: 2 administrators, commercialization of inputs, such as 2 SMS, and 3 fieldworkers. fertilizers, seeds, and agricultural tools Across all three cases, a total of 16 (GFRAS, n.d.). Darbouco S.A. is a Haitian- EAS employees were interviewed for this run corporation located in the Port-au-Prince study. Of the 16 employees interviewed, 6 suburb of Pètion-ville. The organization was were administration, 5 were SMS, and 5 established in October 1948 with the goal of were fieldworkers. The research team provided quality agricultural products decided to conclude the data collection (Darbouco, n.d.). This organization has two portion of the study at 16 participants branches, both located in Pètion-ville. This because informants within the same organization serves as one of the main positions began to give the same responses importers distributor of agricultural inputs which meant that data reached saturation of and equipment in Haiti. Along with four information (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008). other private institutions, Darbouco S.A. is The lead researcher developed an responsible for at least 95% of the fertilizer, interview question guide that facilitate the pesticide, and seed sales in Haiti (Abbot et discussion with the EAS employees. The al., 1995). In addition to fertilizer, pesticide interview guide was passed through an and seed, Darbouco also provides expert panel for review. Members of this fungicides, herbicides, and spraying expert panel included university faculty, equipment (Darbouco, n.d.). The research Haitian extension agents, and Haitian team planned on interviewing 6 individuals extension researchers. The interview guide within Darbouco S.A., however only 2 was then piloted with 5 Haitians within the interviews, an administrative staff and an agricultural sector in order to ensure that the SMS, were conducted per the request of the questions were appropriate (Lincoln & president. Guba, 1985). The researcher revised the Finally, the third case was a guide based on the feedback from the expert grassroots organization called Mouvman panel and the pilot tests. The revisions Peyizan Papay (MPP). Farmer based helped to make the interview guide robust organizations, cooperatives and grassroots and effective. organizations such as MPP are the The rigor of this research was foundation for rural development activities established using Lincoln and Guba’s (1985) within rural Haiti (GFRAS, n.d.). MPP was concept of trustworthiness (Lincoln & Guba, founded on March 20, 1973 by Chavannes 1985). To establish credibility, the lead Jean Baptiste (MPP, n.d.). MPP is researcher used triangulation of the recognized as the largest peasant movement information, and of the investigator. There and grassroots organization in Haiti (MPP, was regular communication between the n.d.). The organization has 60,000 members lead researcher, research team, and experts which includes 20,000 women and 10,000 in the field. Member checking was also used youth. This organization operates in all 10 of in order to ensure that the data collected Haiti’s departments but is headquartered in accurately depicted the thoughts and Hinche, a city in Haiti’s Central Plateau reflections of the informants. The lead Department. The Haiti’s Central Plateau researcher also used peer debriefing with the Department is home to roughly 13% of the research team and experts in the field in Haitian population and most of these

5 112 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 order to ensure that the truth-value concern Case 1: Public Extension was addressed in the research. The first objective was to describe In order to establish transferability, career development influences in a the lead researcher provided thick government run extension agency. For this descriptions of the methodological process objective, 7 individuals from MARNDR and used purposive sampling in selecting the were interviewed (MA1-MA7). Findings informants. To establish dependability, the from EAS administrators showed positive lead researcher kept an audit trail that influences of: (a) educational background, included the raw data, notes, and drafts of (b) in-service training, (c) goal setting, (d) findings of this study. The lead researcher intrinsic motivation such as patriotism and also used a code-recode strategy to ensure setting an example for family members, (e) dependability (Ary, Jacobs, Sorensen, & extrinsic motivation such as promotion and Walker, 2013). Finally, confirmability was improving expertise, (f) religion, and (g) established through the use of a reflexive character traits (MA2, MA4, MA5). The journal, which included the weekly most common positive influences were in- reasoning behind all methodological service training, intrinsic motivation, and decisions made by the lead researcher. character traits. An example of in-service After the 16 interviews were training as a positive influence was MA2, conducted the data was transcribed in who stated, “I’ve arrived at my current Haitian Creole. A thematic analysis was position by the grace of God, but I continue used in order to identify themes within the to develop because of the trainings and data (Creswell, 2013). Open coding was seminars I attend.” MA4 also stated, used to detect themes throughout the “Without trainings, I am nothing.” interviews. After themes were created they Negative influences among EAS were translated from Haitian Creole to administrators included: (a) lack of English. resources, such as limited funding, (b) environmental hindrances, such as Subjectivity Statement government instability, and (c) career The lead researcher is Haitian born, overload (MA2, MA4, MA5). The most but has been living in the United States since common negative influence was lack of 1998. The lead researcher has extensive resources, as seen through the statement of research and development experience in MA5, “At times I can’t do my work because Haiti and currently works for a NGO that we don’t have what we need. I want to operates in the North Department of the advance, but it’s hard when you don’t have country. The lead researcher’s strong ties to the funds that you need. Sometimes I plan a Haiti and deep faith in agricultural education program and it gets canceled because we was monitored so as not to interfere with the don’t have the money.” MA2 also stated, data collection and analysis. Because the “We don’t have the funding we need to do lead researcher was the instrument for this what this job calls for us to do.” study, it was imperative that biases that may Among the MARNDR SMS, have impacted the research process were positive influences included: (a) educational recognized and report. Strategies to establish background, (b) in-service training, (c) trustworthiness helped to minimize the mentorship, (d) intrinsic motivation such as impact of any unidentified biases (Lincoln & patriotism and clientele satisfaction, (e) Guba, 1985). social networks, and (d) extrinsic motivation such as promotion and improving expertise

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(MA1, MA7). The most common positive influence was intrinsic motivation. MA1 Case 2: Private Extension stated, “People depend on me so I must be The second objective of this research excellent in my work.” was to describe career development Negative influences to SMS career influences in a private run extension agency. development included: (a) lack of resources One individual was interviewed at the such as limited funding (b) interpersonal administrative level, and one individual was issues with co-workers, and (c) interviewed at the SMS level (D1 and D2). environmental hindrances such as The positive influences among the government instability (MA1, MA7). The administrator were: (a) educational most common negative influence was lack background, (b) mentorship, (c) intrinsic of resources. MA1 stated, “We need motivation such patriotism and leaving a resources to get our job done but the legacy, and (d) character traits (D1). Related government doesn’t have enough resources to intrinsic motivation, D1 stated, “In 10 to make things happen.” MA7 also stated, years, I am going to be retired. I hope to “My greatest barrier at this point is funding. cross my hands and see this organization My department has good ideas but we don’t flourish because I worked so hard to have the money to materialize the ideas.” continue to that.” In regards to character Positive influences among traits, the informant stated, “You will not get MARNDR fieldworkers included: (a) in- anywhere without ethics. You must have service training, (b) mentorship, (c) intrinsic integrity in what you do and treat people motivation such as clientele satisfaction, and with respect as you respect yourself. I am (d) extrinsic motivation such as promotions where I am because of my ethics and my (MA3, MA6). The most common positive honesty.” influences were in-service training and Negative influences to career extrinsic motivation. MA6 stated, “If you’re development included (a) lack of resources not getting training as an agronomist, you such as funding, (b) interpersonal issues, and should find another job. I go through (c) environmental hindrances such as trainings every few months to make sure I government instability and poverty in Haiti. am effective.” MA3 also stated, “Yeah, I go The most prominent negative influence was to seminars and workshops, they help me a lack of resources. D1 stated, “I have much lot.” planned for this organization, but we need Negative influences among more resources. This has been a barrier for MARNDR fieldworkers included: (a) lack me. I want to do grand things but a lack of of resources such as funding, and (b) resources hinders me.” environmental hindrances such as Positive influences among the SMS government instability (MA3, MA6). The employee included: (a) educational most common negative influence was lack background, (b) in-service training, and (c) of resources. MA3 stated, “I don’t have goal setting (D2). The most prominent what I need in order to get my job done positive influence was in-service training. sometimes. If I had all the money in the D2 said, “I get a lot of training. Not many world, I would be able to do my work more people can do what I do as a client effectively, but I am working on a limited counselor, so Darbouco makes sure that I get budget.” MA6 also stated, “The greatest a lot of training.” D2 also said, “My career source of our ineffectiveness is a lack of pathway has been most impacted by the funding.”

7 114 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 knowledge and expertise I have received intrinsic motivation such as feeling indebted from trainings.” and patriotism, (c) extrinsic motivation such Negative influences included: (a) as promotions, and (d) in-service trainings lack of resources such as knowledge, and (b) (MP3, MP5). The most common positive environmental hindrances such as influence was in-service training. MP3 said, government instability (D2). Talking about “Without training, there is no work. I am lack of resources, D2 stated, “Sometimes I who I am professionally because of the just don’t know the answer to certain training I have received and continue to questions my clients ask me. That’s why try receive.” to go to a lot of trainings.” D2 also stated, Negative influences among SMS “My company serves many people included: (a) lack of resources such as throughout the country, but we lack the funding, and (b) career overload. In regards resources to expand our operations.” to lack of resource, MP3 said, “I want to help as many people as possible, but money Case 3: Grassroots Extension is lacking and we never have all that we The third objective was to describe need to complete this big work.” career development influences in a Positive influences on career grassroots extension agency. For this development among fieldworkers in MPP objective, seven employees from MPP were included: (a) intrinsic motivation such as interviewed (MP1 to MP7). The positive praise and feeling indebted, (b) extrinsic influences on career development among motivation such as salary and promotions, administrators included: (a) intrinsic (c) in-service trainings, (d) goal setting, and motivation such as patriotism, clientele (e) social networks (MP4, MP6, MP7). The satisfaction, and legacy, (b) goal setting, (c) most prominent positive influence was mentorship, and (d) social networks (MP1, extrinsic motivation. MP4 said, “Without MP2). The most common positive influence work, you don’t eat. I work to eat and so that was intrinsic motivation. MP1 said, “I work my family can eat.” hard so that I can finish this work and be Negative influences included: (a) proud of it when I finish. I will retire from lack of resources such as limited funding (b) this work soon, and I want to make sure I set environmental hindrances such as up this organization well and for success.” government instability, and (c) interpersonal Negative influences that impacted issues. The most prominent issue was lack career development for administrative were: of resources. MP4 said “Well, one barrier is (a) lack of resources such as funding, (b) that we don’t have what we need to get the environmental hindrances such as job done sometimes. We need more government instability and government resources to get the work done with persecution, and (c) Interpersonal issues excellence. This has hindered me from (MP1, MP2). The most common negative progressing in my career.” influence was environmental hindrances. MP1 stated, “You’ve got to understand, the Cross-Case Comparison government has a magnificent impact on The final objective was to compare everything we do. Sometimes they stand as and contrast the influences that impact the biggest barrier for my development and career development of extension personnel the development of my organization.” across government, private, and grassroots Among SMS, positive influences extension organizations in Haiti (see Table included: (a) educational background, (b) 1). The positive influences that were unique

8 115 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 for administrators across all three types of influences unique for fieldworkers were: (a) organizations were: (a) character traits, (b) intrinsic motivation of feeling indebted to religion, and (c) intrinsic motivation of work hard and receiving praise, and (b) wanting to leave a legacy. SMS workers had extrinsic motivation of receiving a salary. no unique positive influences. The positive

Table 1 Comparison of Positive and Negative Influences for EAS Employees in Haiti Government Private Grassroots AD SMS FW AD SMS FW AD SMS FW Positive Influences educational background X X X X X in-service training X X X X X X goal setting X X X X intrinsic motivation X X X X X X X extrinsic motivation X X X X X religion X character traits X X mentoring/mentorship X X X X social networks X X X

Negative Influences lack of resources X X X X X X X X environmental hindrances X X X X X X X career overload X X interpersonal issues X X X X Note. AD = administrators; SMS = subject matter specialists; FW = field workers

Administrators and SMS employees negative influences of: (a) lack of resources identified their educational background as a as seen through limited funding (b) positive influence on their career environmental hindrances as seen through development, whereas fieldworkers did not government instability, and (c) interpersonal explicitly identify educational background issues. as a positive influence. All three types of EAS employees identified the following Conclusions, Recommendations, and factors as positive influences: (a) intrinsic Implications motivation of patriotism and clientele satisfaction, (b) in-service trainings, (c) goal Extension Personnel in a Government setting, and (d) mentorship. Run Extension Agency As for negative influences, MARNDR extension personnel most administrators revealed an environmental commonly identified in-service training an hindrance of government persecution. SMS essential positive influence on career had the distinct negative influence of lack of development. The importance of in-service knowledge. Administrators and SMS had the training was seen through many of the distinct negative influence of career statements. Researchers affirmed there is a overload. All three types of positions had the great need for extension personnel to receive

9 116 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 in-service training in order to be successful recommended that MARNDR investigate in his or her career (Arnold & Place, 2010; diversifying their employee options. Burke, 2002; Kutilek, 2000). As the leading agricultural institution in Haiti, it is essential Extension Personnel in a Private Run for MARNDR to continue providing in- Extension Agency service training opportunities for all Darbouco’s administration identified employees at every level and position. Lack the intrinsic motivation of leaving a legacy of funding within the organization may lead and mentorship as two major positive the institution to under prioritizing training, influences on career development. but without continuous training the Researchers support the notion of using employees risk growing stagnant (Kutilek, mentorship programs to support 2000). development (Kutilek, 2000; Rennekamp & Educational background was another Nall, 1994; Strong & Harder, 2009). prominent positive influence that was Although mentorship was mentioned there identified by nearly all MARNDR was no indication that Darbouco employees. When probed about this intentionally invested in a mentorship question, respondents said most MARNDR program with employees. In fact, informal employees are graduates from the University mentorship was the only type of mentorship of Haiti. Although educational background mentioned. and past experiences give organizations a Because character traits and leaving competitive advantage (Arnold & Place, a legacy were also mentioned, it would be 2010), MARNDR is at great risk by not beneficial for Darbouco to invest in an have a diversified workforce (Grogan & official mentorship program within the Eshelman, 1998). Because most staff institution. This program can ensure that members are graduates from the University leaders are investing in employees and of Haiti, there leaves little room for other instilling character traits believed to be qualified people to join MARNDR. essential for the job. Furthermore, because According to Grogan and Eshelem there is a strong culture of privacy, an (1998), recruiting and retaining a diverse official mentorship program can be the best staff is a priority in an extension system. For way for leadership to increase levels of trust MARNDR to best position employees for within the organization. Perhaps in the success, it is recommended that leadership future with a mentorship program, consider ways of diversifying the workforce. Darbouco’s administrative leadership can Homogeneity in educational background feel comfortable enough to have researchers may lead extension employees in MARNDR interview more employees. having the same strengths but also the same weaknesses as their fellow employees. Extension Personnel in a Grassroots Difficulty will arise when there is a need for Extension Agency diverse thinking (Grogan & Eshelman, Intrinsic motivation was identified as 1998). Fortunately, Haiti has many strong a prominent positive influences on career agricultural higher education institutions development for MPP employees. within the country. MARNDR benefits from Researchers support the notion of using being in the same city as four of the six intrinsic motivation to help increase leading agricultural schools, which means employee satisfaction and retention many qualified entry-level extension agents (Herzberg et al. 1959; Strong & Harder, are miles from their headquarters. It is 2009). MPP in particular, had almost every

2 117 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 employee indicate that clientele satisfaction of positions. In order for extension agencies positively influenced their career to have an effective organization it is development. In order to ensure that important for leaders within these employees are continuously receiving organizations to identify the both positive feedback on clientele satisfaction, MPP and negative factors that impact employees should invest in ensuring that the career development. Identifying positive and organization has a robust evaluation system negative influences is important because that enables employees to receive direct these factors could ultimately lead to success feedback from clientele. or failure within employee’s career Creating an evaluation system for progression. (Herzberg et al. 1959; Strong & clientele would allow employees to see their Harder, 2009). positive impact, but it would also show the In Haiti’s case, extension agencies organization areas that are in need of could use inexpensive positive influences to improvements. A second highly mentioned help mitigate the effects of the negative positive influence was goal setting. By influences on career development. For identifying areas of improvement through example, intrinsic motivation can be used as evaluations, leadership would be able to set a tool to help extension personnel overcome goals for the entire organization so that the interpersonal issues. Organizations could overall effectiveness of individuals and the cultivate a common culture of patriotism to organization can improve. A robust unite co-workers. Likewise, mentorship evaluation system could bring great benefits could be a resource that helps employees to MPP. An evaluation systems have a overcome career overload. Identifying possibility of increasing the overall positive and negative influences could have effectiveness of this grassroots extension a profound positive impact on the career agency. development of extension workers in Haiti. Lack of resources was the only negative influence identified by every MPP References employee. MPP is recommended to aim to Abbot, R., Kingsbury, D., Weiss, K., Matt, build partnerships with other extension L., Yaptenco, C., Lennon, B., agencies (World Bank, 2012). Specifically, Whitlock, R., & Williams, E. M. MPP should investigate ways that the (1995). Haiti agribusiness organization could partner with other assessment. Bethesda, MD: Abt grassroots or nonprofit agencies around Associates. Retrieved from: Haiti to maximize their efforts. MPP should http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNAB also investigate ways that the organization X246.pdf could partner with MARNDR in order to Anderson, J. R., & Feder, G. (2004). reach more areas in Haiti. Although there is Agricultural extension: Good a culture of distrust, a collaboration between intentions and hard realities. The grassroots and public can prove to be World Bank Research Observer, beneficial for all parties involved (World 19(1), 41-60. Bank, 2012). Arias, D., Leguía, J. J., & Sy, A. (2013). Determinants of agricultural Implications extension services: The case of Haiti. Many factors positively and Retrieved from: negatively impact the career development of http://documents.worldbank.org/cura Haiti’s extension personnel across all types ted/en/2013/05/18170053/determina

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nts-agricultural-extension-services- professional careers: A new look at case-haiti performance by professionals. Arnold, S., & Place, N. (2010). What Organizational Dynamics, 6(1), 19- influences agents to pursue a career 42. in Extension? Journal of Extension, Darbouco S.A. (n.d.). Main website. 48(1) Article 1RIB1. Retrieved from: Retrieved from: http://www.joe.org/joe/2010february http://www.darboucosa.net/j25/index /rb1.php .php/en/about Ary, D., Jacobs, L. C., Sorensen, C. K., & Davis, K. (2008). Extension in sub-Saharan Walker, D. (2013). Introduction to Africa: Overview and assessment of research in education. Boston, MA: past and current models and future Cengage Learning. prospects. Journal of International Bahal, R., Swanson, B. E., & Farner, B. J. Agricultural and Extension (1992). Human resources in Education, 15(3), 15-28. doi: agricultural extension: A worldwide 10.5191/jiaee.2008.11103 analysis. Indian Journal of Extension Denzin, N. K., & Lincoln, Y. S. (2008). The Education, 28(3, 4), 1-9. landscape of qualitative research. Burke, T. B. (2002). Defining competency Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publications. and reviewing factors that may Extension Committee on Organization and impact the perceived importance, Policy. (2002). The extension system: knowledge and use of competencies A vision for the 21st century, a in the 4-H professional's job. resource document. Retrieved from (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). http://www.nasulgc.org/publications/ North Carolina State University, Agriculture/ECOP2002_Vison_Reso Raleigh. urces.pdf Conklin, N. L., Hook, L. L., Kelbaugh, B. J., Flavell, J. H. (1971). Stage-related & Nieto, R. D. (2002). Examining a properties of cognitive development. professional development system: A Cognitive Psychology, 2, 421-453. comprehensive needs assessment Food and Agriculture Organization. (n.d.). approach. Journal of Extension, Organizational structure of 40(5). Retrieved from extension service. Retrieved from: http://www.joe.org/joe/2002october/ http://www.fao.org/docrep/t8654e/t8 a1.php 654e07.htm Cooper, A. W., & Graham, D. L. (2001). Global Reform for Rural Advisory Services. Competencies needed to be (n.d.). Haiti extension providers. successful county agents and county Retrieved from: http://www.g- supervisors. Journal of Extension, fras.org/en/world-wide-extension- 39(1). Retrieved from study/central-america-and-the- http://www.joe. caribbean/caribbean/haiti.html#exten org/joe/2001february/rb3.html sion-providers Creswell, J. W. (2013). Qualitative inquiry Grogan, S., & Eshelman, B. (1998). Staffing and research design: Choosing strategies for a more diverse among five approaches (3rd ed.). workforce: Case examples in Cornell Los Angeles, CA: Sage. cooperative extension. Journal of Dalton, G. W., Thompson, P. H., & Price, R. Extension, 36(1), Article 1FEA1. L. (1977). The four stages of Retrieved from:

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https://www.joe.org/joe/1998februar Rennekamp, R. A., & Nall, M. (1993). y/a1.php Professional growth: A guide for Herzberg, F., Mausner, B., & Snyderman, B. professional development. Retrieved B. (1959). The motivation to work. from: New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons. http://www.ca.uky.edu/agpsd/stages. Jiggins, J., Samanta, R. K., & Olawoye, J. E. htm (1997). Improving women farmers' Rennekamp, R. A., & Nall, M. A. (1994). access to extension services. In B. E. Growing through the stages: A new Swanson, R. P. Bentz & A. J. look at professional growth. Journal Sofranko (Eds.). Improving of Extension, 32(1), Article 1FEA2. agricultural extension: A reference Retrieved from: manual. Rome, Italy: Food and http://www.joe.org/joe/1994june/a2. Agriculture Organization of the php United Nations. Stone, B. B., & Beiber, S. (1997). Kohlberg, L., & Kramer, R. (1969). Competencies: A new language for Continuities and discontinuities in our work. Journal of Extension, childhood and adult moral 35(1), Article comm1. Retrieved development. Human Development, from: 12, 93–120. http://www.joe.org/joe/1997february Kutilek, L. M. (2000). Learning from those /comm 1.html who leave. Journal of Extension, Stone, B., & Coppernoll, S. (2004). You, 38(3), Article 3IAW2. Retrieved Extension, and success: A from: competency-based professional http://www.joe.org/joe/2000june/iw2 development system. Journal of .php Extension, 42(2), Article 2IAW1. Lincoln, Y. S., & Guba, E. G. (1985). Retrieved from: Naturalistic inquiry. Newbury Park, http://www.joe.org/joe/2004april/iw1 CA: Sage. .php Malone, V. M. (1984). Inservice training Strong, R., & Harder, A. (2009). and staff development. Retrieved Implications of maintenance and from motivation factors on Extension http://www.fao.org/docrep/w5830e/ agent turnover. Journal of Extension, w5830e0h.htm 47(1), Article IFEA2. Retrieved Merriam, S. B. (1998). Qualitative research from: and case study applications in http://www.joe.org/joe/2009february education. San Francisco, CA: /a2.php Jossey-Bass. Suvedi, M., & Kaplowitz, M.D. (2016). Ministry of Agriculture, Natural Resources, Process skills and competency tools and Rural Development – What every Extension worker [MARNDR]. (n.d.). Homepage. should know – Core competency Retrieved from: handbook. Retrieved from: http://agriculture.gouv.ht/view/01/ http://www.meas-extension.org/ Mouvman Peyizan Papay. (n.d.). Homepage. meas-offers/training Retrieved from: Swanson, B. E., Farner, B. J., & Bahal, R. https://www.mpphaiti.org/?lang=en (1990). The current status of extension worldwide. In B. E.

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Swanson (Ed.), Report of the global TARD/Resources/Stren_combined_ consultation on agricultural web.pdf extension (pp. 43-76). Rome, Italy: Uphoff, N. (1993). Grassroots organizations Food and Agriculture Organization and NGOs in rural development: of the United Nations. Opportunities with diminishing Swanson, B. E., & Rajalahti, R. (2010). states and expanding markets. World Strengthening agricultural extension Development, 21(4), 607-622. and advisory systems: Procedures World Bank. (2012). Agricultural for assessing, transforming, and innovation systems: An investment evaluating extension systems. sourcebook. Retrieved from: Retrieved from: http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN http://siteresources.worldbank.org/IN TARD/Resources/335807- 1330620492317/9780821386842.pdf

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24209

Empowering youth and communities through 4-H School Gardening Programs: Results of focus groups in Burundi, Africa

Mary Katherine Deen Lauren Hrncirik Scanga Kevin Wright Washington State University

Charles Berahino Trauma Healing and Reconciliation Services Bujumbura, Burundi

Abstract The quality of education and training children receive today will significantly impact their development into adulthood and their impact on society (Kibwiki & Semana, 2001). Burundi, Africa is the second poorest country in the world and has a turbulent history laced with economic, political, and cultural challenges (Headrick, 2016). With more than half the population under the age of 18, educating the youth of Burundi is paramount to bringing about change in the country. The purpose of this qualitative study was to understand the needs of primary school teachers, administrators, afterschool program educators and their students; and to determine if a 4-H Youth Development school gardening program was a viable methodology to meet their needs. The desire of local partners to empower Burundian youth and the fact that empowerment is a fundamental principle of the 4-H methodology led to the selection of Empowerment Theory as the conceptual framework for this study. A needs assessment using focus groups was conducted with 34 primary school teachers, administrators, and afterschool staff in two rural communities in Burundi. Findings indicated that poverty and hunger were the primary barriers to quality education and climbing out of poverty. School educators also reported a need for professional development to better provide quality education for youth. Based on the outcomes of the focus groups, the researchers recommend that the 4-H Youth Development school gardening program is implemented in rural Burundi using Empowerment Theory as a framework to address the needs of educators and youth.

Keywords: Needs assessment; Burundi; Educators; School Gardens; 4-H Youth Development; Empowerment Theory

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Introduction change. This qualitative study was It is no secret that today’s youth are conducted to determine the needs of primary tomorrow’s leaders and change agents school aged students and their educators in (Zimmerman, Stewart, Morrel-Samuels, rural Burundi, and to determine if a 4-H Franzen, & Reischl, 2011). The quality of Youth Development (4-H) school gardening education and training children receive program would be viable within Burundian today will significantly impact their culture. development into adulthood and their impact on society (Kibwiki, & Semana, 2001). In Power of Education many developing countries, children face a Education has the power to make multitude of complex barriers like war, people more employable and thus increases trauma, and poverty, which further the likelihood of economic growth (Haken, challenge their ability to attain the education Imbriano, Ben Nun, & Tobias, 2011). Since and skills needed for a prosperous future. the end of the civil war, Burundi has made Burundi, Africa is the second poorest significant strides in youth development by country in the world (Headrick, 2016), and initiating a public education system. half of the nation’s population are children “According to the UN Children’s Fund 18 years and younger. Similar to other (UNICEF), the proportion of children in developing countries, Burundi has a school increased from 59% in 2005 to 96% turbulent history laced with many economic, in 2011” (Sambira, 2012, p. 1). Although political, and cultural challenges. From more students now have access to education 1897-1962, Burundi was a colony under in Burundi, schools still struggle with German and then Belgian rule (Bamber, keeping youth enrolled. Some schools lose 2001). Since Burundi gained its half the students before they even finish independence from Belgium in 1962, the primary school (grades 1 - 6). Reasons for nation has been in a perpetual cycle of poor retention include inadequate sanitation conflict, which erupted in 1993 as a civil facilities for girls, early marriage, war between the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic pregnancy, grade repetition, and job groups. The civil war lasted 12 years, killed opportunities (Sambira, 2012). 250,000-300,000 people (Amnesty Rural communities tend to face International, 2004), and displaced 1.3 additional challenges in ensuring children million (Haken, Imbriano, Ben Nun, & have access to quality and relevant Tobias, 2011). education (Bennell, 2007). In Burundi, 88% Today Burundi is still recovering of the population lives in rural areas, and the from immeasurable destruction, with 81% of livelihood of the majority of Burundians is the population living below the international dependent upon agriculture, specifically poverty line of U.S. $1.25 per day subsistence farming of coffee, cotton, tea, (UNICEF, 2013) and 58% of people corn, sorghum, sweet potatoes, bananas, and suffering from chronic malnutrition (World cassava (Central Intelligence Agency, 2015). Food Programme, n.d.). There is a new Youth in rural communities are often more generation of rising young leaders and poorly educated than urban youth (Bennell, Burundi is at a turning point. The history of 2007) and “oftentimes the education rural violence can continue to repeat itself or youth receive does not prepare them with today’s youth can pave the way for a the livelihood skills necessary for their rural brighter future. Educating the youth of lifestyle” (Kibwika, & Semana, 2001, p. 1). Burundi is paramount to bringing about

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Local Partnerships (USDA/USAID) piloted the Cultivating Motivated by the need to assist Learning with School Gardens (CLSG; Burundians to recover emotionally from the Crave et al., 2009) program in the civil war, a group of Burundian mental Democratic Republic of Congo, Rwanda, health professionals created a non- and Mozambique (2005-2013). The program governmental organization (NGO), Trauma provides training for teachers on how to use Healing and Reconciliation Services, in school gardens as a hands-on method for 2000 to provide resources for trauma healing students to apply academic concepts (USDA and reconciliation in Burundi and the & USAID, 2013). African Great Lakes Region. One of the Youth empowerment is a core organization's original delivery modes was principle of the 4-H model, providing youth offering afterschool programs in nine rural the opportunities and resources to grow and primary schools. The NGO further expanded learn in partnership with caring adults its scope and purpose to include economic (Weybright et al., 2016; Borden, Perkins & development through agricultural endeavors Hawkey, 2014). The desire of local partners and youth empowerment. Upon learning to empower Burundian youth and the fact about 4-H’s history in agriculture and youth that empowerment is a fundamental empowerment, the NGO partners became principle of the 4-H methodology led to the interested in the 4-H program, specifically in selection of Empowerment Theory as the integrating 4-H into the school system and conceptual framework for this study. existing afterschool programs. Conceptual Framework 4-H Youth Development Methodology Many disciplines including For the past 100 years in the United community development, psychology, States, the 4-H program has opened doors education, and economics use the term for young people to learn the skills needed “empowerment” (Page & Czuba, 1999). It to be a proactive force in their communities. has been central in developing positive The largest youth development program in youth development curriculum the U.S., 4-H began as a solution to help (Zimmerman, Stewart, Morrel-Samuels, address agricultural challenges in rural Franzen, & Reischl, 2011), planning and America (National 4-H Council, n.d.-a). implementing programs in international Research shows that 4-H youth do better in development organizations (Hennink, Kiiti, school, make healthier lifestyle choices and Pillinger, & Jayakaran, 2012), and as an are more engaged in their communities evaluation methodology (Fedderman, 2015). (Lerner, 2013). Over the years, the success Although there does not seem to be a of 4-H has inspired programs to develop universal definition for “empowerment” around the world. In Africa, 4-H is present (Hennink et al., 2012), researchers and in 15 countries including Burundi’s practitioners agree on the components neighbors Tanzania, Kenya, and Uganda, necessary to describe the construct. The and is “helping prepare Africa’s young components are multi-dimensional (have people to meet urgent regional needs, many levels and domains), social (are done including hunger, sustainable livelihoods with others), and include both processes and and food security” (National 4-H Council, outcomes, resulting in people having more n.d.-b, p.1). For example, the United States control over their lives (Hennink et al., Department of Agriculture/United States 2012; Page & Czuba, 1999; Peterson, Lowe, Agency for International Development Aquilino, & Schneider, 2005; Zimmerman,

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2000). Perkins and Zimmerman (1995) implementation, and evaluation. Success is suggest that using empowerment “compels dependent on a professionals understanding us to think in terms of wellness versus of the cultural context of the community, illness, competence versus deficits, and empowering all participants to have greater strength versus weaknesses” (p. 569). control of their lives (Perkins & An empowerment philosophy helps Zimmerman, 1995; Peterson, Lowe, to shape the role of the professional when Aquilino, & Schneider, 2005; Zimmerman, working with communities and emphasizes 2000). the importance of cultural context. As shown in Table 1, Zimmerman Professionals adopting an empowerment (2000) offers a framework for applying philosophy become partners with the Empowerment Theory that describes the participants, bringing knowledge and other characteristics of empowering processes and resources but not forcing them on the empowered outcomes across three different community, trusting the local community levels of analysis (individual, organizational members to guide the use of resources in the and community). The processes listed most culturally appropriate way. Through (activities, actions, or structures) enable this lens, professionals are collaborators, not empowerment to occur at each level and experts, at all levels of the program: needs result in empowered outcomes. assessments, program planning,

Table 1 A Comparison of Empowering Processes and Empowered Outcomes Across Levels of Analysis Levels of Process (“empowering”) Outcome (“empowered”) analysis

Individual Learning Decision-making skills Sense of control Managing resources Critical awareness Working with others Participatory behaviors

Organizational Opportunities to participate in Effectively compete for decision-making resources Shared responsibilities Networking with other Shared leadership organizations Policy influence

Community Access to resources Organization coalitions Open government structure Pluralistic leadership Tolerance for diversity Residents’ participatory skills Note. From The Handbook of Community Psychology, p. 47, by M. Zimmerman, 2000, New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

Zimmerman articulates that there is a empowered, and suggests that a “process is distinction between empowering and empowering if it helps people develop skills

125 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 so they can become independent problem- Gitega Province in Burundi. Specific solvers and decision makers” (2000, p. 46). objectives were to gain information on: How Thus, empowered outcomes are a result of do public school teachers, school empowering processes at the individual, administrators, and NGO educators in rural organizational and community level. All Burundi: levels of analysis are connected and are “both a cause and consequences of each 1. Describe the needs of primary other” (Zimmerman, 2000, p. 46). It is students and challenges of important to note that empowerment teaching/working with this processes and outcomes look different population? across various situations. The activities or actions needed in one context to produce 2. View or perceive the cultural empowered communities may not be the appropriateness and feasibility of same actions needed in another community, implementing a 4-H school once again highlighting the importance for gardening program in public the professional to have adequate cultural schools? knowledge for each situation and to work in close collaboration with local experts. Methods Hennink et al. (2011) expanded upon Partnering with a local Burundian Zimmerman’s (2000) three levels of analysis NGO, researchers developed a qualitative (individual, organizational and community), study design using focus groups to address and includes domains (content areas where this study’s research questions. To ensure empowerment occurs) and mechanisms trustworthiness various strategies were needed for empowerment to occur at each employed throughout the study. Credibility level within each domain. or internal validity was established by using Despite the cultural and historical well-established research methods, differences between Burundi and the United developing familiarity with the local culture, States, the researchers and Burundian using strategies to encourage participant partners hypothesized that a 4-H school honesty, conducting frequent debriefing gardening program might be applicable sessions with organizational leadership, and within the rural Burundian culture to address triangulating the data analysis. Reliability agricultural challenges while teaching youth techniques included peer examination and life skills; thus providing opportunities for investigator triangulation (Amankwaa, 2016; empowerment at the individual, Merriam & Tisdel, 2016; Shenton, 2004). organizational, and community levels. A Thick description was utilized in reporting needs assessment guided by Empowerment about the participants, data collection, and Theory was designed. the findings to ensure external validity (i.e. transferability; Merriam & Tisdel, 2016). Purpose and Objectives The study design, guided by the The purpose of this qualitative study principles of Empowerment Theory and was to determine the needs of public Evaluation, was created to assure that the primary school teachers, their students, community members as well as the NGO school administrators, and NGO afterschool staff, were included in the decision-making program educators, and to determine if a processes. The researchers relied on local U.S. 4-H school gardening program was a community knowledge to foster capacity viable methodology in the rural area of the building, organizational learning,

126 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 community ownership, and accountability Malek, 2002; Mwaijande, Miller, Wailes, & (Fetterman, 2015). Involvement of the Petersen, 2009; Shenton, 2004). community members in all phases of the research: planning, implementation, and data Participants analysis inform the research team of cultural The participants were chosen from values, practices, and sensitivities nine primary schools within one rural region (Halcomb, Gholizadeh, DiGiacomo, of Burundi where the NGO was Phillips, & Davidson, 2007). The lead implementing programs. Participants researcher spent time in Burundi and included primary school teachers, school interacted with the NGO staff for two years administrators, NGO administrators and before this study, which assured the afterschool staff. At the time of the study, researchers' familiarity with the culture, a primary schools in Burundi included vital credibility method (Shenton, 2004). students in grades 1 – 6. Sites were selected, Focus groups engage a small, similar and participants were recruited using the group of people in a group interview to Reputational Case method of site and acquire a better understanding of a problem participant selection. This type of selection (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010). The study uses “the recommendation of knowledgeable used focus group design for a variety of experts for the best examples” of a topic or reasons. First, the Burundian culture is an situation (McMillan & Schumacher, 2011 p. oral culture where ideas, opinions, concepts, 326). Since the NGO had worked with the and traditions are shared verbally (Embassy nine schools for many years providing of the Republic of Burundi to Germany, afterschool programs and counseling, there n.d.). Using focus groups demonstrated was a trusted relationship between the NGO respect for the local culture by using staff and the school personnel. effective engagement strategies such as The NGO asked the school “listening as much as we talk” (King & administrator from each of the nine primary Boehlje, 2013). schools to participate and to identify two Secondly, due to Burundi’s long teachers from their school to also participate history of colonialism, dominance by and in the focus groups. The afterschool dependence on outside groups (Haken, program staff of all nine schools also Imbriano, Nun, & Tobias, 2011), focus participated. The focus groups were groups allowed the participants an conducted in three locations: 1) in opportunity to be actively involved in Bujumbura four members of the NGO defining the problem, determining the needs, administrative staff participated (two female and shaping their future. Thirdly, focus and two male), 2) in Gitega five primary groups help to create “a social environment school teachers, five school administrators, in which group members are stimulated by and eight NGO afterschool staff participated one another’s perceptions and ideas” (eleven female and seven male), and 3) in (McMillan & Schumacher, 2010, p. 363), Bugendana seven teachers, three school thus enhancing the value and breadth of the administrators, and three NGO afterschool data. For these reasons focus groups have staff participated (six female and seven been shown to be a successful methodology male). The total number of participants was to employ in intercultural settings and in 34 with the average age being 35 years of supporting credibility (Halcomb, age. Gholizadeh, DiGiacomo, Phillips, & At the time of this study, the teachers Davidson, 2007; Jones & Shen, 2005; had completed the educational requirement

127 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 for rural primary school teachers (e.g. official languages in Burundi). Each focus completion of secondary (high) school with group lasted two hours. an emphasis in education during the last two This study's research questions years). The school administrators completed guided the development of the focus group the same level of education as the teachers questions. Two experts, an Extension and were nominated by district Evaluation Specialist with international administration to serve in the position due to experience and the director of the Burundian their high performance. The NGO staff had NGO, reviewed the questions for validity four-year degrees from a Burundian and reliability. The questions were revised university or graduate degrees from Europe based on the suggestions of the experts. or the U.S. All participants worked with Since neither researcher was fluent in primary aged youth and considered Burundi’s official languages (French and themselves educators. This commonality Kirundi), the NGO’s program director, a allowed the educators to discuss the topic native Burundian with a long trusted more deeply and provide rich feedback, an relationship in the community, served as the essential component of focus group focus group interpreter and facilitator membership (McMillan & Schumacher, (hereinafter referred to as the facilitator). 2011). Trusting the facilitator is essential for participants to feel safe to share their Data Collection thoughts and opinions (Halcomb, Focus groups were conducted in Gholizadeh, DiGiacomo, Phillips, & three locations: the NGO’s primary office in Davidson, 2007). Bujumbura, the capital of Burundi; the NGO The facilitator used a semi-structured education center in Gitega, 62 miles (100 protocol where he asked the focus group kilometers) north of Bujumbura; and at the questions and then followed with probes for NGO branch office in Bugendana, a small further clarification (Mwaijande, Miller, rural community 17 miles (27 kilometers) Wailes, & Peterson, 2009). Participants were north of Gitega. The locations were selected informed of the focus group procedures and because they were centrally located, easily were free not answer questions or withdraw accessible, and familiar to all participants, at any time without consequences to their while also available at no cost. Since the future participation in the program, adding participants were not familiar with 4-H, the to the study’s credibility and ethics researchers provided an overview of the (Merriam & Tisdel, 2016; Shenton, 2004). U.S. 4-H program model before each focus Each participant was reimbursed for round- group. The overview included the history of trip transportation costs to the focus group 4-H in the U.S., the organization’s mission, site and was provided light refreshments vision, the 4-H pledge, experiential learning, during the focus group. 4-H structure (clubs and projects), life skills, After each question was asked, the livelihood skills, essential elements of facilitator translated the participants' quality programming, and the history of 4-H answers for the researchers and they took in Africa. Also included was an experiential notes. Researchers also observed and took activity and overview of the school notes on body language and the gardening curriculum, Cultivating Learning characteristics of each site location. Three with School Gardens (Crave et al., 2009), strategies were engaged to assure validity of which is available in French (one of the the data: multiple researchers came to agreement on observations, participants

128 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 were asked to confirm the translations dreams of the students. The second theme (member checking), and after all three focus relates to the need for more professional groups had finished, several NGO staff development opportunities for educators to members met with the researchers to assist them in their role. determine accuracy of the data (McMillan & Schumacher, 2011). The university- Theme 1: Hunger and Quality Education affiliated research office found the project Participants reported that poverty exempt from full IRB review. was the greatest challenge they faced in working with youth. Students arrive at Data Analysis school hungry, do not receive any Immediately after each session the nourishment while at school and cannot researchers and facilitator met to discuss the afford to bring food from home. Schools translations and to clarify any also lack reliable access to potable water. misunderstandings or questions. Researchers Additionally, students do not have sufficient determined coding categories based on the books or school supplies. When asked, interview questions (template analysis style) "What would make the most impact in the and then independently coded the responses lives of the students?" participants agreed for each category (McMillan & Schumacher, that quality education was the most 2011). To ensure consistency, researchers important. However, for that to happen met periodically to compare results and students needed "basics like food, clothing, discuss differences. Once the researchers and shelter as well as well-trained teachers." concluded their coding, they met with the The participants described quality education facilitator to triangulate the analysis in two ways. (Merriam & Tisdel, 2016). Then the First, they expressed the need for researchers shared the findings with the school resources, such as chairs for each NGO organizational leadership, discussing, student; teaching materials like textbooks, debriefing, and confirming the results, chalk, paper, and pencils; and uniforms for which added to the reliability of the study school teams and dancing groups. (Merriam & Tisdel, 2016). As a final step, Secondly, participants described the an outside expert reviewed all aspects of the need for youth to learn livelihood skills, data collection and analysis to confirm the knowledge of technology, agriculture, and reliability of the processes (Merriam & life skills (i.e. goal setting, cooperation, and Tisdel, 2016). conflict resolution). Participants also reported that students have little or no time Findings for out of school activities (e.g. homework or reading) because they are helping with Needs of Students and Educators chores at home. Chores described included Results are organized based on the "fetching" water before and after school, two research questions. Two themes caring for animals, helping with farming and emerged in response to the first research cooking for the family. question, “How do public school teachers, If youth have any spare time, the school administrators and NGO educators in boys enjoy playing soccer (futbal) and rural Burundi describe the needs of primary running, and the girls practice traditional students and the challenges of dances. All youth enjoy listening to music. teaching/working with this population?” The Participants also shared that the youth they first theme relates to the needs, hopes, and work with wish to have more resources than

129 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 they currently have (e.g. getting out of knowledge to pass on to their students poverty). beyond what they had learned from their The youth also dream of becoming own home gardening experiences. "important people" such as doctors, Participants reported a strong interest in the ministers or priests, well-known athletes, 4-H curriculum, Cultivating Learning with nurses, engineers, journalists, teachers, School Gardens (Crave et al., 2009). They political figures or teachers. The educators were most interested in applying the hands- also shared their hopes for the students. The on activities in the classroom and in the participants wanted their youth to stay in afterschool program to teach specific skills school and work to empower themselves while producing food. through education, moving towards a better future. One afterschool staff member Implementing 4-H in Burundi specifically voiced his wishes that "more The second research question was girls would stay in school past the 6th grade "How do public school teachers, school and would wait to marry and have children administrators, and NGO educators in rural at a later age". Burundi view or perceive the cultural Participants felt that what the appropriateness and feasibility of students like most in school are hands-on implementing a 4-H school gardening activities that allow for creativity and a program in public schools?” The sense of empowerment such as singing, participants' responses centered on two dancing, games, drawing, and sports. The themes: the 4-H pledge and the experiential students also enjoy learning languages such learning model as manifested through the as English and Swahili. This desire from the school gardening curriculum. students to learn experientially led to the second theme. Theme 1: The 4-H Pledge During the focus groups, participants Theme 2: Professional Development asked for the 4-H Pledge (i.e., I pledge my Opportunities head to clearer thinking, my heart to greater The teachers voiced a strong desire loyalty, my hands to larger service, and my to have more professional development than health to better living, for my club, my what they receive. The school systems offer community, my country and my world) to be professional development for teachers translated into Kirundi. After translating the during school breaks, however, due to a lack 4-H pledge into Kirundi, the participants of funding the teachers felt it was not spent approximately 20 minutes practicing enough to help them with the challenging and memorizing the pledge so that they situations they face in the classroom. All could teach it to their students the next day. participants reported a strong interest in They shared that learning the 4-H pledge learning more about classroom management, would be a joy for the students and help the ages and stages of youth development, students remember how working in the positive youth development, and gaining gardens could connect to the 4-H philosophy knowledge and skills in technology and as described through the pledge. Also, horticulture to implement school gardens. participants unanimously agreed that the 4- Although agriculture is one of the H pledge aligned with the Burundian subjects taught in school, there is no cultural values of caring for one's neighbors professional development for teachers on and having a strong sense of responsibility. this topic. Participants wanted to have more

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Theme 2: Experiential Learning Model approach helped the researchers to focus “as The participants felt the Experiential much attention on how goals were achieved Learning Model (i.e., Do, Reflect and as on outcomes” (Zimmerman, 2000, p. 45). Apply) was a valuable method to teach It also provided the tools needed to begin the students the concepts of personal goal empowerment process from the initial setting and self-empowerment. One conversations with partners to conducting participant specifically described his desire the study and designing recommendations for youth to view their world through the for future steps. lens of what they could do for themselves, their families, and communities without Needs of Students and Educators waiting for assistance or aid from the The focus groups revealed that government. He stated, "I want our youth to poverty and hunger are the main needs of be empowered, not wait for others to do for Burundian primary school youth. These them." Others felt using experiential findings confirm statistics showing that learning methodology could be a way to Burundi is the second poorest country in the cultivate creativity in their students, help world (Headrick, 2016) and that 81% of the them gain livelihood skills for obtaining population lives below the international employment, and to grow to their fullest poverty line of U.S. $1.25 per day potential. Participants viewed the school (UNICEF, 2013). Hunger causes gardening curriculum as a tool to help with impediments to student learning such as experiential learning while learning difficulty paying attention, moderated desirable life skills (e.g. teamwork, cognitive functioning, and lower communications, and decision-making) and performance levels on tests (Taras, 2005). to produce food by teaching horticulture Implementing the Cultivating skills to the students, their families, and the Learning with School Gardens (Crave et al., community. 2009) program has the potential to alleviate some hunger during school time while Discussion and Recommendations helping students learn gardening skills that The purpose of this study was to they will then share with their families at ascertain the needs of primary school aged home. The CLSG report from Rwanda, students and their educators in rural Burundi Congo, and Mozambique revealed that "A and to determine if a 4-H school gardening surprising number of students have gardens program would be applicable in the public at home that utilize the skills they are school and afterschool setting. Based on the learning in the SGP (School Gardening findings from this study, the 4-H school Program). The skills students talked about gardening program has the potential for demonstrating to their parents included: Burundian students to learn livelihood skills making furrows, planting, watering, weed to obtain jobs in agriculture, feed themselves control, plant spacing, nursery construction, and their families, and learn valuable life composting, and introducing new crops” skills of teamwork, communications, (Coolman, Badini, & Taugher, 2010, p.14). decision-making, and problem-solving. Focus group participants felt that the To achieve these outcomes, it was most effective pathway out of poverty and important the researchers verified that the 4- hunger was through quality education. The H school gardening program would be a CLSG program provides the opportunity for cultural fit in Burundi. Conducting this students to learn science experientially while study through the lens of an empowerment gaining lifelong skills to share with families

131 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 and communities. CLSG may also aid goals for program participants, both youth, students in seeing the relevance of science in and adults (Borden, Perkins & Hawkey, their daily lives and lead to more science 2014). “I pledge my head to clearer related occupations (Glenn & Wingenbach, thinking” indicates learning how to analyze 2015). situations for developing sound decision- A program similar to CLSG, the making and problem-solving skills. These Junior Master Gardener (JMG) program, has are greatly needed skills in a country where shown that when implemented illiteracy can allow citizens to be misled by internationally the program has the potential political corruption (Ntahobari & Ndayiziga, "to improve science education and empower 2003). Also, decision-making and problem- youth. JMG programs equip youth with solving skills lead to individual improved scientific knowledge that may empowerment (Zimmerman, 2000). help them to transform their lives and the The second and third goals of the lives of those around them” (Glenn & pledge (I pledge my heart to greater loyalty Wingenbach, 2015, p. 71). Furthermore, and my hands to larger service) support research shows “that STEM [science, Burundian values of tolerance, caring for technology, engineering, and math] others, personal and community education is closely related to a country’s responsibilty, and being reliable (Haken, development” (Glenn & Wingenbach, 2015, Imbriano, Nun & Tobias, 2011). The final p. 70) and can help a country build a strong goal of the pledge, "I pledge my health to base for future growth (Osborne, Simon, & better living," focuses on the need for Collins, 2003). physical and mental health. Focus group Educators participating in the focus results highlight the need for more food for groups felt they needed more professional better health, which will enhance learning development in two key areas: 1) positive and provide a path out of poverty. The youth development and 4-H methodology alignment of the 4-H pledge with Burundian including experiential learning, and 2) cultural values and needs is critical. A agricultural science and horticulture. The program embedded in the culture of the CLSG final report supports the need for community leads to empowerment training educators in experiential learning (Zimmerman, 2000; Peterson, Lowe & methodology. "Experiential learning is new Aquilino, 2005). to all the teachers we interviewed. Asking Results also indicated that the teachers to embrace such a new teaching experiential learning methodology method requires a long-term plan of training implemented through the school gardening and skills development” (Coolman, Badini, program was highly valued. Burundi public & Taugher, 2010, p.42). schools are currently implementing a new system where students take the lead in their Cultural Appropriateness of 4-H School learning, and the teachers act as facilitators Gardening Program (Sambira, 2012). The school gardening Findings from the focus groups curriculum provides teachers and afterschool indicated that implementing a 4-H school staff the tools to implement this pedagogy gardening program is viable, desired by while also providing greatly needed science teachers, administrators, and afterschool lesson plans. The program supports 4-H's staff, and that the 4-H philosophy as history as an organization capable of outlined in the 4-H pledge is a cultural fit. teaching agricultural science through The 4-H pledge focuses on four learning positive youth development, increasing

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participants capacity to improve the rural culture and the profound impact of economy (Major & Miller, 2012). colonization on Burundi’s culture will With the above discussion in mind, positive societal reconstruction, and we have four recommendations. First, the 4- economic development become possible" H program is introduced into the school (Haken, Imbriano, Nun, & Tobias, 2011, p. system and afterschool programs through 35). the implementation of Cultivating Learning The majority of the citizens in with School Gardens (Crave et al., 2009). developing countries like Burundi rely on By implementing a science-based agriculture for their livelihood (Bennell, experiential program that teaches livelihood 2007). Thus it is vital that today’s students and life skills, the potential is ripe for develop their interest and skills in gardening applying empowering processes at both the and horticulture while also developing individual and organizational levels (as valuable life skills that will empower them outlined in Table 1). The 4-H program using to improve their economic status and CLSG has the potential to make lasting increase their civic engagement. The results change in the community. Secondly, we of this initial needs assessment indicate that recommend that educators receive despite the economic and cultural professional development which includes differences between the U.S. and Burundi, the 4-H philosophy and methodology, the 4-H school gardening program is a experiential learning, CLSG curriculum, viable option to assist rural Burundian positive youth development, evaluation, students to achieve a brighter future. additional horticulture topics, and conflict resolution. Thirdly, we recommend that References empowering processes such as decision- Amankwaa, L. (2016). Creating protocols making and shared leadership are integrated for trustworthiness in qualitative into all aspects of the school gardening research. Journal of Cultural program: development of the budget, Diversity, 23(3), 121-127. creation of action and staffing plans, and Amnesty International (2004). Burundi: A implementation of the program. The critical time; human rights briefing integration of empowering processes will on Burundi. London: Amnesty provide opportunities for local partners to International. Retrieved from move towards empowered outcomes (see https://www.amnesty.org/en/docume Table 1) and lead to program sustainability. nts/afr16/002/2004/en/ Providing only knowledge or skills training Bennell, P. (2007). Promoting livelihoo to community groups is often not sufficient opportunities for rural youth. for long-term outcomes or lasting Knowledge and Skills for empowerment (Hennink et al., 2012). Development. Retrieved from Lastly, the cultural context and the role of http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/ all professionals as collaborators must be ownload?doi=10.1.1.360.2874&rep foremost in the minds and actions of U.S. rep1&type=pdf partners at all levels of the program. Borden, L., Perkins, D., & Hawkey, K. “Acknowledging the role of culture while (2014). 4-H youth development: the implementing projects in Burundi is crucial past, the present, and the future. to achieving sustainability in this war-prone Journal of Extension, 52(4). country. We argue that only while taking Retrieved from into account both traditional Burundian http://www.joe.org/joe/2014august/

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omm1.php Haken, J., Imbriano, J., Nun A. B., & Tobias, Central Intelligence Agency. (2015). D. (2011). The Complexities of Burundi. In the world factbook. Culture and Reconciliation in Retrieved from Burundi. Journal of International https://www.cia.gov/library/publicati Service, Spring 2011, 35-50. ons/resources/the-world- Halcomb, E., Gholizadeh, L., DiGiacomo, factbook/geos/by.html M., Phillips, J., & Davidson, P. Coolman, R., Badini, O., & Taugher, C. (2007). Literature review: (2010). Republic of Congo/Rwanda considerations in undertaking focus School Garden Programs group research with culturally and Evaluation Final Report. linguistically diverse groups. Journal Washington State University, of Clinical Nursing, 1000-1011. doi: Pullman, WA. 10.1111/j.1365-2702.2006.01760.x Crave, M., Syverud, T., Connelly, J., Danz- Headrick, P. K. (2016). Top 10 poorest Hale, D., Doyle, M., Frigm, countries in the world. The G.,…Maurer, J. (2009). Cultivating Countries: Information about Learning with School Gardens (4th All Countries. Retrieved from ed.). Washington D.C.: United States http://www.thecountriesof.com/the- Department of Agriculture. poorest-countries-in-the-world/. Retrieved September 26, 2016 from Hennink, M., Kiiti, N., Pillinger, M., & https://agricorps.org/school-garden Jayakaran, R. (2012). Defining curriculum/ empowerment: Embassy of the Republic of Burundi to perspectives from international Germany. (n.d.). The Republic of development organisations. Burundi Cultural Heritage: Dance, Development in Practice, 22(2), 202- Music, Arts, & Literature. Retrieved 215. doi: from http://www.burundiembassy- 10.1080/09614524.2012.640987 germany.de/index.php?en_dance- Jones, B. L., & Shen, D. (2005). It takes a music-arts-literature village: professional practical skills Fetterman, D. M., Kaftarian, S. J., & education for rural Wandersman, A. (Eds.) (2015), China. Proceedings of the Empowerment Evaluation: Association for International Knowledge and Tools for Self- Agricultural and Extension Assessment, Evaluation Capacity Education 21st Annual Conference: Building, and Accountability. Second Educational, Extension, and Edition. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Research Strategies for a Changing Glenn, A., & Wingenbach, G. (2015). World, San Antonio, Texas. Effects of the Junior Master Retrieved from Gardener’s (JMG) https://www.aiaee.org/index.php/pro Curriculum on Guatemalan Students’ ceedings/119-2005-san-antonio-texas Knowledge Gain and Attitude Kibwika, P., & Semana, A. R. (2001). The toward Science. Journal of Challenge of Supporting Rural International Agricultural and Youth for Sustainable Agricultural Extension Education, 21(2). Development and Rural Livelihood: http://doi.org/10.5191/jiaee.2015.222 A Case of Uganda. Proceedings of 05 the Association for International

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Agricultural and Extension Bass. Education 17th Annual Conference:\ Mwaijande, F., Miller, J. D., Wailes, E., & Emerging Trends in Agricultural and Peterson, L. (2009). The value of Extension Education, Baton Rouge, focus group discussions for Louisiana. Retrieved from understanding barriers to agriculture- https://aiaee.org/index.php/proceedi tourism linkages in developing gs/127-2001-baton-rouge-louisiana regions. Journal of International King, D., & Boehlje, M. (2013). A return to Agricultural and Extension the basics: The solution for Education, 16(3), 59-63. doi: eXtension. Journal of 10.5191/jiaee.2009.16306 Extension, 51(5), Article 5COM2. National 4-H Council. (n.d.-a). 4-H history. Retrieved from Retrieved from http://www.4- https://joe.org/joe/2013october/pdf/J h.org/about/4-h-history/ OE_v51_5comm2.pdf National 4-H Council. (n.d.-b). 4-H Lerner, R. M., Lerner, J. V., & Colleagues. partnerships in Africa progress (2013). The positive development of report. Retrieved from youth: Comprehensive findings from http://www.4-h.org/about/global- the 4-H study of positive youth network/ development. Medford, MA: Tufts Ntahobari, J., & Ndayiziga, B. (2003). The University Institute for Applied role of Burundian women in the Research in Youth Development. peaceful settlement of conflicts. In Retrieved from http://4- UNESCO, Women and Peace in h.org/about/research/ Africa (pp.11-26). Paris: United Major, J. & Miller, R., (2012). Global 4-H Nations Educational, Scientific and network: Laying the groundwork for Cultural Organization. global extension opportunities. Osborne, J., Simon, S., & Collins, S. (2003). Journal of Extension 50(6), Article Attitudes towards science: a review 6FEA3. Retrieved from of the literature and its implications. https://joe.org/joe/2012december/a3 International Journal of Science php Education, 25(9), 1049-1079. Malek, F. (2002). Using the focus group doi:10.1080/0950069032000032199 process to assess the needs of a Page, N., & Czuba, C. E. (1999). growing Latino Empowerment: What is it? Journal population. Journal of Extension, of Extension, 37(5), 5COM1. 40(1), Article 1TOT2. Retrieved Retrived from from https://www.joe.org/joe/1999octobe https://www.joe.org/joe/2002februar /comm1.php y/tt2.php Perkins, D. D., & Zimmerman, M. A. McMillan, J. H., & Schumacher, S. (2010). (1995). Empowerment theory, Research in Education: Evidence- research and application. Based Inquiry. American Journal of Community (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Pearson. Psychology, 23(5), 569-579. Merriam, S. B., & Tisdel E. J. (2016). Peterson, N. A., Lowe, J. B., Aquilino M. Qualitative Research: A Guide to L., & Schneider, J. E. (2005). Design and Implementation. Fourth Linking social cohesion Edition. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- and gender to intrapersonal and

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interactional empowerment: Support Retrieved from and new implications for theory. http://www.jhseonline.com/current- Journal of Community Psychology, issue 33(2), 233-244. World Food Programme. (n.d). Burundi. doi:10.1002/jcop.20047 Retrieved from Sambira, J. (2012, October 2). Burundi’s http://www1.wfp.org/countries/buru push for universal education. Africa di Renewal Online. Zimmerman, M. (2000). Empowerment Retrieved from Theory. In J. Rappaport & E. http://www.un.org/africarenewal/we Seidman (Eds.), The b-features/burundi%E2%80%99s- (43-63). New York: Kluwer push-universal-education Academic/Plenum. Shenton, A. K. (2004). Strategies for Zimmerman, M. A., Stewart, S. E., Morrel ensuring trustworthiness in Samuels, S., Franzen, S., & Reischl, qualitative research projects. T. M. (2011). Youth Empowerment Education for Information, 22, 63 Solutions for Peaceful Communities: 75. doi: 10.3233/EFI-2004-22201 combining theory and practice in a Taras, H. (2005). Nutrition and student community-level violence prevention performance at school. Journal of curriculum. Health Promotion School Health, 75(6), Practice, 12(3), 425–439. 199–213. doi:10.1111/j.1746 http://doi.org/10.1177/1524839909 1561.2005.00025.x 57316 United Nations International Children’s Emergency Fund (UNICEF). (2013). Burundi Statistics. Retrieved from https://www.unicef.org/infobycount y/burundi_statistics.html United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), & United States Agency for International Development (USAID). (2013). Cultivating learning with school gardens 2005-2013 project implementation summary. Washington, D.C. Weybright, E., Hrncirik, L., White, A., Cummins, M., Deen, M. K., & Calodich, S. (2016). “I felt really respected and I know she felt respected too”: Using youth- adult partnerships to promote positive youth development in 4-H youth. Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 4(3), 93-110.

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doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2017.24210 Competency Assessment as a Way of Determining Training and Educational Needs of Extension Professionals in Nepal Ramjee P. Ghimire Murari Suvedi Michael Kaplowitz Robert Richardson Michigan State University

Abstract This study examines the level of and gaps in core competencies among agricultural extension professionals in Nepal. The study population was composed of agricultural extension professionals in governmental extension offices and agriculture-based, non-governmental organizations. During August-September 2015, 349 extension professionals completed self- administered surveys. The design for the data collection instrument was based on a literature review and on focus group recommendations. Data were analyzed using descriptive and inferential statistics. The findings revealed that respondents perceived themselves to be moderately competent in extension core competencies -- program planning, program implementation, communication skills, educational and informational technology, program evaluation, personal and professional development, diversity, and technical subject matter expertise. Respondents’ perceived levels of competency differed by their current position, undergraduate college attended, and level of education, although not much by their age and experience in extension. Office chiefs and foreign-educated respondents perceived themselves as having higher levels of competency than their counterparts -- subject matter specialists and technical officers, and in-country-educated professionals. The perceived levels of the importance of all core competencies were significantly higher than the professionals’ perceived levels of their own competency, indicating gaps in extension core competencies among Nepalese extension professionals. The findings imply that that there is a need for in-service training of extension professionals in all core competency areas. Preservice extension education curricula need to be reviewed and updated, incorporating the core competencies highlighted in this study. Keywords: agricultural extension professionals, extension core competencies, levels of core competency, competency assessment, Nepal

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Introduction and Conklin (2007) used the term “core The success of agricultural extension competency” to describe the basic services is contingent on extension knowledge, skills, attitudes, and behaviors professionals’ knowledge, skills, and that contribute to workers’ excellence in abilities to perform their extension work their respective professions. Core effectively. Extension professionals (EPs) competencies are, according to Athey and educate farming communities about new and Orth (1999) and Lucia and Lepsinger improved agricultural technologies and (1999), observable human dimensions practices and their adoption. As Christoplos necessary for program success, both (2010) explained it, extension is a system of individually and organizationally; and they facilitating access for farmers or their are the qualities required at all levels in the organizations to new knowledge, workforce. The terms “competencies” and information, and technologies. Extension “core competencies” are used enables farmers to engage in interactions interchangeably in the literature. In this with research, education, and other paper, “core competencies” are defined as stakeholders and assist them in developing the broader constructs to which their technical, organizational, and “competencies” are attributed. management skills and practices. As alluded The competency of individuals is to in this definition, extension is a complex directly related to their performance. As process involving several actors with varied Shim (2008) pointed out, a high level of interests, a process in which EPs are competency leads to higher efficiency in expected to play catalytic roles. EPs serve as services, better performance, and higher information brokers, community organizers, satisfaction among staff members and their facilitators, and change agents (Suvedi & clients. Highlighting the importance of a Kaplowitz, 2016). Maddy, Niemann, competent workforce in an organization, Lindquist, and Bateman (2002) asserted that Dubois, Rothwell, Stern, and Kemp (2004) extension employees “should possess the stressed “no competencies, no outputs, no necessary competencies to anticipate and organization” (p. 21). These points underline deliver quality educational programs of the increasing need for a competency relevance and importance to our publics” (p. assessment of human resources. 1). Only EPs who are trained, motivated, and competent—technically and in process Extension Core Competencies skills—can succeed in effectively delivering The types of jobs that extension agriculture-related knowledge and skills to professionals (EPs) do define the extension their clients. core competencies that EPs need to possess. The literature suggests that EPs should be Core Competency Definitions able to communicate effectively with “Competencies” and “core clients; demonstrate program development competencies” are buzzwords in extension abilities; lead and/or facilitate collaboration and in education and training. and coordination with stakeholders; and “Competencies” refer to human abilities to evaluate extension programs (Suvedi & provide efficient and effective services, and Ghimire, 2015; Suvedi & Kaplowitz, 2016). to help attain individual and organizational This literature further underscores that EPs goals. Burke (1989) defined “competence” should be able to foster diversity in their as the ability to perform at the standards work; pursue personal and professional expected of employees. Seevers, Graham, development throughout their careers; be

138 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 technically competent in their subject areas; competency in core competencies among and efficiently use newly emerging extension professionals; (2) determine educational and informational technology whether the perceived level of core (EIT) such as the Internet, email, social competency varies with respondents’ media, and computers. More importantly, demographics; and (3) ascertain the gaps EPs should not only be knowledgeable about between perceived level of competency and these competency areas but also able to the perceived importance of the core transform that knowledge and those skills competencies among extension into actions. The extent to which EPs in professionals. Identification of perceived developing countries have attained these competency levels will allow extension competencies is not well-documented. Most management to know which EPs fit where, EPs in developing countries are educated and who needs what types of orientation and under traditional curricula that focus more training. The findings also identify areas that on technical aspects of crops and livestock agricultural education and training need to and less on process skills such as address. communication, leadership, adult learning, and social mobilization (Davis, 2015; Conceptual Framework Swanson, 2008). They may not have the This study was grounded in the required core competencies to serve in competency-based approach to human extension. According to Ghimire, resource management, which helps improve Koundinya, and Holz-Clause (2014), EPs in employee and organizational outputs. The Nepal lack professional competencies. Only goods and services that staff members offer study Nepal conducted on competency are the result of their tasks, and tasks are the assessment was in the 1980s and that was function of staff members’ thoughts, about agricultural graduates ‘preparation for feelings, and actions (Dubois et al., 2004). job (Robson, Suvedi, Shivakoti, Pokharel, & Mulder (2010) offered a similar argument: Maughan, 1986). Graduates as well as their EPs need integrated sets of knowledge, supervisors perceived graduates to be well- skills, abilities, and attitudes to be able to prepared with technical skills but not so with effectively deliver services to their clients. communication skills. We are entering a Knowledge is not the only thing that matters new era, backed by advancing science and in providing services. To improve efficiency technology. Farmers expect new innovations and impart sustainable outcomes, workers to boost their farm productivity while must have both process skills and technical addressing burgeoning challenges such as competencies. Furthermore, as O'Neil, diseases, pests, and climate change. There is Allred, and Baker (1997) pointed out, a shift a need for EPs who can work with and help from traditional to high performance work, people in this challenging yet opportunity- which workers such as EPs are asked to do, filled age. It is, therefore, imperative to involves a new type of behavior and periodically assess workers’ competencies orientation toward a job. As agricultural and identify where they are in those systems and farmers’ demands are changing, competencies, where the gaps are, and what EPs may need new knowledge and skills to should be done to address those gaps. serve their clients well. This warrants The goal of this study was to assessing the competency of staff members examine the gaps in perceived competencies periodically. among EPs in Nepal. The study objectives The major thrust of a competency were to: (1) assess the perceived level of assessment is to identify gaps in competency

139 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 and help to design training and education to Duda, 2016; Okwoche, Ejembi, & Obinne, address those gaps. As Shim (2008) pointed 2011; Rigyal & Wangsamun, 2011), it is out, the assessment of core competencies is assumed that EPs are able to articulate both a learning process that helps organizations to which competencies are critical or important determine a standard for training, to their services (and which are not), and development, and learning activities for EPs how confident and able they are in those to prepare for the future, adapt to changes, competencies. Determining the perceived and make services more efficient. Similarly, importance of competenncies is indicative of Swanson (2008) pointed out that EPs need what value workers give and how willing new knowledge and skills, which they can the workers are to acquire and/or possess acquire through additional training and those competencies. Level of competency, education, to undertake new tasks and on the other hand, indicates their current responsibilities. Therefore, this study was caliber. The difference between the expected designed to elicit extension workers’ and the current level of competency defines opinions of their levels of competency on the training and educational needs. process skills and to identify the knowledge However, as Mulder (2010) and Liles and areas and skills in which they think they Mustian (2004) pointed out, competency have gaps. needs are context-specific, and individuals’ Because EPs are adults who have personal characteristics and organizational worked in extension services for years and, background will influence their perceptions as seen in evidence presented in the of levels, needs, and importance of a literature (Dziechciarz, & Dziechciarz- competency.

Examining importance of core competencies (CCs) Identifying core Identifying gaps in competency areas CCs Examining levels of competency Identifying ways to acquire CCs

Extension services are Providing education Revising/updating strengthened and training curricula

Figure 1. Conceptual framework for competency assessment. This study was a part of a larger competencies, and identifying gaps in core study. As illustrated in Figure 1, broad core competencies. This would lead to competency areas were first identified by identifying ways to acquire core soliciting the viewpoints of extension competencies by revising and updating pre- experts. This paper is based on three stages: and in-service extension education and examining the importance of core training curricula, offering training and competencies, examining the levels of core education to targeted EPs, and, ultimately,

140 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 providing more effective extension services. professionals (EPs) in public extension A periodic review of the extension programs organizations—the Department of would help identify new core competency Agriculture (DOA) and the Department of areas that need to be addressed, which Livestock Services (DLS)—and of those in completes the cycle. A-NGOs. The study population comprised extension professionals—office chiefs, Explanation of Variables subject matter specialists (SMSs), and For objective 1, the variables of technical officers (TOs)—in district interest were the ratings of the level of core agricultural (DADO) and district livestock competencies. For objective 2, ratings of the services offices (DLSO), and agricultural level of core competencies are the dependent program officers in A-NGOs. We used web- variables. Independent variables are based and in-person surveys to collect data. demographic traits: gender; primary The researcher visited 17 districts. EPs there organization (government extension offices self-administered the surveys. Surveys were and agricultural-based non-governmental also administered among EPs attending organizations [A-NGOs]), undergraduate training programs at central training centers, college (Tribhuvan University and affiliated as well as those visiting regional directorates colleges, hereafter referred to as TU; and departments. Technical officers in field Purbanchal University and other non-TU offices accessible to the researcher also colleges in Nepal, hereafter referred to as filled out the survey. The final data (n = PU; and colleges outside Nepal); experience 305), excluding the web-based data, came in extension in years; district extension from 45 districts and all three eco-zones. office chief, subject matter specialist and In September 2015, a web-based technical officer defining current position; survey was conducted among 302 age in years; and education (intermediate [I. professionals using SurveyMonkey.com. Sc.], bachelor’s degree [B.Sc.], and This survey sample excluded hard-copy postgraduate). For objective 3, the perceived survey respondents. Respondents were sent level of importance and self-rated level of an email explaining the objective of the competency for core competencies are the study, methods to fill out the survey, and a dependent variables. The existing literature link to access the survey. Three follow-up (Brodeur, Higgins, Galindo-Gonzalez, emails were sent to non-respondents over a Craig, & Haile, 2011; Eicher, 2006; Ghimire 3 to 5 day interval. The survey received a & Martin, 2011; Lahai, Goldey, & Jones, 16.79% response rate after discounting the 1999; Lopokoiyit, Onyango, & Kibett, 2013; bounced-back emails and unusable Okwoche et al., 2011; McClure, Fuhrman, & responses. Because no differences were Morgan, 2012) was used as the basis for found between data from the web-based and selecting the explanatory variables. Though in-person surveys, the two data sets were the literature suggests that the core combined, resulting in 349 responses. competencies of EPs differ by those A competency list drawn from a demographic traits listed above, there is no literature review and from suggestions made agreement on how they differ. by experts during focus groups was used for designing the survey instrument. The survey Study Methods contained eight core competencies, each of This cross-sectional research which had five to seven competencies within employed surveys to collect data. The study it for a total of 48 competencies. Program sought to assess the perceptions of extension planning and communication skills had six

141 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 statements each; program implementation, analyzed using descriptive statistics educational and informational technology, (frequency, mean, standard deviation) and and program evaluation had seven inferential statistics (independent sample t- statements each; and the rest -- personal and test, one-way analysis of variance professional development, diversity, and [ANOVA], post-hoc LSD, paired t-test). technical subject matter expertise -- had five statements each. Each statement had two Study Findings parts, level of importance and competency, Study Participants measured on a five-point Likert-type scale Table 1 shows respondents’ (1 = not important or very low, 3 = average demographics. Among 349 extension or moderate, 5 = very important or very professionals (EPs) participating in the high), which were designed to examine survey, the majority of the respondents were respondent perceptions. The survey was male (93.1%). The mean age of respondents field tested among 22 EPs, with eight was 46 years, with an average experience of respondents filling out surveys with the 20.32 years. There were 160, 152, and 36 researcher present. The survey was then respondents from the DOA, DLS, and modified to integrate their feedback. One NGOs, respectively. More than one-third of side of the in-person survey was in English, the respondents (37.2%) had I. Sc. (high and the other side, in Nepali. Respondents school), 23.8% had B. Sc. (undergraduate), were free to choose either version. An expert and 39% had postgraduate degrees. A at Michigan State University and the majority of the participants (73%) were extension experts in Nepal reviewed the graduates of TU, Nepal; 14.9% were survey instrument and validated the graduates of PU, Nepal; and 12.2% had contents. Reliability coefficients calculated attended colleges outside Nepal. post-hoc for the eight core competencies Approximately one-fifth (19.1%) were DOA ranged from .86 to .94. Index scores were and DLSO chiefs; one-third (32.2%) were calculated to examine the overall SMSs; and 34 (9.9%) were NGO-POs. perceptions of importance, levels of Technical officers (TOs) made up of 38.8% competency, and perceptions by of the respondents. respondents’ demographics. Data were

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Table 1. Respondents’ Demographics Demographic characteristics n % Gender (N = 349) Female 24 6.9 Male 325 93.1 Organization (N = 348) DOA 160 46.0 DLS 152 43.7 NGO 36 10.3 Current position (N = 345) DADO/DLSO Chief 66 19.1 SMS 111 32.2 NGO-PO 34 9.9 TO 134 38.8 Age group (N = 341) ≤ 35 years 71 43.9 36-50 years 119 35.1 ≥ 51 years 149 20.9 Highest education (N = 344) I. Sc. 128 37.2 B. Sc. 82 23.8 Postgraduate 134 39.0 Undergraduate college/university TU 246 73.0 (N = 337) PU 50 14.9 University outside Nepal 41 12.2 Experience in extension (N = 325) ≤ 5 years 55 16.9 6-10 years 27 8.3 11-15 years 15 4.6 16-20 years 41 12.6 ≥ 21 years 187 57.5 highest levels of competency in personal and Perceptions of Level of Core professional development, followed by Competencies communication skills, diversity, program Descriptive statistics revealed that implementation, program planning, and respondents perceived themselves as having technical subject matter expertise. Program moderate to high levels of competency in all evaluation received the lowest rating, though of the core competencies. As shown in Table still moderate, followed closely by 2, respondents indicated that they had the educational and informational technology.

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics Showing Perceived Level of Competencies

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Number of competencies Mean (SD) Core competency used to compute index score (N = 349) Program planning 6 3.66 (0.61) Program implementation 7 3.77 (0.65) Communication skills 6 3.89 (0.64) Educational and informational technology 7 3.57 (0.85) Program evaluation 7 3.56 (0.73) Personal and professional development 5 3.92 (0.69) Diversity 5 3.84 (0.71) Technical subject matter expertise 5 3.64 (0.69) Note. Scale: 1 = Very low, 2 = Low, 3 = Moderate, 4 = High, 5 = Very high.

The statistics for individual organization, undergraduate college, age, competencies show eight competencies with experience in extension, current position, ratings of 3.48 or lower. The lowest ratings education, and gender. were given to familiarity with government Primary organization and administrative and financial rules and undergraduate college. The NGO-POs regulations (M = 3.41) and computers rated themselves significantly higher for (Internet, email, webpages) for educational and informational technology communication (M = 3.42). Many (EIT) than GO respondents. Ratings differed competencies receiving low scores mostly significantly by undergraduate college for concerned information, communication, and all but two of the core competencies: technology (ICTs) and program evaluation. educational and informational technology, Demonstrating a positive attitude toward and personal and professional development. extension work (M = 4.24) received the The PU group rated significantly lower than highest rating, followed by good listening the other two groups for five core skills and preparing reports on extension competencies: program planning, program work, both with an average score of 4.10. implementation, communication skills, diversity, and technical subject matter Level of Competency by Demographics expertise. The TU group rated program Table 3 shows perceived levels of evaluation competency higher than the PU core competencies by primary work group.

Table 3. One-way ANOVA and t-Test Results (F and t values) Showing Differences in Perceptions of Levels of Core Competencies by Demographics

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Core competency Primary Extension College Age Position Education Gender organization experience Program planning 0.662 5.702** 0.200 0.321 15.447*** 12.351*** 0.488 Program implementation 0.043 4.274* 0.731 0.439 11.192*** 4.581* 0.128 Communication skills 0.197 8.361*** 0.470 1.287 4.584* 2.486 0.135 Educational and informational 5.547** 1.695 18.622*** 15.090*** 18.441*** 29.994*** 2.341* technology Program evaluation 1.396 4.434* 2.577 2.692* 4.299* 5.701** 1.118 Personal and professional 0.125 1.411 2.084 0.852 2.212 3.415* 0.188 development 5.113** Diversity 0.802 0.401 0.483 2.288 2.446 0.120

Technical subject matter expertise 1.037 3.980* 0.562 1.332 5.748** 4.676* 0.493 Note. * p ≤ .05, ** p ≤ .01, *** p ≤ .001. Age and experience in extension. of SMSs and TOs. An additional analysis The only age-related difference found in showed that the TOs rated themselves perception was in educational and significantly lower than others for six of the informational technology (EIT), which the core competencies, with diversity, and youngest group (≤35 years) rated the personal and professional development as highest. The least experienced group (≤ 9 the exceptions. years) rated themselves higher for EIT than Education. Postgraduate degree those with more experience. The 10-19 holders perceived themselves as having a years’ experience group rated themselves higher level of competency in program higher for this core competency than the planning, educational and informational other two groups with higher levels of technology, and program evaluation than experience. The ≤ 9 years’ experience group those with less education. Ratings of high rated program evaluation higher than the 20- school or equivalent degree holders for 29 years’ experience group. program implementation, personal and Current position. The DADO and professional development, and technical DLSO chiefs perceived themselves as subject matter expertise were significantly having significantly higher levels of lower than those of EPs with postgraduate competency than SMSs and TOs for all core degrees; they were also lower for program competencies except personal and implementation and technical expertise than professional development, and diversity. ratings of undergraduate degree holders. The chiefs rated themselves significantly Gender. Males and females differed higher for program planning, program in their ratings on EIT, with a higher rating implementation, and EIT than the NGO- by females. An analysis of individual POs. The NGO-POs rated their competency competencies revealed that females rated for EIT to be significantly higher than that themselves higher for competency in using

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Microsoft Excel, Word, PowerPoint, a The mean ratings of the importance computer for Internet and email, and a of core competencies are significantly mobile phone for texts and short message higher than the mean ratings for the levels of service. competency for all of the core competencies (Table 4). Discrepancy between Desired and Current Levels of Competency

Table 4. Paired t-tests Results of Level of Importance and Level of Competency Mean (SD) (N = 346) Paired difference t Core competency Mean Importance Competence SD value diff. Program planning 4.44 (0.46) 3.66 (0.61) 0.78 0.61 24.025*** Program implementation 4.44 (0.45) 3.77 (0.65) 0.67 0.63 19.777*** Communication skills 4.49 (0.44) 3.89 (0.64) 0.61 0.59 19.014*** Educational and informational 4.40 (0.51) 3.57 (0.85) 0.83 0.88 17.649*** technology Program evaluation 4.37 (0.49) 3.56 (0.73) 0.81 0.73 20.690*** Personal and professional 4.58 (0.46) 3.92 (0.69) 0.66 0.64 19.092*** development Diversity 4.45 (0.48) 3.84 (0.71) 0.61 0.62 18.519*** Technical subject matter expertise 4.47 (0.50) 3.64 (0.69) 0.83 0.68 22.726*** Note. *** p < .001

Discussion smart phones, the Internet, and social media Extension professionals (EPs) in facilitate effective dissemination of Nepal perceived themselves to be agricultural information among a large moderately to highly competent in their group of consumers. EPs have to be ability to perform their jobs. The highest cognizant of and able to use these tools in ratings for personal and professional their work. The study results indicate that development for both importance and level the opposite is true. of competency indicate that EPs are Public extension services in Nepal committed to fostering integrity and good and throughout the developing world have governance in extension services. They long been criticized as being top-down and would like to pursue learning and further less effective than their counterparts in the their knowledge on extension. Importantly, developed world at serving their clients. The they seemed to have a positive attitude current demand-driven extension envisions toward their extension work, a key factor in bigger roles for NGOs and the private being a successful worker. The findings are sector. It is, therefore, encouraging to find consistent with studies among Cooperative that NGO-POs perceived themselves as Extension professionals in North Carolina having higher levels of competency in by Lakai, Jayaratne, Moore, and Kistler educational and informational technology (2014), and with EPs in Ethiopia by (EIT), and as being on par with their Wasihun, Kwarteng, and Okorley (2013). government counterparts in the other seven The 21st century has brought an era competencies. These findings are in contrast of accountability and of ICTs. ICTs such as to those of Lopokoiyit et al. (2013) in

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Africa, where all of the NGO workers’ ICTs, increased with age. Higher levels of competency levels were higher than those of competency in EIT among the youngest government workers in all of the areas group could reflect greater exposure and measured. more opportunities to use ICTs. The The higher the education level of the emergence of the Internet in Nepal is fairly respondents, the more competent they recent, and older people have likely had perceived themselves to be in core fewer opportunities to learn about ICTs than competencies. Respondents with a younger ones. It is very likely that younger postgraduate degree perceived themselves as EPs might have attended courses on having a higher level of competency in all computer technology in school, and may areas except communication skills and have learned about ICTs and other e-tools diversity. These findings are in line with a there. study by Lakai et al. (2012), who found that Experience counts, in both learning a higher level of preservice training helps and providing services. Adult and/or EPs to acquire core competencies. informal learning, which is an integral part Consistent with findings by Duo and of extension education, emphasizes Bruening (2007), chiefs rated themselves experiential learning among extension higher for most competencies, including stakeholders, which include extension program planning and implementation. professionals. Reasonably, staff members Technical officers, most of whom do not with longer work experience are expected to hold undergraduate degrees but who do be more skillful and competent in serving more fieldwork serving farmers than their their clients. Yet, aside from educational and better educated counterparts, have lower informational technology (EIT) and program levels of competency. Given the increasing evaluation, which were rated the highest by stake of TOs in extension services, this is a the least experienced group, this study does serious issue in need of immediate attention. not show any such differences in other Respondents’ levels of competency competencies by experience. varied by the undergraduate college they Office chiefs rated themselves higher attended, with the alumni of non-Nepali in six of the eight core competencies, colleges indicating higher ratings. This perhaps because of their having more implies that foreign colleges, attended by education than others. A large percentage one respondent group, offered a better (91%) of the chiefs reported holding education in the core competencies than postgraduate degrees, as compared with 2.3 agricultural colleges in Nepal. This could be % of TOs, 43% of SMSs, and 65% of NGO- because of their using better curricula, better POs. This counters the findings of Lakai et teaching methods, and/or better educational al. (2014), who found that overall materials focusing on extension core proficiency levels of EPs did not vary with competencies, as well as learning their job position. The findings of this study environments more conducive for students reinforce the notion that a higher level of to learn. preservice education is critical to acquiring Except for EIT, respondents competencies. perceived themselves as having equal levels The only difference by gender was in of competency regardless of their age. This educational and informational technology finding goes against that of Lakai et al. (EIT), where females scored higher than (2014), who found that proficiency in males. Consistent with the study by Lakai et professional competencies, including use of al. (2014), females rated themselves higher

147 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 in computer use, including using Microsoft This study sought to assess the level programs, the Internet and email, and mobile of core competencies of agricultural phones and texting. The findings show that extension professionals (EPs), to determine female EPs are perceived as being more differences in levels of core competencies computer-friendly and competent in ICT use by demographics, and to identify any than their male counterparts. The finding existing gaps in competency in Nepal. The that the perceived levels of competency for study found that EPs perceived themselves all but one of the core competencies are as having a high level of competency in all similar for both genders reveals that females of the extension core competencies. are as competent as males in extension Receiving lower yet still positive ratings services. were ICTs, which include computer use, e- This study found a clear difference in learning, and social media. These were the perceived level of importance and the found to be the weakest areas for EPs. perceived level of competency, with Interestingly, the longer the extension competency being significantly lower than worker’s experience, the lower the perceived importance. This suggests that EPs in Nepal level of ICT competency. Foreign-educated have much to learn related to extension EPs appear to be more competent in competencies to effectively perform their extension skills than those who are educated roles. The largest difference was found in in-country, in spite of the proximity of and educational and informational technology, familiarity with local stakeholders and local and in technical subject matter expertise, contexts, as well as opportunities for in- followed by program evaluation. These are country colleges to train students in local the areas in which EPs need more training. contexts that articulate local needs and The greater need for technical subject matter demands. Curricula and teaching methods training is consistent with the study by may have a significant bearing on students’ Rigyal and Wangsamun (2011) in Bhutan competencies. The findings indicate gaps in but contrasts that of Conklin, Hook, the national agricultural extension education Kelbaugh, and Nieto (2003) at Ohio State system. University. It is worth noting that EPs The chiefs’ perception of themselves perceived all of the core competencies to be as competent was higher than other groups’ important and very important to their self-perceptions. The chiefs had more work,we can therefore assume that they education than the others, thereby value these extension skills and are eager to emphasizing the importance of preservice hone their competencies. education among extension workers. There The areas least known to respondents is a clear discrepancy among EPs between were ICT use; government administrative the desired and actual levels of competency and financial rules and regulations; and the for core competencies, indicating that EPs in vision, mission, and goals of extension Nepal do not feel they are as competent as services. How can we expect effective they should be to serve their clients. Core services from EPs who do not know what competencies with the highest competency the extension’s vision, missions, and goals gaps—educational and informational are? How can we expect efficient and technology, technical subject matter accountable extension services from EPs expertise, and program evaluation—are the who do not know their governmental rules areas in which EPs in Nepal are most in and regulations? need of training. One important conclusion from this study is that EPs in Nepal Conclusions and Recommendations

148 Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education Volume 24, Issue 2 perceived extension core competencies as information technologies, technical subject important and thus essential to their work. matter, and program evaluation. These could The government of Nepal should be the key areas for EPs to receive adopt appropriate policies and programs to additional training and education. provide training to its extension professionals, including its technical References officers, on computer use, program Athey, T. R., & Orth, M. S. (1999). evaluation, and technical subject matter. It Emerging competency methods for should also review and adapt the extension the future. Human Resource education curricula of international Management, 38(3), 215-225. universities as needed. Soliciting Brodeur, C. W., Higgins, C., Galindo- beneficiaries’ perceptions of the levels of Gonzalez, S., Craig, D. D., & Haile, competency of their extension workers and T. (2011). Designing a competency- examining the differences between self- and based new county extension beneficiary-rated levels of competency personnel training program: A novel would be worth researching to determine approach. Journal of Extension, how and whether ratings are consistent 49(3). Retrieved from across the two populations. Also useful http://www.joe.org/joe/2011june/a2. would be undertaking qualitative research php using in-depth interviews among extension Burke, J. (1989). Competency based stakeholders about extension professionals’ education and training. New York, delivery of services and gaps, if any, in their NY: The Falmer Press. competency. Christoplos, I. (2010). Mobilizing the This study had some limitations. potential of rural and agricultural Originally, we planned to use proportionate extension. Rome, Italy: Food and stratified sampling and to use a web-based Agricultural Organization. survey. But, while we were pretesting the Conklin, N. L., Hook, L. L., Kelbaugh, B. J., survey, only six of 39 professionals & Nieto, R. D. (2003). Identifying participated. This response was less than one training needs of extension would ordinarily find in web-based surveys. personnel: A Comprehensive model. Realizing that not all of the EPs had email Proceedings of the 19th Annual and that employing a web-based survey only Conference AIAEE 2003 (pp. 148- would not be effective, we used both in- 159). Retrieved from person and web-based surveys. When data https://www.aiaee.org/attachments/ar collection was about to start, Nepal was ticle/1223/Conklin148.pdf badly hit by an earthquake. This was Davis, K. (2015). The new extensionist: followed soon after by incessant rainfall and Core competencies for individuals. political strikes in various regions of Nepal. GFRAS Brief 3. Lindau, Stratified sampling could not be employed, Switzerland: The Global Forum for so convenience sampling was used to select Rural Advisory Services. Retrieved the sample. from The study findings have relevance to http://web1.extensionismo.mx/docu international extension. For example, as in mentos/gfrasnuevoextensionista.pdf Nepal, extension professionals in other Dubois, D. D., Rothwell, W. J., Stern, D.J., developing countries may have lower & Kemp, L. K. (2004). Competency- competency levels in education and based human resource management.

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Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black and Extension, 6(4), 223-233. Publishing. doi:10.1080/13892240085300051 Duo, S. N., & Bruening, T. (2007). Lakai, D., Jayaratne, K. S. U., Moore, G. E., Assessment of the Sasakawa Africa & Kistler, M. J. (2012). Barriers and Fund for Extension Education in effective educational strategies to Ghana. Journal of International develop extension agents' Agriculture and Extension professional competencies. Journal Education, 14(1), 5-13. doi: of Extension, 50(4). Retrieved from 10.5191/jiaee.2007.14101 http://www.joe.org/joe/2012august/p Dziechciarz, J. Z., & Dziechciarz-Duda, M. df/JOE_v50_4rb1.pdf (2016). Multivariate statistical Lakai, D., Jayaratne, K. S. U., Moore, G. E., analysis in missing skills & Kistler, M. J. (2014). identification. In P. Michelberger Identification of current proficiency (Ed.), Management, enterprise and level of extension competencies and benchmarking in the 21st century the competencies needed for (109-122). Óbuda University; extension agents to be successful in Budapest. ISBN 978-615-5460-77-7 the 21st century. Journal of Human Eicher, K. K. (2006). The evolution of Sciences and Extension, 2(1), 71-89. agricultural education and training: Retrieved from Global insights of relevance for http://media.wix.com/ugd/c8fe6e_53 South Africa. East Lansing: ea61c582994033af7c961b1c4fcd7d. Michigan State University. Retrieved pdf from Liles, R. T., & Mustian, R. D. (2004). Core http://ageconsearch.umn.edu/bitstrea competencies: A systems approach m/11816/1/sp06-26.pdf for training and organizational Ghimire, N., Koundinya, V., & Holz-Clause, development in extension. The M. (2014). Government run vs. Journal of Agricultural Education university managed agricultural and Extension, 10(2), 77-82. extension: A review of Nepal, India Lopokoiyit, M., Onyango, C., & Kibett, J. and the United States. Asian Journal K. (2013). Extension management of Agricultural Extension, competency needs of agricultural Economics & Sociology, 3(5), 461- extension agents in Kenya. 472. Mediterranean Journal of Social Ghimire, N. R., & Martin, R. A. (2011). A Sciences, 4(6), 11. professional competency Lucia, A. D., & Lepsinger, R. (1999). The development model: Implications for art and science of competency extension educators. Journal of models. San Francisco, CA: Jossey- International Agricultural and Bass. Extension Education, 18(2), 5-17. Maddy, D. J., Niemann, K., Lindquist, J., & doi: 10.5191/jiaee.2011.18201 Bateman, K. (2002). Core Lahai, B. A. N., Goldey, P., & Jones, G. E. competencies for the cooperative (1999). The gender of the extension extension system. Oregon State agent and farmers' access to and University Extension Service. participation in agricultural Retrieved from extension in Nigeria [Abstract]. The https://www.msuextension.org/jobs/f Journal of Agricultural Education orms/Core_Competencies.pdf

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McClure, M. M., Fuhrman, N. E., & graduates. Nepal: IAAS, USU, Morgan, A. C. (2012). Program USAID/Nepal and World Bank. evaluation competencies of Seevers, B., Graham, D., & Conklin, N. extension professionals: Implications (2007). Education through for continuing professional cooperative extension (2nd ed.). development. Journal of Agricultural Columbus, OH: The Ohio State Education, 53(4), 85-97. University. doi:10.5032/jae.2012.04085. Shim, M. O. (2008). Competency theory and Mulder, M. (2010). Competence practice for developing an extension development in higher agricultural competency model. Journal of education. Extended version of paper Agricultural Extension and presented at the International Community Development, 15(1), 75- Conference “Teacher Training for 111. Vocational Education in Suvedi, M., & Ghimire, R. P. (2015). How Contemporary Europe,” 9-10 competent are agricultural extension September 2010, Czech University agents and extension educators in of Life Sciences, Prague, Czech Nepal? Retrieved from Republic. http://www.oired.vt.edu/innovate/wp Okwoche, E. P., Ejembi, E. P., & Obinne, C. - O. (2011). Professional content/uploads/2015/09/SuvediNep competencies perceived to be alExtensionFINAL.pdf important and needed by female and Suvedi, M., & Kaplowitz, M. (2016). What male agricultural extension agents: A every extension worker should know: study from Nigeria. Journal of Core competency handbook. Urbana- Agricultural Sciences, 2(2), 121-126. Champaign, IL: USAID-MEAS. O'Neil, H. F., Allred, K. A., & Baker, E. L. Retrieved from (1997). Review of workforce https://db.tt/jjKTJquG readiness: Theoretical frameworks. Swanson, B. E. (2008). Global review of In H. F. O'Neil. (ed.), Workforce good agricultural extension and readiness: Competencies and advisory service practices. Rome, assessment (pp. 3-25). Mahwah, NJ: Italy: Food and Agricultural Lawrence Erblaum Associates, Organizations (FAO). Publishers. Wasihun, B. N., Kwarteng, J. A., & Rigyal, S., & Wangsamun, C. (2011). Okorley, E. L. (2013). Professional Perceived professional competency and technical competencies of level and job performance of block extension agents as perceived by level extension agent in Bhutan. male and female farmers and the Journal of International Agriculture extension agents themselves: The and Extension Education, 18(1), 87- need for data source 103. triangulation. Journal of Agriculture Robson, R. E., Suvedi, M. P., Shivakoti, G. and Biodiversity Research, 2(1), 11- P., Pokharel, B. N., & Maughan, W. 16. T. (1986). Study of the IAAS BSc Ag

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Manuscript Submission Guidelines

The JIAEE is the official refereed journal of the Association for International Agricultural and Extension Education (AIAEE).

General Requirements Microsoft Word files only may be submitted. All manuscripts must indicate the type of article— Feature; Commentary; Tools of the Profession and Book Review—on the title page of the manuscript. All manuscripts must be submitted online at http://jiaee.ft.expressacademic.org. Manuscripts cannot be published or be under consideration for publication in another journal. The Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education (JIAEE) follows the standards set forth in the Publication Manual of the American Psychology Association (6th ed.). Online manuscript submission guidelines are posted at http://www.aiaee.org/guidelines.html. Authors must follow these formatting requirements prior to submitting manuscripts to the JIAEE.

Feature Articles A title page with manuscript title, authors’ names, institutions, and city/state/country is required. The manuscript must include an Abstract (a succinct idea of the article’s content) not exceeding 250 words, followed by 5-7 Keywords (selected from a list of topics available on the submission log on page), Introduction, Theoretical/Conceptual/Operational Framework, Purpose and Objectives, Methods, Findings/Results, Conclusion, Recommendations/Implications, and References, or similar appropriate headings. There is no fee charged for submitting a feature article. Feature Articles cannot be longer than 20 double-spaced (12 point font) pages (not including the title page) with one-inch margins on all sides, excluding references.

Commentary Articles Commentary Article manuscripts are submitted online. A title page with manuscript title, authors’ names, institutions, and city/state/country is required. The article must include an Abstract not exceeding 250 words. Please include 5-7 Keywords (selected from a list of topics available on the submission log on page) to describe your manuscript. Commentary Articles should be no longer than eight double-spaced (12 point font) pages (not including the title page) with one-inch margins on all sides, excluding references.

Tools of the Profession and Book Review Articles Tools of the Profession Article manuscripts are submitted online. A title page with manuscript title, authors’ names, institutions, and city/state/country is required. Please include Keywords (about seven) to describe the manuscript. Tools of the Profession Articles should be no longer than four double-spaced (12 point font) pages (not including the title page) with one-inch margins on all sides, including references. If you wish to submit a book review, policies and guidelines are available online http://www.aiaee.org/files/BookRevGuide.pdf.

Page Fees There is no submission charge for the manuscript, but there will be a $10.00/publication page ($20.00 for non AIAEE members) fee assessed to the corresponding author if accepted for publication after the peer review process.

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