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| PRESENTS I
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1 A SERIES OF JUDAIC ESSAYS^IV J
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ERNEST RENAN
ERNEST RENAN (1823-1892), the been pronounced the most fascinating French savant, philosopher and poet, history of the Jewish people ever writ- was also a masterful historian of Israel. ten. The reader of today will be struck His interest in Jews and Judaism was by the vibrant words with which Renan lifelong. "The history of the Jewish peo- closes the final volume: "Israel will not ple," he writes, "is one of the most beau- be vanquished unless military force tiful in existence, and 1 do not regret should once again take possession of the having consecrated my life to it." world, and found a new servitude, forced Born into the Catholic faith, Renan labor, feudalism. This is by no means was destined for the priesthood. But he probable." early lost his belief; and the Catholic In the subjoined essay, or discourse, heretic became the champion of pro- Renan reaches the conclusion that the phetic Judaism. He declared again and Jews are no longer a purely Eastern again that the Hebrew prophets were race. The discourse was delivered before the founders of the religion of humanity. a learned audience in 1883 and printed He was one of the creative spirits of from a stenographic report. As far as we the nineteenth century. His knowledge know, this is the first rendering of this was equal to the energy and freedom of discourse into English. The translation his mind. Renan was an apostle of rea- was done by Robert Pick. son. Reason was the Absolute. The organization of reason—that is, science— WOULD like to exchange some was the first duty of humanity. Science ideas with you on the difference to him, however, was not a collection of I recipes to make things like telephones— which, in my opinion, ought to be made even as reason is more than a practical between the religious and ethnographic instrument. Renan's philosophical con- aspects in regard to Judaism. Judaism viction was that the universe had an is a religion, and a great religion— ideal aim, and "ideal" with him was this much is crystal clear. But ordinar- equivalent to divine. ily, people go beyond that: Judaism Renan was no recluse. He was a gen- is considered a matter of race, people uine citizen of Europe with political actually speak of a "Jewish race"—in consciousness, and a fighter for great short, it is taken for granted that the causes. Said he: "It is better to serve a Jewish nation which originated this cause, for the cause survives you." But after the defeat of France in 1870, he religion has always kept it for itself. grew skeptical ana ironic. In this mood It is a well-recognized fact that he found a response in Ecclesiastes, or Christianity detached itself from the Koheleth, which he acknowledged as Jewish creed at a certain historical mo- his favorite book of the Bible, and which ment. Yet, some are willing to believe he considered the only amiable book that this small and creative people written by a Jew. Interestingly enough, has at all times remained so closely Renan saw a modern analogy to Kohe- leth in the poet Heinrich Heine. identical with itself that being Jewish by faith means necessarily being Jew- Renan was sixty years old when he commenced his five-volume History of ish by blood. To what extent is this Israel. Leading scholars of the time were true? And to what degree may such an critical of it. Nevertheless, the work has opinion be modified? We shall try to JUDAISM: RACE OK RELIGION? 437 answer these questions. But first of all, known that Buddhistic propaganda permit me to qualify the point at issue was preceded by Hindu proselytizing; by a comparison. the old monuments of Indo-China are In one corner of the world, in Bom- not Buddhistic but Brahmanic. Bud- bay, there exists a little religious com- dhism only entered later although, as munity, the Parsees, whose creed is the we have to concede, it was primarily in religion of ancient Persia. In this case its Buddhistic form that the Hindu reli- the issue is very clear: Parseeism is a gion began to spread. The second of religion which was national in its ori- the three universal religions is Chris- gin and which has been preserved by tianity; Mohammedanism is the third. a race more or less homogeneous; I hard- There are Buddhists, Christians and ly think that there have ever occurred Muslims of all races—none of the conversions to Parseeism. Here we three faiths has any ethnographic sig- have an example of the closest con- nificance. We know, at least approxi- nections between religion and race. mately, at what times these three Now, on the other hand, let us take universal religions first appeared in the Protestantism in countries where this world. Buddhism goes back to the fifth creed constitutes a minority, as it does or sixth century B.C.E.; its great con- in France. Here the situation is reversed: quests took place at a later period. the problem has no ethnographic angle. There is, of course, no doubt as to the Why is a man Protestant? Because his epochs in which Christianity and Mo- ancestors were Protestants. Why were hammedanism arose. his ancestors Protestant? Because, in the sixteenth century, their ways of think- NATIONAL RELIGIONS ing and feeling led them to accept the reform of Christianity. Ethnography has But thousands of regional and na- nothing to do with such an instance; it tional religions have existed outside of would be foolish to say that those people these universal religions. Athens had became Protestant for some reason of its own faith, Sparta had hers, as in race—it would be sheer hair-splitting, fact had all peoples in antiquity. In- or, at any rate, a completely irrelevant deed, it was one of the most deep- point. rooted beliefs in those days that even In Parseeism, on the other hand, specific localities possessed their own there certainly is a definite ethno- religion. During the second and the graphic element; for, I repeat, there is third centuries of our era, one of the very little proselytism in that tiny reli- constant objections of Celsus, the Pla- gious community of Bombay. tonist, and the opponents of Christian- What now is the position of the ity was that various countries had their Jews? Is it analogous to the case of own gods who protected them and the Protestants, or is it rather an eth- were interested in their fate. nographically determined religion like In the Second Book of Kings, an ac- Parseeism? The fundamentals are not count of what befell the men from going to keep us long. Speaking, as I Cuth, who had been brought to Samaria am, before scholars, I need not dwell by the Assyrians, expresses this old upon the one basic principle of reli- idea with disarming simplicity. At- gious science, its ABC, so to say. I am tacked by lions, these settlers come to referring to the distinction between na- regard the beasts as messengers of the tional and universal religions. local god, who has grown angry because There are only three universal reli- he has not been worshipped in a man- gions. First there is Buddhism, or ner proper to him. They dispatch a rather, Hinduism. For today it is well petition to the Assyrian Government 438 CO /TEMPORARY JEWISH RECORD with approximately the following mes- iar with the actual religious feelings of sage: "The god of the land bears us a Moabite; for this inscription, now in ill-will, for he has not been worshipped the Louvre, reveals to a certain extent in his own way. Send us priests who the spiritual ideas of that prince of the know how we may gratify him," This ninth century B.C.E. I feel very is certainly a conception alien to both strongly that David's attitude was much Christian and Buddhistic thinking. The the same. There is a close covenant deity here is essentially regional and between Mesha and his god Chemosh: national. the deity interferes in all the circum- All national religions have died stances of the king's life, gives him or- away. The human race has come to ders and advice, and Mesha's victories want universal religions which set are Chemosh's; the king, on the other forth to man his general duties and hand, covers the altar of his god with which have undertaken to enlighten sacrifices and lays down before him the mankind on the mystery of its destiny. sacred vessels of the vanquished gods. The program of the national religions Mesha rewards his deity in proportion was more limited: it was patriotism to what he has received—it is a religion heightened by the belief that each land of give and take. Undoubtedly, for a had a guardian spirit of its own that long time Israel's creed, the religion of watched over its destiny and demanded Israel's specific God, Yahweh, was also to be served in a specific manner. an egotistic and selfish cult. Such narrow-minded theology has disappeared altogether and has given PROPHETIC AND UNIVERSAL RELIGION place to the Christian, Buddhistic or Mohammedan ideologies. This has What was it that transformed that been an immense step forward. In the Yahweh cult into the universal religion history of civilized nations, I perceive of the civilized world? It was the work only two instances of the survival of of the Prophets, who lived around the formerly national religions. The first eighth century B.C.E. They are the is that of Parseeism—and it should be very glory that is Israel's. We have no added that to its own devotees Parseeism proofs of prophets who may have lived has many universal traits. The second among the more or less consanguineous is that of Judaism, which is regarded by neighbors of Israel such as the Phoeni- a certain school of thought as the reli- cians. They certainly had their nobis— gion of a specific country, the land of sorcerers, men whom the people would Israel or the realm of Judah, kept alive consult when their ass was lost, or when by the descendants of its original in- they wanted secret information. habitants. Israel's nabis were of a totally differ- Now let me repeat that such views ent kind. They were the founders of require the closest scrutiny. Beyond pure religion. About the eighth century doubt, Judaism at first was a national B.C.E., we find these men appear- religion. Judaism is the creed of the ing, of whom Isaiah is the most illustri- Bene-Israel, which for centuries did ous. They are by no means priests, and not differ essentially from the beliefs they say: "Sacrifices are needless. For of neighboring tribes such as, for in- God takes no pleasure in sacrifices. How stance, the Moabites. Yahweh, the God can you think so little of the Deity as of the Israelites, protected Israel in the not to understand that the repulsive same way as Chemosh, the Moabite odor of burned grease sickens him? Be deity, watched over Moab. righteous. Worship God with clean Since the discovery of the King hands—this is the service he asks of Mesha inscription, we have been famil- you." JUDAISM: RACE OK RELIGION? 439 I do not believe that such thoughts the Temple by the Romans. This were usual in the days of King Mesha event was a stroke of good luck, for or King David. In their time religion it may well be doubted whether, had was a barter, an exchange of good serv- the Temple continued to stand, Chris- ices for adoration. The Prophets, in tianity would have succeeded in sever- contradistinction, declare that Jehovah's ing all ties with it. true servant is he who does good. In Isaiah, I say again, is the first this way religion becomes a matter of founder of the Christian religion. He ethics, something universal, and is per- lived around 725 B.C.E., and thus, in meated by the idea of justice. And this introducing into the Israelite world is why the Prophets of Israel are the the concept of justice and the idea of most fervent tribunes the world has the secondary value of sacrifices, he ever seen, tribunes who are all the antedates Jesus by more than seven more harsh and stern since they do not centuries. To the concept of pure reli- rely on the concept of another life to gion the Prophets added the projection comfort themselves but proclaim that of a kind of Golden Age which was here on earth justice must prevail. already visible to them. This is the unique appearance in the Israel's fundamental idea is the an- world of a pure religion. You can see nunciation of a radiant future for man- that such a creed has, in fact, out- kind, a state where justice will reign stripped everything national. In wor- on earth, and in which all idolatry and shiping a God who created heaven and all lower and ruder forms of worship earth, who loves the good and punishes will disappear. This much can be evil (although this was difficult enough found in the authentic parts of Isaiah. to prove without involving the notion You know that the book attributed to of a hereafter; but they got around this this Prophet requires careful analysis. as well as they could), in proclaiming The latter part was written after the such a faith, man has surpassed the Captivity, but the chapters I have in limitations of his national ideology and mind (for instance, 11, 19, 23, 32) has become fully conscious of human are, without the slightest doubt, written values in the broadest sense of the by Isaiah himself. And these are precise- word. Therefore these great creative ly the chapters that lay most stress upon minds did not hesitate to draw the con- the conversion of the heathen in Egypt, clusions from their own doctrine—the Tyre and Assyria. ultimate consequence of which would Thus idolatry will perish from the certainly have led them to suppress the earth, vanquished by the Jews. The sacrifices and close the Temple. They Jewish people will then be like "a would have come to that—in fact, banner" seen by all nations on the they virtually did. For Christianity horizon, a pennant around which they declares that sacrifices are an utterly ob- soon will rally. This conception indi- solete institution with no place what- cates that the messianic or sibylline soever in a spiritual religion, and the ideal has been alive long before the founders of Christianity are after all but Babylonian Captivity. Israel is dream- the last representatives of the spirit of ing of a future of bliss for mankind, a the Prophets. perfect kingdom with Jerusalem as the As to the Temple, the founder of capital. And all the peoples, so Israel the Christian religion was accused of dreams, will go on a pilgrimage to having spoken against it. Did he really Jerusalem to worship the Eternal. do so? We are never to know. In any Clearly, such a faith is not national. case, an event came to pass which In its background, it is true, there is a settled the question: the destruction of certain amount of national pride, but 440 CO /TEMPORARY JEWISH RECORD what historical formation is free from happened during the Captivity and such remnants? The idea as such, how- especially in the long period of Persian ever, is, as you can see, basically and rule, that is to say, from 530 B.C.E. profoundly universal, and from that until Alexander? We do not know. point of development to propaganda, to Were there many mixed marriages in proselytism through preaching, there Israel within that period? It would be was only one single step. foolhardy to take it for granted, but, The world, at that time, was not on the other hand, the possibility can- ready for such large-scale propaganda not be excluded. The hedge around as was later carried on by the Chris- Israel was certainly subject to more tian apostolate; the missionary work of than one inroad in those days of dis- St. Paul as well as the intercourse be- organization. But as to historical facts tween the churches became possible which might add weight to any such as- only through the Roman Empire. But sumption, I can perceive a single one in spite of that, the fact remains that only: the deep aversion to mixed mar- the idea of a universal religion came riages on the part of the reformers first into full being in Israel of old. Nehemiah and Ezra; it is a fixed idea This concept is even more manifest of theirs. The Jewish troops returning in the writings which date from the from the East are likely to have suffered Captivity. The century which fol- from a surplus of men, which conse- lowed the destruction of the Temple quently forced many emigrants to take was an epoch of marvellous expansion wives from the neighboring tribes. Ac- of the Jewish genius. You have only cording to religious tenets, such mar- to remember the beautiful chapters riages are forbidden; but it is precisely which have been added to the Book of the fact that they are forbidden which Isaiah: "Arise, Jerusalem, shine; for indicates how many of them had, in thy light is come, and the glory of the all probability, occurred. Lord is risen upon thee." Another instance of some importance And remember also what Zechariah is provided by the story of Samaria. foresaw: "In those days it shall come After its destruction by the Assyrians, to pass, that ten men shall take hold this kingdom is said to have been popu- out of all languages of the nations, lated by aliens. Some exaggeration shall even take hold of the skirt of cannot be excluded here; according to him that is a Jew, saying, 'We will go the Books of Kings, Samaria is also said with you: for we have heard that God to have been a desert—which is im- is with you.'" Thus they would ask to probable enough. Yet there can be no be taken to Jerusalem, where the real doubt that the colonists brought in by offerings are made, the only sacrifices the Assyrians introduced a great many which please God. The light shall rise elements to the Israelite masses which within the Jewish nation, and this had nothing in common with them. light is to shine over the whole world. This is by no means an ethnic ideology PROSELYTISM —this is universalism in the highest degree, and the people that proclaims Now let us proceed to the Greek and such an idea is obviously called upon Reman period. This is the time when to fulfil a destiny far beyond the limits Jewish proselytism gains momentum, of a nationally determined role. and at the same time the period of a sudden ethnological expansion of the Jewish people, until then confined to MIXED MARRIAGES rather limited boundaries. Now they What now, from a racial point of view, suddenly begin to admit real throngs JUDAISM: RACE OK RELIGION? 441 of foreigners. I am talking to scholars, This extraordinary propaganda of and there is no need to emphasize de- Judaism carried on from about 150 tails. The highly active Jewish propa- B.C.E. to approximately the year 200 of ganda in the Alexandria and Antioch of our era is an incontestable historical those days is an established fact. fact. But you may say that he who Speaking of Antioch first, I would proves too much proves nothing. The like to draw your attention to a pas- results of this proselytism for the Jew- sage in Josephus that has always ish community were religious rather seemed most remarkable to me. In his than national. People converted to Wars of the Jews (book 7, chapter 3), Judaism this way hardly ever underwent Josephus discusses the extraordinary circumcision. The Roman expression, prosperity of Antioch Jewry, and adds: vitam judaicam agere, simply refers to "They also made proselytes of a keeping the Sabbath and adhering to great many of the Greeks, and thereby Jewish morality. The "godfearing" after a sort brought them to be a por- people, the metuentes, the o-t^o/xevoL tion of their own body." or judaei improfessi did not remain Jews; Clearly, Josephus in this passage does what they did was merely to pass not refer to persons who merely ac- through Judaism to Christianity. cepted the Jewish way of life—as was Undoubtedly, the overwhelming ma- later the case in Rome—that is, to non- jority of those Hellenes who without circumcised neophytes; he speaks of a circumcision had adopted the Jewish great number of Hellenes who em- way of life later on became Christians. braced Judaism, and affiliated them- Among them Christianity found its selves with the synagogue. Far from first original followers. But neither can being half-Jews such as the philo-Judaic it be questioned that a great number Flavians, these people became Jews of them became Jews in the full sense and accepted circumcision, the decisive of the word. act which marked them as entering the This has been clearly demonstrated community of the Jews entirely and by the passage from Josephus I have forever. just read to you. I could point out Things were totally different in other facts such as, for instance, that Alexandria. The Jewish congregation of the women of Damascus all of whom, there was certainly to a great extent according to Josephus, proved to be recruited from the Egypto-Hellenic pop- Jewish at a certain time. Syria, as my ulation, and Hebrew was soon forgotten. learned colleague, M. Joseph Deren- The huge production of propaganda bourg, has proved beyond the shadow literature which preceded Christian- of a doubt, was the scene of an im- ity originated there—all those sibyl- mense propaganda. We have direct line books written by false classical evidence in the cases of Palmyra, Iturea prophets who wanted to preach mono- and Hatjran. Nothing is better known theism. The Gentiles had to be convert- than the story of Helena, the Queen of ed at any price, and the propagandists Adiabene, who with her entire family in their zeal knew nothing better embraced the Jewish faith—an example to do than to attribute to ancient which, in all probability, was followed writers with an established authority by a considerable number of her sub- books which taught the right doctrine. jects. In all these cases, there is no This is the way the Pseudo-Phocylides question of mere Oeoveßel
bath and lived as mere meiuentes, as led people with more delicate religious godfearing men; their sons were cir- sentiments to withdraw from paganism cumcised and now become Jewish caused hosts of conversions—in their zealots. majority certainly conversions to the As you see, the vigorous propaganda Christian belief, but to a great extent carried on from Alexander's days down to the Jewish faith as well. Most of to about the third century of our era the Jews of Gaul and Italy, for instance, proved—this is indubitable—beneficial must have stemmed from such conver- not only to the Christian faith but also sions. Side by side with the Church, to Judaism proper, with all the meticu- the Synagogue remained in existence as lous regulations of the ancient religion a distinct minority. of Israel. Indeed, at a certain historical moment the world had grown disgusted with national religions and turned from THE TALMUD paganism to monotheism. This conver- It is true that the talmudic reaction sion was accomplished primarily by brought about by the wars of Bar Kokba Christianity, but Judaism played its occurred after that. This is what his- part, too. I have quoted a number of tory shows almost without exception: texts; I could easily quote more. As, whenever a great and broad movement e.g., Tacitus who says QHist. v, 5): appears in the world, those who were "Transgressi in morum eorum idem the first to promote it are its first victims; usurpant." Circumcision is the point to they almost repent their own actions which he refers in this passage, and and change from radical liberals into according to him, those who went over staunch reactionaries. The Talmud is to the Jewish creed had had themselves the reaction. Judaism feels that it has circumcised. Thus we have to accept gone too far and that it is about to the fact that there were among neo- dissolve into the Christian creed. There- phytes both non-circumcised men who fore it retires into itself, and from that lived in the Jewish way and others who moment on all proselytism disappears. were real Jews. Neophytes from now on are dealt with A law decreed by Antoninus Pius and as a scourge, as "leprosy on Israel's commented upon by Modestinus draws body." But before the reaction set in, a most significant distinction by per- the gates, I say it again, had been wide mitting the Jews to have their sons open. circumcised—but only their own sons. And has even talmudism shut them And may I repeat that whenever the completely? By no means. Condemned authorities deem it wise to forbid a as it was by the scribes, proselytism yet certain custom, the reason for it is that continued to be practiced by pious lay- this very custom has spread and gained men who were more faithful to the old much ground. spirit than the puritans who respected I think these facts suffice to establish the Law. However, there is a distinc- that during both the Greek and the tion to be made henceforth. The ortho- Roman period direct conversions to the dox, rigidly law-abiding Jews crowd Jewish faith occurred in abundance. closely together, and as the Law can be Hence it follows that, from that period complied with properly only within a on, the word "Jewish" has no longer tightly closed religious community, they much ethnographical meaning. As the systematically separate themselves for Prophets had foreseen, the Jewish reli- centuries from the rest of the world. gion had become something universal. But outside that circle of scrupulous Everybody embraced Judaism. The talmudists, there also are Jews with drive which in early Christian centuries more broad-minded ideas. JUDAISM: RACE OK RELIGION? 445 I know of nothing which would he Let us put aside these obscure devel- more curious in this respect than St. opments. We know of many others John Chrysostom's sermons against the which are much clearer. First of all, Jews. The main point at issue in these the conversion of Arabia and Ethiopia sermons is here of lesser interest; to us —historical facts which nobody denies. the remarkable thing is how much this Judaism had made enormous conquests orator, then a priest in Antioch, seems in pre-Mohammed Arabia; hosts of to be obsessed with the fixed idea of Arabs had embraced this faith. Arabia preventing his flock from taking the was within a hairbreadth of turning oath and from observing Easter in the Jewish. At a certain point of his life synagogue. It is evident that in those Mohammed was Jewish, and we may days in the big city of Antioch the dis- say that he always remained Jewish to tinction between the two sects had a certain degree. The Falashas, the hardly yet been made. Abyssinian Jews, are Africans who speak an African language and read the JUDAISM IN GAUL Bible translated into this African idiom. Gregory of Tours has handed down to THE CHAZARS us invaluable information on Judaism in Gaul. An impressive number of Jews But we must mention a historical event lived in Paris, in Orleans and in Cler- which is of much more importance, mont. Gregory of Tours is fighting them much nearer to us, and which, ap- as heretics, and he has not the slightest parently, has had very serious conse- notion of their possibly being of a dif- quences: the conversion of the Chazars. ferent race. You will object by saying In the days of Charlemagne, this that ethnology was not too familiar to Chazar kingdom, which occupied almost so simple a mind—which is true. But the whole south of what now is Russia, where did these Paris and Orleans Jews adopted Judaism. The Karaites, who come from? Are we really allowed to live in southern Russia, are to be traced assume that all of them were descend- back to that event, and the existence ants of Orientals, who at a certain of Hebrew inscriptions in the Crimea period had come from Palestine and had can be accounted for by it; these established a kind of colony in certain inscriptions, dating from the eighth cities? I do not believe it. century, show Tatar and Turkish names Unquestionably, Jewish immigrants such as, for instance, Toktamish. Now did exist in Gaul who had come north would a Jew of Palestinian origin have through the Rhone and Saöne valleys, ever taken such a name instead of call- and who in some way functioned as a ing himself Abraham, Levi or Jacob? sort of leaven. But there also existed Surely he would not. That man Tokta- a multitude of people who joined the mish was either a convert himself or Jewish creed by conversion and had the son of a convert. not a single ancestor in Palestine. And This conversion of the kingdom of when we consider that both the German the Chazars has the greatest bearing and the English Jewries have come on the question of the origin of the from France, we cannot but deplore Jews in the Danube countries and in how little information we have on the the South of Russia. These regions origin of the Jews in France. We contain Jewish masses which, in all would probably see that the Gallic Jew probability, have nothing or next to of Gontran's and Chilperic's days was, nothing Jewish in the ethnic sense of in most cases, but a Gaul who pro- the expression. One specific circum- fessed the religion of Israel. stance is likely to have brought many 446 CO /TEMPORARY JEWISH RECORD people of non-Jewish ancestry into the ten years' affiliation with the department pale of Judaism: the institution of of Hebrew manuscripts at the Biblio- slavery and domestic service. We see theque Nationale — an appointment that it was the chief concern of bishops which brought me into close contact and councils alike in all Christian and with Jewish scholars from all over the particularly in Slavic countries to forbid world, who came to see me to consult Jews to keep Christian servants. The our precious collections. Soon I came conditions under which servants lived to distinguish my clients: from one end were indeed favorable to proselytizing, of the room to the other I was able to and bondmen in Jewish houses were tell who would come up to my desk. more or less induced to embrace the Now, the conclusion from my experi- Jewish faith. ences is that one single Jewish type From all this it becomes crystal clear does not exist but that there are a that originally Judaism represented the number of them, none of which is tradition of a special race; neither can reducible to another. How did this race there be left any doubt that the ab- thus segregate itself into a certain num- original Palestinians contributed racially ber of types? We have just dealt with to the phenomenon of the present-day the causes: the sequestration, the ghetto Jewish race. At the same time, how- and the interdiction of mixed marriage. ever, it is my conviction that in the Ethnology is a rather obscure science; Jewish population as it exists today it offers no opportunity for experiences, there is a considerable element of non- and exact results are to be obtained Jewish blood—even so much as to make from experiments only. What I am this race, which is considered as the going to say is not intended to prove very ideal of pure ethnos and which anything; it is simply meant to explain has survived the centuries by means of my own ideas. Suppose we took at prohibition of mixed marriages, appear random thousands of men and women as penetrated by foreign blood to only such as, for instance, walk up and slightly less an extent than all the down the Boulevard Saint-Germain at other races. In other words, in its this very moment and deported them to origin Judaism was a national religion an uninhabited island, where they and has become again a closed religious were free to breed. I think the various community in our own days. But in types among them would be reduced the intervening period, the Jewish creed after a given time; they would be was open to other nations through many grouped to a certain extent and con- long centuries. Actual masses of popu- centrated into a certain number of lations, non-Jewish by blood, have irreducible types, which thus would embraced Judaism—which, from the have survived and triumphed over the ethnographic point of view, has made others. Such concentration of types thoroughly contestable the meaning of comes into being through marriages the word "Jewish." which over a period of centuries take place within a restricted circle.
A JEWISH TYPE? The theory of an ethnic homogene- ousness of the Jews has also been sup- Objection will be made by pointing to ported by the similarity of their customs what is called the Jewish type. Much and habits. But whenever people of could be said on this point. In my whatever race are put together and opinion, there is no such thing as a confined to ghetto life, the outcome is Jewish type, although there are Jewish bound to be the same. There is such types. I have acquired a great deal of a thing as a specific mentality of experience in this respect during my religious minorities, and this mentality JUDAISM: RACE OK RELIGION? 447 is independent of racial conditions. is no difference in customs between There is much that is analogous in the them and the rest of the Syrian Muslims. position of Protestants who live as a If there is anything dissimilar in the minority, as they do in France, and world, these are the Christian and the that of the Jews, the reason being Mohammedan Syrians: whereas the that these French Protestants, like the Christian is the most faint-hearted per- Jews, have been forced to live among son on earth, the Muslim bears arms themselves for a very long period and and is accustomed to dominate. At first that a great many things used to be sight one might say that this is a forbidden to them, as they were to the most characteristic ethnographic dif- Jews. ferentiation. After the recent Beirut Thus similarities appear which do riots, my distinguished friend Dr. S not stem from racial elements but wrote me a letter in which he quoted represent the consequence of certain his servant as saying on his return from analogies in ways of life. Life within town: "A single Muslim child, had it a segregated and contracted community been there, could have killed a thousand under ever-recurrent restrictions and Christians." prohibitions, in short, a permanent Now, this is where the phenomenon sequestration regularly produces the of these hamlets in the vicinity of same habits wherever it takes place and Damascus is of interest. If there are whatever race it concerns. The same genuine Syrians in the world, here they calumnies are spread among the lesser are, still speaking their old language; enlightened parts of our population and yet, they are Mohammedans and about Protestants and Jews. The profes- have exactly the same habits as the sions which a sect excluded from the rest of the Mohammedan population. life of the wider community is com- Such differences as exist between them pelled to follow are the same. Exactly and the Christian Syrians have arisen as in French Jewry, there are neither through a different way of life and proletarians nor peasants among French century-old differing social conditions. Protestants; for by decree there could But there is not the slightest ethno- be none.2 And as to the ideological graphic connection. similarity within one and the same The same is to be said with regard sect, this phenomenon is sufficiently to the Jews. Their peculiar physiog- accounted for by the similarities in nomy and their way of life are results education, reading and religious ob- of century-old conditions weighing servances. them down rather than of ethnographic An instance observed in Syria should phenomena. support my thesis. At a dozen of places north of Damascus there are villages LET US be glad that for the every-day where the ancient Syriac is still spoken, life of France these questions, interest- a language which has all but disap- ing as they may be to the historian and peared anywhere else and which is to the ethnologist, have no importance be found only in these hamlets and far whatsoever. In fact, we have done in the north of the country near Van away entirely with their difficult politi- and Urmia. The inhabitants of these cal implications. With us, the racial villages are Mohammedans, and there background is utterly secondary to the 2 The study on French Jewry during the first question of nationality, and very rightly part of the Middle Ages included in volume 27 of the Histoire litteraire de la France demon- so. strates that, until the decrees of Philip the Ethnic facts, though they constitute Fair, the Jews in France practiced the same professions and crafts as other Frenchmen. the main problem in the early stages of 448 CO /TEMPORARY JEWISH RECORD history, gradually lose momentum in nineteenth century—I cannot commend proportion to the progress of civiliza- those who try to re-erect them elsewhere. tion. Extremely slight attention was The Jews have rendered the greatest paid to the question of race when, in services to the world. Assimilated into 1791, the National Assembly decreed the different nations, integrated into the the emancipation of the Jews. The various national units, they will con- opinion prevailed that men should not tinue to do as they have done in the be judged by their blood but by their past, and, by collaboration with the ethical and intellectual worth. liberal forces of Europe, will contribute Such human approach is the glory greatly to the social progress of man- which is France. To raze all ghetto kind. walls is the moral obligation of the