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Home , Biase, Cross River State, Efik language

GLOBAL JOURNAL OF HUMANITIES VOL 8, NO. 2, 2010: 27-35 27 COPYRIGHT© BACHUDO SCIENCE CO. LTD PRINTED IN . ISSN 1118-0579 www.globaljournalseries.com ; Email: [email protected] LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE- MIXING IN

MERCY UGOT (Received 7, August 2009; Revision Accepted 12, November 2009)

ABSTRACT

This paper examines language choice and the twin phenomena of codeswitching and code mixing in a multilingual Biase Local Government Area in State, Nigeria. It looks at the different languages spoken in Biase from the local languages which serve as mother tongues (MT/L1) to other languages in use in the Local Government Area, including English, Efik and the Nigerian Pidgin (NP). It also looks at options open to the indigenes in the use of all the languages in the area and circumstances that dictate the use of any particular language with another. This paper focuses on the uniqueness of codeswitching and codemixing in Biase which is based on its direction and dimension and the implication of this linguistic behaviour in Biase languages.

KEYWORDS: CodeSwitching, CodeMixing, Mother Tongue, Language Interference, Multilingual.

1.0 INTRODUCTION Cross and Upper Cross groups of languages. In order to understand the discussion Biase languages fall within the Upper Cross that follows, it is best to have a clear view of the Group. people and the sociolinguistic area we are Biase languages can also be classified in status referring to. Biase Local Government Area is one as minority languages based on demography or of the eighteen (18) Local Government Areas in numerical strength, development and, to a lesser , Nigeria. Geographically, Biase extent, power/dominance as summarised by is found within the Cross River basin. It is made Essien (2003). up of five (5) clans, namely Ubaghara, Erei, Umon, EgipIpa and Ehom. Each clan consists of 2.0 A SOCIO-LINGUISTIC LANDSCAPE a number of political units ranging from four (4) to OF BIASE an estimated twentyfour (24) communities (Attoe Udoh (2003) observes that Local 1990). Biase has an estimated population of a Government boundaries in Cross River State do little over one hundred thousand (100,000) not exactly correspond to ethnic group scattered over sixty (60) villages with the greatest demarcation as a result of which there are very concentration in EgipIpa clan (Ministry of few linguistically homogeneous Local Finance and Economic Planning, Cross River Government Areas. Biase falls under a and Akwa Ibom States Population Bulletin, heterogeneous Local Government Area with Statistics Division, 19831990). Umon, except for Utuma within it, being the only The languages of Biase have variously linguistically homogenous clan. Other clans been classified by Faraclass (1989), Williamson demonstrate purely political groupings with and Blench (2000) and Essien (2003) as linguistic overlapping (Ugot forthcoming). For belonging to the BenueCongo subfamily of the example, although the Mmewhu language is NigerCongo larger family. Crozier and Blench spoken in AkpetCentral and Akpet 1, these (1992) list the Cross River Group to comprise areas fall under EgipIpa clan, which comprises Bendi and DeltaCross, which together contain mainly the Nne (Agwagune Cluster) group of the largest number of languages. The Delta languages. Idoma also stands out in the midst of Cross group is further divided into the Lower Mmewhu (UkpetEhom Cluster) group of

Mercy U got , Central for General Studies, Cross River University of Technology Calabar, Cross River

State

28 MERCY UGOT languages as Iyonginyong is spoken there. Nne (Agwagune cluster), Mmewhu or Mehu There are six (6) main language (UkpetEhom Cluster), Umon, Isangiyongo and groupings in Biase. These include Ubaghara, Iyongiyong. See Table 1.

Table 1: Indigenous Languages Spoken in Biase Major Towns/Villages / Language Group/Cluster (where Language is Spoken) 1 Ubaghara Biakpan, Ikun, Ugbem, Utuma, Etono 1 2 Nne (Agwagune Cluster) comprising Adim, Abayongo, Ipene, Urugbam, Ibini, Abini, Erei, Abini, Adim (Utum), Abayongo, Okurike, ItuAgwagune, Egbizim, Emomoro, Ibene Etono II, Etono Central and Agwagune Abang. 3 Mmewhu or Mehu (UkpetEhom AkpetCentral, Akpet 1, Ehom, Betem, Igbofia. Cluster) 4 Isanginyongo Iwuru. 5 Iyongiyong EkpriIbami, AkwaIbami, Agbangana, Idoma. 6 Umon (There are 24 towns and villages IkotAna, Igere, Okpo, Ufut, Amanrang, Bechei, in Umon clan. The language is spoken Inurasu, Akpasip, Berekpe, IkotAbasiAniyom, consistently throughout the clan except Umon Island, EnuOvai, Ayaba, IkotOgbomdan, in Utuma where Ubaghara is spoken) Agbana, Gany, IkotOkpora, Itan, Bereukpan, OgodimUfan, Ikot Anakaniyam.

Language is not just a symbol of nationalism but (spoken widely in Erei) and the also a major badge of ethnicity, that is, racial, Nigerian Pidgin. cultural or family origins (Stockwell 2002). This is generally so in a multiethnic society like Nigeria 3.1 The and Biase, in particular. In Biase, apart from the English is the official language in indigenous languages listed in Table 1, other Nigeria and by extension in Cross River State languages are spoken and these include English, and consequently in Biase Local Government Efik, Igbo and the Nigerian Pidgin (NP). Although Area. The language is used extensively in Biase: the existence of many languages would appear it is used formally in administration at the Local to create a barrier to communication, the fact is Government Headquarters in AkpetCentral; it is that the situation has rather created compound used in education, in business, in religion, in the bilinguals as everyone is forced to speak several media; and it is used in the many social activities languages hereby making communication easier. that take place daily in and across the Local Thus, multilingualism is, in fact, an asset, which Government Area. English is therefore, spoken, can aid language choice for different purposes in in Biase alongside local indigenous languages the nation (Bamgbose 1992) because different and serves as a means of communication with languages and varieties are used for different not just other Nigerians but the rest of the world. purposes, depending on the situation. Our focus In the multilingual society of Biase, the English therefore is on the choices that are made in a Language is the dominant language that enjoys multilingual situation such as exists in Biase. institutional support. We, therefore, refer to it as the official language. It is the language of 3.0 LANGUAGE CHOICE IN BIASE instruction in schools in the area. Given the Language choice in Biase is often heterogeneous nature of the area, English is motivated by extra linguistic factors such as widely a trade language. education, religion, the economy, sociocultural activities, politics and governance and domestic 3.2 The use of the language. These factors determine the The Efik language is the major Lower choices open to the Biase speakers who may Cross language in Cross River State. It is also speak any two or more of the languages below the most developed of all fluently. The average Biase individual is a (Essien 1990). Besides English, Efik was the compound bilingual. Apart from the local lingua franca along the Cross River basin for over languages (MT/L1) spoken in Biase, other a century. It was also a language of religion, languages of equal importance are also spoken which facilitated the spread of Christianity along in the Local Government Area and these include the Cross River basin. It was the language of the English Language, the Efik Language, the trade which served as a major economic tool in LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE -SWITCHING AND CODE -MIXING IN BIASE 29 the area from the eighteenth (18 th ) century (Nair switches from one language or code to another, 1972). It is recorded that trade between depending on the situation, audience, subject Agwagune and Umon was conducted in Efik as matter etc.” Similar changes in language use may far back as the seventeenth (17 th ) century (King also take place within a sentence. Such a switch 1844). Efik competes very strongly with NP for is known as codemixing, which Essien the position of L2 in Biase as most indigenes of (1995:272) defines as “a language phenomenon Biase speak Efik fluently. in which two codes or languages are used for the same message or communication.” 3.3 The Igbo Language Codeswitching and codemixing, This is one of Nigeria’s three major therefore, are commonly expected phenomena, group languages. The Erei share a common being the expression of the communicative need border with the at Ohafia and also at and adaptability of language, determined by the Abiriba in neighbouring . This proximity “bounds of limitless avenues and patterns of has resulted in Igbo competing as an L2 with Efik social interaction and the unfathomable depth of and NP in Erei. The interplay of cultural values human creative reservoir” (Adekunle 1990:240) among the Igbo and Erei people such as In effect, human beings are always involved in intertribal marriages, sharing of common markets numerous efforts to make language a more etc facilitated the incursion of Igbo into Biase. effective tool of communication. Code mixing is usually the infusion of single words or items from 3.4 The Nigerian Pidgin (NP) the donor language into the L1 construction. In spite of its lack of official status in Codeswitching is the lifting of phrasal, clausal or Nigeria or even in Cross River State, NP is sentential structures. In syntactic terms, code spreading and becoming more acceptable within switching occurs in a discourse which is made up the State as a necessary language of of sentences in languages A and . communication. Its acceptability in the State is According to Bentahila and Davies further enhanced by the heterogeneous nature of (1983) codeswitching has sometimes been used the State’s sociolinguistic landscape. NP is to register the bilingual’s ability to choose one or widely used, even if informally, in politics, in trade the other of these two languages in a particular and the mass media. It is also used in social situation. Codemixing on the other hand is the interaction. In Biase, NP is used as an essential random alternation of two languages within a communication medium: most, if not all, linguistic sentence. Pfaff (1983) says this language communities in Biase speak and understand NP. behaviour is governed by linguistic and It competes with Efik as a second language (L2) sociolinguistic factors. Banjo (1983) calls it in the Local Government Area. The NP that is language mixing, and that it occurs in a sentence spoken is highly versatile, it conveys cultural made of elements of languages A and B. Code meaning and values in Biase’s multilingual switching is the result of a speaker’s movement pluralistic society. It is basically the most from one language or dialect of another language favourable language of choice in the Local to another. This movement is conditioned by Government Area. The pidgin, according to Todd social as well as linguistic constraints. Linguistic (1978), is essentially a communication system constraints are those of proficiency and mastery that develops among people who do not share a of both systems. Social constraints are primarily common language. Politically, it is viewed as a those of topic, situation, participants, education, selfimposed language that cuts across ethnic, sex etc. The basic difference between code cultural, political and psychological barriers (Ejele switching and codemixing is the composition of 2003). the elements intermingled and the arrangement of such intermingling. 4.0 CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING Essien (2000) observes that code IN BIASE switching in Nigeria should be viewed as a From the options discussed one can normal sociolinguistic phenomenon in see that language choice depends very much on communities in which more than one language or the prevailing situation and the business at hand. dialect is spoken. As a result of increased trade There is, however, constant overlapping in and communication, Nigerians are speaking language use, again, depending on the prevailing other languages. In Biase, one can hardly situation in the environment. Essien (1995:271) separate the twin phenomena of codeswitching defines codeswitching as “the process by which and codemixing as they are commonly found the speaker or the initiator of speech, changes or within the speech community. The twin 30 MERCY UGOT phenomena of codeswitching and codemixing Sometimes in order not to offend the are particularly high in Biase owing to the third party who does not understand the L1, the multiplicity of languages/dialects in the Local pivot speaker not only codeswitches between Government Area coupled with the use of the L1 and English for both listeners he may also English, Efik, NP and even Igbo. codemix for the listener (A) who shares his L1, In Biase, there are coordinate bilinguals using both the L1 and English. This way the other and the languages used function independently listener (B) does not feel completely isolated side by side, expressing distinct backgrounds when the pivot speaker communicates with and ways of life. Codeswitching and codemixing listener (A). Sometimes, the pivot speaker may are, therefore, viewed as natural linguistic feel somewhat embarrassed and may apologize behaviour of the people. For example, where to one or the other party as he moves from one to three parties may understand the common the other party. However, this kind of bi language, English, as long as there are two dimensional communication is being increasingly participants in the speech situation who share a understood and accepted as part of common L1, sociocultural practice or norm sociolinguistic and sociocultural norms as we try demands that these two speak in their L1 which to cope with multilingualism in Biase in particular the third party may not understand. In such a and Nigeria in general. See example below. Data situation codeswitching and even codemixing for the Biase language (Agwagune) have been serve both a linguistic function as well as a socio provided by native speakers. cultural one.

1. Pivot Speaker: Tani èdànáñ? Abìn árá rèm ódòm gá CALCEMCO? ‘Tani, how are things? Are you still working at CALCEMCO?

Listener A: É.Ódòm énènèb ‘Yes. Work is fine.’ Pivot Speaker: Peter, it’s been a long time. Hope everything’s fine?

Listener B: Perfect, my brother. How is your family?

Pivot Speaker: Everyone’s fine. Tani gwááòá? I haven’ seen her in a long while. Everyone’s fine. ‘Tani, what of your wife?’ I haven’t seen her in a long while. Listener A: Úkpòkpórì. ‘She is fine.’ Source: Agwagune language speakers

Code switching is therefore sanctioned especially Nsàñ jìbéjìjì ‘I want to eat’ by those who do not understand the L1 of the At school with his mates using NP pivot speaker and that of other hearer/listener. I wan chop ‘I want to eat’ . An equally common type of codeswitching At, school to his teacher using SE takes place as one moves from one environment, Sir, please I want to eat. place, group or society to another. For example, a Biase child living in Calabar the Cross River Speakers may often switch for emphasis; or State capital with his parents speaks his Biase L1 because a word in another language may be at home, Efik, English or NP with his classmates more appropriate; or because of their perceptions at school. A young Biase adult in the University of of the speech situation, changes in content, the Calabar would speak his L1 to his fellow students linguistic skills of their interlocutors, degrees of of the same ethnic group, NP to others informally intimacy etc. In (3) we see a code mix of Efik, and English to his lecturer as a sign of respect English and Agwagune. Codemixing involves and formality (Okon 2003). deliberate mixing of 2 or more languages (as in One could have a situation therefore where a Biase) without an associated topic change. It is child says the same thing in three different primarily used as a solidarity marker. It requires languages in the same day. that the conversants have good knowledge of the grammar of the 2 languages and to be well aware 2. At home using the Agwagune language LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE -SWITCHING AND CODE -MIXING IN BIASE 31 of societal norms. (Wardhaugh1986) Data have been provided by native speakers. Will you come?’ 3. Émènýènè ìzép, my sister? We’re going to Mary’s house. Mààfu? →‘Do you have any message, my sister? English Agwagune Émènýènè ìzép, my sister? Efik Agwagune English This is a codeswitch of English and Agwagune. ‘Do you have message my sister?’ In the same way we have the situation of Codemixing in Biase may even involve words tagswitching where a stock element in one from other Nigerian languages that have been language (often interlocutory) is joined to an incorporated into everyday speech in the utterance in another language. (Stockwell 2002) community as shown in (4)

4. ‘Don’t do that. Haba, you are very stubborn.’ 7. It was like that, kè èné? →‘It was like that, not ‘Don’t do that. Haba, you are very stubborn. so?’ English Hausa English It was like that, kè èné? English Mmewhu This is a codemix of English and Hausa (a major Nigerian language which is spoken This is a combination of English and Mmewhu (of predominantly in northern states of the country). UkpetEhom Cluster) in tagswitching. Haba is commonly used in Nigeria as an exclamation showing disgust. We also have intrasentential mixing where Codemixing according to Essien (1995: 280) words from two or more languages are mixed. serves a linguistic function for those who cannot immediately find a word or expression in a 8. Dómè súfù ínàng quick, quick, ágóbónì? language and so revert to one they are → ‘Tell him to come here quickly, have you comfortable with or understand better. Again this heard?’ serves an intimacy function among friends and Dómè súfù ínàng quick, quick, ágóbónì? relations. This is a sociopsychological function. Etono Central NP Etono Central

5. He died? Ébíábù! → ‘He died?!!!’ Here we have a codemix of Nne (spoken in He died? Ébíábù! Etono Central), NP and Nne (spoken in Etono English Agwagune Central).

Here the translation of Ébíábù is almost 9. Fù áfù lèbè óvèn. I go sell am cheap for you. meaningless in English. Perhaps it could best be → ‘Come and buy something, I will sell it translated as “Good Lord!” However, in its strict cheaply to you.’ sense Ébíábù is the name of a highly placed Fù áfù lèbè óvèn. I go sell am cheap for you. male association in Agwagune, it is used here to Erei NP convey ethnic affinity, deep emotion and Come you come buy something. sympathy. Codemixing arises from “an inner drive that cannot find a ready expression by This is a codeswitch from Erei (of remaining within a single language” Lipski Nne/Agwagune Cluster) to NP. The switch from (1982:192). However, most codemixing in Biase Erei to NP signals a desire by the speaker to is a combination of this “inner drive” and to show communicate with someone he perceives as not solidarity with a speaker, particularly if his L1 is sharing his L1which he spoke initially. His next different from yours. By throwing in words from option is to switch to NP which is widely spoken his L1, you show some form of solidarity with and understood. He could have switched to Efik him. but perhaps some non verbal clue in the listener suggested that he may not understand Efik This is often reflected in intersentential either. It is therefore more appropriate to switch mixing/switching, where the change in language to NP, which is the most neutral, most likely to be occurs at a clause or sentence boundary. understood and least likely to cause offence. Codeswitching in Biase also involves a 6. We’re going to Mary’s house. Mààfu? speaker moving from one domain into another, → ‘We’re going to Mary’s house. and changing their codes as a result. This is 32 MERCY UGOT referred to as situational codeswitching. Thus we Sometimes, there is codeswitching have; between indigenous languages of the area. Codeswitching from other languages to 10. We have English at two o’clock. Várì jè áfìà Agwagune (dialect of Nne) is common as yèpíá. → ‘We have English at two o’clock. Agwagune is the most central of all the Let us go to the market now.’ languages spoken in Biase because all others We have English at two o’clock. Várì jè áfìà command native speakers’ competence in it yèpíá. (Udoh 2003) (Ugot 2008). Thus, the switch in discourse is done as a mark of solidarity, The example here is of a switch from English, the intimacy, formality or as a tool for persuasion. In more prestigious of the languages used as a (12) the switch from Mmewhu to Agwagune by a medium of teaching, to Ubaghara, the local seller in the open market to prospective female intimate language. English is used to discuss the buyers expresses the mark of solidarity and it formal announcement of an English class at two serves as an emotional tool of persuasion. o’clock and Ubaghara is used to persuade the listener to go to the market with the speaker, a 12. Mama Gbènyàm úkè. Wákààm fàrèbè óvèn. more intimate activity. However if the speaker is → ‘Mama come and buy something. My not communicating with a fellow school mate his sister, come and buy something.’ use of English initially portrays him as a social Mama Gbènyàm úkè. Wákààm fàrèbè óvèn. climber. Mmewhu Agwagune

(11) could be referred to as metaphorical code There is a situation where each speaker mixing. Metaphorical codemixing is, thus, a may use his own language or dialect in means of changing the perceived communicating if there is mutual intelligibility context.(Stockwell 2002) between his dialect and others, since there is a dialect continuum in Biase, that is, a situation 11. I no bin understand that class o. The reaction whereby the spreading of dialects may be in the testtube bin no clear me at all. → mutually intelligible (Ugot forthcoming). Mutual ‘I did not follow that class. The reaction in the intelligibility in Biase is found among the Nne testtube was not very clear to me.’ group or Agwagune Cluster, which includes I no bin understand that class o. dialects from Agwagune, Adim (Urum), Erei, NP Abayongo, Etono II, Etono Central and Abini. The The reaction in the testtube bin no clear me at Mwewhu or Mehu Language or UkpetEhom all Cluster is mutually intelligible among the people NP English of Akpet I, Akpet Central, Ehom, Betem and Here we have an obvious conversation in Igbofia. See table 1. Four examples have been NP which switches briefly to Standard English as taken from the Agwagune cluster. Data were soon as the formal explanation of a chemistry collected from native speakers residing in experiment is to be mentioned. The speaker Calabar. Languages used are of the Agwagune moves from the domain of the informal to a more cluster or Nne group of languages. formal speech and back to the informal to express his lack of understanding of the lesson taught. Codemixing in Biase simply draws the urgent need to enrich the vocabulary and expression capacities of our mother tongues.

LANGUAGE CHOICE, CODE -SWITCHING AND CODE -MIXING IN BIASE 33 13. Exchange of ‘good morning’ greetings: i) Speaker A (Erei): Áyìlènì. → ‘Good morning.’ Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá (pronounced sòráyá)? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’ Literally: ‘Yes, good morning, what of your body?’ Speaker A Sólékpòkpólì, yáyòá? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘Body is strong, what of yours?’ Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’ Literally: ‘It is strong.’ (Agwagune also has sótékpòkpórì OR sótàmékpòkpórì (pronounced sórékpòkpórì OR sóràmékpòkpórì). Literally: ‘Body is strong.’ OR ‘My body is strong’) ii) Speaker A (Adim (Urum)): Áwèlèní. → ‘Good morning’ Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’ Speaker A (Adim (Urum)): Sólàmékpèkpèm, nóè? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘My body is strong, what of yours?’ Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’ (It is interesting to note that the very expression, ékpèkpèm, exists exactly in Agwagune but it translates to ‘it is hard,’ OR ‘it is difficult.’) iii) Speaker A (Abini): Áyèré. → ‘Good morning.’ Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’ Speaker A (Abini): Gbáhágbáhá étè, nóà? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘There is no trouble, what of you?’ Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’ (In Agwagune, ‘There is no trouble’ is translated Gbáhágbáhá érè. Very literally: ‘Trouble, it is not there.’) iv) Speaker A (Etono Central): Áfèré. → ‘Good morning.’ Speaker B (Agwagune): É, ávènì, sòtáyòá? → ‘Yes, good morning, how are you?’ Speaker A (Etono Central): Sórèm ékpèmlúkpèm, yàyòá? → ‘Well, and you?’ Literally: ‘My body is strong, what of yours?’ Speaker B (Agwagune): Ékpòkpórì. → ‘Well.’

Situations described in (13) are typical speaker (if they can communicate fluently in as any of the speakers (A) could exchange Agwagune. See (12)). If there is any hint of a lack greetings with Speaker (B) the Agwagune of complete understanding for either speaker, speaker and stick throughout to his own dialect then they abandon their L1s and use either NP or as he is fully aware that the Agwagune speaker SE or even Efik. (B) understands him. The Agwagune Speaker (B) In the examples in (13), it is observed that in turn sticks to his own dialect because he Agwagune has sounds that occur in free knows very well that he too is understood not just variation. These are allophones of the same by the other groups in the Agwagune cluster but phonemes. Hence, [t] of sǒt at the end of a word generally by other languages in Biase. Other becomes [r] intervocalic when followed by speakers however defer to the Agwagune another word. Consequently;

14. sǒt + áyò + á → sòráyá? body + your + what of → how are you?

Regressive assimilation occurs in Agwagune, 6.0 CONCLUSION in áyò is assimilated thus becoming The study has focused on Biase; a ׀o׀ hence the sound following it (Ugot 2003). Local Government Area in Cross River State in ׀a׀ more like the Nigeria. Biase is heterogeneous, multilingual and 34 MERCY UGOT its local languages/dialects, like most minority Ejele, Philomena. ., 2003. “Language use in a languages in use, are forced to adopt other more multilingual society: An update on the aggressive languages for use. We have also Nigeria situation”. In Okon Essien and looked at the use of these languages in the twin Margaret Okon (eds.), Topical issues in phenomena of codeswitching and codemixing sociolinguistics: The Nigerian which will continue to feature in our multilingual perspective. 111131. Aba: National communities as they perform linguistic, Institute of Nigerian Languages. sociolinguistic, sociopsychological and socio cultural functions. Essien, Okon. E. 1995. “The English language Biase speakers must be commended for and codemixing: A case study of the use of their local languages as none of them has phenomenon in Ibibio”. In Ayo been listed as dying or extinct as is the case with Bamgbose, Ayo Banjo & Andrew Kiong, Bakpinka and Odut once spoken in the Thomas (eds.), New Englishes: A West present and Local African perspective. 260283. Ibadan: Government Areas of Cross River State (Crozier Mosuru Publishers. and Blench 1992). A conscious organised strategy by users, government and other Essien, Okon. E., 2000. “Codeswitching and agencies must be made to reduce these codemixing in Nigeria”. Kiabara Journal languages to writing and, therefore, promote of Humanities 6:2 18. scholarship in more minority languages in Nigeria. Essien, Okon. E., 2003. “National development, language and language policy in REFERENCES Nigeria”. In Okon Essien and Margaret Okon (eds) Topical issues in Adekunle, Mobolaji. A., 1990. “Language in a sociolinguistics: The Nigerian multicultural context”. In Emenanjo E. N perspective. 2141 Aba: National Institute (ed.), Multilingualism, minority languages of Nigerian Languages. and language policy in Nigeria. 239247.

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