1. Space Exploration: the Story So Far

Executive Summary

50 years ago, humanity made its first tiny step into the way for this ambitious, but inspirational, human Universe. Since then, many thousands of spacecraft endeavour, with Europe’s Aurora programme an and more than 450 people have been launched important contributor. into orbit. Although most of the missions have been designed to operate in near-Earth space, several The International Space Station, the largest hundred robotic ambassadors have been despatched collaborative space programme yet undertaken, will to distant worlds, and 12 people have walked on also be available well into the next decade for life another world. sciences research related to long-duration human spaceflight, and as a test bed for future exploration Having reached its 50th anniversary, the Space Age technologies. has reached some degree of maturity. Many nations now recognise space as a highly visible activity that Until now, space exploration has largely been funded enhances their prestige in the international arena. At by the taxpayers. This is beginning to change, as the same time, space is becoming a key driver for entrepreneurs begin to play a significant role in space educational, economic, scientific and technological tourism and the utilisation of space. A number of advancement. Against this background, it is essential companies have already announced plans to develop that Europe, with its great heritage of exploration and reusable vehicles for suborbital tourist flights. It seems broad experience of space activities, maintains its likely, therefore, that new opportunities will arise for status as a leading space-faring nation. private enterprise to play an ever-increasing role in a future exploration programme. There are four destinations that offer suitable destinations for human explorers: the Moon, Mars, The European long-term strategy for space near Earth objects and the Earth-Moon Lagrangian exploration will be based on key themes, grouped in points. Each of these has a unique environment and four categories, which are of particular significance offers different challenges and opportunities for human for Europe: explorers, and each has the potential to capture the imaginations of the general public and inspire future • The advancement of scientific knowledge: Life and generations of scientists and engineers. its co-evolution with the planetary environment; Lunar observatories; Life sciences. Although the United States remains by far the largest • Innovation and economic development: Applied investor in space activities, many countries have microgravity research; Entrepreneurial activities; expressed an interest in a collaborative exploration Space services. programme that will incorporate a return to the Moon. • Support for the European political project: This awareness of the value of space exploration as European ambitions; the Lisbon strategy; Global a global, societal project, was demonstrated earlier partnership. this year, when 14 space agencies published a joint • Public constituencies, which recognises the document, “The Global Exploration Strategy: The necessity to engage the general public. Framework for Coordination”, which sets down initial steps for mutual collaboration. As these catagories show, space exploration should not simply be regarded as a technological or scientific Many robotic lunar missions from the United States, endeavour, but as a highly visible, inspirational project China, Japan, India and Europe are already planned that will have tremendous social and economic impact or under way. Once the ability to survive on the throughout Europe and the world. Moon and utilise the alien lunar environment has been demonstrated, the way will be open for the first human expeditions to Mars. Once again, robotic precursor missions will be necessary to pave the

Contents

Executive Summary ...... 3

Foreword: Daniel Sacotte ...... 6

Foreword: Dr. Walter Döllinger ...... 7

1. Space Exploration: The Story so far...... 8 The History of Space Exploration ...... 8 Europe’s Contributions ...... 9

2. The Innovations Roadmap for European Space Exploration ...... 11

3. European Themes ...... 13 The Advancement of Scientific Knowledge ...... 14 Life and its Co-evolution with the Planetary Environment ...... 14 Astronomical Observatories on the Moon...... 16 Life Sciences ...... 17

Innovation and Economic Development ...... 20 Applied Microgravity Research ...... 20 Entrepreneurial Activities ...... 21 Space Services...... 22

Support for the European Political Project ...... 25 European Ambitions ...... 25 The Lisbon Strategy ...... 26 Global Partnership...... 27

Public Constituencies ...... 29

4. Exploration Planning ...... 31 The International Context ...... 31 European Programmes ...... 31 National Missions ...... 32 Private Enterprise Activities...... 33

Epilogue: The Impact of Human Space Exploration on Society ...... 35

Acknowledgments ...... 37

5 Foreword

50 years ago, the world watched in wonder as the first Exploration Conference in Berlin will make clear, there artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, soared around the Earth are many nations – including the emerging space every 90 minutes, transmitting a repeating signal that powers of Asia – who intend to utilise their space left a huge imprint on people’s consciousness and programmes as a means of advancing their science imaginations. However, Sputnik was a product of the and technology. It is vital that Europe is not left behind, Cold War, a superpower rivalry that provided the main and that we grasp the opportunities offered by such motivation for space exploration for many years. an inspirational, ambitious endeavour.

During the last five decades, the space industry has Space exploration has the potential to strengthen grown and flourished, offering new technologies that and diversify European economies and to further have revolutionised our society and way of life. Yet the aims of the Lisbon Strategy by encouraging there is so much more that could be achieved if we the development of a knowledge-driven society. only have the vision to grasp the possibilities offered By playing to its considerable strengths and taking by the final frontier. Through space exploration advantage of its established skills, Europe has the and human spaceflight, humanity has, for the first capability to become a leading player in any future time, the opportunity to answer age-old questions exploration programme. It is our task to identify how about the origins of life on Earth and its possible this can be done, so that European contributions presence on other planets, to go beyond the limits to such an ambitious endeavour will provide major of today’s knowledge, to extend known boundaries benefits for the citizens of Europe and beyond. and eventually expand human presence in the Solar System.

Europe’s fundamental desire to build upon its heritage of exploration remains as strong as ever. In a multi-polar world where many new competitors are emerging, it is essential that Europe becomes a major participant in the space exploration enterprises of the next half century in order to remain a member of the league of nations that are driving and influencing global societal development.

Although the United States will remain the foremost investor and leader in space exploration for the foreseeable future, sustained human missions beyond low Earth orbit will be not possible with the resources of any single nation. There will inevitably Daniel Sacotte, be opportunities for many other countries to make Director of Human Spaceflight, Microgravity and major contributions to a global programme, and it is Exploration Programmes, ESA imperative that Europe is in a position to play a key role in such a pioneering technological endeavour.

Earlier this year, despite their different backgrounds, interests and capabilities, 14 space agencies published a joint document, “The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination”, which set down initial steps for mutual collaboration. However, as this document and the speakers at the International Space

6 Foreword

Looking behind the intimate borders of Europe, Given its leading qualifications in the field of discoverers like Vasco da Gama, Christopher astronautics, exploration gives Europe the chance Columbus or Alexander von Humboldt provided the of becoming an even more attractive international intellectual and physical engine of growth for human partner: A fair collaborator in the international field endeavours during the past 500 years. A mere 50 that aims for real partnership and integration. years ago another age of exploration began, once again with a quest for scientific knowledge. The Germany and Europe are excellently placed for human step into space was and still is a significant a program of exploration, no matter whether it is incident in our evolution. The achievements of the managed by Europe alone or in global cooperation. last 50 years were astonishing indeed, ranging from Together, Germany’s industry, the DLR institutes the Earth’s first artificial satellite Sputnik to the landing and the research landscape in general constitute a of the European spaceship Huygens on Titan. broad scientific and technological potential, offering excellent know-how that is recognized worldwide. Exploration opens a door to the future in astronautics. Furthermore, DLR considers the education dimension The point is to create a new strategy in which various of exploration to be highly important. fields of astronautics are pooled so as to broaden the boundaries of human existence in our solar Besides, exploration is associated with certain basic system. The intention is to focus cooperation among cultural aspects. Astronautics expands the intellectual established disciplines in order to further enhance the horizon as well as the physical range of mankind visibility of astronautics, its opportunities and results in considerably beyond the confines of our home planet, large segments of our society. Exploration will pursue giving us not only technological progress but also the a comprehensive approach incorporating scientific, chance of gratifying our immanent wish to expand our technological, political, and cultural aspects. Robotic sphere of existence. The future that we are planning technologies are crucial for the preparation and and shaping during this conference will show whether support of human missions. The International Space Europe will retain the position of importance in this Station ISS will not only serve as a multidisciplinary field which it enjoys in the cultural history of the research laboratory, but also as a test-environment world to this day. As Karl Kaiser, a political scientist, for exploration-relevant technologies. so poignantly put it, ‘If space should be populated only by Americans, Russians, Japanese and maybe This approach is necessary to find answers to Chinese by the end of the 21st century, this would fundamental questions relating to our existence, and have a symbolic significance of a profoundly political to widen the operating range of mankind at the same nature.’ time. Specifically, interest will focus on

• basic research into, among other things, the birth of the universe and the spread of life in it and, more specifically, in our solar system; • scientific research in a wide range of disciplines will push the borders of our knowledge and generate new applications; • technology development and technology transfer into other areas (spin-offs); • exploration of new resources in the vicinity of Earth and their possible later exploitation; and Dr. Walter Döllinger, • cultural, societal and political impacts of these Director of Space Programes, activities on Earth, particularly in international DLR Space Agency, Bonn cooperation.

7 1. Space Exploration: The Story so far

“Explore”: (1) travel through an unfamiliar area in order 20th century explorers who risked life and limb to to learn about it; (2) inquire into or discuss in detail; (3) reach the North and South Poles and the summit examine by touch. (Oxford English dictionary definitions) of Everest.

“Space exploration”: Extend access and a sustainable Today, the spirit of past European explorers lives presence for humans in Earth-Moon-Mars space, including on in the desire to learn more about humanity’s the Lagrangian Points and near-Earth objects. place in the Universe, something that can only be achieved by venturing forth to visit and study new Throughout its existence, the human race has worlds. For the first time in history, technology has been driven by a desire and a drive to explore. reached a state of sophistication that enables us Our prehistoric ancestors overcame advancing to compare the evolution of our planet with its ice sheets, competition for resources and neighbouring worlds, to catalogue the resources intimidating physical barriers to settle eventually of these worlds, and to search for the answers in every continent other than Antarctica. Today, to such fundamental questions as “How did life there are few corners of the globe where humanity evolve?” and “Are we alone?” has not left its mark. The History of Space Exploration

Future space exploration will inevitably be founded upon the remarkable technological and scientific achievements of the first 50 years of human and robotic exploration. In that brief period, humans have walked on the Moon and brought back hundreds of kilos of lunar samples. They have assembled space stations in low Earth orbit, sent robotic explorers to every planet in the Solar System, built sophisticated space observatories and developed powerful expendable and reusable space vehicles.

There are many reasons for exploration. In many cases, it was largely motivated by population pressure allied to a need for virgin land and natural resources. However, in the background there has always been the search for knowledge and the desire to find out what lies in the next valley or on the other side of the ocean. Many of the great episodes of exploration have begun in Europe. Examples include the Vikings, who sailed west to Greenland and North America in their longships; Christopher Columbus, who sought a shorter route to the riches of Cathay; and the Apollo 12 mission © NASA

8 After the dramatic successes of the Apollo lunar that ESA Member States developed Spacelab, a programme 1969-1972, the advent of the modular research facility that flew on 22 Shuttle Space Shuttle led to an increasing emphasis on missions between 1983 and 1998. microgravity research and commercialisation of low Earth orbit. At the same time, the introduction of increasingly advanced, automated spacecraft brought about a revolution in such fields as telecommunications, meteorology, Earth observation and navigation.

Alongside the exploitation and utilisation of near-Earth space, many nations recognised the importance of discovering the true nature of Earth’s neighbours. Why are they so different from our blue planet? Have they always been hostile to life as we know it? Is there a possibility ESA astronaut Thomas Reiter on ISS that life ever evolved on these worlds – or even that some simple form of life exists somewhere With 22 flights in various configurations, out there today? Spacelab enabled scientists to take advantage of the unique microgravity conditions to conduct From the 1970s onwards, robotic human pioneering research in many different disciplines. ambassadors have studied each of the eight European astronauts also participated in various major planets, along with various asteroids and groundbreaking Shuttle missions involving the comets. Spacecraft have been despatched by Hubble Space Telescope, the Tethered Satellite, the United States, the Soviet Union, Europe and the Eureca retrievable satellite and the Shuttle Japan to make controlled landings on the Moon, Radar Topography Mission. At the same time, ties Venus, Mars, Titan, asteroids Eros and Itokawa, as with the former Soviet Union were strengthened, well as Comet Churyumov-Gerasimenko. Some providing opportunities for European astronauts of these have carried sophisticated laboratories, to gain experience of long-term spaceflight on others have deployed mobile rovers. In addition board the Salyut and Mir space stations. to the cases of lunar rocks returned by the Apollo astronauts, automated spacecraft have been designed to bring back samples of extraterrestrial material.

Europe’s Contributions

Since the early years of the Space Age, Europe has played a significant role in mankind’s endeavours to explore other worlds and understand the Universe in which we live. In the early 1970s, NASA invited Europe to participate in its crewed Shuttle programme, with the result European Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) and ISS

9 Since 1978, more than 30 astronauts from ESA member states have flown on 48 missions. Many of these flights have been the result of Europe’s decision to become a major partner in the International Space Station (ISS) programme. Among the many contributions to the programme are the Columbus laboratory, the Automated Transfer Vehicles, Multipurpose Logistics Modules, two ISS Nodes and the Data Management System for the Russian segment. In addition, Europe is providing specialist scientific facilities, including a Microgravity Science Glovebox and various refrigerators and freezers.

Ariane 5

At the same time, the European space science programme has played an increasingly important role in the exploration and knowledge of the Artists impression of European Columbus module Solar System and beyond. Since 1986, European spacecraft have gone into orbit around the At the same time, Europe has developed its Moon, Venus and Mars, and made an historic own autonomous access to space through the landing on Saturn’s satellite Titan. In 2014, after Ariane launcher programme. Today, the heavy- a 10-year odyssey beyond the orbit of Jupiter, lift Ariane 5 can carry a payload of two large ESA’s Rosetta mission will fly alongside and land commercial satellites, and a modified version will on a comet. soon launch the first ATV on a rendezvous and docking mission to the ISS.

10 2. The Innovations Roadmap for European Space Exploration

Although a detailed roadmap has yet to be (1) Robotic exploration of Mars will lead defined, it is clear that a future European space ultimately to the implementation of programmes exploration programme will be built upon the to bring selected samples from Mars back to extensive experience gained by ESA Member Earth. Through this activity, it will be possible States in robotic and human spaceflight. A to learn more about Mars and its environment number of key capabilities must be developed in and to demonstrate the entire transportation order to make it possible for European citizens sequence, including return from Mars to the to set foot on the Moon and eventually explore Earth’s surface. Mars. (2) Prolonged human operations in space, The preparation of human missions to Mars can particularly in low Earth orbit with utilisation of be broadly subdivided into three parallel activity the ISS. Through this activity we will learn how to lines to be followed throughout the next 20 sustain human health in space and discover ways years: to improve the efficiency and safety of human transport and operations in space.

Capability roadmap for European space exploration

11 (3) Human missions to the Moon. Through this One of the most fundamental requirements will be activity we will learn how to transport crews the development of safe, reliable transportation efficiently and safely to and from planetary systems that can not only carry crews to lunar surfaces; how to utilise local resources to reduce orbit, but also deliver them safely to precise dependency of cargo transport from Earth; how locations on the surface and then return them to to implement sustained surface exploration Earth. Other innovations, such as in situ resource activities based on a human-robotic partnership utilisation and robotic astronaut assistance will in order to maximise the effectiveness of costly also be a priority. and limited crew time; and to protect humans in deep space against the radiation environment. Precurser robotic missions will play an important role, preparing the way for humans to establish long-term bases on the Moon and conduct extensive exploration of Mars. Building upon the orbiter and lander programmes already developed for lunar and Martian studies, informed decisions will be made concerning the architectures required for human habitation and surface operations. The ExoMars rover is already under development, as the first mission of ESA’s Aurora programme. Also envisaged as a long- term objective is a Mars Sample Return mission.

Moon south pole © USGS

With the continuing availability of the International Space Station (ISS) for at least another 8 to 10 years, it will be possible to demonstrate some important enabling capabilities necessary for future human missions beyond low Earth orbit. After the installation of the Columbus laboratory and other science facilities on the ISS, it will be possible, for example, to investigate measures that will improve long-term astronaut health, evaluate advanced closed loop environmental systems, and try out new EVA systems. New crew transportation vehicles equipped with autonomous rendezvous and docking systems © NASA/RPIF/DLR may also be flown and tested in low Earth orbit, prior to their utilisation in deep space.

12 3. European Themes

The European long-term strategy for space • Habitability and Life Beyond Earth: to increase exploration will be based on four strategic the knowledge of life, its evolution, and its cornerstones that have been developed after environment; extensive consultations with the scientific • Sustainable Human Life in Space: to create community; politicians and institutional innovation to support and improve human organisations; industrialists and innovators and living conditions; the general public. The cornerstones are: • Sharing the Space Adventure and Benefits: to foster broader engagement and a robust • Europeans in Space: to support European support base, sharing benefits in the form of projects and policy objectives, and position awareness, education, inspiration, security Europe as a visible strategic partner; and commercialisation.

The European interests in space exploration have been derived from an extensive stakeholder consultation process with the European scientific community, political representatives, industry and European public organisations. The chart shows the relevance of the resulting twelve key themes in respect to the target destinations LEO/Earth, Moon and Mars. Due to their nature the themes can be characterised as either driving or enabled by space exploration. For some, this character changes over time. All themes generate a significant beneficial impact on society.

13 Using these cornerstones as a basis, four The Advancement of Scientific categories that are of particular significance for future European space exploration have been Knowledge identified: Three major themes have been identified for (1) The advancement of scientific knowledge; the science domain area: (1) Life and its Co- (2) Innovation and economic development; evolution with the planetary environment; (2) (3) Support for the European political project; Lunar observatories; (3) Life sciences. (4) Public constituencies. Life and its Co-evolution with the Planetary The relevance of the key themes under those categories is displayed in the chart on Environment page 11. Overarching Goal: To understand the fundamental As these catagories recognise, a technological questions regarding the origins and evolution of life roadmap alone will not result in the creation in the Solar System, as well as the ways in which they of a successful, long-term space exploration interact. programme for Europe. Such an ambitious enterprise will only be possible if it receives The origin and evolution of life is necessarily substantial funding and widespread support from dependent on the origin and evolution of its host politicians, scientists, private enterprise and the planetary environment. However, the presence general public. In order to achieve this, it will be of life has the ability to modify the planetary essential to grab the attention and backing of key environment in which it evolves. For example, the stakeholders and decision-makers. presence of large amounts of oxygen in Earth’s atmosphere is the direct result of the spread of Important as it is to present an inspiring vision photosynthetic organisms some 2 billion years that promises a lasting legacy of achievement, it ago. Life on other bodies, should it exist, may is also vital to emphasise the potential of space have had a similar impact. One example is the exploration to benefit the European economy possible biogenic origin for methane gas found and society as a whole. Some research is already on Mars. being undertaken in areas such as applied research, life and physical sciences. Such There are many fundamental questions that research will be considerably enhanced by the remain to be answered. What were conditions completion of the ISS and the extension of space like in the early Solar System? How did life arise if activities to low lunar orbit and the surfaces of Earth was initially molten and sterile? Where did the Moon and Mars. At the same time, there the water and organics necessary for life come will be great potential for new advances and from? Although all evidence of this era has been discoveries as scientists establish observatories erased on Earth, the Moon may still preserve and laboratories on the Moon and search for life some of this information. The lunar surface and on the red planet. the underlying regolith act as a natural “museum” in which the records of asteroid or comet impacts and solar activity are preserved. Comets and asteroids, the debris left over from the formation

14 of the planets, also offer important clues to the The study of the co-evolution of life and planetary origins of biogenesis. Each of these is a potential environments is a key driver for the ESA Exploration source of water and organic molecules, the basic Strategy, influencing the future roadmap and building blocks of life. requirements for advanced architectures, such as hardware capable of in situ dating of rocks, Mars is thought to be one of the most favourable detection of biogenic molecules, and deep places for alien life to have evolved since drilling. conditions may once have been warmer and wetter than they are today. Over the last 3 billion years, Mars has evolved away from its former benign and the surface of Mars no longer seems Living organisms and favourable for life as we know it. However, the surface upon which there is a possibility that life established itself they live are underground, where liquid water could persist inseparable from each and conditions were less hostile. other. Planets evolve geologically, thus influencing also the evolution of organisms. On the other hand, on Earth, living organisms influence the composition of the atmosphere, thus influencing further evolution of larger and more complex organisms.

Frances Westall CNRS Orleans

Mars north pole © NASA/JPL

An understanding of life’s origins and evolution, and the answer to the age-old question “Are we alone?” are fundamental problems that have puzzled humanity since time immemorial. Apart from their scientific importance, these themes are also of broad cultural significance. If evidence of extraterrestrial life (past or present) is found on Mars, it would have an enormous impact on society.

15 Mars “Mars presently offers The fourth planet from the Sun has the best chance to find fascinated scientists, novelists, extraterrestrial life, artists and the general public for extinct or extant. In centuries. This fascination has addition, Mars kept extended into the modern technological age. When the Mars the record of the early Pathfinder rover landed on the red evolution of a planet, a record number of hits were terrestrial planet and, counted on the mission web sites. possibly, the beginning of life. The planet offers a laboratory to study fundamental Although Mars is noticeably colder than our world, it is also the most Earth-like member of the Solar System. A visitor to Mars would experience geophysical processes, which are more changing seasons and a day which lasts only a little longer than a terrestrial typical of most other planets and moons day. Its polar ice caps grow in the winter and shrink each summer. Clouds in the solar system - in many cases better of ice particles and dust storms appear in the thin Martian atmosphere, than what we can study on Earth.” while numerous small “dust devils” meander over the plains. Tilman Spohn Mars comes closer to Earth than any of the planets apart from Venus, DLR German Aerospace Center although its distance varies considerably during each opposition. At its closest, Mars may approach to within 55 million km of Earth, but during the furthest oppositions it comes no closer than 100 million km. Astronomical Observatories on the Moon There are no obvious signs of life on Mars, although the climate was warmer and wetter a few billion years ago. At the present time, the surface Overarching Goal: To use the Moon to perform atmospheric pressure is so low (less than 1% of that on Earth) that liquid groundbreaking astronomical observations that are water cannot exist on the surface. Yet some channels seem to be just a few either impossible or severely degraded from locations on days or weeks old. Earth or in orbit.

At present, almost all astronomical observations are made by Earth-based instruments or orbiting space observatories, such as the Hubble Space Telescope. Only a few, limited observations have been made from the surface of other worlds.

© ESA/DLR/FU Berlin (G. Neukum) With its extremely sparse atmosphere, the Moon Are there natural reservoirs of liquid water or ice in cavities just beneath would appear to be an ideal location for many the surface? If so, do they harbour primitive organisms? One major task kinds of astronomical observatories. If a human for human explorers will be to look for answers to the age-old question, “Are we alone?” presence is established on the Moon, it would seem logical to take advantage of the available With a surface area equal to all of the landmasses on Earth, there will also workforce and infrastructure to establish such be plenty to explore for geoscientists. Mapping the inventory of potentially research facilities, despite the challenges exploitable minerals and probing the interior with seismic surveys will be presented by the lunar environment, such as the major enterprises. Even the two small moons of Mars, Phobos and Deimos, may offer opportunities for mining. ubiquitous presence of fine dust and extreme temperature cycles.

16 Studies have shown that most astronomical architecture capabilities, together with a highly observations at different wavelengths (visible, capable communications infrastructure. This, in infrared, ultraviolet, etc.) are possible from the turn, would provide the necessary infrastructure Moon, although these generally do not offer a that would enable the deployment and operation competitive advantage over orbiting facilities. of unique lunar observatories. However, astronomical observations at radio wavelengths may particularly benefit from such a location since the Moon’s far side is sheltered from terrestrial radio interference and could provide a platform for antennae that may cover “Looking at the Moon an area of several square kilometres. we learn about the origin of the Solar Radio interferometry – the linking of separate System. Looking from instruments so that they offer a similar capability the Moon we learn to a much larger instrument – would be of about the origin of the particular significance on the Moon in the low universe.” frequency part of the radio spectrum. One major objective would be the detection of the “Dark Heino Falcke Ages”, the time before the first stars and galaxies University of Nijmegen began to form.

The first ever view of the formation of the original Life Sciences stars and galaxies would offer major insights into the origins of our Universe – a discovery of Overarching Goals: (a) In order to enable human great intellectual significance. Such observations exploration, provisions must be made to maintain health are currently exceedingly difficult due to the and to provide medical support. (b) If human beings distortion of cosmic radio waves with a frequency are involved in exploration missions, the outstanding between 30-100 MHz by the ionosphere. At opportunity to increase knowledge of life sciences through even lower frequencies the view of our universe is fundamental investigations would be made possible. completely blocked from Earth. Large, free-flying interferometric arrays of the size required appear Microgravity research related to the life sciences not feasible, therefore, a lunar telescope is the has been taking place on board the Shuttle and only sensible option. various space stations for several decades. This research will continue and grow in importance as Other areas of astronomical research that would further laboratory facilities are added to the ISS benefit from a lunar location include observations by 2010. However, the fact remains that, in order of cosmic rays and fundamental particles, to enable humans to conduct exploration beyond especially neutrinos. Space-based systems in Earth orbit, ways must be found to maintain these areas are essentially precluded since a very astronauts’ long-term health and provide better large collecting area is required. medical support. Significant preparatory work will be required in order to develop this core The key driver for this theme would be the capability. establishment of lunar transportation and surface

17 psychological challenges are also likely to arise during such extended missions, such as mutations of microbes in isolated habitats which may affect human health, equipment etc. This means that the interaction of astronauts with their environment must be characterised and controlled.

The degree of difficulty in meeting these goals will inevitably be influenced by all decisions made concerning the overall exploration architecture. At the same time, different strategies for maintaining crew health and performance will have marked impact on the overall exploration architecture.

Future fundamental research on human physiology, psychology and other life science At the same time, the involvement of humans in topics will be required in order to contribute to exploration missions to the Moon or Mars will a deeper understanding of the observed crew offer outstanding opportunities to increase our reactions, no matter which destination is foreseen knowledge of life sciences through a variety of for exploration. Beyond the basic requirement of fundamental investigations associated with the supporting astronauts during long-term missions, particular conditions on these distant there is no doubt that the pursuit of this theme destinations. will enhance knowledge about fundamental human physiology and medicine. This deeper Any exploration setting will provide new, unique understanding will be applicable to life sciences characteristics that will be of interest to life back on Earth, where space-related advances scientists. Such exploration activities will improve and medical spin-offs will be of considerable our general understanding of human survival benefit to the general population. and adaptation to different environments. Knowledge gathered in one location, such as the Moon, is also likely to be relevant for subsequent “Space life sciences is exploration targets. An example of the latter is an indispensable the influence of exposure to different levels of cornerstone in a partial gravity on different worlds. successful and sustainable space Furthermore, prolonged exposure to the space exploration program. environment induces a variety of physical and Europe has gained a psychological changes. Exploration missions leading position in this will involve long-duration flights during which field.” crews will experience prolonged exposure to Gerda Horneck microgravity, radiation and space sickness, DLR German Aerospace Center as well as feelings of isolation and difficulty in communication with Earth. Other medical and

18 The Moon The Moon is Earth’s nearest “There is little doubt that a return to the neighbour, only three days Moon will vastly enhance our knowledge away by spacecraft, and of the Solar System and our place within the logical first destination it. The primary scientific importance of in a future exploration programme. Its surface area the Moon arises from the fact that it is similar in size to the has an extremely ancient surface, which continents of Australia and preserves a record of both the early Africa combined, most of geological evolution of a terrestrial planet which has never been visited and of the space environment in the inner by astronauts. Everywhere we look there are impact craters – clear evidence that the Moon (and, by Solar System from billions of years ago. implication, the Earth) has been struck by asteroids and comets throughout Significant benefits of lunar exploration its history. can also be identified for the life and astronomical sciences. In addition, The lunar environment presents many challenges to robotic and human experience gained on the Moon would explorers. Too small to hold onto an atmosphere, its lifeless, powdered surface is constantly bombarded by solar and cosmic radiation, as well as naturally support longer term aspirations incoming meteors. to send people to Mars later in the century.” Learning to live on the Moon will be an important step in extending human presence beyond the Earth. Studies are already well under way to determine Ian Crawford the most suitable sites for future bases. A number of locations with almost University of London permanent sunlight have been identified near the lunar poles, where water ice may exist in nearby, permanently shaded craters. Such ice could be used for washing, cooking and growing crops, as well as production of oxygen for breathing and rocket fuel.

The Moon is seen as a “way station” where we can learn how to live on an alien world in preparation for a future mission to Mars. The introduction of in situ resource utilisation and closed loop environmental control systems will be a major step on the road to permanent settlement of the Moon and Mars, with potential benefits for society back on Earth.

Commercial utilisation of the Moon, whether through tourism or exploitation of its mineral resources, is likely to be important in the coming decades. Meanwhile, scientists are already keen to take advantage of a return to the Moon to establish astronomical observatories that will be able to conduct important studies that are not possible on Earth, with the potential to make Crater Copernicus on Moon © NASA exciting new discoveries.

The Moon is also a natural archive, preserving in its rocks a record of the main events that have taken place in the Solar System during the last 4.5 billion years. Historical records of meteor impacts, solar activity and other external influences can still be found on the lunar surface or buried in the lunar regolith. Seismic surveys and drilling deep into the crust can also provide new insights into the formation of the Moon, the size of its hypothetical metal core and the nature of its interior.

19 Innovation and Economic Examples of areas with great potential for microgravity research are: preventive medicine, Development better understanding of human physiology, pharmaceuticals, botany, bacterial bio-kinetics, Three top level themes have been identified artificial ecosystems, new alloys, metal/chemical for the economy domain area: (a) Applied foams, smart materials, nano-technologies, microgravity research; (b) Entrepreneurial rocket motors and jet engines. Other applications activities; (c) Space services. already under development on Earth might be enhanced by their use in space, e.g. bio- Applied Microgravity Research contamination protective systems, advanced diagnostic and self-diagnostic devices, and Overarching Goal: Secure long-term European access telemedicine/remote surgery. to microgravity facilities in order to develop innovative techniques, technologies and products, and to enable space exploration.

Applied research in microgravity is already performed by many countries through the use of different platforms such as parabolic flights in specially adapted aircraft, sounding rockets, space capsules and facilities on the International Space Station (ISS).

Nearly all the outcomes of microgravity research will have a positive impact on society and the global economy. Everything pertaining to health and medical advances (e.g. research into mental and neurological diseases), will greatly assist the quality of life of aging populations with consequent effects on the general economy. A similar impact could be experienced with reference There is significant potential for further growth if to telemedicine for dispersed populations. the user community can be assured of continued research opportunities in space and possible The space exploration programme will provide a improvements in the conditions for research (e.g. wealth of opportunities for future applied research logistics and facility accessibility, automation through the design of staging posts in LEO, at the and access to crew time). However, it is essential Earth-Moon Lagrangian points or in low lunar to secure long-term access to applied research orbit, as well as planetary surface infrastructures, facilities in the microgravity environment for such as human-tended laboratories. At the the European user community also beyond the same time, applied research related to the lifetime of the International Space Station. effect of low gravity environments on the Moon

20 and Mars will be of direct relevance to the Entrepreneurial Activities exploration programme, as well as of general biomedical interest. Technological advances Overarching Goal: Enable the emergence of a space will also generate new markets on Earth, e.g. tourism industry in Europe in order to ensure the research into hydroponics – plant culture using subsequent sustainability of permanent tourism and the nutrient-rich water without the presence of soil, presence of the media and entertainment industries in the production of new materials and alloys, and space. cleaner jet engines. One of the major themes associated with European space activities has been the involvement and promotion of private enterprise. ”Microgravity This will continue and intensify as the future is really a development of space exploration and human strange spaceflight supports the emergence of new environment European entrepreneurial activities. This support which, despite will eventually lead to the development of a the initial permanent, thriving, emergent industry that troubles it may includes space tourism, media and entertainment cause in space, activities. becomes eventually a Space tourism is already a fact of life as wealthy friendly and individuals pay for visits to the ISS, flights to the useful tool that you wish you could take edge of space in jet aircraft and visits to ground- back on Earth with you in your daily life. I based facilities. Since the successful flight of am proud to have initiated the first the privately owned SpaceShipOne in 2004, parabolic flight programme in Europe companies such as Virgin Galactic and EADS based on a Caravelle and now on the have begun to invest substantial sums in the Airbus ZERO-G (A300) operated by development of suborbital spaceflight. Novespace for the benefit of thousands of researchers in a wide range of disciplines some of which are even not in need to go higher in space for their research. It has proven so far very productive for science and technology and I hope it will soon be also accessible to the general public through dedicated commercial flights in order to better sensitise the tax payer to the benefits of the space programme.” SpaceShipOne (courtesy of Virgin Galactic) Jean-François Clervoy Novespace; ESA Astronaut As new infrastructures are introduced as part of the future space exploration programme, the number and variety of space tourist destinations

21 and opportunities will increase. These could take inspiring the development of new transportation many forms, including such activities as “virtual” concepts and energy sources applicable on tourism on other worlds, space video games and Earth. In addition, there will almost certainly be a competitions such as races involving remotely “knock-on effect” that will impact the legal, fiscal, controlled lunar rovers. financial and insurance sectors of the economy, as well as education and culture. The media will also have an important role to play by satisfying the public demand for more In order to facilitate the emergence of a dynamic information. The mass media and industry may private space sector in Europe, it will be essential also be encouraged to meet a growing demand to create the conditions for a sustainable industry. for new forms of entertainment, ranging from Government support is likely to be highly virtual reality to 3D movies. beneficial in encouraging the emergence of such entrepreneurial activities.

Space Services

Overarching Goals: (a) Use the Moon as a source of natural resources and industrial raw materials; (b) Use specific areas of outer space as safe havens and operational hubs; (c) Provide in-space infrastructures and services to support space exploration and make it sustainable.

A future space exploration programme will facilitate the development of a sustainable, Space tourism: cabin interior service-based space economy. Although this © EADS Astrium / photo C. Mériaux 2007 may be based initially on government-funded The future expansion of entrepreneurial activities customers, it will increasingly involve investors into space will offer a broad range of new and users from the private sector. Examples of opportunities for public-private partnerships activities which are strategically significant for and contribute to enhancing the sustainability of sustained human activities in space and also well space exploration. However, private companies suited to be privately provided services include may soon develop their own independent exploitation of in situ natural resources, in- capabilities and facilities as space tourism, sport, space servicing, communication, navigation and competitions, media and entertainment activities logistic services. become a sector of huge economic importance and entrepreneurial ventures lead to the creation One of the most important requirements of of multinational consortia. exploring space beyond the Earth is the in situ utilisation of local resources. This includes not Private investments may also generate new only the direct exploitation of local raw materials, technologies, technical solutions and products but also the introduction of sophisticated mining, that will help to solve the problems related to processing and manufacturing techniques that transportation on the Moon and Mars, whether result in the local production of food, propellants, tele-controlled, robotic or manned, while and hardware.

22 With the growth in the space infrastructure beyond low Earth orbit will come a requirement “The worldwide for large-scale, in-space servicing (and possible space exploration assembly in orbit) of future space observatories activities in the and other facilities. Such in-space servicing fields of would extend the lifetime and overall profitability automated and of high-value space assets. Similarly, the demand human for telecommunication and navigation services undertakings are will grow tremendously with the expansion of pointing to a exploration activities. sustainable presence of humans in space - far beyond our Earth’s orbit. Space will be a place for humans to daily live and work. This new era will lead to a demand for new services in the form of infrastructures, logistics, transportation and investments, in space as well as on other celestial bodies like our Moon. Now is the time for governments and industries to prepare the European space sector for the upcoming challenges and to ensure European participation in future markets.” Another area that is likely to expand rapidly is the Manfred Fuchs provision of logistics to automated and human- OHB-System AG occupied facilities in Earth orbit or beyond. This could involve government-supported development of commercial space transportation The variety of technological and investment services or some other activities such as operation opportunities will attract large, non-space of space refuelling depots. industrial enterprises in many traditional fields, e.g. civil engineering, mining, petro-chemicals, What does seem certain is that innovative transportation, electricity production and techniques, technologies and products or systems telecommunications, as well as those dedicated developed for the exploration programme will to sophisticated technologies such as nano- also have many applications back on Earth. components, optical devices and autonomous Examples include automated manufacturing and robots. This will trigger an inflow of private capital assembly plants, and advanced power stations alongside the commercial development of lunar that may help to solve global energy problems natural resources and products. The positive and reduce pollution. impact of this activity on the global economy can hardly be overestimated.

23 Near-Earth Objects ”Asteroids are The Solar System contains countless billions of pieces of natural debris fascinating objects for a – comets, asteroids, meteors, ice and dust particles – left over from the whole variety of formation of the Solar System. Most of the rocky material is found in the reasons. Scientifically, asteroid belt, between Mars and Jupiter, but many thousands of asteroids travel through the inner Solar System, posing a potential threat of collision we need to understand with Earth. These are known as near-Earth objects (NEOs). exactly how they came about - how do they fit into our understanding of how the Solar System formed. And there is even the suggestion that some asteroids may have carried the organic molecules to Earth from which life ultimately developed. In the future, it Asteroid Itokawa © ISAS/JAXA might even be that asteroids will provide The precise number of NEOs is unknown. It has been estimated that 1,000 some of the raw materials which will be to 1,200 of these are larger than 1 km across - big enough to wipe out used in space to build space stations or our civilisation if one of them hits the Earth. There may be about 20,000 rockets. And ultimately we can be pretty medium-sized NEOs capable of devastating a small country or generating sure that an asteroid will threaten our a 500 metre high tsunami. very existence here on the Earth. Bearing

Not only do these small bodies represent the most significant impact that fact in mind, we have the threat to Earth, but they are scientifically important in their own right, responsibility to find out all we can about and represent potential resources for further exploration and exploitation. asteroids - we may well have the Some asteroids are rich in iron and nickel. Others are mainly carbon and capability to do something to destroy or may even contain diamonds. They may also provide an ideal intermediate deflect the threatening object - but only if deep-space destination on the road to Mars, since much of the infrastructure developed for earlier destinations, such as the Moon, can be utilised with we truly understand how they are ‘built’.“ modest modifications. John Zarnecki Open University

Rosetta

24 Support for the European Political will, therefore, be important to demonstrate European assertiveness on the international Project scene by conducting a highly visible, ambitious programme of exploration and human spaceflight Three themes have been identified for the activities. Such a policy could also contribute political domain area: European ambitions; to the European drive towards an independent Lisbon strategy; Global partnership. strategic posture in foreign affairs and security matters. European Ambitions Space exploration and human spaceflight have Overarching Goals: (a) Enable the European Union to take traditionally been used by the superpowers the role of a unified organisation in major undertakings as a means of impressing the world with their of global value; (b) Demonstrate increased European technological capabilities and global ambitions. assertiveness in international affairs by conducting an Such high profile, prestigious activities represent ambitious space exploration programme; (c) Contribute one of the most efficient and visible ways of towards an independent European strategic posture in affirming an assertive global position in a foreign affairs and security matters. peaceful manner, associating leadership with a willingness to cooperate with other nations. This policy remains at the core of the current US space exploration vision, and it is increasingly being adopted by emerging powers such as China and India as a demonstration of their intention to play a greater role in world economic and political affairs.

Cassini-Huygens

Future space exploration will involve significant BepiColombo collaboration between space-faring nations. However, it is essential that Europe plays a lead Faced with this reality, it is imperative that role in this pioneering endeavour, not only in Europe strives to increase political unity and the technological sense, but also with regard that the European Union takes on the attributes to the influence a unified Europe can exert. It and capacities of a sovereign entity, united or

25 federated. Europe must find a way of showing to The Lisbon Strategy itself and to the rest of the world that it is still a major global power, which is unified, assertive, Overarching Goal: Support the goal of the EU Lisbon ambitious, and able to provide people, products agenda by making Europe the most competitive and the and services of the highest quality. most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world through inspiration, education, research and innovation, as demonstrated by the quality and quantity of European science and technology. “Exploration of the Solar System and human The Lisbon Strategy, also known as the spaceflight are closely Lisbon Agenda or Lisbon Process, is the main linked components of development plan of the European Union. It was ambitious space set out by the European Council in Lisbon in programmes, which are March 2000 and adopted for a 10 year period. unthinkable outside of The Lisbon Strategy was designed to deal with the European framework. Europe has the low productivity and stagnation of economic already all the competencies to be one of growth in the EU, together with new challenges the world leaders of space exploration. It such as globalisation, an ageing population and is the inescapable responsibility of the increasingly rapid technological change. Its broad current generation of public authorities to aim is to “make Europe the most competitive and provide the European space sector with the most dynamic knowledge-based economy in the vision and the means to support and the world”. maintain its leadership position.”

Henri Revol Member of the French Senate; President of the Parliamentary Office of Evaluation of Scientific and Technological Choices

One way of achieving this recognition and status is to enlarge Europe’s strategic priorities in space to include exploration and human spaceflight. This would mean that Europe puts itself in a position to control its operations and access in near-Earth and cis-lunar space, with full participation and The main areas covered by the Lisbon Strategy relative independence in key areas of the space are economic, social, and environmental renewal exploration programme. The success of such a and sustainability. The Strategy is based on programme would help to promote awareness innovation as the engine for economic change, of a common identity among European member with an emphasis on the “learning economy” states and citizens, and to demonstrate increased and investment in people. This can be achieved confidence in the future capabilities and role of through inspiration, education, research and Europe in the 21st century. innovation, leading to a significant improvement

26 in the quality and quantity of European science in which a stronger EU economy will drive job and technology. creation and act as a magnet for foreign, high- skilled scientists and investors. At the same With the support of European bodies and Member time, the excitement of space exploration will States, the development of advanced R&D encourage more European students at all levels activities and a knowledge-based economy would to adopt academic courses and careers in science provide the basis for future commercial success. and engineering, thus stimulating the European In this respect, the space sector, particularly the scientific lifeblood and stopping or reversing the challenging missions of exploration and human “brain drain” towards the USA. spaceflight, offers unique possibilities. Support for this view comes from the example of The European space exploration programme the US Apollo programme in the 1960s, which will be able to support the goals of the Lisbon saw a qualitative and quantitative increase of Strategy by fostering innovation through scientific the science and technology workforce and a and technologically challenging space missions dramatic increase in the motivation of young that will also increase the visibility of space and people in these areas. interest in space activities, particularly for young people. Global Partnership

Overarching Goal: Enhance European diplomatic, economic and scientific relationships through the development of new or existing partnerships with the ”To succeed in the USA and emerging world powers, particularly Brazil, space business we need Russia, India and China. cutting edge technology and exceptional people As mentioned above, European involvement in that have to surpass a global space exploration programme has the themselves. Exploring potential to provide significant support for the outer space is a tough growth of a knowledge-based economy, but job and the knowledge we gain in this such a programme could also be important in endeavour could help humankind to strengthening Europe’s international position in solve other difficult problems on our other ways. In particular, space exploration is likely planet: space can contribute to shape to enhance Europe’s diplomatic, economic and Europe as the most advanced scientific relationships through the development knowledge-based society.” of partnerships with the USA and emerging world On. Dr. Umberto Guidoni powers. Member of the European Parliament For historical, cultural and political reasons, international relationships with the United States are recognised as extremely important for An ambitious space exploration programme European countries. Space is one of the more will provide new opportunities for research and visible examples of this cooperation. Maintaining innovation in Europe, creating a chain reaction the bilateral relationship that has existed since the

27 1970s is an excellent way of exhibiting Europe’s nations in committing themselves to space willingness to work with the USA and of easing exploration and human spaceflight. the sometimes strained relations with its major ally. In a time of globalisation and rapidly shifting international relationships, it is essential that Europe maintains and develops its diplomatic, economic and scientific relationships with ”Space Exploration other countries. At the same time, Europe opens up new must ensure that any cooperative endeavour opportunities of ensures a considerable degree of autonomy and technological independence, particularly in such a strategic development and domain as space exploration. knowledge that to this day one cannot even Technological partnerships with emerging (or fathom. Europe cannot re-emerging) powers in space exploration and afford to shy away from playing a major human spaceflight could be a way to develop role in this endeavour. strong economic and strategic relationships with these countries. It could also be a positive The resources necessary to embark on factor in integrating these countries into the such ambitious programmes and the international community and preventing parallel necessity to complete other dangerous technological proliferation. This important European programmes – approach was successfully implemented by the such as Galileo and GMES – require a United States with Russia in the 1990s, after the global approach. Thanks to the synergy disintegration of the Soviet Union. with other countries involved in such projects, it would allow on one hand to In a multi-polar world, improved diplomatic, have access to the necessary resources economic and scientific relationships between and on the other to avoid isolation from Europe, the USA, Russia and the emerging world the international community and the powers will be of prime importance. Taking into emerging countries.” account the economic and strategic rise of new international powers, space exploration would On. Ing Marco Airaghi Camera Dei Deputati, Italia be a key area in which cooperation could bring together these disparate nations.

Europe also has a history of space cooperation with Russia, Canada and Japan. In recent years, some preliminary exchanges of expertise and knowledge have been made between ESA and China, with the potential for further collaboration in the future. This breaking down of barriers is important because the new, emerging strategic powers are joining the traditional space-faring

28 Public constituencies Earth-Moon Lagrangian Points Overarching goal: Since space exploration is a long-term endeavour, a strong base of public support is essential to ensure the sustainability of this undertaking. Various constituencies must be nurtured and continuously strengthened, especially the younger generation.

Space activities, and particularly human spaceflight, have become part of European culture and an accepted norm. However space exploration plans remain far removed from the public’s everyday consciousness. It is therefore necessary to raise the general public’s level of interest in space exploration, and it is of In the field of space exploration, any means of saving propellant – and paramount importance for Europe to foster thus reducing mass and cost – is to be welcomed. A number of locations the exploration culture across generations and within the Earth-Moon system and the Solar System have been identified as sites where spacecraft can maintain position with very little expenditure nurture public constituencies for long-term space of fuel to “tweak” their orbits. These are named the Lagrangian points, exploration. (often abbreviated to L1 to L5) after the French scientist, Joseph Louis de Lagrange, who first identified them in 1772.

Solar observatories, such as ESA’s SOHO spacecraft, use the L1 Sun-Earth point about 1.5 million km away on the sunward side of Earth. A number of future observatories, such as ESA’s Herschel and Planck and the NASA-ESA James Webb Space Telescope, will use the L2 Sun-Earth point, about 1.5 million km from the Earth on the planet’s night side.

Because major societal and political changes will undoubtedly take place in the course of any long-

Planck term space exploration, a strong base of public support for the initiative must be continuously It will obviously be advantageous to develop human capabilities for reinforced. However, space exploration needs assembly and servicing such important facilities. The Lagrangian points to be convincingly communicated to the general also offer energy-efficient “gateways” to other destinations. One possibility public, rather than a narrow spectrum of the is to locate a space station at the L1 Earth-Moon point, where astronauts could assemble and service advanced telescopes or hardware being population. The conditions of a cultural and prepared for launch towards the Moon or Mars. societal support to space exploration should not solely rely upon the fascination of space, which proved short-lived in the case of the Apollo

29 programme, for example. Europe’s message humanities – history, philosophy, anthropology should therefore be effective in securing long-term and the arts, as well as the social sciences, public commitment to human spaceflight and political science, economics and law – cannot space exploration, and a strategic, multifaceted be neglected as it will increasingly become communication approach has to be taken and intertwined with and support future space revisited periodically. exploration plans. It is therefore vital that Europe grasps the opportunities offered by involving those Beyond being a matter of programmatic disciplines in the future long-term exploration survival, fostering Europe’s public support is a undertakings. fundamental duty for European space agencies. The general public needs to be engaged from the beginning to ensure that the overall rationale for European long-term space exploration activities “Big visions require is well understood and shared. To be successfully broad public support. adopted, the strategy must reflect the larger The European public not culture in which it operates, and public ownership only needs, but is also of this agenda must be broadly recognised and ready, to be moved by a addressed. By constantly addressing the needs new vision for space. of education, space exploration will galvanise This vision can not be interest and inspire the public, allow active based on technology participation in the adventure and harness alone, but must also answer to a longing European brain power (not only scientific and for an emotional and cultural technical). crystallisation point.”

The ability to raise the general public’s level of Kai-Uwe Schrogl interest in space exploration can create cultural European Space Policy Institute (ESPI) and societal conditions favourable to European plans. Space exploration, particularly human spaceflight, is a challenging, co-operative endeavour that offers opportunities to further strengthen European ties, foster European identity and define European values and priorities. It will also allow for enhancement of the European cultural sphere. Raising public awareness by linking space exploration and cultural activities makes sense, given Europe’s rich cultural heritage, in order to build a sense of ownership across Europe.

Space exploration goes beyond a technological endeavour. It will have a tremendous social and economic impact. Space activities are now entering an era where the viewpoint of the

30 4. Exploration Planning

The International Context in Canada, Germany, Italy, Republic of Korea and the United Kingdom.” Since the proclamation of President Bush’s Vision for Space Exploration in 2004, NASA’s activities European Programmes have been driven by the goal to return humans to the Moon before 2020. The experience gained Europe’s plans for exploration beyond near- in establishing a human presence on the Moon Earth space began in 2001, when the Aurora will provide invaluable experience applicable to programme of robotic and human exploration a subsequent human expedition to Mars. of the Solar System was introduced at the ESA Ministerial Council. Recognised as a crucial Even before the announcement of this new US undertaking for Europe, Aurora’s primary initiative, space agencies around the world objective was to develop a roadmap that would were developing plans for robotic and human culminate with European astronauts reaching exploration missions beyond LEO. Following in Mars within the first half of this century, preceded the footsteps of ESA’s SMART-1 orbiter, the next by a return to the Moon. few years will see a fleet of automated spacecraft despatched to the Moon by the US, China, India and Japan. At the same time, one or more robotic spacecraft will be sent to Mars during each launch opportunity of the next decade and beyond. These missions will dramatically increase our knowledge of the lunar and Martian environments and resources.

In May 2007, representatives of 14 space agencies published a joint document, “The Global Exploration Strategy: The Framework for Coordination”. The Framework makes the case for a voluntary, non-binding forum (the Coordination Mechanism) in which nations can share plans for space exploration and collaborate to strengthen both individual projects and the collective effort.

As the document recognises, “Sustainable space The Aurora Programme aims to establish the exploration is a challenge that no one nation can ability of Europe to participate as a recognised do on its own. We are now entering a new wave partner in future robotic and human international of space exploration, one of historic significance. space exploration endeavours. The key element The United States has developed its Vision for of the current Aurora programme is ExoMars, Space Exploration; the European Space Agency a robotic rover mission intended to search for has its Aurora space exploration programme. evidence of life on Mars. This mission, currently China, India, Japan and Russia have ambitious scheduled for launch in 2013, may eventually be national projects to explore the Moon or Mars, followed by an automated Mars Sample Return while future national missions are being discussed programme.

31 inform the development of the European long- term strategy in space exploration.

Artists impression of ExoMars Rover Complementing the Aurora Programme, the ESA Member States announced the start of the Crew Space Transportation System (CSTS) Preparatory Artists impression of ESA Mars Sample Return Programme at the end of 2006. The CSTS is intended for use in human exploration missions ESA also continues the European programme to the Moon (both in orbit and on the surface) via for Life and Physical sciences and applications LEO assembly, in addition to supporting missions (ELIPS) utilising the International Space Station, to the ISS. which includes many different science and technology activities related to long-duration In this preparatory phase, the Agency, supported human spaceflight. by European industry, the Russian Space Agency and other interested organisations of the Russian National Missions Federation, will agree areas for joint development and operation of the CSTS. At the end of this In the past, European countries have participated Preparatory Programme, a preliminary design, in space exploration as partners within major together with a programmatic data package and international missions and programmes. Most proven selected technologies, will be presented of this involvement has been related to ESA to the next ESA Ministerial Council in 2008. missions, although some countries have also negotiated bilateral arrangements with other Meanwhile, ESA is analysing integrated high- countries, notably the USA. level architectures supporting the future robotic and human exploration of Moon and Mars. Although the expenditure associated with The architecture analysis is driven by objectives space exploration largely precludes individual and requirements that were derived from European countries from developing their own extensive consultations of the European scientific missions, the advent of small, low cost satellites community, political representatives, industry and and miniaturisation of components has partially European public organisations. The stakeholder opened the door to such enterprises. Today, consultation activities and architecture analysis companies in Germany and the UK are actively

32 involved in studies that may lead to national However, there are also opportunities for public- missions to the Moon. One example is Mona private projects, perhaps similar to NASA’s Lisa, a German study that includes development Commercial Orbital Transportation Services of a versatile lunar landing craft. Its first proposed programme which offers financial support to payload is a small, autonomous research encourage commercial companies to deliver laboratory (AstroHab). The Italian Space Agency crew and cargo to the ISS. If successful, this is also conducting several studies into a future could open up a $7 billion market for private lunar orbiter and surface package. enterprise in the period 2010 to 2017.

There is also considerable potential to accelerate the development of many new technologies through privately financed, open competitions. Such prize competitions have been shown to be a cost effective and efficient means of stimulating technology development in space-related activities.

Private Enterprise Activities In recent years, private enterprise has begun to play a significant role in the utilisation of space. © EADS Astrium / images MasterImage 2007 One of the most promising areas appears to be space tourism, which has the potential to evolve The $10 million Ansari X Prize, won in 2004 into a multibillion euro industry. Several wealthy by Scaled Composites, helped to jump start entrepreneurs have already paid substantial sums the development of commercial, suborbital to spend a week or more on the International transportation. In September 2007, the X Prize Space Station. While most of the entrepreneurial Foundation and Google Inc. announced the projects related to space tourism are of US $30 million Google Lunar X Prize, with the aim origin, Virgin Galactic and EADS Astrium have of starting a commercial race to the Moon. The announced plans to develop reusable vehicles goal is to land a privately funded robotic rover on for suborbital tourist flights. the Moon that is capable of completing several mission objectives, such as traveling at least 500 Space tourism and related projects will metres across the lunar surface and transmitting undoubtedly broaden people’s experience and images back to the Earth. awareness of the potential of human spaceflight.

Epilogue

The Impact of Human Space industry, and concentrate their attention on the robotic missions that will dominate the various Exploration on Society exploration programmes for the next decade, thus avoiding the need to consider the more There is no doubt that the exploration of the Solar distant future. System with robotic missions will continue to be one of the most prominent space endeavours Few attempts have been made to recognise during the next decades. Such missions not only the human space exploration vision as what have a strong scientific value, but they also have it truly will be, above all, a great adventure of the ability to satisfy the curiosity of mankind. This mankind, strongly supported by opportunities applies in particular to the search for life and for great science and outstanding technological its evolution beyond our own planet. In view achievements. However, wide public and of its great cultural impact, its technological political acceptance can only be achieved if one challenges and the opportunities for international fully exploits the unifying potential of a global cooperation, Solar System exploration is likely cooperation strategy, which presents human to enjoy the continued political support that is exploration as a task of all humankind. When fundamental for the provision of the necessary world championships already raise so much funding. widespread enthusiasm, how much more would the lonely travel of a small crew deep into space, While astronauts are still regarded as the heroes the ultimate pioneering task of humankind, of our time and enjoy the unchanging attention of excite the attention and concern of the whole the public, in particular the youth, and research world. Economic arguments, often promoted in under microgravity conditions is recognised as the context of human activity on the Moon, are an important branch of space science, human questionable and hardly suited to raise public participation in Solar System exploration beyond enthusiasm. But if all interested space agencies Earth orbit does not seem to enjoy the same were to unite in the joint conception, planning acceptance. Although it is generally believed and execution of human space exploration, each that a human presence on the Moon, as well within its financial and technical capabilities, the as eventually on Mars, will strongly widen and huge expenses would become bearable. Above intensify the in situ research capabilities, there all, one must not underestimate the chances for is also a widespread scepticism whether these extraordinary discoveries when human beings advantages outweigh the high expenses involved live on and explore another planet. in securing the safety of the astronauts. Gerhard Haerendel Representatives of disciplines whose goals can be Max Planck Institute for entirely achieved with unmanned missions often Extraterrestrial Physics voice loudly their reservations. It also seems that the public is not yet prepared to face the truth about the formidable expenses implied by a serious engagement in human space exploration. For this reason, the political representatives still observe silence about cost estimates which are floating around inside space agencies and

Acknowledgments

This document has been prepared by the ESA • Nicolas Peter (European Space Policy Institute, Directorate of Human Spaceflight, Microgravity ESPI) for his elaboration of the theme on and Exploration Programmes and published “Public Constituencies”; to coincide with the “Explore to Progress” International Space Exploration Conference held • Bernhard Hufenbach, Bill Carey, Marc Haese, in Berlin 8 – 9 November 2007. Jacqueline Myrrhe and Raffaella Pappalardo (all ESA) for developing the concept and the The ideas and concepts outlined in this report are content of the publication and for steering the the results of extensive stakeholder consultations overall stakeholder consultation process with that have been conducted since 2006, building the many contributing individuals, companies on the initial work undertaken in 2005. Selected and organisations which formed the basis for representatives of the various stakeholder this work. communities - science, industry, politics and the general public - have been contributing to The document has been edited by Peter Bond and developing the contents of this publication. A its design and layout were developed by Natasja special expression of thanks is therefore given to van Kampen (Sapienza Consulting). the following:

• Silvano Casini (DdeB Sarl) and Giorgio Borriello (DdeB Sarl, Advisor), Alain Dupas and Sebastian Matte la Faveur (Collège de Polytechnique), John Zarnecki and Phil Rosenberg (Open University) for their development of stakeholder scenarios;

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