k

300

Index

Note: illustrations are indicated by italic page number;tablesbyemboldened numbers. Acronyms used: PBM = Paysandisia archon (palmborermoth);RPW= Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm weevil)

a RPW in Israel 288–290 abamectin [insecticide] 264 RPW in Italy 290–292 in stem injection technique 266–267 for non-agricultural areas 294–295 abundance and diversity, of palms in Adonidia merrillii,pests 20 Mediterranean region 80–81 adventitious root system 50 Acacia farnesiana,pests 22 role in recovery after RPW infestation k acetoin, as booster with Rhynchophorus 50–51 k pheromone 116, 118 and transplanting of large trees acoustic detection [of larval activity] 40, 50 210–214 aerial roots 3 advantages and pitfalls 213–214 pest infestation of 27, 79 compared with other detection methods aerial thermal imaging 226–227 advantages and pitfalls 219–220 factors affecting attenuation coefficient compared with other detection methods 212–213 226–227 human compared with automated infected palms identified by 49, detection 212 219–220 methodology 210–213 African oil palm see: Elaeis guineensis sensors used 210–211, 227 Agave americana (century plant, maguey, Actinidia sp., pests 18 American aloe), as potential host for action plan for containmentCOPYRIGHTED of RPW and RPW MATERIAL 74, 75,84 PBM infestations 283 Agave sisalana (sisal) suggested management steps 284 pests 6 action programs for RPW and PBM RPW infestation 8 infestations 280–296 age estimation [of palms] 47 for agricultural areas 294 aggregation pheromone case studies 288–295 components 112–113, 221, 267 PBM in Marche Region [Italy] in monitoring traps 221 293–294, 295 plant volatiles as co-attractants 114, RPW in Canary Islands 292–293 223–224

Handbook of Major Palm Pests: Biology and Management, First Edition. Edited by Victoria Soroker and Stefano Colazza. © 2017 John Wiley & Sons Ltd. Published 2017 by John Wiley & Sons Ltd.

k k

Index 301

Rhynchophorus spp. males 7, 70, 74, Ascalaphus owlfly see: Libelloides 106, 107, 111–113, 221, 267 macaronius S. australis 6 Asian palmyra palm see: Borassus flabellifer synthetic compounds as co-attractants asparagus, pests 16 115–117, 268 Aspidiotus destructor (coconut scale, use in pest management 4, 113, transparent scale) 18–19, 28 267–268 attract-and-infect technique 179, 262, 269 see also (4S,5S)-ferrugineol; auto-dissemination devices, (4S)-ferrugineone entomopathogenic microorganisms air pollution, reduction by trees and shrubs spread by 179, 262, 269 60–61 avocado trees, pests 18 Aleurotrachelus atratus (palm-infesting whitefly) 19–20 b Alexander palm see: Archontophoenix Bacillus spp., biocontrol using 22, 176 alexandrae Bacillus sphaericus 176 Alexandra palm see: Archontophoenix Bacillus thuringiensis 22, 176 alexandrae bacteria, as biocontrol agents 176 Algeria, production of dates baculoviruses, as biocontrol agents 4, 176 57 Bahá’í Gardens [Haifa, Israel], CPLAS case almond moth see: Cadra cautella study 246, 248, 248–249 almonds, pests 23 banana see: Musa sp. aluminum phosphide 257, 270 Barcelona [Spain], trees in 60 k American aloe see: Agave americana bark beetles, host-colonization strategies k Ameroseius sp. [mite] 174 106 Ananachícarí see: Copernicia alba Batrachedra amydraula (lesser date moth) Ananas comosus (pineapple), pests 6, 10 21 anatomy [of palms] 41 Beauveria spp. 178, 179 Anthonomus grandis, olfactory-mediated Beauveria bassiana, as biocontrol agent behavior 113 178, 179, 261–262, 264, 269 Aphomia sabella (greater date moth) 20, Beauveria pseudobassiana 178 23–24 betel nut palm see: Areca catechu apicall meristem 3, 41, 43–44 Billaea menezesi 172–173 importance to palm’s survival 44–45 Billaea rhynchophorae 172–173 injury/damage to 5, 45, 51, 79 biological control 5, 12, 171–181, ArcGIS software 225 260–263 Archontophoenix alexandrae (Alexander meaning of term 171–172, 180 palm, Alexandra palm, King palm, negative effects of use 172 Northern Bangalow palm), non-host strategies 172 species [for RPW] 8, 75,84 bird species, predation by 175 Areca catechu (betel nut palm) Bismarckia nobilis, RPW infestation 8, 76, pests 6, 13, 21, 25 84 RPW infestation 8, 75,81 blackbird (Turdus merula), predation by Arenga palm see: Arenga pinnata 175 Arenga pinnata (sugar palm, Arenga palm), blue hesper palm see: Brahea armata RPW infestation 8, 76,81 Borassus spp., pests 14 arthropod herbivores Borassus flabellifer (Asian palmyra palm, palm features suited to 2–3 toddy palm, sugar palm, Cambodian types found on palms 3–4 palm), RPW infestation 8, 76,81

k k

302 Index

border controls, implementation of carbon sequestration, by trees and shrubs more-effective/consistent controls 60 283 Carica papaya (papaw, papaya), pests 6, Bordighera [Italy], heritage palm groves 18 58–59 carob, pests 23 botanical gardens, palms in 59 carob moth see: Ectomyelois ceratoniae Brahea spp. Carpophilus hemipterus (dried fruit beetle) abundance 81 26–27 RPW infestation 8, 77, 291 Carpophilus mutilatus (confused sap Brahea armata (Mexican blue palm, blue beetle) 26–27 hesper palm) (E)-β-caryophyllene 82 PBM infestation 11, 137, 139 Caryota spp., RPW infestation 8 RPW infestation 77, 83, 84 Caryota cumingii (Philippines fishtail Brahea edulis (Guadalupe palm) palm), RPW infestation 76,81 PBM infestation 11, 137, 139 Caryota maxima, RPW infestation 76,81 RPW infestation 77, 83, 84 Cassia bicapsularis,pests 22 breadfruit trees, pests 18 Castnia archon 132 Brontispa spp. (coconut leaf beetles) 12 see also Paysandisia archon Brontispa longissima 12–14 Castnia daedalus 9–10, 20 Bulgaria, PBM infestation 134 Castniidae family bush palmetto see: Sabal minor androconia [scales, on males] 155 Butia spp. sexual behavior 151 k abundance 81 taxonomy 131–133 k pests 12 see also Paysandisia archon Butia capitata (jelly palm) century plant see: Agave americana PBM infestation 11, 137, 138 Ceratocystis sp. 207 RPW infestation 8, 75, 83, 291 Ceratonia siliqua,pests 22 Butia yatay (yatay palm), PBM infestation cereal flours, oats 23 11, 133, 137, 138 Ceutorhynchus assimilis (cabbage seed butterfly moths 9–11, 150 weevil), odor cues 113 see also Castnia daedalus; Paysandisia Chamaerops humilis (European fan palm, archon Mediterranean dwarf palm, dwarf fan palm) c abundance 80 cabbage palm see: Sabal palmetto acoustic detection of PBM larval activity cabbage palmetto see: Sabal palmetto 210 cabbage seed weevil see: Ceutorhynchus distribution 40, 41, 80 assimilis gummy secretion at injury site 83 cabbage-tree palm see: Livistona australis PBM infestation 11, 44, 137, 139, 142, Cadra cautella (almond moth or tropical 187, 282, 293 warehouse moth) 23 visual symptoms 203 Caesalpinia sappan,pests 22 pests 12, 18, 25 Cambodian palm see: Borassus flabellifer RPW infestation 44, 291 Canary Islands, RPW eradication program detection of 217–218 292–293 RPW resistance 8, 77, 82, 187 Canary palm see: Phoenix canariensis Chelisoches morio [earwig] 175 caranday palm see: Copernicia alba; chemical detection 214–218 Trithrinax campestris olfactory sensors used 214–215

k k

Index 303

chemical treatments, pest control by 171, confused sap beetle see: Carpophilus 263–267, 270 mutilatus Chilean wine palm see: Jubaea chilensis Copernicia alba (caranday palm, wax palm, Chinese fan palm see: Livistona chinensis Ananachícarí), RPW infestation Chinese windmill palm see: Trachycarpus 77,83 fortunei Cordyceps, in pest management 4 chlorpyrifos 264, 288 Corypha spp., RPW infestation 8, 76 Chusan palm see: Trachycarpus fortunei Corypha umbraculifera (tailpot palm) citrus fruit, pests 15, 22 pests 6 cliff date palm see: Phoenix rupicola RPW infestation 76,81 clonal propagation (of date palms) 48 Corypha utan, RPW infestation 76,81 clothianidin 264 Cosmopolites sordidus, aggregation Coccotrypes spp. 25 pheromone 111 Coccotrypes dactyliperda (date seed beetle cowpeas, pests 23 or date stone beetle) 25–26 CPLAS 227, 233–254 cocoa beans, pests 23 architecture 234 cocoa tree, pests 15 case studies 243–251 coconut leaf beetles see: Brontispa spp. Bahá’í Gardens [Haifa, Israel] 246, coconut palm see: Cocos nucifera 248, 248–249 coconut scale see: Aspidiotus destructor Maale Gamla and Ramot [Israel] date coconut spike moth see: Tirathaba rufivena palm orchards 248, 250–251, 251 Cocos nucifera (coconut palm) National Garden of Athens 246, 247, k acoustic detection of RPW larval activity 253 k 210 Pedion Areos Park [Athens, Greece] distillate of bark, as attractant 118–119 243–245 as major cash crop 1, 40 Preveli Palm Tree Forest [Crete, pests 3, 5–6, 10, 13, 14, 18, 19, 20, 21, Greece] 251, 252 22, 27, 28 data-acquisition process 238, 243 RPW infestation 7, 8, 75, 81, 106, 255 database 234–235 field sanitation programs 257 decision-support system (DSS) 227, visual symptoms 209 233, 234, 235–236 cocos palm see: Syagrus romanzoffiana graphical user interface (GUI) 236, Coelaenomenodera lameensis (leaf-mining 239, 241 hispine) 11, 14 multimedia content 236, 239, 241 coffee tree, pests 15 desktop GIS 234–235 Coix spp., pests 21 GPS receiver 243 Coleopterans 4, 5–9, 12–14 infestation risk assessment 235–236, see also main entry: Rhynchophorus 237–238, 243–244, 246, 248, 251 ferrugineus mobile GIS 234, 238, 243, 244, 246, 248, combined location-aware system see 250, 252 CPLAS real-time implementation and evaluation Common International Classification of of 227, 243–251 Ecosystem Goods and Services spatiotemporal analysis of infestation risk (CICES) terminology 55, 56 235, 245, 247, 249, 251 compound eyes web-mapping service 251, 253 insects [in general] 119, 160–161 Cretan date palm see: Phoenix theophrasti PBM 162–164 Crete [Greece] RPW 119–122 heritage palm groves 40, 58

k k

304 Index

Crete [Greece] (contd.) Derris trifoliata,pests 21 Preveli palm tree forest, CPLAS case desert fan Palm see: Washingtonia filifera study 251, 252 detection methods Croatia acoustic detection 210–214 PBM infestation 134 chemical detection 214–218 RPW infestation 72 comparison of methods 226–227 “crop water status”,assessment by thermal location-aware monitoring 227 imaging 219 thermal detection 218–220 crown borers 5–11 developmental stages [of palms] 41 crown dissection and sanitation 45–46, dicotyledonous trees, compared with palms 51, 257–259 41, 47 crown drench applications 45, 51, 258, 290 Diocalandra frumenti 205, 206 crown [of palm] 42–46 distribution [of palms] 39–41, 57–58, 80 implication of crown structure dogs for chemical and biological treatments detection of RPW infestation by 45 215–218, 226 for RPW/PBM symptom development see also “sniffer dogs” 44–45 doum palm see: Hyphaene thebaica for sanitation by dissection 45–46 dried cassava, pests 23 cruentol [synthetic aggregation pheromone] dried dates, pests 23 111 dried fruit beetle see: Carpophilus Cuban royal palm see: Roystonea regia hemipterus k cultural services 55, 56 dried mango, pests 23 k palms as 40, 56, 58–59, 285 dried stored products, pests 23 cyfluthrin 264 dubas bug see: Ommatissus binotatus lambda-cyhalothrin 4 dwarf fan palm see: Chamaerops humilis Cyparissius daedalus 173 dwarf palmetto see: Sabal minor alpha-cypermethrin 4 dwarf windmill palm see: Trachycarpus Cyprus wagnerianus PBM infestation 134 Dynamis borassi, aggregation pheromone RPW eradication costs 62 113 RPW infestation 72 e d early warning and monitoring Darna spp., control measures against 4 system 286 date palm see: Phoenix dactylifera ecosystem services date palm beetle see: Oryctes agamemnon CICES terminology 56 date palm leafhopper see: Ommatissus cultural services 55, 56,58–59 binotatus palms providing 55–61, 63 date seed beetle see: Coccotrypes protection of 62 dactyliperda provisioning services 55, 56,57–58 date stone beetle see: Coccotrypes regulating services 55, 56,60–61 dactyliperda ecosystems, benefits and impacts 55 date white scale see: Parlatoria blanchardi Ectomyelois ceratoniae (carob moth) dates (fruit) 22–23, 25 pests 23 Egypt production of 1, 40, 57–58, 282 date production 57 defoliators 11–16 RPW infestation 72

k k

Index 305

Elaeis guineensis (African oil palm) as booster with Rhynchophorus growth rate 3 pheromone 115 as major cash crop 1, 40 PBM attracted to 143, 160 PBM infestation 138, 142 ethyl lactate pests 3, 5–6, 9, 10, 14, 15, 18, 21, 25, 26, as booster with Rhynchophorus 27, 28, 173 pheromones 115 RPW infestation 8, 76,81 PBM attracted to 143, 160 Elche [Spain], heritage palm groves 39, 58, ethyl propionate 59, 285 as booster with Rhynchophorus electroantennography (EAG) 112 pheromone 115, 225, 268 PBM host-plant volatiles 143, 159, 160 PBM attracted to 143, 160 RPW aggregation pheromone 119 EU directives electronic noses, detection of RPW using Plant Health Directive 62, 63, 281, 293 214–215 on sustainable use of pesticides 171, electroretinography (ERG) 121–122 180, 256, 263 PBM’s visual system 163–164 EU Strategy on Invasive Species 286 RPW’s visual system 120, 122, 123 Euborellia annulipes 175 emamectin benzoate 264 Eucalyptus camaldulensis,carbon endophytic fungi 179, 180, 262–263 sequestration by 60 endosymbiosis 70, 106 Euclea diversa, control measures against 4 disruption of 267 European fan palm see: Chamaerops humilis entomopathogenic fungi (EPF), biocontrol European and Mediterranean Plant k using 177–180, 261–262, 270 Protection Organization (EPPO) k entomopathogenic microorganisms, spread 62, 64 of 179, 262–263 database 72, 287 entomopathogenic mitosporic ascomycetes quarantine list 135, 256 (EMAs) Euterpe spp., pests 10 as biocontrol agents 177–180, 261, 294 endophytic behavior 179–180 f entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) fermentation volatile compounds as biocontrol agents 176–177, 261 as co-attractants with Rhynchophorus in combination with chemicals 261 pheromone 114, 115–117, 118, entomopathogens, biocontrol using 4, 223–224, 225 175–180 PBM sensitivity to 143 Epuraea luteola 26 (4S,5S)-ferrugineol 112–113, 221 Erythrina monosperma,pests 22 (4S)-ferrugineone 112–113, 221 ethanol, as booster with Rhynchophorus field sanitation 257–259 pheromone 115, 118, 225, 269 flight mill device [for assessment of weevil ethyl acetate flight performance] 108–110, 143 as booster with Rhynchophorus Florida royal palm see: Roystonea regia pheromone 115, 118, 224–225, flowering habits 41 268, 269 flush cutting (“pineapple cut”) 46,96 PBM attracted to 143, 160 fountain palm see: Livistona chinensis ethyl butyrate France as booster with Rhynchophorus mitigation costs 62 pheromone 115 PBM infestation 61, 134, 142 PBM attracted to 143, 160 RPW infestation 61, 72 ethyl isobutyrate frond feeders 17–20

k k

306 Index

fruit borers 20–27 meaning of term 73–74 fumigants 257 PBM hosts 11, 137–143 funding to manage RPW and PBM “potential RPW hosts” 8, 74, 75, infestations 287 76–77, 78,84 fungal infection, visual symptoms 190 RPW hosts 8–9, 70, 73–84 fungal pathogens, co-occurrence with RPW host-colonization strategies 106 or PBM infestations 207 Howea forsteriana (Kentia palm, thatch fungi, biocontrol using 177–180, palm) 261–262, 270 abundance 81 PBM infestation 138, 142 g visual symptoms 198, 199 gas chromatography–electroantennography RPW infestation 8, 75, 83, 291 (GC–EAG) analysis 112, 155 hummingbird hawk-moth see: geographical information systems (GIS) Macroglossum stellatarum 225, 227 Hyphaene thebaica (doum palm) giriba palm see: Syagrus romanzoffiana aerial branching of palm stems 46 Gliocladium sp. 207 distribution 40 global distribution [of palms] 39–41 pests 19 Graeffea crouanii 4 Hypoaspis sp. [mite] 174 grasses, pests 16 greater date moth see: Aphomia sabella i greater spike moth see: Tirathaba rufivena imidacloprid 180, 264, 265, 266 k Greece in combination with entomopathogenic k mass trapping of palm weevils 225 nematodes 261 PBM infestation 134, 140, 142 in soil applications 288, 289 RPW infestation 61, 72 in stem injection technique 266, 267 gregarines, in pest management 4 import restrictions 69, 135, 256 groundnuts, pests 23 inflorescence borers 20–27 growth characteristics 1–2 inflorescences 41, 42 Guadalupe palm see: Brahea edulis insecticides 4, 5 bio-insecticides 5 h contact insecticides 4, 5 Haematoxylum campechianum,pests 22 EU directive on sustainable use 171, Haifa [Israel], Bahá’í Gardens, CPLAS case 180, 256, 263 study 246, 248, 248–249 fumigant insecticides 5 hapaxanthy 41 stem/trunk injection of 180, 266–267 Hemipterans 3, 17–20 systemic insecticides 5, 45 heritage [historical] palm groves 40, “inspection window” in palm crown 191 58–59, 80 integrated pest management (IPM) 257 Heterorhabditis bacteriophora,biocontrol field sanitation used 257–259 using 177 kairomones used in 4, 124, 221, 268 hispine beetles 11 semiochemicals used 221, 267–270 see also Coelaenomenodera lameensis interactions between palm pests 9, 11, 12, Homopterans 19 28–29, 204–207 honeybee’s eye 161 invasive alien species (IAS) horticulture,palmsin 1,40 economic impact 282 host plant(s) effective management of 281 difficulty in quantitative ranking 79–80 European strategy on 286

k k

Index 307

factors affecting spread of 285 leaf eaters 15–16 general measures against 281–282 leaf miners 11, 14 increase in number and impact 280 leaf water stress meaning of term 280 detection by thermal imaging 49, 219 RPW and PBM as 54 visual symptoms 190 threatsandrisksdueto 282 leaf-mining hispine see: Coelaenomenodera website on 287 lameensis inverse distance weighting (IDW) Lecanicillium attenuatum,asPBM interpolation method, in CPLAS biocontrol agent 178 235 Lepidopterans 3, 9–11, 15–16, 21–25, Isaria fumosorosea, as biocontrol agent 150 261 see also main entry: Paysandisia archon Israel lesser date moth see: Batrachedra date production 57 amydraula mass trapping of palm weevils 110, 225 Libelloides macaronius (Ascalaphus owlfly), RPW infestation 178, 288–290 visual system 161 see also Bahá’í Gardens; Maale Gamla; light-polarization sensitivity Ramot insects [in general] 161 Italy PBM’s eye 164, 165, 166 PBM infestation 134, 135, 142, RPW’s eye 122 293–294, 295 linalool RPW infestation 61, 72, 79–80, as booster with Rhynchophorus k 290–292 pheromones 115 k PBM attracted to 143, 160 j Livistona spp. jelly palm see: Butia capitata abundance 81 Jubaea chilensis (Chilean wine palm) PBM infestation 11, 137, 139 abundance 81 pests 10 PBM infestation 138, 142 RPW infestation 8, 76, 77 RPW infestation 8, 76, 83, 84, 96, 291 Livistona australis (cabbage-tree palm) Juglans regia,pests22 PBM infestation 11, 137, 139 RPW infestation 76 k Livistona chinensis (Chinese fan palm, kairomones fountain palm) in monitoring traps 221, 268 PBM infestation 11, 137, 139 use in pest management 4, 124, 221 pests 6, 25 Kentia palm see: Howea forsteriana RPW infestation 77,81 kestrel (Falco tinnunculus), predation by Livistona decipiens (ribbon fan palm) 175 PBM infestation 137, 139 King Alexander palm see: Archontophoenix RPW infestation 77 alexandrae Livistona decora King palm see: Archontophoenix alexandrae PBM infestation 11 RPW infestation 8, 77,84 l Livistona saribus (taraw palm) landscaping, palms in 40–41, 58, 59, 80 PBM infestation 11, 137, 139 Latania spp., PBM infestation 137, 139 RPW infestation 77,81 leaf development, structure, and phyllotaxis location-aware system (LAS) 227, 235 41 see also CPLAS

k k

308 Index

m methyl bromide 257 Maale Gamla date palm orchard [Israel], Metroxylon sagu (sago palm) CPLAS case study 248, 250, 251 pests 6, 13 Macadamia integrifolia,pests 22 RPW infestation 8, 75,81 mace, pests 23 Mexican blue palm see: Brahea armata Macroglossum stellatarum (hummingbird Mexican fan palm see: Washingtonia hawk-moth), visual system 161 robusta Macrotermes spp. 4 Mexican palmetto see: Sabal mexicana magpies (Pica pica), predation by 175 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) maguey see: Agave americana 55 maize, pests 15, 23 millet pests 16, 23 Malta miniature date palm see: Phoenix roebelenii RPW eradication costs 62 mites 174, 175 RPW infestation 72 monitoring traps mango, pests 18, 23 advantages and disadvantages 225–226 Marche region [Italy] determination of pest distribution by PBM infestation 293–294 220–226, 288, 289 RPW infestation 292 methodology 220–221 mark-and-recapture methods [for optimal lures 223–225 insect-dispersal monitoring] 111 optimal trap designs 221–223, 224 mass trapping trap position and distribution 225 aggregation pheromones used in 4, 5, see also semiochemical-based monitoring k traps k 113, 114, 267–268 Morocco in combination with biological or date production 57 chemical control 269 RPW infestation 72 kairomones used in 4, 268 morphology [of palms] 41 trap densities 268, 269, 270 Musa sp. (banana) trap designs 268–269 pests 6, 10, 16, 18, 21 Mauritia spp., pests 10 as potential host for RPW 8, 84 Maximiliana spp., pests 10 Musa paradisiaca (plantain), pests 6 Mediterranean dwarf palm see: Chamaerops humilis n Mediterranean region Nannorrhops ritchiana,non-hostspecies ecosystem services provided in 55–61 [for RPW] 8, 76,84 palms in 40 National Plant Protection Organizations melon plants, pests 16 (NPPOs), difficulties in Metamasius hemipterus implementing control measures aggregation pheromone 111, 113 256 synthetic compounds as co-attractants Nephelium lappaceum,pests 15 114, 115–117 nettle caterpillar see: Setora nitens Metarhizium spp. nipa palm see: Nypa fruticans as biocontrol agent 179, 261 non-pathognomonic symptoms 188–191 RPW infected by 178, 179, 262 Northern Bangalow palm see: Metarhizium anisopliae 178, 261 Archontophoenix alexandrae Metarhizium brunneum,asbiocontrol nutmeg, pests 23 agent 180, 263 nutrional deficiency, visual symptoms Metarhizium pinghaense 178, 180 188, 190

k k

Index 309

Nypa sp., pests 15 p Nypa fruticans Paecilomyces farinosus, in pest management pests 21 4 RPW infestation 8, 75,81 Palilio butterflies, color vision 124, 166 palm borer moth (PBM) see: Paysandisia o archon oats, pests 23 palm esters ocelli as co-attractants with Rhynchophorus [in visual system], insects [in general] pheromone 114, 115–117, 225, 119, 161 268 internal ocelli 161 PBM attracted by 143, 160 PBM 163–164 “palm heart”,organization of 43–44 Octodonta nipae 205, 206 palm location database 227 Oenocarpus spp., pests 10 Palm Protect project 83, 142, 270–271 oil palm see: Elaeis guineensis insecticide development 263, 266, 267, oilpalmbunchmothsee: Tirathaba 269, 270 rufivena trap development 223, 224, 225, 262, olfactory receptor neurons (ORNs), in 268, 269 Rhynchophorus spp. 114, 118 palm volatile compounds Ommatissus binotatus (dubas bug, plant PBM attracted by 143, 160 hopper, or date palm leafhopper) RPW attracted by 74, 96, 106, 113–114, 17–18 118–119, 221 k Oncosperma spp., RPW infestation 8, 75, palm weevils see: Rhynchophorus spp. k 81 palm-infesting whitefly see: Oncosperma horridum, RPW infestation Aleurotrachelus atratus 75,81 Palmeral of Elche [Spain] 58, 59, 285 Oncosperma tigillarium, RPW infestation Palmero [Italy], mass-trapping experiment 75,81 286–287 online portal [PBM and RPW information] palmetto palm see: Sabal palmetto 287 papaw see: Carica papaya Ooencyrtus sp. 173 papaya see: Carica papaya ornamental palms 1, 40, 58, 60, 80–81, parasitoids 172–175 105 Paratheresia menezesi 173 PBM infestation 10, 11, 61 parks and gardens, palms in 40–41, 59, pests 13, 14 81 RPW infestation 8–9, 61–62, 288, Parlatoria blanchardi (date white scale, 291 Parlatoria date scale insect) 19 Oryctes spp. (rhinoceros beetles) 5 Parlatoria date scale insect see: Parlatoria control measures against 5 blanchardi Oryctes agamemnon (date palm beetle, pathognomonic symptoms 191–201 rhinoceros beetle) 27, 205–207 Paysandisia archon (palm borer moth, Oryctes monoceros 5 PBM) 10–11 Oryctes rhinoceros (rhinoceros beetle) antenna morphology 155, 157–159 5–6 biocontrol using entomopathogens 177, control/management of 4 178, 179, 180, 261 and RPW attack 9, 28 “calling behavior” 151 Ostrinia nubilalis 205 chemical cues 10, 154–155, 160 Ostrinil(R) see Beauveria bassiana cocoons 136, 137, 144–145

k k

310 Index

Paysandisia archon (palm borer moth, spectral sensitivity of PBM ocelli PBM) (contd.) 163–164 control strategies 171, 270 spread into Europe 54, 133–134 co-occurrence with other pests taxonomy 132–133, 150 204–205, 207 trap design 166, 227 courtship behavior 151–154 tuning of vision to visual cues 164–166 damage in native areas 133 visible symptoms of infestation 44, 193, design of behavioral experiments 166 196–199, 201, 202–204 detection of larval activity 210, 217, visual cues 10, 160–166 218, 226 visual system 162–164 diel periodicity of mating 151 pest risk analysis 283 dispersal capability 143, 145 Pestalotiopsis spp. [fungi] 11, 15 distribution 133–135 Phaseolus spp., pests 21 diurnal flying activity 10, 143, 162 pheromone-based traps economic impacts 61, 255 O. rhinoceros 4, 5 eggs 135–136, 144, 174 RPW 4, 5, 64, 118, 124 emergence of adults 143 RPW flight activity/performance assessed using 94, 97, 110 flight capability 143–144 pheromones global distribution 133 PBM 152, 154 host plants 11, 137–143 RPW 7, 70, 74, 106, 107, 111–113, 221, host-location behavior 143, 155, 160 267 larvae 136, 144 k Philippines fishtail palm see: Caryota k legal control measures 256–257 cumingii life cycle 135–137, 143–145 Phoenix spp. light-polarization sensitivity of eye 164, abundance 81 165, 166 flower characteristics 42 longevity of adults 143 PBM infestation 11, 44, 137, 139, 140, mate-locating behavior 151 142 mating behavior 144, 151–155 visual symptoms 196, 197, 203 olfactory sensilla on antennae 155, 157, pests 18, 25 158, 159 RPW infestation 7, 8, 9, 48–49, 73, 77, origin 133 79 ovipositor 154–155, 156 Phoenix canariensis (Canary palm) ovipositor extrusions [in PBM females] abundance 80 154 CPLAS case studies 243, 246 parasitoids 173–174 crown sanitation 46, 257–259 pheromones in mating behavior 151, distribution 40, 41, 80 152, 154 factors affecting PRW-susceptibility phytosanitary emergency measures 82 against infestation 294 glue application method 260 predators 175 “inspection window” in crown 191 pupae 136, 137, 145 leaf arrangement 42 as quarantine pest 11, 135, 256, 293 non-pathognomonic symptoms reproductive behavior 151–155 188–190 and RPW attack 9, 11, 28, 29, 79, 96 odor compounds 119 spectral sensitivity of PBM compound as ornamental plant 1, 40, 60, 61, 80, eye 163, 164 288

k k

Index 311

PBM infestation 11, 44, 137, 139, 142, field sanitation programs 257 293 risk assessment 236, 237–238, 248, pests 12, 19, 23, 25, 205 251 physiological deficiency 188, 190 visual symptoms 191, 195, 196, 197, replacement by less-susceptible species 200, 201, 209–210, 288 285 sanitation by dissection 46 RPW attack strategies 42, 44, 45, thermal imaging used to detect 105 infestation 49 RPW infestation 7, 8, 9, 46, 48, 77, 81, Phoenix reclinata (wild date palm, Senegal 89, 92, 96, 106, 255, 282, 288, 289, date palm) 290, 291 PBM infestation 11, 137, 140 CPLASGUIandmultimediacontent pests 19 of DSS 239 RPW infestation 77 decision process 240 Phoenix roebelenii (pygmy date palm, detection of 49, 213, 215, 216, 219, miniature date palm) 220 PBM infestation 11, 137, 140 economic impact 282 RPW infestation 77,84 visual symptoms 191, 192, 193, 194, Phoenix rupicola (cliff date palm), non-host 195, 201, 209 species [for RPW] 8, 78,84 as RPW infestation indicator 227 Phoenix sylvestris (silver date palm, sugar wind damage 189 date palm) Phoenix dactylifera (date palm) PBM infestation 11, 137, 140 k abundance 40, 57–58, 80 RPW infestation 8, 73, 78 k acoustic detection of RPW larval activity Phoenix theophrasti (Cretan date palm) 210 abundance 80 carbon sequestration by 60 in CPLAS case study 251, 252 collapse causing death 282 distribution 40, 80 in CPLAS case study 248, 250–251 gummy secretion at injury site 83 distribution 40, 57–58, 80 as ornamental plant 80 drying of offshoots 49 PBM infestation 11, 140, 282 factors affecting PRW-susceptibility visual symptoms 196 81–82 RPW infestation 8, 9, 78,96 fungal infestation 190 risk assessment 236, 237–238, 251 leaf arrangement 42 visual symptoms 196 as major fruit crop 1, 40, 57–58, 80 RPW resistance 8, 82, 83, 187 non-pathognomonic symptoms 190 phosmet 265 offshoot generation 48 phosphine, as fumigant 257 as ornamental plant 61, 288 phytosanitary legislation 62 “palm heart” organization 43–44 Picusan(R) weevil-capture trap 222–223 PBM infestation 11, 137, 140, 142 pineapple see: Ananas comosus visual symptoms 196, 197 Pistacia vera,pests 22 pests 17, 18, 19, 21, 22, 23, 25, 26 Pistosia dactyliferae 12, 13 RPW attack strategies 48–49, 105 plantain see: Musa paradisiaca RPW infestation 7, 8, 9, 73, 77, 79, 81, plant defenses 271 92, 96, 106, 255, 282, 288, 291 plant hopper see: Ommatissus binotatus CPLASGUIandmultimediacontent plant volatile compounds 106, 113–114, of DSS 241 118–119, 143 detection of 213 Plectocomia spp., pests 21

k k

312 Index

pleonanthy 41 religious significance [of palms] 40, 58, pomegranate see: Punica granatum 285 pomegranate fruit butterfly see: Virachola remote thermal imaging 48, 219–220 livia compared with other detection methods Portugal 226–227 PBM infestation 134 Rhapidophyllum hystrix,pests 12 RPW infestation 72 rhinoceros beetle see: Oryctes agamemnon; predators 175 Oryctes rhinoceros Pritchardia spp., pests 10 rhinoceros beetles see: Oryctes spp. Pritchardia pacifica,pests 21 Rhynchophorus spp. 2 propagation of palms 48 aggregation behavior 106–107 Prosopis juliflora,pests 22 control measures against 4, 5 provisioning services 55, 56 Rhynchophorus bilineatus 71, 72, 84, 113 production of dates 57–58 Rhynchophorus cruentatus Prunus dulci,pests 22 acoustic detection of larval activity 213 Punica granatum (pomegranate), pests aggregation pheromone 111 22, 25 mating behavior 107 pygmy date palm see: Phoenix roebelenii synthetic compounds as co-attractants 114, 115–117 q Rhynchophorus ferrugineus (red palm quarantine facilities, detection of RPW weevil, RPW) 7–9 infestation 212, 213, 214, 226, 228 acclimatization to temperate climate k quarantine measures 256, 257, 280, 285, 89, 97, 105 k 289 acoustic detection of larval activity principles affecting 285 210–214 quarantine pests aggregation behavior 107 inspection of plant material for 213, aggregation pheromone 7, 70, 74, 106, 214, 226, 228, 233 107, 112–113, 221 PBM 11, 135, 256, 293 biological control 176–180, 260–262, RPW 69, 233, 256, 286 270 quarantine treatments 257, 270 buffer effect of living in palm tissue queen palm see: Syagrus romanzoffiana 91–93, 96–97 cavities created in palm tissues 49, 92 r chemical control 171, 263–267, 270 Ramot date palm orchard [Israel], CPLAS chemical cues 111–119 case study 248, 250–251, 251 chronology of spread in Mediterranean Raphia spp., pests 14 region 72–73 raphia palm see: Raphia ruffia color vision 120–122 Raphia regalis 42 control strategies 171, 269 Raphia ruffia (raphia palm), pests 6 co-occurrence with other pests rats, as predators 175 204–205, 207 rattan palms 46 cuticle coloration 123, 124 Ravenea sp., RPW infestation 202, 289 development thermal parameters red flour beetle see: Tribolium castaneum 86–90 red palm weevil (RPW) see: Rhynchophorus dispersal capability 61, 63, 108, ferrugineus 110–111, 286 regulating services 55, 56 distribution 7–8, 61, 72–73 palms contributing 56,60–61 economic impacts 61, 255, 282

k k

Index 313

effects of flood and sprinkler irrigation reasons for difficulty in pest management 259 69, 256 eggs 71, 72, 85, 90 sanitation programs 257–258 elimination of infested trees 285 social network 108 factors affecting control of 63 spectral sensitivity of RPW compound farming practices affecting infestation eye 120, 122, 123 259, 282 spread into Europe 54, 72–73 feeding and survival in extreme stem injection with pesticides 49–50 conditions 93 synthetic compounds as co-attractants flight activity, factors affecting 86, 88, 114, 115–117, 268 94, 95–96, 97 target sites for attack 50 flight potential/performance 108–110 taxonomy 70 flight prediction 95–96 temperature variation in infested palms global portal for 287 92, 93, 97 global temperature effect on complete thermal development thresholds larval development 92–93 89, 90 host plants 8–9, 70, 73–84 tuning of color vision to visual cues host-colonization strategies 106 122–124 insecticidal treatments 180, 263–267 UV-sensitive photoreceptors 122, 123 inter-species mating 108 visible symptoms of infestation 44, 191, larvae 71, 72, 85, 90 192–197, 200, 201–202 legal control measures 256–257 visual system 119–122 k less-susceptible/more-resistant palm visually guided behavior 122–124 k species 8, 77,82–83 walk activity, thermal and humidity lethal thresholds 89, 90, 93, 97 effects 86,94 life cycle 71, 72, 85 Rhynchophorus palmarum 5 light-polarization sensitivity of eye 122 aggregation pheromone 70, 111 longevity of adults 85, 86 mating behavior 107 mass trapping of 268–269 olfactory system 114, 118 mating behavior 107–108 parasites 173 mating and reproduction, temperature synthetic compounds as co-attractants thresholds/optima 86,93 114, 115–117, 224, 268 microwave treatment 259 Rhynchophorus phoenicis mitigation costs 61, 62 aggregation pheromone 111 modelling of development 87–88, synthetic compounds as co-attractants 94–95 114, 115–117 morphology 70–72 Rhynchophorus vulneratus 71, 72, 108, olfactory sensitivity 74, 96, 118 112, 113 origin 7, 72 Rhysipolis sp., in pest management 4 parasitoids 172–173 ribbon fan palm see: Livistona decipiens and PBM attack 9, 11, 28–29, 79, 96 rice, pests 16, 23 phenotypic variability 70–71 Ricinus communis,pests 22 photosensitivity in larvae 119 root feeders 3, 27–28 phytosanitary emergency measures royal palm see: Roystonea regia against infestation 292 Roystonea spp., pests 10 predators 175 Roystonea regia (royal palm) pupae 71, 72, 85, 90 pests 6, 21 as quarantine pest 69, 233, 256, 286 RPW infestation 8, 76

k k

314 Index

s Sesamia nonagrioides 15–16, 205 Sabal spp. Setora nitens 15 abundance 81 control measures against 4 RPW infestation 8, 78, 83, 291 Setothosea spp., control measures against Sabal bermudana,pests 25 4 Sabal causiarum,pests 12 Setothosea asigna, control measures against Sabal mexicana (Mexican palmetto, Texas 4 palmetto), PBM infestation 11, Sexava coriacea, control measures against 137, 140 4 Sabal minor (dwarf palmetto, bush Sicily palmetto) PBM infestation 134, 142 PBM infestation 11, 137, 140 RPW infestation 61, 79–80, 290, 291 pests 12 silver date palm see: Phoenix sylvestris Sabal palmetto (cabbage palm, palmetto sisal see: Agave sisalana palm, cabbage palmetto) Sitophilus spp., aggregation pheromone PBM infestation 11, 137, 141 111 pests 12 skipper butterflies, visual system 161 RPW infestation 78,83 Slovenia Saccharum officinarum (sugar cane) PBM infestation 134 acoustic detection of RPW larval activity RPW infestation 72 210 slug caterpillar see: Setora nitens Sneider, Dietrich 112 pests 6, 10, 15 k “sniffer dogs” k as potential host for RPW 8, 74, 78,84 advantages and pitfalls 218 sago palm see: Metroxylon sagu compared with other detection methods Samanea saman,pests 22 226–227 sap feeders 17–20 detection of RPW infestation by Sarcophaga fuscicauda [parasite of RPW] 215–218 172 sorghum, pests 15, 23 Sasso Valley [Italy], heritage palm groves Spain 59 heritage [historical] palm groves 58, 59, Saudi Arabia, mass trapping of palm weevils 80 225 PBM infestation 134, 137, 142 Scapanes australis 6–7 production of dates 57–58 and RPW attack 7, 28 RPW infestation 61, 72, 81 Scapanes australis grossepunctatas 7 spatiotemporal risk analysis, RPW Scolia erratica [parasite of RPW] 172 infestation 235–236 Segestes decoratus 4 spectral sensitivity control measures against 4 measurement of 121–122 semiochemical-based monitoring traps PBM’s compound eyes 163, 164 characteristics 220–221 PBM’s ocelli 163–164 purposes 220 RPW’s compound eye 120, 122, 123 unavailability for PBM 221, 270 spinosad 265 semiochemicals, use in pest control Steinernema carpocapsae methods 267–270 biocontrol using 177, 261 Senegal date palm see: Phoenix reclinata in chitosan formulation 177, 261 Sesamia spp. 11, 15–16 Steinernema feltiae 177 Sesamia cretica 15–16 stem borers 5–11, 15

k k

Index 315

stem injection of insecticides 49, 51, 180, infected palms identified by 49, 92, 266–267 219–220 stem [stipe] of palm 3, 41 thiamethoxam 265 cross-section 47 Thosea spp., control measures against 4 function 46 Tirathaba rufivena (oil palm bunch moth, implications of stem and vasculature the coconut spike moth, or the organization greater spike moth) 21–22 for chemical treatments 49–50 tobacco plants, pests 15 for RPW symptom development 49 toddy palm see: Borassus flabellifer injection of insecticides 180, 266–267 Trachycarpus fortunei (Chusan palm, longitudinal section 47 windmill palm, Chinese windmill offshoots 48–49 palm) 1 structure 47–49 as ornamental plants 80 vasculature 47 PBM infestation 10, 11, 137, 141, 142, Stenoma cecropia, control measures against 293 4 visual symptoms 193, 198, 203, 204 sterile insect technique (SIT) 262 pests 12, 16, 205 Beauveria bassiana used with 262 RPW infestation 291 Stichotrema dallatorreanum,inpest detection of 216 management 4 RPW resistance 77, 82, 96 structural features [of palms] 40, 41 Trachycarpus wagnerianus (dwarf windmill Sufetula sunidesalis 27–28 palm), PBM infestation 11, 137, k sugar cane see: Saccharum officinarum 141 k sugar date palm see: Phoenix sylvestris “transparent scale” see: Aspidiotus sugar palm see: Arenga pinnata; Borassus destructor flabellifer trap design Syagrus sp., RPW infestation 202, 289 PBM 166 Syagrus romanzoffiana (queen palm, cocos RPW 124 palm, giriba palm) Tribolium castaneum (red flour beetle), abundance 81 color vision in 122 PBM infestation 11, 137, 138 Trichogramma sp., PBM controlled using pests 12, 205, 206 173–174 RPW infestation 8, 76,83 Trithrinax campestris (caranday palm) Syagrus schizophylla,pests 20 abundance 81 PBM infestation 11, 133, 137, 141, t 293 tachinids, as parasitoids 172 visual symptoms 203 Talaromyces erythromellis, infestation after tropical warehouse moth see: Cadra PBM attack 11 cautella talipot palm see: Corypha umbraculifera trunk injection of insecticides 49, 51, 180, taraw palm see: Livistona saribus 266–267, 288–289 tea plants, pests 15 Tunisia Texan palmetto see: Sabal mexicana date production 57 thatch palm see: Howea forsteriana RPW infestation 72 thermal imaging advantages and pitfalls 219–220 u compared with other detection methods UNESCO World Heritage Centre(s)/Site(s) 226–227 58, 285

k k

316 Index

urban palms 58, 80, 105 visual symptoms 191, 195, 197, 200, CPLAS case studies 243–248, 248–249 202 Uropodidae mites 174, 175 RPW resistance 8, 77,82–83 UV-sensitive photoreceptors Washingtonia filifera (desert fan palm) insects [in general] 161 distribution 40, 41 in PBM 163, 164, 165, 166 as ornamental plant 40, 80 in RPW 122, 123 PBM infestation 11, 137, 141, 142, 293 visual symptoms 203 v pests 16, 19, 25 Valencia [Spain], RPW-infected palms 81 reflectance spectra 163 Virachola livia (pomegranate fruit RPW resistance 8, 77, 82, 83 butterfly) 24–25 Washingtonia robusta (Mexican fan palm) viruses, as biocontrol agents 176, distribution 40, 41 260–261 as ornamental plant 40, 80, 288 visual identification and characterization of PBM infestation 11, 137, 141 PBM and RPW infestation RPW resistance 8, 77,82–83 187–207, 209–210 wax palm see: Copernicia alba see also under main entries for each palm web-based information systems 287 species web-mapping service of CPLAS 251 visual system weevils see: Ceutorhynchus assimilis; apposition eye in 161, 162 Rhynchophorus spp. insects [in general] 119, 160–161 wheat, pests 23 k PBM 162–164 whitefly see: Aleurotrachelus atratus k RPW 119–122 wild date palm see: Phoenix reclinata superposition eye in 161 wild palms, susceptibility to pest attack volunteer actions, citizen involvement in 2 286–287 windmill palm see: Trachycarpus fortunei wood mouse, as predator 175 w “wound insects”, Rhynchophorus spp. Washingtonia spp. described as 74, 79 flower characteristics 42 gummy secretion at injury site 83 x PBM infestation 11, 137, 141, 142 Xenorhabdus nematophila 261 visual symptoms 197, 199 pests 12 y RPW infestation 9, 79, 96, 291 yatay palm see: Butia yatay

k