sign in sign up
<<
Home , Cultural genocide, Cultural Survival, First Nations, Idle No More, Indian Act, Indigenous peoples

SOCIAL DETERMINANTS OF HEALTH

INDIGENOUS EXPERIENCES WITH AND ITS IMPACTS

Prepared by Samantha Loppie, Charlotte Reading & Sarah de Leeuw

This fact sheet is the second in a series focused on anti-Indigenous racism in . The first fact sheet examined the concept of race and racism, exploring the various forms it takes. In this fact sheet, the focus is on the lived and structural forms of racism. We begin by providing a brief overview of what racism is, how it intersects with other forms of , and how it is Cattroll, www.cattroll.com. © Credit: Fred manifested. The fact sheet then racism in interpersonal, structural is experienced by Indigenous moves to a discussion of how and sometimes violent ways. peoples and how it impacts their the dominant racialized group We examine racism within well-being. (i.e., European ) expresses government policies, healthcare, racism in historic and current and judicial systems, and explore contexts and how Indigenous 1 the unique ways that racism people in Canada experience

Definition of terms

Racism is a belief or behaviour based on the notion that ‘race’ is the basis of human characteristics and practices, and that racial differences produce inherent superiorities or inferiorities in particular races (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2013a).

Racialize refers to the practice of assigning a racial identity to a person or group of people (Merriam-Webster Dictionary, 2013b).

1 The terms ‘Indigenous’ and ‘’ are used throughout this fact sheet to refer to First , and Métis peoples inclusively; however, the terms ‘Aboriginal’ and ‘Aboriginal peoples’ will be used as substitutes when reflected in the literature under discussion. Whenever possible, culturally specific names are used.

sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ Introduction Racism is an experience acutely racialized hierarchy of Canadian felt by many Indigenous people in , Indigenous peoples Canada. For example, according continue to be ‘othered’ by Racism is a social injustice based 2 on falsely constructed, but deeply to a 2005 report of the First groups in an attempt embedded, assumptions about Nations Regional Longitudinal Health to rationalize colonial actions people and their relative social Survey (RHS), 38% of participating that disadvantage, oppress, and ; it is often used to justify adults experienced ultimately harm them (de Leeuw, disparities in the distribution of at least one instance of racism Kobayashi, & Cameron, 2011). resources (MacKinnon, 2004). in the past 12 months; 63% of Within Canada, anti-Indigenous Racism manifests in multiple them felt that it had at least some racism is expressed in numerous ways that allow some groups effect on their self-esteem (First ways: through stereotyping, of people to see themselves Nations Centre, 2005). stigmatization and violence, as as superior to others and to well as through many of the claim and maintain multiple Expressions of structures of Canadian society. forms of political, sociocultural, racism and economic power. Racism Racialized also intersects with, as well as and stigma The labeling of individuals and reinforces, other ways in which groups as ‘different’ is part of human beings discriminate the process of creating social There are a number of negative against each other, including hierarchies, which represents stereotypes associated with socially constructed categories the foundation of (de Indigenous people, including of gender, , ability, Leeuw, Kobayashi, & Cameron, assumptions about the sexual orientation, class, and age 2011). Throughout most human pervasiveness and cause of (Heldke & O’Connor, 2004). , particular groups have alcohol and drug addiction, consistently been ‘othered’, unemployment, and violence Racism must be understood marginalized and discriminated (Backhouse, 1999; de Leeuw, as something that is lived; it against (de Leeuw, Kobayashi, & Kobayashi, & Cameron, 2011). is experienced by individuals, Cameron, 2011). The renowned One persistent and particularly families, communities, and theorist Foucault proposed that damaging depiction is that nations through interactions and discrimination is not always Indigenous peoples are willing structures of the everyday . expressed in violent ways (e.g., ‘wards of the ,’ dependent The truth is that the ideologies, , ) but can take on others and ultimately better social and words less aggressive forms (e.g., off when the federal government upon which race and racism are ) that present power oversees their affairs (Erickson, built do a great deal of damage. inequalities as neutral and natural 2005). This not only degrades In fact, racism infects the lives processes (de Leeuw, Kobayashi, the autonomy of Indigenous of individuals and institutions & Cameron, 2011). Yet all forms peoples and their legitimate right - sometimes quietly, sometimes of oppression, including racism, to be self-determining, but it covertly, sometimes immediately, contribute negatively to the has damaged the self-concept of and sometimes over long periods well-being of certain racialized countless generations of people of time, but always unjustly. groups (Clark, Anderson, Clark, who unfortunately, at times, & Williams, 1999). Within the internalize such demeaning stereotypes (Harding, 2006).

2 A settler is defined as “a person who settles in an area” [such as the European settlers of North America] (Oxford Dictionaries, n.d). 2 December December racism thatpersistswithinCanada (Perkel, 2013, Van Bemmel, 2013). The IdleNoMore (INM)movement beganwhenfour againsttheIdleNoMore Widespread movement demonstrates butundeniableanti-Indigenous theunfortunate backlash a better understanding of the history of discrimination faced by Indigenous peoples(Caven, facedby Indigenous ofdiscrimination a better understandingofthehistory onlyofferedto supporters lipservice sources, racismfrom non-Indigenous overt oneofthefounders, Sylvia McAdams, expressed herdisappointmentthatmany leaders madepublicexpressions for ofconcern thesafety ofthoseinvolved inthemovement (Perkel, an onslaughtofracistcommentsandincidents(Perkel, peoplesbecamepoints ofcontention assumptionsandprejudices as againstIndigenous very peopleinCanada (Caven, facedby andcurrenthistorical Indigenous racismanddiscrimination of The founders andsupporters However, the demonstrating thegovernment’s disregard for thisnationalprotest (Anderson, inorder peopleavoice to fightotherinjusticesinthefutureit wasaboutgiving andsolidarity Indigenous (Caven, collective, themovement guidedby Elders, (Anderson, to support leaders, youthIndigenous andalliesralliedtogether inaunited front thatdidnotincludeasinglefigurehead butrathera relationships, aswell asputpressure onthegovernment to protect theenvironment (Gordon, andAboriginal rights The overarching goalofthemovement sovereignty, wasto advanceIndigenous create alliesandforge political new forconcern Aboriginal andtheINMmovement gainedmomentumthrough socialmedia networks. development would industrial cause(Paradis,health impacts 2013).Communities were ignited by the government’s lackof communities onthoselands(Paradis, 2013). This billdisregarded andignored Aboriginal landrights theenvironmental and for development landwithoutconsiderationorcompensationto andallow industrial companiesto the buyandsellreserve which includedanumberofunfairamendmentsto (Gordon, Aboriginal landrights 2013). The billwould offer deregulation responded to theCanadian Parliament women adoptingtheOmnibusBillC-45, inSaskatoon, Indigenous 2012 INM , despite great support and publicity ofthe andpublicity , despite great support movement alsoignited Canadian from public. substantialcriticism somemembersofthenon-Indigenous INM wanted to domore thanopposelegislation butalsoto inform thepublicabout INM . Shealsoexpressed for herdesire themovement to seemore support and fervent 2013 INM ). At times, the backlash became so heated that Indigenous becamesoheated thatIndigenous ). At times, thebacklash movement, theOmnibusBill 2013 ). The Indigenous experiences with racism and impacts its INM 2013 movement wasaboutmore thanBill ). C-45 2013 INM 2013 waspassed;thus ). activists were activists exposedto ). Unfortunately, those 2013 ). Beyondthe 2013 2013 ). In ). In C-45 ). ; 3

© Credit: Dreamstime.com, ID 28812119. The continued existence of ‘Indian reserves’ serves as one of the most visible reminders of the race- based segregation of First Nations people in Canada

(Musto, 1990). © Credit: Fred Cattroll, www.cattroll.com. © Credit: Fred

The media plays a considerable on the ‘politics of embarrassment’ the disadvantages currently role in shaping public perceptions to expose the government’s poor facing Indigenous communities of Indigenous peoples in Canada treatment of Indigenous peoples essentially transfers responsibility (Furniss, 2001). Although and accurately inform the public for economic and social problems contemporary representations (Furniss, 2001). Sadly, it has to Indigenous peoples’ presumed are more accurate and inclusive proven very difficult to challenge failure to evolve, rather than to of Indigenous perspectives entrenched racial stereotypes and the socially and economically than at any time in history, gain support for the equitable damaging effects of colonialism they are still often corrupted by treatment of Indigenous peoples. and racism (Harding, 2006). misinterpretations, tokenism, and lack of historical or cultural Many ’ beliefs, Violent racism context (Harding, 2006). Media attitudes, and behaviours toward decision-makers select what to Indigenous people remain Violent racism is defined as acts report and, in so doing, can heavily influenced by colonial of violence perpetrated against enhance or damage public stereotypes, entrenched in a a person or group based on the opinion of Indigenous peoples mentality of ‘us versus them’ racialized group to which they (Furniss, 2001). News reports (Bourassa, McKay-McNabb, are assigned (Bowling, 1999). often focus on the social and & Hampton, 2004). The Historically, there are many economic challenges facing positioning of Indigenous people instances where Indigenous Indigenous communities while as an idealized or demonized people suffered violence at the ignoring stories of discrimination ‘other’ exaggerates cultural hands of settlers. One poignant and/or exploitation by powerful differences and reinforces example of widespread violence groups or authorities (Harding, racialized generalizations (de can be found in the experience 2006). In recent years, Indigenous Leeuw, Kobayashi, & Cameron, of Mi’kmaq people in Nova leaders have attempted to use the 2011). Inaccurate or inadequate Scotia. During the mid 1700s, media to rally support for issues education about Canada’s colonial the founder of Halifax, Edward facing their communities, calling history and its role in creating Cornwallis, placed a bounty

4 of ten guineas for the scalp of it is Indigenous women who a disproportionately high number every Mi’kmaq man, woman the brunt of racialized of Indigenous women (Kubik, or child, thus causing the violence in Canada. In addition Bourassa, and Hampton, 2009; death of thousands (O’Connor, to experiencing three-to-four Native Women’s Association of 2011). Although Cornwallis’ times more interpersonal Canada, 2007). This intersecting government perpetrated heinous violence than non-Indigenous and compounding violence acts of racialized (Brownridge, 2008), emerged, in part, from the the Mi’kmaq people, he is Indigenous women are at higher colonial destruction of traditional immortalized in the province’s risk for harassment by authorities Indigenous gender roles, history, having streets, military (McGlade, 2010; Razack, 2000). which once afforded women bases and named after Indigenous women also face a considerable social, economic and him as well as a memorial statue phenomenon best described as political power as well as sexual in a downtown Halifax park. For ‘racialized ’ (the hatred agency. This base of strength and decades, Mi’kmaq people in the of racialized women), which respect was seriously undermined province beseeched the city to fosters and legitimizes physical by a colonial reconstruction of remove Cornwallis’ name from and social violence perpetrated Indigenous women within racially schools in particular, but until against them by virtue of their misogynistic ideologies (Gunn recently were met with resistance exponentially diminished social Allen, 1986; Loppie Reading & from the government and the status (i.e. being a women and Barlow, 2009). public (Guild, 2011). being Indigenous). Examples of this include the high rates of Structural racism There are also numerous violence reported by Indigenous examples of the violent racism women (Brennan, 2011), as well as Structural racism refers to that Indigenous peoples the notorious ‘’ economic, social and political experience in contemporary (Lee, 2009), the disappearance institutions and processes of a society. As a group, Indigenous of at least 60 women (most of society that create and reinforce men are two-to-three times whom were Indigenous) from (Jackson, more likely than non-Indigenous ’s Downtown Eastside McGibbon & Waldron, 2013; men to experience violence between the 1980s and 2002 Lawrence, Sutton, Kubisch, Susi, by authorities or individuals (Oppal, 2012), and the Robert & Fulbright-Anderson, 2010). The (Brownridge, 2010). However, Pickton murders, which included © Credit: Fred Cattroll, www.cattroll.com. © Credit: Fred

Indigenous experiences with racism and its impacts 5 establishment of ‘Indian reserves’ programs has significantly Department of Indian Affairs and inadequate investment in influenced educational (DIA) was created to oversee those reserves serve as examples opportunities for First Nations policies concerning the economic, of structural racism whereby students (First Nations Education social, and cultural lives of First socio-economic inequities and Council, 2009). Moreover, Nations peoples (Long, Bear, & conditions of disadvantage are the current federal funding Boldt, 1982). Establishment of the created and perpetuated. formula for on-reserve water DIA and the ushered and wastewater systems is often in an era of overt racism against The continued existence of inadequate, leaving many First First Nations peoples, exemplified ‘Indian reserves’ serves as one Nations communities financially by the following quote by the of the most visible reminders incapable of operating and Deputy Superintendent General of the race-based segregation of maintaining adequate systems of Indian Affairs, Duncan First Nations people in Canada (Simeon, 2010). Campbell Scott in 1920: (Musto, 1990). Indeed, this overt form of racialized discrimination Federal policies and I want to get rid of the Indian has been supported by successive Indigenous peoples problem… Our objective is to governments over several in Canada continue until there is not a single generations. Even in the current Structural racism is often rooted Indian in Canada that has not been context, investment in the social in political actions or policies absorbed into the body politic and and economic development of that create and/or reinforce there is no Indian question, and no reserve communities is paltry discrimination against a racialized Indian department. (Miller, 2004, compared to other Canadian group (Jordan & Weedon, 1995; p. 35) communities and, in some cases, Sears, Sidanius, & Bobo, 2000). on-reserve conditions mirror One of the principal means by The policies of the Indian Act are those in developing which this type of racism is paternalistic and permit First (Musto, 1990). In fact, most expressed against First Nations Nations people little or no control remote First and Inuit people in Canada is through over their lives and communities communities face innumerable the Indian Act. Enacted in 1876 (Moss, 1990). Although there challenges in accessing, extracting by the Canadian government have been amendments to the or securing financial, natural and (Moss, 1990), the Indian Act was Act, the majority represent human resources respectively, purported to protect the rights superficial alterations that do often resulting in absolute as well of First Nations peoples by little to address the fundamental as relative poverty (Musto, 1990). recognizing the legal and ethical inequities it created and maintains Diminished federal investment in responsibilities of . (Robson, 1991). This legally Indigenous housing, for example, In reality, however, it created sanctioned form of racism is troubling, resulting in poor an enduring federal structure infringes on several dimensions quality housing, poor ventilation that could (and does) exert of First Nation peoples’ political, and mold, as well as overcrowded substantial control over First economic and cultural life, housing conditions (Optis, Shaw, Nations’ identity, lands, resources, including the power to define Stephenson, & Wild, 2012). languages, and cultural practices who is and is not an ‘Indian’ 3 Similarly, failure to provide (Long, Bear, & Boldt, 1982). In and the rights to which they are adequate funding for education addition to the Indian Act, the entitled (Lavoie & Forget, 2011).

3 The term ‘Indian’ was most commonly used the up to the 1970s to represent First Nations people (Aboriginal Affairs and Development Canada, 2012). 6 One of the most notorious forms of racism at the institutional level was the residential system, which represented the attempted assimilation of Indigenous children.

© Credit: Library and Archives Canada, ID PA-042133, “Study time at Native residential school, (Fort) Resolution, NWT.”

Indigenous experiences with racism and its impacts 7 the right direction, the Indian Act itself remains a form of structural racism (Long, Bear, & Boldt, 1982). Unfortunately, the Indian Act cannot be discarded altogether because there are some policies in it that actually protect the rights of First Nations peoples (de Leeuw, Kobayashi, & Cameron, 2011).

Racism and institutions: Residential schools Structural racism also occurs within institutions that segregate or discriminate against

© Credit: Francis Vachon, www.francisvachon.com. Vachon, © Credit: Francis individuals or groups based on racialization (Williams, 1985; Early versions of the Indian Act children, but not of Indian men Gee, 2002). One of the most outlined an enfranchisement who married non-Indian women; notorious forms of racism at policy that required individuals in fact, non-Indian women who the institutional level was the to give up their Indian status in married Indian men would gain residential school system, which order to vote, to join the military, status for themselves and their represented the attempted to become a lawyer, clergy, or children (Cannon, 2006). This assimilation of Indigenous doctor, or to earn a form of assimilation was based on children. Initially, treaties degree (Moss, 1990). This policy a patriarchal structure of between First Nations leaders was implemented in an effort to where wealth was passed from and the Canadian government assimilate First Nations people fathers to sons and a woman’s outlined policies that would into Euro-Canadian identity was determined by that provide culturally rich, on-reserve and thus remove the Crown’s of her husband’s (Cannon, 2006). education for First Nations obligation to provide services and children (MacDonald & Hudson, resources outlined in the Indian Contemporary revisions of the 2012). However, rather than Act (Moss, 1990). Other aspects Indian Act have aimed to address support educational institutions of the Indian Act sought to control some of its most discriminatory that respectfully incorporated the identity of First Nations policies. For instance, in 1985 western and traditional people, and First Nations women the passing of Bill C-31 amended Indigenous knowledge, the specifically, through policies the Act so that First Nations government established a system regarding marital status and women could regain Indian of boarding (residential) schools family inheritance. Before 1985, status lost through marriage to a that aimed to “kill the Indian in Section 12(1)(B) of the Act stated non-First Nations man (Robson, the child” (cited in Miller, 2004, that First Nations women would 1991). Another 1985 amendment p. 35). In 1880, the first residential lose their legal Indian status if eliminated enfranchisement, school was established in Canada, they married a non-Indian man. which would strip First Nations located off-reserve, funded by Section 6 of the Act also removed people of their status. While the federal government, and run the legal status of women’s these changes are moving in predominantly by Catholic and

8 Anglican churches (MacDonald & Hudson, 2012). Until 1950, First Nations (and some Inuit and Métis) children between the ages of five and sixteen were forced to attend these schools - many miles and many months or years away from their families and cultural traditions (Miller, 2004; Milloy, 1996). Parents did not approve of the aggressive assimilation practices undertaken by school administrators, but had no recourse or authority to remove their children from these institutions. © Credit: Francis Vachon, www.francisvachon.com. Vachon, © Credit: Francis The ideologies and ensuing activities of these schools were racism experienced during and indirectly through the effects on fundamentally racist, stripping after leaving school caused some their families and communities Indigenous children of their survivors to turn to negative ( Volkan, 1997). traditional livelihood skills and coping strategies (Nagy & training them only for menial Sehdev, 2012). Ultimately, for Some researchers have suggested jobs, thus restricting their future many, this form of structural that oppressive government socio-economic opportunities racism resulted in alcohol and policies such as the establishment (Deiter, 1999; Friesen & Friesen, , violence, of residential schools represent 2002). Students were not parenting problems, depression attempted permitted to speak their first and suicide (Nagy & Sehdev, against Indigenous peoples. languages or use their given 2012). As well, suggests Cultural genocide, or , names (Nagy & Sehdev, 2012), that residential schools set in aims to extinguish the and many experienced neglect; motion a cycle of trauma that has knowledge, languages, and physical, emotional and sexual been passed through generations, traditions of a particular group of abuse; poor diets; and exposure detrimental to the well-being of people (MacDonald & Hudson, to fatal diseases like Indigenous people as a whole 2012). In 1948, the International (MacDonald & Hudson, 2012). (Fournier & Crey, 1997; Furniss, Convention on the Prevention 1992; Gagné, 1998; Haig-Brown, and Punishment of the Crime of Even when children were 1988; Kirmayer, Simpson, & Genocide set the permitted to leave residential Cargo, 2003; Milloy, 1999). Sadly, definition of genocide as killing school, there were no supports it often falls on children to members of a marginalized for re-entering their communities absorb the feelings of loss and group, causing serious bodily or so the transition was not always frustration felt by their parents mental harm to members of that smooth and family relationships and grandparents. Even though group, deliberately inflicting on a could often not be reestablished. these children did not experience group conditions to bring about The resulting social isolation, the trauma of residential schools its physical destruction in whole cultural trauma and even internal first hand, they are experiencing it or in part, imposing measures

Indigenous experiences with racism and its impacts 9 Alaggia, 2008). Not surprisingly, Indigenous peoples are presently the most over-represented group in the Canadian criminal justice system (Martel, & Brassard, 2008; , 2012), and racism has been exposed as a factor in the way Indigenous people are treated within systems of justice (Dylan, Regehr, & Alaggia, 2008). As well, racial can motivate authorities to question the credibility of Indigenous people who are victims of crime, often leading

© Credit: Fred Cattroll, www.cattroll.com. © Credit: Fred to a lack of adequate support (McGlade, 2010). This ultimately intended to prevent births school abuse (CBC News, 2008). contributes to perceptions, on within the group, and forcibly The statement has been widely the part of offenders and victims, transferring children of the criticized for being crafted to that the system will not treat group to another group (United avoid saying that the government them fairly. Nations, 1948). Under this took full responsibility and for definition, a case of attempted not adequately addressing the Like so many other issues facing cultural genocide could certainly continuing effects on Indigenous Indigenous people, the legacy of be made against the residential peoples (Dorrell, 2009). The colonialism and anti-Indigenous school system on the basis of its statement of reconciliation also racism is implicated in the practice of , did not challenge the colonial criminalization of Indigenous attempted destruction of relationship between Indigenous peoples (Proulx, 2000). Over traditional , and denial of and non-Indigenous groups time, authorities such as police, Indigenous identities (MacDonald (Nagy & Sehdev, 2012). courts and prisons have engaged & Hudson, 2012). Some critics in of Indigenous find the term genocide too Justice and health peoples (Furniss, 2001). Some controversial; however, it is care systems scholars purport that this not being used here to provoke Structural racism can also kind of systemic racism and but rather to center racialized be found within the systems ‘over policing’ in Indigenous colonialism within a framework intended to serve our needs, communities has led to a strained that shows the extent of damage where racist policies intersect relationship between Indigenous it has caused to Indigenous with racist stereotypes (Furniss, peoples and the justice system as (Woolford, 2009). 2001), often translating into a whole (Furniss, 2001). Indeed, In response to this legacy of discrimination against Indigenous research reveals that all groups trauma, in 2008 Prime Minister people (Dylan, Regehr, & will mistrust authorities if they Steven Harper issued a statement Alaggia, 2008). For example, feel the institution does not of reconciliation on behalf of Indigenous offenders are more represent the interests of their Parliament and all Canadian likely to receive sentences of community (Chrismas, 2012). citizens to express regret for if convicted of the generations of residential a crime (Dylan, Regehr, &

10 Research has shown that Conclusion Indigenous people and have Indigenous peoples around the caused collective wounds that are world also often have negative Much has been written about the not easily mended (Gee, & Ford, experiences with health care connection between political, 2011). If decades of trauma are to settings. Racism can be expressed social and economic disparities be healed, systems such as justice in these settings through longer and the burden of ill-health and health need to address racial wait times, fewer referrals, and facing Indigenous people in at all levels and move disrespectful treatment for Canada (Backhouse, 1999; towards embracing the unique Indigenous people (Narine, Bourassa, McKay-McNabb, & cultural traditions, healing and 2013; Vukic, Jesty, Mathews, & Hampton, 2004; First Nations needs of Indigenous people. Etowa, 2012). Actions by service Centre, 2005; Loppie Reading & providers that demean, diminish Wien, 2009). At the root of these Clearly racism has influenced the or disempower the cultural inequities, racial discrimination political, economic and and well-being of an emerges as a major determinant circumstances of Indigenous individual are seen as culturally affecting the overall well-being peoples in Canada. Racist risky practices (Brown, 2009). of Indigenous individuals ideologies have fostered a social and populations (Currie, hierarchy in which Indigenous The consequence of racism Wild, Schopflocher, Laing, & peoples are denied resources within health care settings is Veugelers, 2012). Historical and while dominant groups maintain first, and foremost, emotional contemporary trauma resulting authority and power. Personal and social harm to Indigenous from loss of land, lack of and structural racism toward peoples. A more long-term and governance, marginalization, individuals, communities and insidious outcome, however, is incarceration, residential schools, nations is justified by way of that Indigenous people lose trust abuse and violence intersect to ‘othering’ Indigenous peoples in a system that claims to care for dramatically affect the mental through socially constructed them. Experiences of harm and health of Indigenous people differences. In Canada, race- lack of trust can translate into in Canada (Haskell & Randall, based colonizing powers have diminished utilization of services 2009). attempted to socially isolate, critical to Indigenous peoples’ culturally assimilate, and health, including screening for Racism experienced on an politically decimate Indigenous infectious or chronic disease, as individual level does harm to peoples as a way of rationalizing well as access to essential medical one person, which in turn can colonialism. Legally sanctioned treatment or pharmaceutical affect one’s family and friends; discrimination has hindered interventions (Loppie Reading, but racism experienced on a opportunities for Indigenous & Barlow, 2009). Ultimately, the structural level goes beyond the peoples to be self-determining trajectory of racism within health individual. It informs institutions and generations of residential care settings leads to diminished (such as schools, healthcare, schools promoted racialized health outcomes for Indigenous and justice) that enact and hostility toward Indigenous people as seen in the current perpetuate racism against an peoples and offered a curriculum disproportional burden of disease entire group of people (Zong, of assimilation into the body and diminished 1994). The cumulative impacts politic of Canada. The harm (Loppie Reading & Wien, 2009). of structural racism have been done to survivors, their children, felt throughout generations of families, communities, and future generations is immeasurable.

Indigenous experiences with racism and its impacts 11 References

Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development. (2012). Indian. Chrismas, R. (2012). The people are the police: Building trust Terminology. , ON: Author. Retrieved from https:// with Aboriginal communities in contemporary Canadian www.aadnc-aandc.gc.ca/eng/1100100014642/1100100014643 society. Canadian Public Administration, 55(3): 451-470.

Anderson, J. (2013). Idle no more. Social Policy, Clark, R., Anderson, N.B., Clark, V.R., & Williams, D.R. 43(1): 58. (1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. Psychologist, 54: 805-816. Backhouse, C. (1999). Colour-coded: A legal history of . 1900-1950. , ON: Osgoode Society of Currie, C.L., Wild, T.C., Schopflocher, D.P., Laing, L., & Canadian Legal History. Veugelers, P. (2012). Racial discrimination experienced by Aboriginal university students in Canada. Canadian Journal of Bourassa, C., McKay-McNabb, K., & Hampton, M. (2004). Psychiatry, 57(10): 617-25. Racism, and colonialism: The impact on the health of Aboriginal women in Canada. Canadian Woman Studies, 24(1): Deiter, C. (1999). From our mothers’ arms: The intergenerational 23-30. impact of residential schools in Saskatchewan. Etobicoke, ON: United Church Publishing House. Bowling, B. (1999). Violent racism: Victimization, policing and social context. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. de Leeuw, S., Kobayashi, A., & Cameron, E. (2011). Difference. In A companion to social geography, V.J. Del Casino, M.E. Brennan, S. (2011). Violent victimization of Aboriginal women in Thomas, P. Cloke, & R. Panelli (eds.), pp. 17-37. Oxford, UK: the Canadian provinces, 2009. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada, Wiley-Blackwell. Catalogue # 85-002-x, Juristat. Dorrell, M. (2009). From reconciliation to reconciling: Reading Brownridge, D.A. (2008). Understanding the elevated risk of what “we now recognize” in the government of Canada’s partner violence against Aboriginal women: A comparison 2008 residential schools apology. English Studies in Canada, of two nationally representative surveys of Canada. Journal of 35(1): 27-45. Family Violence, 23(5): 353-367. Dylan, A., Regehr, C., & Alaggia, R. (2008). And justice for all? Brownridge, D.A. (2010). Intimate partner violence against Aboriginal victims of sexual violence. Violence against Women, Aboriginal men in Canada. Australian and Journal 14(6): 678-696. of Criminology, 43(2): 223-237. Erickson, L. (2005). Constructed and contested truths: CBC News. (2008). Prime Minister ’s statement of Aboriginal suicide, law, and colonialism in the Canadian apology, . west(s), 1823-1927. The Canadian Historical Review, 86(4): 595- Retrieved from http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/ 618. story/2008/06/11/pm-statement.html First Nations Centre. (2005). First Nations regional longitudinal Cannon, M. (2006). An act to amend the Indian Act (1985) and health survey (RHS) 2002/03. Ottawa, ON: Author. the accommodation of sex discriminatory policy. Canadian Review of Social Policy, 56: 40-71. First Nations Education Council. (2009). Paper on First Nations education. Wendake QC: Author. Retrieved March 11 from Caven, F. (2013). Being idle no more: The women behind the http://www.fncaringsociety.com/sites/default/files/FNEC- movement. Quarterly, 37(1): 6-7. funding-paper-Feb2009.pdf

12 Fournier, S., & Crey, E. (1997). Stolen from our embrace: The Haskell, L., & Randall, M. (2009). Disrupted attachments: A abduction of First Nations children and the restoration of Aboriginal social context complex trauma framework and the lives of communities. Vancouver, BC: Douglas & McIntyre. Aboriginal peoples in Canada. Journal of Aboriginal Health, 5(3): 48-99. Friesen, J., & Friesen, V. (2002). Aboriginal : A plea for integration. , AB: Detselig. Heldke, L., & O’Connor, P. (2004). Oppression, privilege and resistance: Theoretical perspective on racism, sexism and . Furniss, E. (1992). Victims of benevolence: The dark legacy of the New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Williams Lake residential school. Vancouver, BC: Arsenal Pulp Press. Jackson, J., McGibbon, E., & Waldron, I. (2013). Racism and cardiovascular disease: Implications for nursing. Canadian Furniss, E. (2001). Aboriginal justice, the media, and the Journal of Cardiovascular Nursing, 23(4): 12-18. symbolic management of Aboriginal/Euro-Canadian relations. American Indian Culture and Research Journal, 25(2): Jordan, G., & Weedon, C. (1995). Cultural politics: Class, gender, 1-36. race and the postmodern world. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.

Gagné, M.A. (1998). The role of dependency and colonialism Kirmayer, L., Simpson, C., & Cargo, M. (2003). Healing in generating trauma in First Nation citizens: The James traditions: Culture, community and mental health promotion Bay . In International handbook of multigenerational legacies with Canadian Aboriginal peoples. Australasian Psychiatry, of trauma, Y. Danieli (ed.), pp. 355-372. New York, NY: 11(1): 15-23. Plenum Press. Kubik, W., Bourassa, C., & Hampton, M. (2009). Stolen sisters, Gee, G.C. (2002). A multilevel analysis of the relationship second class citizens, poor health: The legacy of between institutional and individual racial discrimination and in Canada. Humanity & Society, 33(1-2): 18-34. health status. American Journal of Public Health, 92(4): 615-623. Lavoie, J., & Forget, E.L. (2011). Legislating identity: The Gee, G.C., & Ford, C.L. (2011). Structural racism and health legacy of the Indian Act in eroding access to care. The inequities. Du Bois Review: Social Science Research on Race, 8(1): Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 31(1): 125-138. 115-132. Lawrence, K., Sutton, S., Kubisch, A., Susi, G., & Fulbright- Gordon, J. (2013). Idle No More vision & manifesto. Retrieved Anderson, K. (2010). Structural racism and community from http://idlenomore.ca. building. In Tackling health inequities through public health practice, R. Hofrichter, & R. Bhatia (eds.), pp. 143-161. New York, NY: Guild, J. (2011). History revisited. (Letter to Oxford University Press. the Editor), June 25, pp. F.8. Lee, M. (2009). BC’s infamous ‘Highway of Tears.’ CBC Digital Gunn Allen, P. (1986). The sacred hoop: Recovering the feminine in Archives, November 17. American Indian traditions. Boston, MA: Beacon Press. Long, J.A., Bear, L.L., & Boldt, M. (1982). Federal Indian policy Haig-Brown, C. (1988). Resistance and renewal: Surviving the Indian and Indian self-government in Canada: An analysis of a residential school. Vancouver, BC: Arsenal. current proposal. Canadian Public Policy, 8(2): 189-199.

Harding, R. (2006). Historical representations of Aboriginal Loppie Reading, C., & Barlow, C. (2009). Relational care: A guide people in the Canadian news media. Discourse & Society, 17(2): to health care and support for Aboriginal people living with HIV/ 205-235. AIDS. Ottawa, ON: Presentation at the Aboriginal Policy Research Conference, March 9-12.

13 Loppie Reading, C., & Wien, F. (2009). Health inequalities and the Moss, W. (1990). Indigenous self-government in Canada and social determinants of Aboriginal peoples’ health. Prince George, sexual equality under the Indian act: Resolving conflicts BC: National Collaborating Centre for Aboriginal Health. between collective and individual rights. Queen’s Law Journal, 15(1-2): 279-305. MacDonald, D.B., & Hudson, G. (2012). The genocide question and Indian residential schools in Canada. Canadian Musto, R.J. (1990). Indian reserves: Canada’s developing Journal of Political Science, 45(2): 427-449. nations. Canadian Family Physician, 36: 105-116.

MacKinnon, C. (2004). Difference and dominance. In Nagy, R., & Sehdev, R.K. (2012). Introduction: Residential Oppression, privilege & resistance, L. Heldke & P. O’Connor schools and . Canadian Journal of Law and (eds.), pp. 81-94. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Society, 27(1): 67-73.

Martel, J., & Brassard, R. (2008). Painting the prison ‘red’: Narine, S. (2013). Racism, mistrust keep aboriginal people from Constructing and experiencing Aboriginal identities in health care. Windspeaker, 30(11). Retrieved March 11, 2014 prison. British Journal of , 38(2): 340-361. from http://www.ammsa.com/publications/windspeaker/ racism-mistrust-keep-aboriginal-people-health-care McGlade, H. (2010). New solutions to enduring problems: The task of restoring justice to victims and communities. Native Women’s Association of Canada. (2007). Aboriginal Indigenous Law Bulletin, 7(16): 8-11. women too often the victims of racialized, sexualized violence: Sisters in Spirit initiative addresses alarmingly high Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (2013a). Racism. Retrieved numbers of missing, murdered Aboriginal women in Canada. July 24, 2013 from http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Canadian Women’s Health Network, 9(3/4). Retrieved March 11, dictionary/racism 2014 from http://www.cwhn.ca/node/39430

Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. (2013b). Racialize. O’Connor, J. (2011). School drops Halifax founder’s name Retrieved July 24, 2013 from http://www.merriam-webster. over Mi’kmaq complaints. The National Post, July 5, com/dictionary/racialize Retrieved from http://news.nationalpost.com/2011/07/05/ school-drops-halifax-founder%E2%80%99s-name-over- Miller, J.R. (2004). Lethal legacy: Current Native controversies in mi%E2%80%99kmaq-complaints/ Canada. Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press. Oppal, W.T. (2012). Gone, but not forgotten: Building the Milloy, J. (1996). A national crime: The Canadian Government and the women’s legacy of safety together. Forsaken: The report of residential school system, 1879 to 1986. , MB: University the missing women commission of inquiry Vol. III. Victoria, BC: of Press. Government of . Retrieved June 17, 2013 from http://www.missingwomeninquiry.ca/wp-content/ Milloy, J. (1999). A national crime: The Canadian government and the uploads/2010/10/Forsaken-Vol-3-web-RGB.pdf residential school system. Winnipeg, MB: Press.

14 Optis, M., Shaw, K., Stephenson, P., & Wild, P. (2012). Statistics Canada, Adult Correctional Services. (2012). Mold growth in on-reserve homes in Canada: The need Admissions to Provincial, Territorial and Federal Programs, 1997– for research, education, policy, and funding. Journal of 2001. Ottawa, ON: Statistics Canada. Retrieved June 17, 2013 Environmental Health, 74(6): 14-21. from www.statcan.ca/english/Pgdb/legal30b.htm.

Oxford Dictionaries (n.d.) Settler. Retrieved from http:// United Nations. (1948). Definition of genocide.The International oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/settler Convention of the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide. Retrieved March 11, 2014 from http://www. Paradis, G. (2013). Idle no more for First Nations rights. teachgenocide.org/files/UN%20Definition%20of%20 Canadian Journal of Public Health, 104(1): 1. Genocide.pdf

Perkel, C. (2013). Aboriginal leader fears Idle No More Van Bemmel, A. (2013). Racist responses to Idle No More tied backlash against native students. National Post, January 1. to misinformation about Canada’s past. straight.com, April 1. Retrieved March 11, 2014 from http://news.nationalpost. Retrieved March 11, 2014 from http://www.straight.com/ com/2013/01/11/aboriginal-leader-fears-idle-no-more- news/367451/alexis-van-bemmel-racist-responses-idle-no- backlash-against-native-students/. more-tied-misinformation-about--past

Proulx, C. (2000). Current directions in Aboriginal law/justice Volkan, V. (1997). Bloodlines: From ethnic pride to ethnic terrorism. in Canada. The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 20(2): 371- London, ON: Farrar, Strauss and Giroux. 409. Vukic, A., Jesty, C., Mathews, S.V., & Etowa, J. (2012). Razack, S.H. (2000). Gendered racial violence and spatialized Understanding race and racism in nursing: Insights from justice: The murder of Pamela George. Canadian Journal of aboriginal nurses. ISRN Nursing, Article ID 196437. Law and Society, 15(2): 91-130. Williams, J. (1985). Redefining .Ethnic and Robson, R. (1991). The Indian Act: A northern Manitoba Racial Studies, 8(3): 323-348. perspective (Bill C-31). The Canadian Journal of Native Studies, 11(2): 295. Woolford, A. (2009). Ontological destruction: Genocide and Canadian Aboriginal peoples. and Prevention, Sears, D.O., Sidanius, J., & Bobo, L. (Eds.). (2000). Racialized 4(1): 81-97. politics: The debate about racism in America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press. Zong, L. (1994). Structural and psychological dimensions of racism: Towards an alternative perspective. Canadian Ethnic Simeon, T. (2010). Safe in First Nations communities. Studies, 26(3): 122- 134. Ottawa, ON: Parliamentary Information and Research Services, Library of Parliament Publication No. 08-43-E.

15 HOW TO USE THIS FACT SHEET REFLECT ENGAGE SHARE

Talk to others in your Find local friendship centers, Request a hard copy of this community, reflect on the community organizations or fact sheet for yourself, your content of this fact sheet, and groups where you can volunteer clients, your students or your contemplate how you could or participate in healthy positive organization’s event or office. make a difference in the health actions. You too can share Share the link to this publication and well-being for yourself, your knowledge and make a difference through your family or your community. in the health and well-being of networks. Like, pin or favourite First Nations, Inuit, and Métis this fact sheet on one of the Peoples’ of Canada. NCCIH social media channels.

sharing knowledge · making a difference partager les connaissances · faire une différence ᖃᐅᔨᒃᑲᐃᖃᑎᒌᓃᖅ · ᐱᕚᓪᓕᖅᑎᑦᑎᓂᖅ

The NCCIH uses an external Une version française est This fact sheet is available for blind review process for également publiée sur le site download at nccih.ca. All NCCIH documents that are research ccnsa.ca, sous le titre : L’ef fet materials are available free and based, involve literature reviews du racisme sur les autochtones et ses can be reproduced in whole or in or knowledge synthesis, or conséquences. part with appropriate attribution undertake an assessment of and citation. All NCCIH knowledge gaps. We would like Citation: National Collaborating materials are to be used solely to acknowledge our reviewers Centre for Aboriginal Health. for non-commercial purposes. for their generous contributions (2014). Indigenous experiences with To measure the impact of these of time and expertise to this fact racism and its impacts. Prince materials, please inform us of sheet. George, BC: Author. their use.

ISBN (Print) 978-1-988426-41-9 ISBN (Online) 978-1-988426-95-2

issuu.com/nccah-ccnsa/stacks

Download publications at Télécharger des publications à nccih.ca/34/Publication_Search.nccih ccnsa.ca/524/Recherche_de_publication.nccih

FOR MORE INFORMATION: 1 250 960 5250 UNIVERSITY OF NORTHERN BRITISH COLUMBIA [email protected] 3333 UNIVERSITY WAY, PRINCE GEORGE, BC, V2N 4Z9 NCCIH.CA

© [2014] 2020 National Collaborating Centre for Indigenous Health (NCCIH). This publication was funded by the NCCIH and made possible through a financial contribution from the Public Health Agency of Canada (PHAC). The views expressed herein do not necessarily represent the views of PHAC. Fact sheet header photo © Credit: iStockPhoto.com, ID 19831249.