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Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-06837-6 - Languages in Contact: The Partial Restructuring of Vernaculars John Holm Index More information

Index

a- (VLRF pronoun prefix), 111–112 Afrikaans, 2, 7, 8, 9, 13, 23 abbreviations, xix–xx, 138 auxiliaries, 79 abolition of slavery “Coloured” Afrikaans, see Kaaps in Brazil, 56 dependent clauses, 122 inBritish Empire, 45 East Cape versus West Cape, 46 inRéunion, 68 Flytaal, 14 in USA, 36, 38 gender inNP,98 Abstand,80 Griqua Afrikaans, 14, 46, 100, 101 acrolect, 7, 69, 86 historical development, 41–47, 71, 137 Adam, L.,19 Kaaps, 14, 23, 46, 79, 98 African American English, 8, Malay Afrikaans, 14, 47, 101 28 negation, 79–80 attitudes towards, 1 number in NP, 97–98 auxiliary verbs, 73–75 Orange River Afrikaans, 14, 23, 46–47, “creolist” theory, 10, 12 79, 98, 100, 137 decreolization of, 6 possession, 98–99 dependent clauses, 120 pronouns, 99–101 diaspora varieties, 37 standardization of, 46 ex-slave narratives, 37 study of, 13–15 historical development, 29–41, 71, verbal morphology, 77–79 135, 137 word order, 120–122 negation, 75–76 Afro-Iberian linguistics, 16, 18 non-verbal predicates, 76–77 Afro-Portuguese, 62 number in NP, 93–94 Afro-Seminole, 33 possession, 95 age-grading, 40, 95, 96 pronouns agentive subject marker, 86–87, 88, 111, study of, 4, 10–13 141 varieties, 33–34 agreement verbal morphology, 73 gender, 101, 103–104, 108–110, 139 word order, 116–117 number, 103, 106–107, 108 African languages in Brazil, 53–56 subject-verb, 73, 88 Bantu versus West African, 54 agriculture, see plantation slavery Ewe-Fon, 55 ain’t (AAE ‘didn’t’), 40, 75–76 Yoruba, 56 Alvarez Nazario, M.,18 Africans (see also West Africans) ambiguity, 126, 141 in American South, 36, 47 American Indian English, 3–4, 21 in Brazil, 47, 48–49, 50, 55 American Indians in Cape Colony, 45 in Brazil, 50 inRéunion, 67, 137 in South Carolina, 35 in South Carolina, 35, 50 inVirginia, 32 in Spanish Caribbean, 61–62 American South, 33, 39, 41, 137 inVirginia, 32 analyticity, 5

166

Index 167

Andalusian Spanish, 17, 83 negation, 82 Angola, 42, 54 non-verbal predicates, 83 Angolar CP, 126 number in NP, 101 animate, 93, 98, 99 possession, 104 anterior tense, 73 pronouns, 104–105 Arawakan languages, 60 study of, 15–17 archaic features, 10, 101 verbal morphology, 80–82 articles, see determiners British Caribbean, 28, 29, 32, 35 aspect, 72, 86 British colonists, 45 assimilation, 41, 42, 43, 61, 62 British dialects, 1, 10, 77, 119, 139 associative plural, 92, 94, 97, 98, 108, 141 British North America, 33, 47 Atlantic creoles, xiv, 5, 81, 103, 107, 111, 116, 121, 124, 139 Cabrera, L.,18 attrition, xiv Cajun French, 23 Australian Aboriginal English, 4 camouflaging, 134 auxiliary verbs, 72, 120 Cape Colony, 41–46, 137 comparison, 91 population, 45 influence of preverbal markers on, 72, Cape Coloured, 43, 44, 46 73–75, 79, 82, 84, 85, 87–88 Cape Dutch, see Afrikaans Cape Malays, 42, 43, 47 Bahamian (C)E, xii, 10, 37, 117 Cape of Good Hope, 41–46 link to Gullah, 13, 34, 35, 37 Cape Town, 43 of whites, 11 Cape Verde CP, 26, 27, 47, 57, 102, Bahia, 50, 55, 56, 59 127, 137 Bajan see Barbados CE Caribbean Spanish, see Non-standard Baker, P.,20 Caribbean Spanish Bambara, 105 Carolinas, 30, 34 bandeirantes, 48, 55 case marking, 92, 95, 99, 101 Bantu languages, 44 caste dialects, 7, 21 Barbados, 29–32, 34, 35 Caymanian English, 9, 11, 72 CE, 26, 27, 136 Central American (C)E, 11 basilect, 3, 5, 7, 9, 23, 30, 64, 69, 72, 86 Central American Spanish, 60 Baxter, A.,16 Ceylon, see Sri Lanka Bay Island English, 11 Chapuis, D., 19, 21 be (AAE habitual), 40, 41, 75 Chaudenson, R.,xv,20 be done (AAE future perfect), 75 Chocó,106 been (AAE remote past), 40, 73–74 civilrights movement, 1 Bermuda, 26, 34 Civil War (in USA), 36, 39 Bickerton, D., 9, 24, 27 clause structure bidialectalism, 58 in AAE, 116–120 bioprogram, 25, 28 in Afrikaans, 120–123 Black English, 1 in BVP, 123–127 Boer War, 46 inNSCS, 127–129 Bollée,A.,20 in VLRF, 129–133 Boomfield, L.,7,9 coartación,62 borrowing, 137, 143 code switching, xiv Bourbonnais, 20, 65 Coelho, A.,15 bozal Spanish, see Habla Bozal cognition, xv Brazilian Vernacular Portuguese, 2, 8, Colombian Spanish, 17, 18, 60, 62, 85, 18 106 auxiliaries, 82 Colônia Leopoldina, 59 dependent clauses, 124 Coloured, see Cape Coloured gender in NP, 103–104 comparative method, xiv historical development, 26, 47–60, 71, comparative studies in restructuring, 137 144–146

168 Languages in Contact

comparison Creole Spanish (see also Palenquero, of auxiliaries/preverbal markers, 91 Papiamentu) of dependent clauses, 133–134 in Cuba? 63 of gender, 113–114 pan-Caribbean? 18 of historical development, 70–71 creolistics, xi of negation, 91 creolisant,6,8 of number marking in NP, 112–113 creolization, xi,xiv, 3 of partially restructured vernaculars, full versus partial, 4–5, 12, 24, 134, 135, 21–23 141, 145 of possession, 114 crops, see plantation slavery of pronouns, 114 Cuban Spanish, 8, 17, 18, 60, 62, 63, 71, of verbal morphology, 90–91 84, 106 of word order, 133 Cura¸cao, 51, 62, 71 completive aspect, 74, 79 complexification, 141 de (CE progressive marker), 74 consonant cluster simplification, 97 “debasilectalization”,38 contact linguistics, 3, 145, 146 DeCamp, D.,7 continuum, 7, 20, 85 decreolization, 2–7, 9, 10, 11, 16, 18, convergence/divergence debate, 11, 40 20, 38, 60, 74, 75, 93, 102, 103, convergence of influence, 5, 118 126, 143 copula, 41, 87 versus partial restructuring,4,11 absence of (see also non-verbal definite articles, 93 predicates), 23, 40, 41, 74, 90, 139, definite future, 88 141 definiteness, 93 comparison, 91 DeGraff, M.,xiv in AAE, 76–77 de Granda, G., 17, 18 in BVP, 83 degrees of restructuring, see gradience inNSCS, 85 dem, see pluralizer in VLRF, 89–90 demographicratio, see native-speaker copula-like particle, 87 ratio Corne, C.,20 demonstratives, 93 Couto, H.,16 denasalization, 80 Craig, B.,21 den Besten, H.,14 creole, xiii depalatalization, 69 influence, 9, 11, 21 dependent clauses prototype, xv, 28 comparison, 133–134 versus non-creole features, 22–23 in AAE, 120 Créoledes Bas, see VLRF in Afrikaans, 122 Créoledes Hauts, see VLRF in BVP, 124 Creole English inNSCS, 128 in Caribbean, 2, 7, 8, 41 in VLRF, 129–133 in North America, 30, 32, 33, 34–35, 41 derivational affixes, xv in Suriname, see Surinamese creoles destativizer, 87 Creole French determiners in Caribbean, xvi,6 articles, 109 in Louisiana, 26, 52 absent, 53 in Indian Ocean, see Mauritian, gender agreement, 108–110 Seychelles CF number agreement, 101 Creole Portuguese detribalization, 44 in Africa, 47 diaspora varieties of AAE, 37 inAsia, 42 Dillard, J.,2,36 in Brazil, 47, 50, 55 direct object in South Africa, 13–14, 42 marker, 123 Créoles (i.e. people) word order, 123, 131 inRéunion, 68 does (CE habitual marker), 74

Index 169

Dominican Spanish, 17, 18, 19, 26, 60, German, 14, 59 62, 63, 71, 84, 85, 106, 108 dialects, 42 done (CE, AAE completive marker), 74 gradience, xv, 4, 5, 8–10, 12, 22, 25, 26, drift, xv, 5, 15, 78, 90, 113, 143 141, 144 durative aspect, 79, 84 Green, K., 17, 19, 21, 142 Dutch, 7, 41–46, 116, 120 Guadeloupe, xvi,26 archaic, 122 Guiné-Bissau CP, 81, 127, 129 colloquial, 98 Gullah, xii, 2, 26, 28, 29, 33, 36, 37, 41, dialects, 97, 122, 139 77, 95, 119 Dutch Brazil, 51, 52 historical development, 26, 35 Dutch East India Company, 41, 42, 43 Guy, G.,16 Guyanais CF, 26 East Africans Guyanese CE, 28 inRéunion, 67 Guyanese Spanish, 60 East Indies see Indonesia Ebonics, 1 habitual aspect, 75 education, 3, 21, 58 Habla Bozal, 17, 18, 108 emancipation see abolition of slavery historical development, 63, 137 embedded questions, 117 had in AAE, 74 emphasis, 81, 82, 94, 124 Haiti, 25, 26, 27, 67 ethniclinguistic marking, 32, 34, 39, 40 Halbkreolisch,6 Eurocentrism, 15 Hancock, I.,10 European Portuguese, 56, 80, 83, 123, 125 Helvécia Portuguese, 16, 59–60, 82, 101, European Spanish, see Peninsular Spanish 103, 125, 127, 137 Europeans (see also whites) Hesseling, D.,7 in Brazil, 49–50 Hiberno English, see Irish English in Cape Colony, 45 highlighter, 90, 124 in South Carolina, 35 Hispanicization, 61 in Spanish Caribbean, 64 historical fragments of language, 2, 37 inVirginia, 32, 71 historical linguistics, xiv Ewe-Fon, 55, 82 Hottentot, see Khoi existential constructions, 76, 130 Huguenots, 34, 42 ex-slave narratives, 11, 37, 73, 93, hypercorrection, 97, 119 119 i (VLRF verb marker), 69, 86–87, 111, foreigner’s English, 2, 33 141 fossilized forms, 78, 86, 91, 110 ideology, 1–3 founder effect, 14, 27, 32 Ile de France CF, 19 fran¸cais avancée,20 imperative, 81 fran¸caiscréolisé,69 identity and language, 136, 137 freed slaves, 34, 44, 62 indentured servants French, 42, 59 from British Isles, 29, 30 French East India Company, 65 from India, 69, 137 frequency, 145 India, 42, 69 full creolization, see creolization indigenization, 4, 145 indigenous languages, replacement of, Geechee,xii 136 gender, 25, 42, 92, 95, 107, 108–110, indirect object, 131 139 Indo-European languages, xiv common, 96 Indonesia, 42 comparison, 113–114 Indo-Portuguese, 6, 9, 19, 65, 112, 120, lexical, 109 123 natural versus grammatical, 111 infinitive, 78, 81 genetic relation, xiv–xv, 71 marker, 129 Georgia, 32, 33, 35 pseudo-infinitif, 133

170 Languages in Contact

inflections, xv lexicon, 22 fossilized, 78, 86, 91 Liberia, 37 loss of, xv, 3, 4, 5, 22, 41, 43, 72, 78, L´ıngua dos Pretos Velhos, 16, 103 90, 140, 144 L´ıngua Geral, 48, 51, 52, 55–56 verbal, 11, 72, 86 linguistic processes in partial restructuring, influence of full creoles, 137 142–143 -ing (AAE progressive marker), 74 linguistic traits of partial restructuring, 22, innovation and partial restructuring, 121, 142 141 Lipski,J.,18 interior South, 36, 37 Lorenzino, G.,19 interlanguage, 14, 16, 33, 44 Louisiana CF, 26, 52 intermarriage, 42, 44, 48, 57 “intermediate” varieties, 30 Madagascar, 43, 65, 67 intertwining, xiii, 4, 145 main clauses, 120 intransitives from reflexives, 112 Makhudu, D.,14 invariant be, see be Malagasy, 65, 86, 90, 109, 112, 130–131, inversion of S/V (or Aux), 116–117, 121, 137 124, 128, 129–130, 133, 140, 141 Malay Irish English, xiii, 4, 30, 117 Bazaar, 100 isolating languages, xv, 5–10, 141 Malayo-Portuguese, 13–14, 42, 78, 100, it’s (AAE existential), 76 123 manumission, 57 Jamaican CE, 25, 26, 30, 34, 71, 72, 77, mamelucos,57 118, 120 Maranhao,˜ 51, 57 Jeroslow, H. (see also McKinney, H.), 15, marked features, 142 16 Markey, T.,xiv Jews maroons, 28, 51, 54–68 in Brazil, 51 Martinique, xvi, 25, 26, 27 in Cura¸cao, 51–52 Maryland, 33 in Suriname, 52–53 Mauritian CF, 19, 20, 26, 28, 67, 88 juxtaposition, see [possessor + possessed] McKinney, H. (see also Jeroslow, H.), 15 Kaaps, see Afrikaans McWhorter, J.,xiii,xv Kaf,69 Megenney, W.,18 Khoi, 13, 14, 15, 41–46, 78, 80, 100, Mello, H., 3, 15, 16, 21, 142 120 mesolect, 7, 117 koineization, 4, 48, 145 Mexican Spanish, 60 Kotzé,E.,14 Miami Spanish, 17, 60 Krio, 119 migration of speakers, 3, 28, 30, 39, 40, 135–136 la (VLRF perfect marker), 65 Minas Gerais, 55 Labov, W., 10, 11 mines (AAE possessive pronoun), 96 language borrowing, see borrowing Miskito Coast CE, 10, 94 language change, xiv, xvi morphological versus phonological rules, language contact, xvi, 78, 90, 91, 144, 145 15, 80, 81, 83, 98, 102, 103, 105, language drift, see drift 106 language shift, see shift Mozambique, 43 language transmission, see transmission Mufwene, S.,xii,xiv,xv,9,12 of language Muhlh¨ ausler,¨ P.,6 Leeward Islands, 30, 34 lete ki (VLRF durative past marker), 65, Nama, 79, 80, 100 67, 69 Namibia, 47 leveling, 34, 143, 145 nasalization (see also denasalization), 56, primary, 143 80 secondary, 38, 143 Natal, 45

Index 171

native-speaker ratio, 3, 12, 21, 24–29, 70, in BVP, 101–105 135–136 inNSCS, 105–108 in American South, 33, 145 in VLRF, 108–112 in Brazil, 50 Nova Scotia, 37 in Cape Colony, 45 number marking inNP,92 inR´eunion, 67, 70–71 comparison, 112–113 in South Carolina, 35 in AAE, 93–94 in Spanish Caribbean, 64 in Afrikaans, 97–98 inVirginia, 32 in BVP, 103 negation inNSCS, 106–107 comparison, 91 in VLRF, 108 discontinuous double, 72, 80, 82, 85, 88, 91, 139, 141 objects: order of direct/indirect, 131 in AAE, 75–76 Orange Free State, 46 in Afrikaans, 79–80 Orange River Afrikaans, see Afrikaans in BVP, 82 orthography, xx inNSCS, 84–85 in VLRF, 88–89 palatalization (see also depalatalization), negative concord, 76, 84, 91, 139 56 clause-external, 76 Palenquero CS, 17, 18, 19, 62, 85, 107 negative inversion, 76 Palenquero Spanish, 18, 64, 107, 108, postverbal, 79, 80, 82 129 Negerhollands, 6, 26, 44, 45, 46, 71, 121, Palmares, 54 122 Papen, R.,20 Negro Non-Standard English, 1 Papia,16 New York City Spanish, 17, 60 PapiaKristang CP, 100 Niger-Congo languages, xiv, 5, 42, 102, Papiamentu, 6, 17, 26, 27, 71, 81, 105, 103, 116, 141 107, 127, 129 no (CE verbal negator), 75 Portuguese element in, 51–52 Nonstandard Caribbean Spanish, 2, 8 parameter settings, xv auxiliaries, 84 Parkvall, M.,xiii, 23, 24–27 dependent clauses, 128 partial restructuring, xiii,2 gender in NP, 107 and substrate inﬂuence, 141 historical development, 60–64, 71, 137 theoretical model, 5, 7–10, 142–143 negation, 84–85 versus decreolization, 4, 23 non-verbal predicates, 85 past tense number in NP, 106–107 in AAE, 73, 138 possession, 107 in Afrikaans, 78–79 pronouns, 107–108 Peninsular Spanish, 85 study of, 17–19 periphrasis, 88 verbal morphology, 83–84 Pernambuco, 50, 52, 54 word order, 127–128 petits blancs (see also poor whites), 68, 69 non-stative (see also stative), 87 phonological versus morphological rules, non-verbal predicates (see also copula 15, 80, 81, 83, 98, 102, 103, 105, absence), 23, 40, 41, 72, 74, 90, 106 141 internal motivation of phonological comparison, 91 rules, 144 in AAE, 76–77 phonotactic rules, 106 in BVP, 83 Pidgin Dutch, 42, 43, 44 inNSCS, 85 Pidgin English, 2, 34–35 in VLRF, 89–90 Pidgin French, 28 North Carolina, 33, 35 Pidgin Portuguese, 52 noun phrase Pidgin Spanish, 63 in AAE, 93–96 pidginization, 3 in Afrikaans, 96–101 pidginization index, 10, 27

172 Languages in Contact

pied-piping, 122 preverbal markers, 11 plantation agriculture, 43 influence on auxiliary verbs, 72, 73–75, coffee, 59, 61, 67 79, 82, 84, 85, 87–88, 139, 141 cotton, 36, 38 primary leveling, 143 rice, 34, 36 prior creolization, 16 sugar, 30, 50, 61, 68 processive, 86–87 tobacco, 29, 30, 32, 36, 61 Pro-drop, 81, 84, 128 “Plantation Creole”,36 progressive aspect, 74 pleonastic subject pronoun, 96 pronouns pluralizer = ‘they’, 93, 108, 111, 139, case marking, 92, 95, 99, 101, 104, 112, 141 140 in associative plural, 94, 97, 139 clitic, 99, 104, 115, 123 plural marking inNP,92 comparison, 114 irregular, 97 conjoined, 94 Ponelis, F.,14 disjunctive, 110, 112, 115, 128 poor whites emphatic, 94, 104, 110, 111, 115 in Cape Colony, 46 gender marking, 95, 99, 104, 111 inRéunion, 68–69 in AAE, 95–96 Poplack, S.,12 in Afrikaans, 99–101 Pororó,63 in BVP, 104–105 Portuguese, 47 (see also Brazilian inNSCS, 107–108 Vernacular Portuguese, European in VLRF, 110–112 Portuguese, Helvécia Portuguese, interrogative, 100 Standard Brazilian Portuguese) object, 101, 112 influence on Guyanais CF, 52 pleonastic subject, 96, 119 influence on Papiamentu, 51–52 possessive, 99–101, 122 influence on Saramaccan, 52–53 reflexive, 101, 105, 107, 112, 115, 140 [possessed (OF) possessor], 53, 98, 104, relative, 76, 96, 122, 125 110, 140 resumptive, 125, 134, 141 possession subject, 81, 84, 128 comparison, 114 word order, 104, 112, 123 in AAE, 95 prototype, creole, xv, 28 in Afrikaans, 98–99 Puerto Rican Spanish, 17, 18, 60, 62, 71, in BVP, 104 84, 85, 106 inNSCS, 107 in VLRF, 110 quantitative studies, 93 possessive questions determiner, 95, 99–101 direct, 121 marker on nouns, 92, 98 embedded, 121–122 pronoun, 99–101 word order, 116, 121, 128, 130 [possessor + possessed], 53, 140 question words, 124 in CE, AAE, 95 quilombos, see maroons [possessor HIS possessed], 98–99, 100–101 race relations in colloquial Dutch, 98 in Brazil, 57 post-creole, 1–9, 20, 23, 46 in South Africa, 43, 44 post-verbal negation, see negation in Spanish Caribbean, 61–62 post-verbal marker, 86 in USA, 32, 39, 41 power relationships, 3 racial segregation, 35, 39, 40, 57 prepositional phrase deletion, 126 Raidt, E.,14 prepositions Rademeyer, J.,14 absence before place names, 131 “radical” creole, 25 absence before indirect object, 131 rapidity of creole genesis, xvi preposition stranding, 122 regional speech forms, 10, 11 present for past, 73, 78–79, 82, 91 regularity, 145

Index 173

Rehoboth Basters, 46 secondary leveling, 38, 143 Reinecke, J.,xi, 8, 13, 19 segregation, see racial segregation relative semi-creolization, xi–xiii, 8, 9, 12, 15, 19, clauses, 117–119, 120, 122, 124–127, 37, 60 131, 133 Seychelles CF, 19, 20, 109 determiners, 125 share-cropping, 38, 40 pronouns, 122, 124, 131, 132 shift, 4, 16, 56 complex/simplex, 134 of heterogeneous language community, resumptive, 125, 134 142, 143 subject, absent, 76, 96, 117–119, 125, of homogeneous language community, 128, 130, 133, 134, 140 30 religious rites, language of, 16, 18, 56 Siegel, J.,4 remote past, 73 Sierra Leone, 37 renativization, 145 Silva Neto, S.,9,15 repidginization, 9 slaves, 36 restructuring index, 25, 26 from Africa, 32, 33, 36, 43, 45, 67 Réunionnais, see Vernacular Lects of from Caribbean, 32, 33, 36 Réunion French from Asia, 42, 43, 45, 67 Rickford, J., 10, 12, 24, 27 status, 30 Rio de Janeiro, 56 social factors in partial restructuring, 21, Roberge, P., 13, 15 24–71, 135–137 Romance languages, 104, 139 sociolinguistics, xiv, 106 sociolinguistichistory, 3, 24 -s (E verbal inflection: third person of AAE, 29–41 singular), 40 of Afrikaans, 41–47 in AAE, 73, 137 of BVP, 47–60 (E, D noun inflection: plural), 97, 139 of Gullah, 34–35 in AAE, 93–94 of Helvécia Portuguese, 59–60 inBritish dialects, 93, 94 of NSCS, 60–64 (NP inflection: plural) of VLRF, 65–70 in French, 108–112 South, see American South in Portuguese, 56, 101 South Africa, 13, 46 in Spanish, 106–107 South African philological school, 14, 15 St. Barts or St. Barthélemy, 20, 23 South Carolina, 33, 35 St. Kitts, xvi, 26, 27, 30 Southern White Vernacular English, 23, St. Thomas, 25, 26 40, 41, 75, 76, 95, 96 salience, 145 SOV word order, 42, 116, 120, 133 Samaná,37 speech relationships Sao˜ Paulo, 48 black-white, 39, 40, 41 Sao˜ Tomé CP, 17, 26, 27, 47, 57 Spanish, 52 influence on BVP, 51, 82, 102, 104, Spanish Caribbean, 84–85, 137 105, 126 demographics, 64 influence on Palenquero CS, 62 language contact in, 60–64 Saramaccan, 7, 120 “spontaneous development” theory, 14 Portuguese element in, 52–53 Sranan CE, 26, 27, 53, 120 say (CE, AAE quotative), 41, 120, 134, Sri Lanka, 42, 45 141, 142 Standard Brazilian Portuguese, 57–59, Schneider, E., 10, 12 80–81 Scholtz, J.,14 standardization, 13, 21, 46 Schuchardt, H.,6,19 stative (see also non-stative), 87 Schwegler, A.,18 Stewart, W.,7,8,36 se (Afrikaans possessive), 98–99, 122, stigmatized forms, 73, 74 140 strong restructuring, 23 -se (NSCS plural marker), 106–107 structural distance, 7–10, 12, 25 second language acquisition, 5, 14, 18, 35 structural reduction, 140

174 Languages in Contact

subject/verb (or Aux) inversion, Venezuelan Spanish, 17, 18, 60, 85 see inversion verbal morphology subjunctive mood, 82 comparison of, 90–91 subordinate clauses, 120, 123, 127, 129 in AAE, 73 subordinator, 118 in Afrikaans, 77–79 subordinator, absent, 123, 127, 128, in BVP, 80–82 132, 134, 140, 141 inNSCS, 83–84 substrate, xiv, 4, 5, 139 in VLRF, 20, 85–87 influence of, 15, 16, 18, 33, 41, 72, 86, verb phrase 134, 141, 143 in AAE, 73–77 superstrate, xiv,xv,5,6 in Afrikaans, 77–80 Surinamese creoles (see also Saramaccan, in BVP, 80–83 Sranan), 7, 8, 28, 30, 34, 41, 52, inNSCS, 83–85 120 in VLRF, 20, 85–90 SVO word order, 42, 104, 116–119, 120, verb-last word order, 122 121, 123, 130, 133 verb-second word order, 120, 121, 122 syllable structure, 56 Vernacular Lects of Réunion French, syntax-internal model, xv, xvi 2, 10 synthetic languages, xv, 5 auxiliaries, 87–88 systematicity within language, 5 Créoledes Bas, 20, 67, 69, 86, 137 Créoledes Hauts, 20, 69 Tagliavini, C.,6 dependent clauses, 131–133 target language, access to, 136 historical development, 65–70, 136, te (VLRF verb marker), 69, 87 137 tense, 72, 86 negation, 88–89 theoretical model for partial restructuring, non-verbal predicates, 89–90 142–143 number marking in NP, 108–112 Thomason, S. G.,xiv, 3–4, 9, 24, 142 possession, 110 time factor in restructuring, 24, 27–29, study of, 19–21 135 time factor in restructuring, 28 Tok Masta,6 urban Creole, 20 tone, xv, 25 verbal morphology, 85–87 topicalizer, 90 word order, 129–131 transmission of languages, xv, 3, 21, Virginia, 29, 30, 32, 33, 35, 36 67, 71 Virgin Islands, 71 normal, xiv, 71 VSO word order, 130 irregular, 103 transparency, 142, 145 weak restructuring, 23 Transvaal, 46 West Africans Trinidadian Spanish, 60 in Cape Colony, 42 Tupi, 15, 48, 53, 55–56 in Barbados, 29 typology, xiii,xiv–xv in Guyana, 28 in Mauritius, 20, 28 unbound pluralizer, see pluralizer inRéunion, 67 unrestructured overseas varieties, 3, 33, in South Carolina, 35 34, 135, 136 inVirginia, 29, 32 universals, xv, 5 whites unrounding of vowels, 69 as creole speakers, 52 Upper South, 36 in Brazil, 49–50 urban ghettos, 39 in Cape Colony, 45 in South Carolina, 35 Valkhoff, M., 14, 15, 19 in Spanish Caribbean, 64 Van Name, A.,xvi, 17, 24 inVirginia, 32, 71 van Rensburg, M.,14 white supremacists, 39 Vasconcellos, J.,7 WH-movement, 122

Index 175

Winford, D.,4,12 you all (AAE, SWVE pronoun), 96 withdrawal of superstrate, 28 Yoruba, 77 word order, 101, 104, 116–117, associative plural, 94 119 in Brazil, 56 comparison, 133 pluralizer, 93 in AAE, 116–117 relative clauses, 118 in Afrikaans, 120–122 in BVP, 123–124 zero copula, see copula absence inNSCS, 127–128 zoreil,69 in VLRF, 129–131 Zulu, 45