Orchard Management Plan Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Orchard Management Plan Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Elverson, Pennsylvania

Home , Buffalo treehopper, Newtown Pippin, Taliaferro (apple)

Prepared by

Heidi Cope, Horticulturalist, Society for the Preservation of New England Antiquities and Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation

William Coli, Entomologist, University of Massachusetts, Amherst

Tracy Stakely, Historical Landscape Architect National Park Service

Charlie Pepper, Deputy Director Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation

Steven Bithell, Landscape Preservation Intern Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation

Brona Keenan, Conservation Associate Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation

Matthew Quirey, Conservation Associate Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation

Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation National Park Service, Boston, Massachusetts, 2009

I Orchard Management Plan For Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

The Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation promotes the stewardship of significant landscapes through research, planning, and sustainable preservation maintenance. The Center ac- complishes its mission in collaboration with a network of partners including national parks, universities, government agencies, and private nonprofit organizations. Techniques and principles of preservation practice are made available through training and publications. The Olmsted Center perpetuates the tradition of the Olmsted firms and Frederick Law Olmsted’s lifelong commitment to people, parks and public spaces.

The Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation Boston National Historical Park Charlestown Navy Yard, Quarters C Boston, MA 02129 www.nps.gov/oclp/

Cover Photo: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site. (OCLP)

II Table of Contents

table of contents

List of Figures

Acknowlegemnts

Introduction

Part I: History History of Fruit Growing in the United States History of Fruit Growing in Pennsylvania Hopewell Furnace Orchard History

Part II: Existing Orchard Conditions and Analysis Existing Orchard Conditions U-Pick Program Existing Conditions Map and Inventory

Part III: Period of Significance and Management Alternatives Period of Significance Management Plan

Part IV: Orchard Management Practices Using Apple Phenology for Orchard Management

Preservation Maintenance Tree Replacement Pruning Integrated Pest Management White-Tailed Deer Management Vole Management Disease and Invertebrate Pest Control Hopewell Furnace Apple Variety Calendar Maitenance Calendar

Glossary of Pruning Terms

Bibliography

Appendices

III Orchard Management Plan For Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site List of Figures

List of Figures

Figure 1: Batty Langley’s manual for the sophisticated fruit grower published in 1729, (American Memory Collec tion, Library of Congress). Figure 2: William Forsyth’s highly detailed pruning method, “heading down,” (Treatise on the Culture and Manage ment of Fruit Trees). Figure 3: Grafting techniques portrayed in Forsyth’s Treatise. Figure 4: The Green Newtown Pippin or Albemarle Pippin, (S.A. Beach, Apples of New York). Figure 5: Catalogue of fruit tree stock for sale at the Daniel Smith Nursery in 1804, (Library of Congress, American Memory Collection). Figure 6: Prince Nursery catalogue at the height of the nursery’s success, under the management of William Prince, 1790, (USDA Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library). Figure 7: Catalogue of the Cherry Hill Nursery in West Newbury, Massachusetts, offering a selection of standard, dwarf and semi-dwarf fruit trees in 1865, (American Memory Collection, Library of Congress). Figure 8: Downing’s landscape plan for a cottage in the Pointed Tudor style. The orchard is “g” at upper left, (A.J. Downing, Victorian Cottage Residences). Figure 9: Downing’s landscape plan for an ornamental farmhouse. The orchard as “c” at lower left, (A.J. Downing’s Victorian Cottage Residences). Figure 10: Foster Udell’s Baldwin orchard in Brockport, Monroe County, New York, (S.A. Beach, Apples of New York). Figure 11: Open-bowl pruning style, on left, central leader pruning style, on the right, (Published in Michael Phillips, The Apple Grower). Figure 12: Early twentieth-century orchard with characteristically short trunks, (Library of Congress American Memory Collection). Figure 13: Effect of dwarfing rootstocks on the same apple variety, (Stella Otto, The Backyard Orchardist). Figure 14: Tatura System: a modern trellising system wherein trees are trained to the center of V-shaped trellis (courtesy of Penn State on-line Tree Fruit Production Guide, 2000-2001). Figure 15: Slender Spindle System: trees are trained on a single stake to 4 feet wide and 6-8 feet tall (courtesy of Penn State on-line Tree Fruit Production Guide Regional Pennsylvania History of Fruit Growing, 2000-2001). Figure 16: Indian Apple Tree standing near the Geneva Experiment Station in 1904, (S.A. Beach, Apples of New York). Figure 17: Apple varieties common in Pennsylvania in the late nineteenth century. Figure 18: Hopewell Furnace Base Map, Core Area, 1800. Figure 19: Hopewell Furnace Historic Roads Map. The orchard currently exists to the north and south of the old Reading/Valley Forge Road. Figure 20: Hopewell Furnace Base Map, Core Area, 1883. Figure 21: View east of Ironmaster’s house and old greenhouse with “young” or “south” orchard in background, 1936, (HOFU Archives). Figure 22: View of orchard, looking east from old greenhouse, 1965, (HOFU Archives). Figure 23: Hopewell Furnace Visitor’s Center, 1959, HOFU Archives). Figure 24: Hopewell Furnace Visitor’s Center, February, 1962 with young apple trees, (HOFU Archives). Figure 25: Hopewell Furnace parking lot north of Visitor’s Center, December, 1965, (HOFU Archives).

IV Figure 26: Hopewell Furnace Base Map, Core Area. Notice the location of the orchard to the north and south of the park entrance road with scattered trees in the grass space inside the visitor parking, 1995. Figure 27: Arial photograph, Hopewell Furnace, 1992, (HOFU Archives). Figure 28: The largest tree on the far northeastern side of the orchard, thought to be a Delicious. Figure 29: Hopewell Furnace Orchard, view from south of entrance road. Note the unusual weeping habit of the apple trees (HOFU Archives). Figure 30: Apple varieties in the HOFU orchard in 2001, with known introduction dates and varietal places of origin (OCLP). Figure 31: Existing Conditions Map, Hopewell Furnace Orchard, (OCLP, 2001). Figure 32: Analysis of historic integrity of HOFU orchard based on seven aspects of historic integrity as defined by The National Register. Figure 33: Management Alternatives: HOFU National Historic Apple Orchard. Figure 34: Recommended historic (pre- 1845) apple varieies for their disease-resistant or hardiness qualitis as future replacements for the HOFU orchard. Figure 35: Nineteenth century patterns for orchards. To the left, is square pattern and to the right is the quincunx pattern, (Barry, Patrick, “The Fruit Garden” p. 168, 1816 - 1890). Figure 36: A suggested planting pattern with standard and dwarf apple trees, (Barry, Patrick. “The Fruit Garden,” 1816 - 1890). Figure 37: This early twentieth century photograph shows young apple tent caterpillars contained with the pest’s nest on a wild cherry tree, (Folger, John C., and Thomas, S.M. “The Commercial Apple Industry of North America,” Figure 38: Early twenieth century planting patterns. Top left is the square pattern. Top right is the hexagonal pattern. Bottom is the quincunx pattern, (“The Commercial Apple Industry of North America, Folger, John C, and S.M. Thomas). Figure 39: Photograph shows a cover crop of soy beans, (Waugh, Frank A. The American Apple Orchard: a sketch of the practice of apple growing in North America at the beginning of the twentieth century). Figure 40: The top left photo shows the right stage for codling moth spray application. But the right, it is too late for effective spraying. The bottom reveals the damage done by the worm of the moth. (Folger, John C., and S.M Thomas, “The Commercial Apple Industry of North America). Figure 41: San Jose Scale: (a) natural size; (b) enlarged; (c) unsightly damage to fruit, (Folger, John C., and S.M. Thomson. “The Commercial Apple Industry of North America,” 1921). Figure 42: A horse drawn cart carrying a hand pump sprayer full of soluble oil, (Waugh, Frank A. The American Apple Orchard; a sketch of the practice of apple growing in North American at the beginning of the twentieth century). Figure 43: A boiler was used to make up a lime-sulphur mixture. (Waugh, Frank A. (1908). Waugh, Frank A. The American Apple Orchard; a sketch of the practice of apple growing in North America at the beginning of the twentieth century). Figure 44: The drawing to the left illustrates a tree that has a central leader. While the drawing to the right illustrates a tree using an open bowl method. (Folger, John C. The Commercial Apple Industry of North America, J.C. Folger and S.M.Thomson). Figure 45: Historic Orchard Character Chart, (OCLP). Apple tree structure. Published in University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension, Pruning Fruit

V Orchard Management Plan For Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site List of Figures

Trees in the Home Orchard. Figure 45: Maintenance Priorities Chart (National Park Service, Guide to Developing a Preservation Maintenance Plan for a Historic Landscape). Figure 46: Apple Growth Stages and Monthly Calendar (http://botany.org/bsa/misc/mcintosh/devel.html, 2007). Figure 61: Example of central leader branching habit with parts of the tree labeled (UMass Cooperative Extension, Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard). Figure 48: A heading cut releases apical dominance and encourages lateral buds to grow (www.ext.colostate.edu). Figure 49: Example of open bowl branching habit (OCLP, 2007). Figure 50: The top images show the correct place to make a collar cut on a variety of branches. The bottom image, on the left, show what wound closure looks like when a collar cut is done correctly. The center image in the bottom shows an oval wound closure that occurs when the collar is cut incorrectly. The image on the bottom right shows a “U” shaped would closure. This type of wound closure can occur for a number of reasons and does not mean that the cut was done incorrectly (“An Illustrated Guide to Pruning”). Figure 51 A & B: Stages to avoid bark (University of Massachusetts Extension System, Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard). Figure 52: On the left is an example of a proper pruning cut. The middle image has harmed the tree by removing the collar. The image on the right left too much of a stub which may impede wound closure (“An Illustrated Guide to Pruning”). Figure 53: The drawing shows the branches A and B are competing with the leader. The drawing on the right shows how the problem is corrected. (UMass Extension System, Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard). Figure 54: Minimal pruning is required for an aged and neglected apple tree. The photograph shows removal of heavy branches should be kept to a minimum, so that mid-nineteenth character is retained. The purpose of such light pruning is to allow some light and air penetration and encourage some regenerative growth. (UMass Extension System, Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard). Figure 55: Adult male white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, (www.nhptv.org). Figure 56: Female white-tailed deer Odocoileus virginianus, (www.nhptv.org). Figure 57: Young fawn and young male (buck white-tailed deer Odocoilus vurginianus, www.nhptv.org). Figure 58: Buck rub occuring on a tree with a DBH between five and twelve inches (www.vividlight.com, 2006). Figure 59: Illustrative image of deer’s ability to browse different levels of apple tree canopies (http://www.adiron dackcraft.com/images). Figure 60: Evidence of deer browse in the Morristown National Historic Site Wick Farm Orchard (OCLP, 2006). Figure 61: Plastic netting to prevent buck rub (OCLP, 2006). Figure 62: Recommended deer exclosure construction detail (OCLP, 2006). Figure 63: Exclosures can be unsightly and should be constructed of visually unobtrusive materials and be removed when no longer needed to protect individual trees (OCLP, 2006). Figure 64: Meadow vole Microtus pennsulvanicus distribution. (National Museum of Natural History ©2004 Smith sonian Institution). Figure 65: Pine vole Microtus pinetorum distribution (National Museum of Natural History ©2004 Smithsonian Institution). Figure 66: Meadow vole Microtus pennsylvanicus (www.volecontrol.com). Figure 67: Meadow vole paths are in the groundcover, just above the soil (www.volecontrol.com). Figure 68: Pine vole Microtus pinetorum (www.volecontrol.com).

VI Figure 69: Pine vole tunnel located under a landscape timber (www.volecontrol.com). Figure 70: Damage from meadow and pine voles (OCLP, 2006). Figure 71: Wire tree guards should be wrapped loosely around the trunk to prevent girdling (http://www.agnr.umd. edu/). Figure 72: Plastic tube tree guards should only be used as a secondary barrier (http://members.tripod. com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls.html). Figure 73: An example of bridge grafting, the scion is carefully inserted underneath the bark and directly adjacent to the cambium tissue (http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/grafting.html). Figure 74: Gravel leftover from a vole control method at the Morristown National Historic Site Wick Farm Orchard. The apple tree is dead and has been removed (OCLP, 2006). Figure 75: A hawk or kestrel perch design (http://members.tripod.com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls.html). Figure 76: An example of an owl house with shelter and perch (http://members.tripod.com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls.html). Figure 77: Typical sheperds crook dieback of fire blight (www.agf.gov.bc.ca). Figure 78: Fire blight disease cycle (www.apsnet.org). Figure 79: Apple scab and its various lesion occurences (www.tfpg.psu.edu). Figure 80: Evidence of apple scab on leaves (www.summit.osu.edu). Figure 81: Apple scab disease cycle (www.aspnet.org). Figure 82: Black rot in the frog-eye leaf spot stage (J.W. Travis - www.caf.wvu.edu). Figure 83: Limb cankers are observed as a superficial roughening of the bark (photo courtesy of J.W. Travis-www.caf. wvu.edu). Figure 84: Lesions resulting in canker formation usually are associated with a would in the bark (A.R. Biggs-www.caf. wvu.edu). Figure 85: Serious ingestations and later stages of the limb canker can kill the bark to the wood enetually girdling the tree (J.W. Travis-www.caf.wvu.edu). Figure 86: Apple black rot Botryosphaeria obtusa shown in its various forms: fruit rot and leaf spots (www.tfpg.cas. psu.edu). Figure 87: Black rot disease cycle (www.tfpg.cis.psu.edu). Figure 88: Typical damage from powdery mildew Podoshaera leucotricha (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu). Figure 89: Evidence of powdery mildew (www.orchard.uvm.edu). Figure 90: Powdery mildew disease cycle (www.apsnet.org). Figure 91: Damage from San Jose Scale as seen on a branch (www.umass.edu). Figure 92: San Jose Scale on an apple (http://www.uky.edu/Ag/Entomology/entfacts/fruit/ef204.htm). Figure 93: Rosy Apple Aphid, left, and Green Apple Aphid, right (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu). Figure 94: Rosy Apple Aphids, left (www.pbase.com) and Green Apple Aphids, right (www.inra.fr). Figure 95: Green Aphid (www.ipm.ncsu.edu). Figure 96: Life cycle of winged and unwinged aphids, including Rosy Apple Aphids, Green Apple Aphids, and Wolly Apple Aphids (www.polyphenism.wordpress.com). Figure 97: Woolly Apple Aphid, left (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu) and typical presence of Woolly Apple Aphid on right (www.insectimages.org). Figure 98: European Red Mite drawing, left (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu) and European Red Mite magnified, right (www.hort.wesc.edu).

VII Orchard Management Plan For Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site List of Figures

Figure 99: Frass left from codling moth larvae tunneling their way to the core of the fruit (http://www.ncw.wsu.edu/treefruit/codlingmoth.htm, 2007). Figure 100: Codling moth life stages (http://tfpg.cas.psu.edu/281.htm). Figure 101: Periods of peak activity in each of the life cycle stages (http://www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/hortfacts/ hf401008.htm, 2007). Figure 102: European Apple Sawfly (http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu, 2007). Figure 103: European Apple Sawfly larvae (http://orchard.uvm.edu, 2007). Figure 104: Damage around the calix end of the apple by European Apple Sawfly larvae (http://www.nysipm.cornell. edu, 2007). Figure 105: Guide to European Apple Sawfly life stages (http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu, 2007).

Table 1: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Inventory, North of entrance road (OCLP, 2001). Table 2: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Inventory, South of entrance road (OCLP, 2001). Table 3: A summary of the apple u-pick program related to visitation numbers. Table 4: Seed sowing quantity list per acre in the early 1900s. Table 5: Pruning Calendar (OCLP, 2006). Table 6: Pruning Glossar (OCLP, 2006). Table 7: Deer Management Calendar (OCLP, 2006). Table 8: Vole Characteristics (OCLP, 2006). Table 9: Vole Management calendar (OCLP, 2006). Table 10: Orchard disease and pest management calendar (OCLP, 2006).

Chart 1: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard annual total income (OCLP). Chart 2: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard annual total pounds sold (OCLP).

VIII Acknowledgements

Acknowledgements

This report was developed with the assistance and con- ety. Dr. Kim Hummer, Research Leader and Curator at tributions of numerous National Park Service (NPS) the USDA National Clonal Germplasm Repository of- employees and outside experts and scholars. The out- fered her expert technical assistance during the course line and overall content were developed primarily by of the project and for future efforts. Other special- Heidi Cope, Horticulturist with the Olmsted Center for ists and enthusiasts also contributed to this project in Landscape Preservation, and Charles Pepper, Deputy various ways. John and Phyllis Kilcherman, Owners Director of the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preser- and Managers of Christmas Cove Orchard opened vation, in cooperation with William Coli, University of their home and orchard to inspection; Roberta Mc- Massachusetts Extension Specialist. William Coli spe- Quaid, Horticulturist, and Christie White, Historian, cifically contributed the text on Integrated Pest Man- of Old Sturbridge Village assisted with organic orchard agement philosophy and the orchard calendar in Part management questions and historical research. Joanne III. The basic outline and content were developed in Vierra, Superintendent of Horticulture at Tower Hill collaboration with Hopewell Furnace National Historic Botanical Garden; John Clements, Extension Tree Fruit Site staff. George Martin, Chief of Maintenance at Specialist at University of Massachusetts; Larry Gut, Hopewell Furnace NHS, provided ongoing advice and Associate Professor at Michigan State University, and technical assistance, and Jeffrey Collins, Chief Ranger, many others also provided assistance along the way. offered valuable guidance about the orchard’s place in greater park planning efforts. Other park staff provided Several Olmsted Center staff contributed to develop- assistance with research and project development. ing the project. In particular, Charlie Pepper, Deputy Much of the historical information in this report is Director and Preservation Maintenance Program the result of the considerable research efforts of Susan Manager, Gina Bellavia, Program Manager, Heidi Dolan, NPS Historical Landscape Architect in the Se- Cope, horticulturalist, Nancy J. Brown, Dan McCarthy, attle Support Office. Her work has been indispensable. Arborist contributed expertise, guidance and over- In addition, numerous NPS employees contacted in the sight to ensure that this document provides pertinent initial stages of the project provided useful resources information for protecting and preserving the historic and information. Specifically, those employees in at- orchard at Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site. tendance at the National Historic Orchard Preservation In addition, Olmsted Center interns Peter Witke, Sarah Workshop at Sleeping Bear Dunes National Lakeshore Carrier, Steven Bithell and Brona Keenan made out- in September 2001 contributed to this project from standing contributions toward completing this docu- their personal knowledge of historic orchards. ment.

Throughout the course of this project, several addition- This is the second orchard management plan to be al experts provided invaluable information and unique completed by the Olmsted Center for Landscape perspectives regarding the history of fruit growing, and Preservation and is the result of the efforts and ideas management of historic orchards. Thomas Burford, of numerous individuals. Sections of the Morristown historic orchard and apple variety specialist of Bur- Orchard Management Plan were used as a reference ford Brothers Orchards, provided ongoing technical in writing this management plan. The procedures and support and countless fruit stories and legends. Frank techniques developed through this project will serve Browning, National Public Radio Correspondent and to inform many future projects undertaken at historic author, presented innovative new ways to understand properties throughout the country. apples and their history and influence in human soci-

IX Orchard Management Plan For Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

X Introduction

Introduction

Management Summary Scope and Methodology This Orchard Management Plan serves as a guide for This Orchard Management Plan is one aspect of a the care of the Hopewell Furnace orchard, a significant broader Historic Orchard Preservation Program initi- feature of the cultural landscape at Hopewell Furnace ated by the Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation National Historic Site (HOFU NHS). Consistent with in cooperation with the University of Massachusetts ongoing park management planning discussions, this and the Society for the Preservation of New England report provides historical information and recommen- Antiquities. This program is aimed at developing meth- dations for plant care and replacement, pruning, mow- odologies for preserving historic orchards nationwide. ing, and monitoring to preserve the historic character It includes research and documentation of the history of the orchard. of fruit growing in the United States, a number of pilot orchard management plans, development of an historic Historical Summary orchard web page, and national training programs in For over one hundred years, the Hopewell Furnace the stewardship of historic orchards. community was home to one of the most productive blast furnaces in Pennsylvania. Established by Mark The ongoing park planning process for HOFU NHS Bird in the 1770’s five miles south of Birdsboro, PA, the has informed the development of this orchard manage- furnace produced cast iron, cannon shot, shells and pig ment plan. The plan incorporates recommendations iron. During its operation the company managed ap- consistent with various park reports including the 1997 proximately 8000 acres of charcoal forest and farmland, Cultural Landscape Report (CLR) and the 1993 State- land that also contained iron ore. ment for Management. Similarly, NPS management guidelines outlined in Director’s Order # 28 concern- HOFU NHS is an example of an important stage in the ing cultural resource management and Director’s Order industrial history of the United States. The primary # 77 concerning natural resource management are management and interpretation of the site focuses addressed to thoroughly convey the complexities of on the period during which the furnace achieved the management issues regarding the orchard (see Appen- greatest economic and technical success. The park’s dices for expanded descriptions of these policies). primary period of interpretive focus is 1820-1840.

As a biotic cultural resource, possessing both cul- The first documented evidence of an orchard at tural and natural values, the orchard presents unique Hopewell Furnace is found in a Pennsylvania Gazette management challenges. It is a complex ecosystem, article from April 2, 1788 referring to “an excellent as defined in Director’s Order # 77, with agricultural young bearing orchard of about 250 trees of the best values that must comply with guidelines for agricultural fruit.” Furnace records indicate the existence of at landscapes. Most of the individual apple trees date to least one orchard at the furnace during the nineteenth plantings within the past one hundred years and lack century and the sale of apple products in the company integrity, as defined in Director’s Order #28, to the store. During the late eighteenth century the orchard primary period of significance. However, as an orchard declined, but was partially replanted in 1940. The has existed at the site at least the eighteenth century, orchard currently reflects the planting pattern of this the current orchard represents the historical scene and 1940 reconstruction. contributes to the overall character of the site, providing interpretive and educational value. This report provides management guidelines for preserving the

XI Orchard Management Plan For Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

historic character of the orchard as well as promoting sustainable maintenance.

This report was developed as a prototype for future orchard management plans and is based on NPS guidelines and preservation practices. While providing specific maintenance instructions and reference material, this report also considers the orchard’s significance and integrity as a component landscape of the Hopewell Furnace site. Despite this, the project scope allowed only limited historical research about the property, which should be supplemented in future reports.

This report is divided into four parts and an appendix. Part I contains a description of the historic context of fruit growing in the United States and in Pennsylvania as well as an historical overview of the HOFU NHS apple orchard. Part II explains the existing orchard conditions, contains an existing conditions orchard map and inventory, and section about the orchard’s U-pick program. Part III contains sections about the period of significance, management strategy, and an historic orchard character chart. Part IV includes descriptions of using apple phenology for orchard management, important preservation maintenance and integrated pest management recommendations for the orchard, maintenance and management calendars, record keeping system, and glossary of pruning terms. The appendix contains various reference materials regarding the HOFU NHS orchard and IPM and pest management.

XII Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

Part I: Historical Overview

History of Fruit Growing in the United States did the apple. During the Dark Ages, fruit cultivation survived in monastery gardens and later in protected medieval gardens of European gentry. By the thir- teenth century, many Europeans cultivated fruit and the English had established named varieties.

Early European settlers and traders brought the domesticated apple to the Americas and southern Canada. Neither Europeans nor Native American peoples cultivated native crabapples, which have little culinary value. As Europeans settled in North America, they traded seeds of the apple, pear, and peach with Na- tive Americans who began to cultivate these European fruits.

The development of American pomology, the study and practice of fruit growing, is visible in the advancement Early Development of the Domesticated Apple of academic and agricultural publications throughout

There are around thirty-five naturally occurring species the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries. The earliest of apples. Of these, human attention has focused on literature on the subject was aimed at the “gentleman three particular crabapple species throughout history: gardeners” of the colonial upper class. During the Malus domestica, Malus sylvestris, and Malus sieversii. eighteenth-century English fruit growing literature The contemporary domesticated apple, Malus domes- became available, in a limited way, to American garden- tica, the source of cultivated apple varieties commonly ers. One such text was Thomas Hitt’s 1757 A Trea- found, is thought to derive from Malus sylvestris, a tise of Fruit Trees. In 1790 the New England Farmer crabapple native to southwest Asia and/or chance published the first American articles on the subject. In hybridizations of this and other species. A number of 1802 another Englishman, William Forsyth, published native American crabapple varieties exist, but are not On the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees, and commonly cultivated, including Malus fusca, Malus in 1806 Bernard McMahon published the first Ameri- angustifolia, Malus coronaria, and Malus ioensis. can horticultural work, The American Gardener’s Humans have manipulated another crabapple species, Calendar, including a section on fruit trees. However, Malus floribunda, over the years to breed disease resis- it was 1817 before an American manual dedicated to tance into modern cultivars. the subject of orchard management was published, Thomas Hitt’s A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees. Prior to this, manuals on fruit tree culture and orchard As early as the first millennium BCE, the Greeks and management were likely difficult for American farmers Romans cultivated the apple and employed sophisti- to obtain. cated methods of propagation. The Roman pantheon included a goddess of fruit growing called Pomona. The Romans cultivated and manipulated the apple, The American Colonies, 1600-1800 experimenting with grafting and budding, and as Ro- man civilization expanded through Asia and Europe, so By the seventeenth century the domesticated apple had

1 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

arrived in the American colonies from Europe. The tion for cider and animal feed. Two types of orchards Reverend William Blaxton planted one of the earli- emerged during this period: the farm orchard, primar- est known orchards in the American colonies on the ily maintained for the production of cider, and the fruit Shawmut Peninsula, present-day Boston, which pro- orchard, maintained for the production of fruit for duced fruit prior to 1630, and by 1629 apples grew in fresh eating. the gardens in Jamestown, Virginia. By 1640 orchards existed all along the Connecticut River in and around The Farm Orchard: The early North American colo- developing New England towns like Hartford, Con- nists preferred cider to any other drink. The colonists necticut. One of the earliest known American apple va- drank sweet cider fresh from the press and hard cider, rieties, Roxbury Russet, appeared early in seventeenth- a fermented drink that could be preserved for long century Roxbury, Massachusetts, scions of which periods of time. The Laws of Plymouth Colony of 1667 were brought to Connecticut around 1649. Colonists listed cider as the “common beverage” and suggested referred to early apple varieties as “pearmains” (pear- its use as a form of currency in some regions. From the shaped apples), “pippins” (fruit from seedling trees), or smallest farmstead to the largest plantation, every prop- “russetings” (fruits whose name refers to the color and erty had a farm orchard for cider production. Often texture of its skin, rough and red). Many apple names planting of an orchard took precedence over construc- derived for later varieties contained modifications of tion of a dwelling. These farm orchards generally these descriptive labels (Newtown Pippin or Golden comprised around 5 acres of land with 250 to 300 trees. Russet). Numerous writings of the period indicate a Some farm orchards may have contained named cider massive expansion in the cultivation of the apple, and apples but most were grown from seed. Literature on a common opinion that the apple thrived in American orchard care and fruit varieties was not widely available soil. to farmers before the nineteenth century and few farmers of the period managed orchards to produce fruit for The almost mythic figure of Johnny Appleseed repre- fresh eating. sents an early American identification with the apple. Johnny Appleseed, a fictitious name for the real man, Documentation of the layout of an eighteenth-century John Chapman, was born in Leominster, Massachusetts orchard is found in Jefferson’s records of his orchards in 1774. Legend represents him as a traveling pilgrim at Monticello. Jefferson’s estate contained a farm in early Ohio, Indiana, and Pennsylvania maintaining orchard and a fruit orchard documented extensively in various nurseries and distributing apple seeds. Ironi- his landscape plans. Jefferson’s cider orchard con- cally, no apple varieties in existence today can be traced tained over two hundred trees known best for their to him, as he distributed seeds and not cuttings, but he cider-making qualities and typified the eighteenth-cen- represented the common farmer’s fruit growing efforts. tury farm orchard with little or no regular spacing or Chapman likely contributed to the vast genetic diversity maintenance. In 1783, he documented plantings in his in the American apple genome, which has produced so farm orchard including cider apples later identified by many distinctive varieties over the centuries. Francis Eppes, the supplier of many of Jefferson’s apple trees, as Hewes Crab, Golden Wilding, and Clarke’s During the earliest period of American apple growing, Pearmain. Jefferson’s farm orchard had no consistent a small number of American colonists experimented spacing or geometry and contained seedling apples, with grafting and fruit culture, growing named fruit some known cider apple varieties as mentioned above, varieties. However, between 1600 and 1800 apple and peaches. growing most commonly consisted of fruit produc-

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Eighteenth and nineteenth-century farmers typically orchards were not pest free, prior to the1820s insect cultivated rows between trees in orchards by plowing pest problems in orchards were limited in comparison for weed control and/or planting cover crops such as to the pest ravaged fruit industry of today. A writer for clover, beans, peas and other legumes as well as any the American Farmer in 1829 complained, “It is sur- number of other grain and vegetable crops. Jefferson prising to notice the inattention of our farmers to their cultivated peas, potatoes, oats, and clover in his fruit orchards. Some think it unnecessary to cultivate any orchard and Irish potatoes in his farm orchard and ad- fruit at all…A farmer with an orchard of 80-100 trees vocated the use of white clover as a cover crop. How- is too often contented if 4 or 5 of them bear a palat- ever, Henry Wynkoop, a respected Pennsylvania fruit able apple…‘the rest’ he say, ‘will do to make cider’.” grower and owner of a large cider orchard in Bucks Eighteenth-century American farmers rarely consid- County, argued that white clover encouraged the nest- ered issues of fruit culture or variety. Apples were har- ing of field mice. vested and pressed into cider, producing a pomace of seeds, cores, and peels. This was then spread on fields Writings of the time suggest that farmers did not as fertilizer, simultaneously reseeding the orchard. highly maintain farm orchards and tolerated higher pest populations. In addition, while early American This nineteenth-century method of planting apple trees by spreading cores and seeds resulted in broad genetic diversity of apple trees, although no genetic consistency with regards to taste and character of fruit. Vast cross-pollination in early American farm orchards often produced trees with tasteless or low quality fruit for eating fresh. However, this fruit was highly desirable for the production of cider. Fruit from seedling trees blended well to form rich tastes best suited to flavor cider.

Cider was an important staple in early American society and its widespread production facilitated the increase in genetic diversity of apples. The Hewes crabapple was the most common horticultural cultivar grown in Virginia in the eighteenth century. Increased genetic diversity resulted in the development of distinctive new apple varieties, most of which originated as chance seedlings.

The Fruit Orchard: Prior to the 1800s, the common farmer cared little for cultivated fruit varieties. How- ever, sophisticated horticulturists and botanists of the time, maintained fruit orchards bearing unusual and distinctive fruits. This also included berries and Figure 1: Batty Langley’s manual for the sophisticated fruit occasionally vegetables. Fruit orchards, in contrast to grower published in 1729 (original at Library of Congress, American Memory Collection). farm orchards, boasted an international selection of the

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finest named and grafted fruit varieties, often dwarfed and espaliered. Horticultural treatises such as Batty Langley’s 1729, Pomona: or, the Fruit-Garden Illustrat- ed signified the height of popularity of the fruit garden and many American fruit enthusiasts revered this book as the sacred text of horticulture (Figure 1). William Forsyth’s 1802, Treatise on the Culture and Manage- ment of Fruit Trees, espoused methods of pruning and grafting aimed at the sophisticated fruit gardener (Fig- ures 2 and 3). Many upper class individuals maintained a fruit orchard for desert fruits for fresh eating as well as a farm orchard for the production of cider. Figure 2: William Forsyth’s highly detailed pruning method, “heading down” (Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees). Like the walled gardens of medieval Europe, Ameri- can fruit garden reflected upper class sensibilities in its highly trained ornamental and exotic plant material and international dessert fruits ranging from apples to pomegranates. Cultivation of the apple in the fruit

Figure 3: Grafting techniques portrayed in Forsyth’s Treatise.

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decades, this nursery pioneered the collection and commercial distribution of grafted fruit. By 1777, they issued a catalogue of over one hundred grafted and budded fruit tree varieties available for sale, including the Newtown Pippin, one of first commercially available apples in the United States. Apple varieties planted in the late eighteenth century included Rhode Island Greening, Baldwin, Winesap, and Ben Davis. Early American horticulturists propagated and preserved many of these varieties in their fruit orchards. At Monticello, Jefferson grew two of the most popular eighteenth-century American apple varieties, Esopus Spitzenburg and Newtown Pippin, along with various others. Europeans considered American varieties to be superior to English apples. Queen Victoria who favored the Green Newtown (or Albemarle) Pippin, Figure 4: The Green Newtown Pippin or Albemarle Pippin (S.A. declared it the “court apple”, and removed the import Beach, Apples of New York). tax due on all other imported apples. In the latter half orchards of the upper classes symbolized the refined of the nineteenth-century the Newtown Pippin was and sophisticated culture of the early founders of the known to sell for thirty-six cents a pound, two to three United States constitution. Men like Thomas Jefferson times the price of other common American apples and George Washington, while redefining themselves (Figure 4). as Americans, retained their English horticultural sensibilities in their gardens and in particular their Thomas Jefferson’s farm, like many colonial plantations fruit gardens. These gentlemen, skilled gardeners and contained two orchards, a cider orchard and a fruit botanists, tinkered with grafting and budding and orchard. Jefferson documented the arrangement of his experimented with the newest and finest fruit varieties. fruit orchard in maps and kept elaborate notes on fruit Often professional gardeners were hired to maintain varieties, propagation techniques and tree locations. these fruit gardens, performing grafting and budding of His exquisitely maintained fruit orchard, exhibited fruits, detailed pruning of espaliers, and maintenance the Old World style of the gentleman gardener with 18 of exotic nurseries in which rare plants were raised for named varieties of Jefferson’s favorite apples in addi- eventual display. Such activities were unaffordable to tion to over 170 varieties of other rare and delectable common farmers for whom an orchard, far from being fruits. His 1778 plan of the fruit orchard indicates that a hobby or leisure pastime, provided primary food distinct fruit species grew in separate rows. Apple, staples and farm products. cherry, and pear trees lay in a grid twenty-five feet by forty feet in rows on the hillside. Jefferson’s farm

Throughout the eighteenth century American horticul- combined European and colonial sensibilities. His tural specialists experimented with fruit grafting and orchards contained espaliered and dwarfed trees, seed- budding technologies to preserve specific varieties. In ling apples, cider apples, and French apricots. 1737 Robert Prince established the Prince Nursery on Long Island, New York, one of the first commer- Expansion of the American Fruit Industry, 1800-1880 cial sources of grafted varieties. Over the next several

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The nineteenth century brought great achievements in German wines and the growing temperance movement American fruit. During this time, horticultural orga- in the United States led to a decline in cider popularity. nizations and literature became commonly accessible. Farmers began replacing cider apples in their orchards The number of American apple varieties multiplied with distinctive grafted varieties for fresh eating, and commercial orchards expanded throughout the increasing the popularity of fresh apple consump- country. Numerous publications also appeared includ- tion and the number of varieties grown on American ing William Coxe’s 1817 A View of the Cultivation of farms. Consequently, the apple sustained its symbolic Fruit Trees, William Kendrick’s 1833 New American American appeal throughout the nineteenth century. Orchardist, Robert Manning’s 1838 Book of Fruits and When William Henry Harrison ran for president in the two classic works, Andrew Jackson Downing’s 1845 1840, he was known as the “log cabin and hard-cider” Fruits and Fruit Trees of America, and L. H. Bailey’s candidate. The Whig party used this populist image as 1897 The Principles of Fruit-Growing. Coxe’s publica- evidence of Harrison’s modest background. He won tion advocated the establishment of a purely American the election by a landslide. pomology. He rejected the English and European con- ventions of fruit cultivation as pretentious and argued The Prince Nursery was the most common and popu- that American pomology should discard the practice lar source for nursery stock in the early nineteenth of dwarfing and training fruit trees and concentrate century. Other nurseries supplying fruit trees around on cider production. Such publications allowed more this time included Landreth Nursery in Philadelphia, Americans to learn about the science of horticulture Booth Nursery in Baltimore, and the nursery of Daniel and fruit growing for the first time. Smith and Company in Burlington, New Jersey. By the beginning of the nineteenth century numerous Ameri- Orchard pest and disease problems increased in the early nineteenth century as many non-native insect pests were introduced into American orchards. A lack of natural predators and the resulting pest population explosion devastated the fruit industry. Author Wil- liam Cobbett and others suggest the rarity of fruit tree blights and severe pest problems in the United States prior to the 1820s. To control these pests American farmers experimented with new methods of fruit tree care and culture. In Charlottesville, Virginia, in 1821 farmers used residue from the tannin manufacturing process (tanbark) as mulch to deter insects. Horticul- turists and pomologists of the day advocated numerous concoctions as insecticides, or “composition” for pruning wounds. Farmers spread manure, river muck, leaf mold, oyster shells, lime, and ash in orchards for fertilizer or pastured livestock such as sheep, chickens or pigs in orchards to keep down weeds, add fertilizer and deter insects. Figure 5: Catalogue of fruit tree stock for sale at the Daniel Smith Nursery in 1804 (Library of Congress, American Memory Pest problems as well as competition from French and Collection).

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Figure 7: Catalogue of the Cherry Hill Nursery in West Newbury, Massachusetts, offering a selection of standard, dwarf and semi- Figure 6: Prince Nursery catalogue at the height of the nurseries dwarf fruit trees in 1865 (Library of Congress, American Memory success, under the management of William Prince, 1790 (USDA Collection). Special Collections of the National Agricultural Library). can apple varieties were in cultivation and commercial experimental orchards. These men often subscribed to orchards began appearing in New York and Long organizations such as the London Horticultural Society Island. Dwarf fruit trees became more widely avail- or the American Pomological Society co-founded in able, although they were still primarily planted in fruit 1849 by Andrew Jackson Downing. They included Wil- gardens (Figures 5, 6 and 7). liam Kenrick in Newtown [sic], Massachusetts, Robert Manning in Salem, Massachusetts, David Hosack in Orchards were planted at most farmsteads and estates New York, William Hamilton in Philadelphia and Mar- throughout the nineteenth century and were an ex- shall Wilder in Boston. pected aspect of designed landscapes. In 1842 Andrew Jackson Downing published Cottage Residences, one The rapid increase in apple varieties, the development of the most influential texts on early American archi- of new methods of transportation by railway and canal, tecture and design. Downing presented suburban and the country’s westward migration led the expan- home designs in popular architectural styles including sion of the commercial fruit industry into the Middle various configurations of kitchen garden, ornamental Atlantic States and the Midwest. The most popular gardens, and orchards in his plans for the surrounding nineteenth-century apple varieties in the Northeast landscapes (Figures 8 and 9). were Newtown Pippin and Esopus Spitzenburg, and in the Mid-Atlantic States, Ben Davis. Ben Davis became During the nineteenth century new American apple commercially valuable because of its bruise resistance cultivars appeared in New York and Massachusetts on journeys between suppliers and retailers. The pop- where wealthy pomologists maintained privately owned ularity of this variety is an early example of the com-

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Figure 8: Downing’s landscape plan for a cottage in the Pointed or Tudor style. The orchard is “g” at upper left (A.J. Downing, Victorian Cottage Residences).

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COTTAGE RF.SIDENCES.

v,.'!~

Figure 9: Downing’s landscape plan for an ornamental farmhouse. The orchard is indicated as “c” at lower left (A.J. Downing, Victorian Cottage Residences).

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mercial fruit industry’s promotion of shipping qualities After the Louisiana Purchase in 1803 and the westward at the expense of taste. Other important nineteenth- expansion of European settlers, nurseries began to ap- century varieties included King of Tompkins County, pear in western states as well. Stark Brothers Nursery, Northern Spy, Winesap, McIntosh, and Rome Beauty. founded in 1816 in Louisiana, Missouri, became the primary Midwestern supplier for both American and As a result of these changes, many farmers converted European varieties hardy in the Midwest. Stark Broth- their farm orchards or vegetable farms into commercial ers eventually patented two of the most influential orchards and a new agricultural literature emerged in cultivated American apple varieties: Red and Golden the United States, aimed not at sophisticated pomolo- Delicious. gists, but the practicing farmer. Such publications included magazines like The Cultivator and American By the 1820s commercial orchards were common in Farmer. Commercial nursery catalogues also became every state east of the Mississippi River, in the Midwest, widely distributed at this time. By the 1840s Prince and as far west as the Rocky Mountains. At this time Nursery issued a new improved catalogue with 272 the British Hudson’s Bay Company transported apple apple varieties. trees to a site in the Oregon Territory, now Washington State. They traded seeds and fruits with Native Ameri- Early commercial orchards were geometrical in their cans who began planting farm orchards. By the mid- lay out, unlike earlier farm orchards. Grafted named nineteenth century, Luelling and Meek Nursery were varieties were spaced regularly in a grid pattern at established in the Pacific Northwest specializing in fruit twenty to thirty-five feet square. Farmers allowed trees trees. In the 1870s, with the completion of the trans- to grow wide, tall and natural, and trunks were five or continental railroad, many small farm orchards and more feet tall. Important cultivated varieties in these orchards included Yellow Bellflower, an important commercial variety in the nineteenth century and suggested parent of Delicious; Westfield Seek-No-Further, introduced in 1790 in Westfield, Massachusetts, and Fameuse, an early Canadian variety.

As commercial orchards expanded the significance of specific varieties increased based on their commercial value. The Newtown Pippin was widely grown in numerous commercial orchards north of New York City. This apple won broad appeal in England and signified the increasing demand for American apples there. Esopus Spitzenburg was another early commercially available variety in New York and often known as a favorite of Thomas Jefferson. Baldwin, a variety discovered in Massachusetts around 1750 became the most widely grown apple variety in many commercial orchards in the northeastern United States starting in 1852 (Figure 10). Figure 10: Foster Udell’s Baldwin orchard in Brockport, Monroe County, New York, (S.A. Beach, Apples of New York).

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commercial orchards appeared throughout California In 1880 the New York State Agricultural Experiment and other areas of the American West. Station in Geneva was instituted, and in 1887 experiment stations were established in every state to assist This expansion fueled a tremendous innovation in farmers with development of crop plants including tree orchard cultivation and care including the develop- fruit. With state interest in agriculture, new management of hundreds of cultivated fruit varieties and new ment strategies for cultivation and maintenance of methods of managing orchard pests. However, by the orchards developed and profitability increased. During end of the nineteenth century massive pest and disease the first half of the twentieth century, farmers planted problems plagued commercial orchards and a body of standard size trees in orchards. These standard trees knowledge emerged geared toward creation of an eco- were ‘headed low’, with trunks only two to three feet nomically profitable fruit industry. At the turn of the high before branching, allowing for easier pruning, twentieth century the fruit industry witnessed the rise spraying, and picking. Pruning styles typically used of commercial mass-production of fruit that steered by farmers at the time were the open-bowl style or growers away from enhancing fruit taste and toward the pyramidal style (central leader) (Figure 11) and enhancing fruit shelf life, hardiness, and pest resistance. trunks were typically short, two or three feet (Figure 12). Trees in early twentieth-century orchards were

Commercialization and Technological Development, spaced between thirty and fifty feet apart, wider than in 1880-1950 nineteenth-century orchards, to encourage greater fruit production. The use of the quincunx system also came into practice at this time. This system of laying out an The greatest changes in fruit growing between 1880 orchard placed four trees on each corner of a square and 1950 were the decrease in the number of apple with a fifth in the middle as“filler” until the four outer varieties grown and orchards in existence, and the trees reached to about eight to ten years old the fifth increase in technological improvements for orchard and middle tree would then be removed. management. The early twentieth century also brought the initial regulation and standardization of the fruit growing industry by the federal government with the The advancement of the commercial fruit industry creation of the United States Department of Agricul- brought broad-spectrum pesticides to the United ture (USDA). Commercialization and technological States. In the late nineteenth century, French horticul- transformation of the industry resulted in new broad- turists introduced the first widely used chemical, Paris spectrum pesticides and advanced methods of propa- Green, a highly toxic pesticide, used for the control of gation and cultivation. In addition, fruit marketing, codling moth. They also introduced Bordeaux Mix- storage, and transportation methods were modernized. ture, a hydrated copper sulfate solution, was used to

Figure 11: Open-bowl pruning style, on the left, Central leader Figure 12: Early twentieth-century orchard with characteristically pruning style, on the right (Michael Phillips, The Apple Grower). short trunks (Library of Congress, American Memory Collection).

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combat various fungi and disease problems. government programs like the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) began to influence the American fruit The USDA began officially recommending the use of industry. The CCC, in a process to renew and reclaim Bordeaux Mixture for apple diseases in 1887. By the deteriorating agricultural land, eliminated many old early twentieth century, use of synthetic fertilizers and orchards, but also replanted some. insecticides was common. Lead arsenate, another common pesticide of the early twentieth century used One of the factors that influenced the decline of diver- for control of codling moth, left a thick toxic residue sity in fruit varieties was the industry-wide emphasis on on fruit. By the end of World War II, fruit growers the development of commercially desirable apples. The were using DDT (dichlorodipheyltrichlor), lime sulfur discovery and development of Red Delicious greatly solutions, and kerosene oil emulsion for control of pest affected the twentieth-century fruit industry. Originally and disease problems. Because of increasing public known as Hawkeye, it was later renamed Delicious, and consumption of fruit, the United States Food and Drug then Red Delicious. Hundreds of strains of this variety Administration established standards for fruit quality are in cultivation today. Delicious is thought to have by requiring marketed fruit to be free of toxic residues. originated as a chance seedling in the orchard of Jesse Many such regulations were in effect by 1945. Hiatt in Peru, Iowa, in 1872. Although the parentage of Delicious is uncertain, suggestions of parentage The earliest methods of irrigation were systems of dirt include Yellow Bellflower or Sheepnose. In the 1890s ditches diverting streams or rivers to flood orchards. Stark Brothers Nursery bought the propagation rights By the twentieth century these systems had advanced to this variety and began to market it. Stark Brothers to include cement-lined ditches with wooden gates produced the first sport of Red Delicious, Starking De- controlling water flow. Eventually the federal govern- licious, and a redder form, one of hundreds of sports ment became involved, and in collaboration with major developed from the original variety over the next cen- corporations, built dams and reservoirs to retain water tury. Highly adaptable, Red Delicious bore fruit young for agricultural irrigation in the western United States. and heavily, and resisted drought and certain apple diseases. However, Red Delicious lacked the ability to

In the early twentieth century the number of American self-pollinate. This characteristic helped to usher in the orchards declined. Census records from 1910 suggest a popularity of another Stark Brother’s variety, Golden 25 percent decline in the number of fruit bearing trees Delicious, as a pollinator of Red Delicious. in the United States in the first decade of the century. A variety of factors influenced this decline including ram- Golden Delicious was discovered in 1912, and like pant pest and disease problems, economic pressures, Red Delicious soon came to dominate the fruit grow- and demographic transitions away from rural farming ing industry in the United States. It was a variety with areas to urban areas. many of the same adaptable and resistant qualities as Red Delicious. In addition, it was self-fruitful with

In addition, the monoculture emerged in American an extended bloom-time and an excellent pollinator. orchards, the practice of growing a single fruit variety. The Washington Apple Commission began to promote Horticultural surveys of plant nurseries in the United the cultivation of Golden Delicious. By 1940, Stark States from that time indicate the occurrence of a 46 Brothers had bought the propagation rights and were percent decline in the number of fruit varieties grown. marketing an idea of the “Model Orchard”, an orchard During the 1920s and 1930s, newly established orga- interplanted with Red and Golden Delicious. The most nizations like the Washington Apple Commission and common apple varieties grown in 1942 were Red Deli-

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Figure 13: Effect of dwarfing rootstocks on the same apple variety (Stella Otto, The Backyard Orchardist).

cious, Jonathan, McIntosh, Rome Beauty, York Impe- on small, modified branches called spurs. These new rial, Stayman Winesap, Northern Spy, Rhode Island elaborate systems of fruit tree trellising developed to Greening, Newtown Pippin, and Grimes Golden. enhance production and ease of maintenance and harvest. The introduction of spur-type apple varieties

High-Density Size-Controlled Orchards, 1950-Present steered the industry toward smaller fruit trees.

Beginning in the 1950s, many changes occurred in At present, most commercial orchards contain highly apple growing. American fruit growing became a dwarfed trees growing to a maximum of ten to twelve billion-dollar industry and thus invited regular manipu- feet tall. In large commercial orchards trees are trained lation of plant stock to further commercial successes to trellises and fences, contorted, twisted, and tied of the crop. As a result of financial pressures of rising down, to maximize production and bear early and land and labor costs, the industry underwent a transi- heavily. An acre of land, which might have supported tion from the growing of standard size trees to dwarf thirty to fifty standard size trees twenty to thirty feet trees. An essential influence in this transition was the tall in the early twentieth century, today can support development and dissemination of dwarfing root- six hundred to two thousand trellised dwarf trees. stocks. After World War II, the USDA distributed Mall- Trellis systems used in these high-density dwarf apple ing rootstocks, previously introduced to the New York orchards include the Slender Spindle System, Vertical State Agricultural Experiment Station in Geneva from Axis System, Tatura Trellis System, and Super Spindle England, to farmers around the country. The M7, MM106, and MM111, all dwarf or semi-dwarf Malling rootstocks, became the most predominant rootstocks used in commercial orchards. Dwarf apple trees became the typical fruit tree form planted in commercial and residential settings (Figure 13).

Beginning in the second half of the twentieth century American apple growers began using trellis systems to support dwarf apple trees and developed spur-type Figure 14: Tatura System: a modern trellising system wherein trees are trained to the center of a V-shaped trellis (courtesy of apple varieties, productive trees that generate fruit Penn State on-line Tree Fruit Production Guide, 2000-2001).

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Figure 15: Slender Spindle System: trees are trained on a single stake to 4 feet wide and 6-8 feet tall (courtesy of Penn State on- Figure 16: Indian Apple Tree standing near the Geneva line Tree Fruit Production Guide Regional Pennsylvania History of Experiment Station in 1904 (S.A. Beach, Apples of New York). Fruit Growing).

System (Figures 14 and 15). In these orchards, yield and tobacco. Eastern Pennsylvania occupies an area is greater, pruning and harvesting is easier, and light, of agriculturally rich land east of the Appalachian water and pesticides are more easily available to trees. Mountains running south from Vermont to Alabama. Orchards have become high-tech, high-density apple The local growing season extends from mid-April to factories, and barely resemble orchards of the past. mid-October and the limestone and alluvial soils of the Lancaster Plain west of Philadelphia provide some of In 1999, United States apple production was estimated the best farmland in the eastern United States. at 1.5 billion dollars. In the same year, the United States was the second largest apple-producing nation in the Soon after European settlement, Native peoples began world behind China. Out of approximately twenty-five to grow European fruit crops including apples. How- hundred known apple varieties grown in the United ever, evidence suggests moderate fruit cultivation by States today, approximately one hundred varieties are Native peoples prior to European contact. Beach’s grown commercially. However, 90 percent of apples Apples of New York (1905) suggests that Native produced in 1999 included only 15 varieties. The top peoples grew wild plums in nearby southern New York apple producing state in the country, Washington, before contact with Europeans, and that “old Indian estimates that for 2001, the state will produce 4.1 billion apple trees”, fifty to one hundred years old, grew near pounds of apples of which 46 percent will be Red Deli- the Geneva Experiment Station in 1904. In addition, cious, 16 percent Golden Delicious, 12.9 percent Fuji, 1779 military reports by General Sullivan describe large 9 percent Granny Smith, and a smaller percentage of apple orchards in Seneca and Cayuga villages in New other apple varieties. York at the time. These “Indian trees” were seedling trees of unknown parentage, reportedly producing

History of Fruit Growing in Pennsylvania quality fruit (Figure 16).

Prior to European colonization, Native peoples oc- An 1828 article by Samuel Preston of Pennsylvania cupying the area that is now eastern Pennsylvania were suggests that local Native peoples knew of the do- Algonquian speaking members of the Leni Lenape mesticated apple in early times. Preston describes the (Delaware) ethnic group. The local economy and oral history of a particular apple variety, ‘Townsend’, subsistence pattern consisted of gathering and hunt- known to him as a child: ing with supplemental farming of corn, beans, squash

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I shall begin with the original Indian apple tree, which The first European settlers of present day Pennsyl- grew within three miles of the spot of my nativity, vania were Swedes. In 1643 the Swedes established thirty-four miles north of Philadelphia, called the a capital for their colony, New Sweden, near what is Townsend apple… Stephen Townsend, grandson of now Philadelphia. In 1655 the Dutch took control of Richard, was an elderly and amiable man in my time, the area, claiming it as part of the Dutch colony, New and was owner of the apple tree…his grandfather had Netherland. In 1664 the British captured the area and been informed by the Indians that back in the country renamed it New York. Europeans eventually divided was a great apple tree where abundance of Indians this area into the colonies of New York, New Jersey, collected in the season to live on apples; that, with Pennsylvania and Delaware. Indian guides, he undertook the journey through the wilderness to pay them a religious visit. There was a William Penn, an avid horticulturist and founder of good spring of water near by and an apple tree in an Pennsylvania in 1682 was influential in the develop- Indian clearing, vastly larger than any he had ever seen ment of Pennsylvania settlement patterns and the in England, heavily loaded with larger and better apples field of horticulture. Pennsbury, Penn’s estate on the than he had ever seen before; that his ideas were to take Delaware River in present day Bucks County, became up a tract of land there for his descendants, provided a microcosm of his wholesome ideal of the country es- the Indians would sell him their good will or claim to tate filled with gardens and orchards. He advocated the their clearings, which was then customary to give, to general planting of gardens in Pennsylvania and intro- insure friendship. To that they agreed as to the soil, but duced many cultivated plants to the American colonies no consideration would purchase their apple tree. That from Europe. In specific instructions to commission- they strictly reserved ‘to be as free as sunshine to all or ers designing the new city of Philadelphia he ordered, any who wanted apples.’ “Let every house be placed, if the person pleases, in ye middle of its platt as to the breadth of it, that so there Preston goes on to describe the fruits of this tree, his may be ground on each side for gardens, or orchard own grafting of the variety and the comments of older or fields” (sic). Penn eventually granted the land that and “better informed” men who surmised it to be became Longwood Gardens. “older than Columbus”. He also describes another local tradition of the discovery of an old apple tree found A number of prominent men in early Pennsylvania during a land clearing effort in early Pennsylvania. This influenced the development of the science of horticul- apple tree was found in the middle of the forest, shaded ture and the study of fruit growing in the United States, and crowded out by other trees. The farmers built a including Penn’s secretary, James Logan, a gardener fence around it and “pronounced it public property”. and amateur botanist. Logan became a mentor to John Preston ends his narrative with the following declara- Bartram, the well-known eighteenth-century American tion. botanist, born in Pennsylvania and founder of the first American botanical garden near Philadelphia. Bartram “Should life and health permit me to write collected plant material internationally, supplying it to again, I may show a strong hypothesis that the prominent colonial families and introduced many now apple trees abounded among the native Indi common plants to North America. Bartram’s cousin, ans in one part of Pennsylvania for perhaps Humphrey Marshall built one of the earliest green- centuries before the continent were houses in the country in Pennsylvania in 1764 where discovered by Europeans.” he housed exotic and unusual plants collected from around the world.

15 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

Bernard McMahon, a Philadelphia area nurseryman of fields from lying fallow. the eighteenth century, was another of early America’s foremost horticulturists. McMahon authored the During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, Penn- American Garden Calendar, and advised Thomas Jef- sylvania farmers grew apples for cider, vinegar, apple ferson in horticultural matters. Like William Coxe, also butter and animal feed. Farmers minimally maintained of Philadelphia, McMahon advocated a new American these orchards through a combination of superstition horticultural aesthetic including the planting of large- and science. To prevent infestation by caterpillars in scale cider orchards and native ornamentals. apple tree canopies, farmers spread pine tar around trunks and limbs or burned them out of the trees by By 1710 German Mennonites began farming in the attaching kerosene soaked corncobs to long sticks Conestoga Valley around Lancaster, Pennsylvania and lighting the nests on fire. In the mid and late- growing oats, rye, barley, corn, and the first commercial nineteenth century, farmers used soap and lye washes crop grown in Pennsylvania, wheat. By 1757 Pennsyl- to combat scale, lime-sulfur and Bordeaux mix against vania was exporting large quantities of wheat to France. fungi and diseases and arsenate and oil sprays against a However, as in many of the early colonies, small farms variety of insects. According to legend apple trees bore predominated and every farm contained a vegetable heavily if a farmer displayed an old horseshoe, a chain, garden and orchard with apple, peach and cherry trees. or nails in the orchard and horticultural almanacs Apples were the primary fruit crop in early Pennsyl- advised farmers when and how to plant and harvest vania. After the Revolutionary War changes in agri- based on phases of the moon. Farmers picked winter cultural production in Europe influenced agricultural apples at the dark of the moon and pruned at the new production in the United States. New crops like clover moon. Between 1850 and the 1910s, Baldwin was the and alfalfa with soil enriching properties were intro- most commonly grown apple variety in the Northeast- duced to United States farms. Farmers in the Lancaster ern United States particularly in commercial orchards. Plain began disseminating new ideas like four-year crop Other varieties such as Ben Davis and Jonathan in- rotation that alternated crops to restore soil and kept creased in importance as well, but not to the extent of

VarietyVariety Name Name PlacePlace ofof OriginOrigin Date ofof IntroductionIntroduction Baldwin Massachusetts 1750 Cathead England 1688 Duchess of Oldenburg Russia 17th Century Early Harvest Unknown 1805 Esopus Spitzenburg New York Late 18th Century Grimes Golden West Virginia 1804 Jonathan New York 1829 McIntosh Canada 1796 Rambo Unknown mid-18th Century Red Astrachan Russia Before 1816 Rhode Island Greening Rhode Island 1650 Smokehouse Pennsylvania Early 19th Century Sweet Bough Unknown Unknown Yellow Transparent Russia 1870

Figure 17: Apple varieties common in Pennsylvania in the late nineteenth century with dates and places of origin.

16 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

Baldwin (Figure 17). surrounding landscape.

The development of the commercial fruit growing in- Bird built the furnace and various associated build- dustry in Pennsylvania followed the path of the indus- ings, drainage ditches, and the east and west headraces try in the broader United States. Many late nineteenth- (water channels) during this initial period. The furnace and early twentieth-century commercial orchards began operation and was fully functioning by 1771 as consisted of plantings of only one or two varieties, Hopewell Furnace provided iron products, often free chosen for their commercially valuable characteristics. of cost to troops during the Revolutionary War leaving Pest and disease problems ravaged the industry and the company financially unstable in following years. ushered in an era of industrialization with the development of chemical pesticides and fertilizers. And as Historic records suggest that Hopewell Furnace played the twentieth century progressed, the fruit growing an important role in the wider community. Local industry focused on high-density mass-production and farmers leased and cultivated furnace property and the miniaturization of fruit trees for easier and more the furnace provided employment to area residents profitable production. during economically difficult times. In the last decades of the eighteenth century, the furnace changed hands Hopewell Furnace Orchard History numerous times until finally ownership stabilized with purchase by the Buckley and Brooke families. In 1770 Mark Bird established Hopewell Furnace. For over 100 years it was one of the most productive blast During the late eighteenth century at least one orchard furnaces in Pennsylvania. During its operation the existed on or near the furnace property including one company managed approximately eight thousand acres in the general location of the present orchard to the of charcoal forest and farmland including a number north of the old Reading/Valley Forge Road (Figures of orchards. The Cultural Landscape Report for 18 and 19). A vague reference to orchards is found in Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site (HOFU NHS) the 1810 court testimony of John Kring, Keeper at the defines four historical periods for the site between circa furnace in 1773, in which he recalls hauling coal near 1770 and the present. This section briefly outlines the Hopewell orchards (the exact date is unknown). these periods in relation to the history of orchards on Other furnace records indicate that apple products the Furnace property. were sold in the company store during this period including apple butter, applejack, apple cider, vinegar and

Settlement and Development, 1770-1819 dried apples. In 1788 a Pennsylvania Gazette article provides specific evidence of an orchard, advertising

In 1761 Mark Bird inherited property from his father the sale of the furnace and surrounding lands including William Bird. Less than a decade later he bought the “an excellent young bearing orchard of about 250 trees, core of what would become the Hopewell Furnace of the best fruit”. property. Bird chose the land because of its suitability for creation of an iron furnace with water for powering Growth and Prosperity, 1820-1845 machinery from the French Creek and raw materials necessary for iron production such as limestone, forest- In the early nineteenth century, furnace operations land for production of charcoal, and iron ore. During remained financially volatile and furnace managers re- the late eighteenth century forests and fields and an organized corporate structure and management policy. established agricultural community characterized the Despite financial problems, the furnace and surround-

17 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

.. ------~ - ---·-- ·····-- -::::------~--------- ·--- ...... -·-

,..... ,...... _,..

Figure 18: Hopewell Furnace Base Map, Core Area, 1800.

18 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

'. ·' , .

.· ,.

·. ..,

. '

•<"

• • •

·. . .·. ...· ·~··~· ::.: .. ..":. .· . . .. : ' '• ;

·r . '• .; ~ ·•·

.; •. . (· ~.~.:.:· .. .•. ·' .. • r; · ~··.~ · . ' ~· ' '...... ~, . . ;, '• . ~- ~ ., : .,...., ~ .. ~ .. :· . ....·.' .. ·. .. . \' ' . .· .....• ..

Figure 19: Hopewell Furnace Historic Roads Map. The orchard currently exists to the north and south of the old Reading/Valley Forge Road.

19 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

ing properties improved during this period with the Clement Brooke retired in the later 1840s and by 1850 damming of the French Creek and construction of a his son-in-law, Charles M. Clingan, became manager new waterwheel and west headrace. Agricultural ac- of the furnace. During this period Hopewell Furnace tivities also expanded at the furnace during this period. deteriorated as a business. After the furnace shifted to pig iron production in 1844, Clingan built an anthracite In the 1820’s Clement Brooke took over management furnace at Hopewell. Although this furnace represent- of the furnace, which in the following decades expe- ed increasing technological advances in the iron manu- rienced its greatest economic success. During this facturing process, it functioned poorly and ultimately period the furnace manufactured stoves and stove cast- failed. In the 1860’s Hopewell Furnace produced pig ings. Brooke acquired additional property and expand- iron in response to Civil War demand. ed furnace and agricultural operations further. In 1825 the furnace farm employed 21 workers and produced Park records indicate that vegetable, herb and flower milk, eggs, leather and wool. Ornamental gardens gardens existed at the furnace during this period, both around the Ironmaster’s House where Brooke and his at the Ironmaster’s House and at the individual tenant family lived during these years were enlarged. In the houses. Park records also indicate continued mainte- 1830’s a public school was built at the furnace. Iron nance of the original orchard and the varying cultiva- production at the furnace reached its height in 1836 tion of clover, oats, corn and potatoes amongst the and 1837 with the continued manufacture of stoves and trees. stove castings until 1844. From 1844 until 1883, the furnace produced unrefined pig iron. Shutdown and Survival, 1884-1934

Various historic documents confirm the existence and Although iron production ceased at Hopewell Furnace expansion of orchards at Hopewell Furnace during in 1883 the owners maintained furnace records until this period and suggest that at least two distinct apple 1896. In its final days of operation the furnace was orchards existed. A peach orchard is also known to owned and operated by Edward S. Buckley and Maria have existed at Hopewell Furnace in 1835 and other Clingan and was passed on to the Clingan children orchards were recorded as owned by the furnace and in the 1890s. After this time the furnace generated rented to neighboring farmers. Furnace records indi- minimal income from the sale of raw materials such cate the sale of apple butter, dried apples, vinegar and as wood, iron ore, stone, charcoal, and remaining pig cider in the company store during this period and the iron. Although the farm operation expanded during “trimming” of apple trees and picking of apples. Re- this period, many of the architectural structures on the cords indicate that numerous plantings occurred in the furnace property deteriorated. existing orchards and that a new orchard was planted circa 1844 east of the Ironmaster’s house and south of Harker Long, caretaker of the furnace properties until the old Reading Valley Forge Rd (for clarification of 1896, described the late nineteenth-century character historic roads see Figure 19). An 1844 invoice indi- of the furnace property in a personal interview, circa cates a furnace payment to William Wood for planting 1940, locating the “old orchard” in the spot where the 1289 grafts in the young orchard. Historic records also CCC camp existed in the late 1930s, at approximately indicate that the orchard was under-planted with clover the site of the present orchard. Long suggested in this at this time. interview that Charles Clingan, manager of the furnace after Clement Brooke’s retirement, planted the “young Decline, 1846-1883 orchard”, present at the time of the interview some-

20 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w f) ;) ( ~ ...:..> ., r .~ .J @ ( ~ r ~·/' . .., _,I r • f) U:.:~ \\ ¥ ~ 1 I I 1 i !I ~ i 11 • Ill l! ; f { l (I !fll'il l l!l l I " .. i . ~ ~ c • ~ a i .... ,. _ ~2: ~:; ~ = r ""' .. !l ,h (I)~ ~

Figure 20: Hopewell Furnace Base Map, Core Area, 1883.

21 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

time after 1867. Records indicate that another orchard Evidence suggests that the CCC did not restore agri- existed on the property south of Tenant House #3. cultural land or gardens at Hopewell Furnace before 1938 although later assisted with the replanting of the The “old” or original orchard likely deteriorated by the orchard north of the old Reading/Valley Forge Road. end of this period except for scattered trees. How- The CCC likely destroyed apple trees in or near their ever the “young orchard”, south of the old Reading campsites as is known to have occurred at other sites. Valley Forge Road is known to have existed at this Park historian, Roy Appleman’s 1936 Restoration Plan time (see Figure 20 and photo of “young” or “south” for the property indicates that the original orchard no orchard in 1936, Figure 21). The orchard’s condition longer existed in 1936. However, CCC-era photos por- in the early twentieth century is documented in a 1917 tray mature apple trees in the south orchard between Reading Eagle interview with Cyrus T. Fox, an elderly the Old Reading Valley Forge Road and the east head- area resident. In the interview Fox reminisced about race. Trees currently south of the entry road may have the “former large and productive orchard” confirm- been part of the later CCC planting (suggested by the ing its location at the site of the present orchard and comparison of the 1936 and 1965 photos of the same lamenting its decline. The interview confirms that trees view, Figures 21 and Figure 22). existed in the south orchard in 1917. National Park Service: 1939-Present

The Civilian Conservation Corps, 1935-1938 During this period the federal government officially In 1935, the federal government bought approximately recognized the Hopewell Furnace site. In 1938 they six thousand acres of land in and around Hopewell designated two hundred and fourteen acres of land Furnace from Louise Clingan Brooke. The govern- within the French Creek Recreation Demonstration ment first designated the land as the French Creek Area as Hopewell Village National Historic Site, to be Recreation Demonstration Area. In December of 1934 managed by the National Park Service (NPS). At this the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) set up camp time the bypass road (Route 345), parking areas, picnic at Hopewell Furnace to clear underbrush, building grounds, campsites, and hiking trails were constructed. roads and excavating lakes. Two CCC camps formed In the late 1930s the CCC, restored the east headrace, accommodating four hundred men at the site. One of and in 1940 assisted with at least partial replanting of these camps existed in the general area of the current the apple orchard. orchard. Park records conflict about the history of plantings in

Figure 21: View east of Ironmaster’s house and old greenhouse Figure 22: View of orchard, looking east from old greenhouse, with ‘young’ or ‘south’ orchard in background, 1936 (HOFU 1965 (HOFU Archives). Archives).

22 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

the orchard during this period. In a photo series from 1940 newly planted and mature trees can be seen in the south orchard. In 1942, Acting Superintendent, Emil Heinrich, ordered fifty apple trees from a Stevensville, Michigan nursery, likely planted the following spring. Requested varieties included Turley Winesap, Red Deli- cious, Yellow Delicious, Red Rome, Red Spy, Red Jona- than, Grimes Golden, Wealthy, McIntosh and Jonathan.

1951 park records indicate the planting of thirty-one Figure 23: Hopewell Furnace Visitor’s Center, 1959 (HOFU NHS apple trees. In addition, by the end of the 1950s the Archives). park planted two hundred fifty additional trees around the area of the current parking lot, constructed around this time along with the Visitor’s Center (Figure 23, Figure 24 and Figure 25). Around 1960, the park planted another one hundred and fifty trees north and south of the entrance road. Apple varieties planted include Stayman (likely the modern Stayman Winesap), York, Smokehouse, Gravenstein, Rome, Rhode Island Greening, Duchess of Oldenburg, Cortland and Early Harvest. In the late 1990s the park planted trees and in 2000, the park requested fourteen trees from Sanoma Antique Apple Nursery in Healdsburg, California in- Figure 24: Hopewell Furnace Visitor’s Center, February, 1962 with young apple trees (HOFU NHS Archives). cluding Jefferis, Mother, Newtown Pippin and Roxbury Russet. Many of these trees are likely planted on dwarf or semi-dwarf rootstocks.

By the 1970s, the park regularly maintained the orchard with an annual spray program and routine pruning. In 1981, the National Park Service implemented an IPM program based on new guidelines. At this time the park hired an orchard consultant to monitor pest and disease problems. Currently the orchard lies to the north and south of the park entrance road with scattered trees in the grass space inside the visitor parking Figure 25: Hopewell Furnace parking lot north of Visitor’s Center, lot (Figures 26). December 1965 (HOFU NHS Archives).

23 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

I I -!_ --:=~:t ::....------ - -- ··c - ~- ' ' . ; -- ' - ' ------

~ au#.... lUI' - C.N I4I¥A BOPW'WIIU. PU'R:NACB N•Uoo~ Hl•torlc Stw ...... -~...__._..._

Fig. 26: Hopewell Furnace Base Map, Core Area. Notice the location of the orchard to the north and south of the park entrance road with scattered trees in the grass space inside the visitor parking, 1995.

24 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

End Notes 1 Frank Browning, Apples: The Story of the Fruit of Temptation (New York: North Point Press, 1998), 98-100; William J. Bramlage, “On the Origin of the Edible Apple,” Fruit Notes 66 (2001): 1; Donald Wyman, Wyman’s Gardening Encyclope- dia (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1986), 55-58.

2 Susan Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy, The Historic Context of Fruit Trees and Orchards in the National Park System” Draft (Boston: Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation, Columbia Cascades Support Office, National Center for Cultural Resources Stewardship and Partnerships, 2001), 9; Browning, Temptation, 209; Rosanne Sanders, The Apple Book (New York, NY: Philosophical Library, 1988), 6; Wyman, Gardening Encyclopedia, 55.

3 Evidence shows that Native Americans cultivated native plums prior to European contact and later, and Thomas Jefferson planted native plums at Monticello and referred to one variety in his fruit garden in 1812 as ‘Cherokee’. This particular plum, commonly known as the ‘Chickasaw Plum’ (Prunus angustifolia), also referred to in Jefferson’s time as the Indian Plum or Indian Cherry, was associated with Native peoples.

4 Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 13; Peter Hatch, The Fruits and Fruit Trees of Monticello (Charlottesville and London: Uni- versity Press of Virginia), 107-110; Andrew Baker, “Fruit Culture of the Early Nineteenth Century” (Old Sturbridge Village Library and Archives, Sturbridge, Massachusetts, 1989. Photocopy), 8.

5 Browning, Temptation, 184-194.

6 Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 7-61; Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 22; L.H. Bailey, The Principles of Fruit Growing (New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., 1915), 113-126. Mr. Wynkoop was known to have grown two crabapple varieties also found in the Jefferson orchards at Monticello, Hewes and Taliaferro.

7 Unknown Author. “Fruit,” American Farmer 2 (1829): 5; Samuel Deane, The New England Farmer (Worcester: Isaiah Thomas and Co., 1790), 11; Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 33-55.

8 The only propagation method resulting in the reproduction of specific characteristics of an apple variety is grafting.

9 Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 14-17; Ulysses P. Hedrick, A History of Horticulture in America to 1860 (New York: Dover Publications Inc., 1950); Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 39.

10 Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 13-41.

11 George DeWan, “The Blooming of Flushing: America’s First Commercial Nursery Was Visited by George Washington” in Long Island: Our Story [electronic bulletin board of Newsday]. New York, between September 1997 and June 1998 [cited August 2001]. Available from http://www.lihistory.com.

12 Thomas Burford, Apples: A Catalogue of International Varieties (Monroe, Virginia: Burford Brothers, 1998). S.A. Beach, Apples of New York, Vol. I (Albany: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1905), 146-150; Chiles T.A. Larson, “Albemarle Pippins ‘…eaten and praised by Royal lips,’” Colonial Williamsburg (autumn 1998): 29.

25 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

13 Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 3-61.

14 Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 6; Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 25-26.

15 William Cobbett, The American Gardener (London: C. Clement, 1821), 318; Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 35; Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 39.

16 Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 33.

17 Clarence A. Day, History of Maine Agriculture 1660-1860 (Orono, ME, 1954); William Kendrick, New American Or- chardist. (Boston, MA: Otis, Broaders and Company, 1841).

18 Author unknown, “History of Cider” in Green Mountain Cidery [electronic bulletin board]. Middlebury, VT [cited August, 2001]. Available at http://www.woodchuck.com/history.html; Browning, Temptation, 200.

19 Hatch, Fruits and Fruit Trees, 63.

20 Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 44.

21 Andrew Jackson Downing, Victorian Cottage Residences, and unabridged republication of Cottage Residences (New York: Dover Publications, 1981).

22 Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 31, 44; S.W. Cole suggests slightly wider spacing than Dolan in the American Fruit Book (New York: C.M. Saxton, Barker and Co., 1860), 85.

23 Thomas Burford, A Catalogue

24 Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 32, 18, 31. Burford, a Catalogue.

25 Dolan. “A Fruitful Legacy,” 25-44.

26 Ibid. 51-67. Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 47. Burford, a Catalogue.

27 Dolan, “A Fruitful Legacy,” 45-77.

28 Malling rootstocks refers to rootstocks developed at the East Malling Research Station in England.

29 Paul Larson, “The International Dwarf Fruit Tree Association, Its Legacy and Future.” Compact Fruit Tree 14 (March 1981): 4-10.

26 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

30 Spur-type apple trees bear fruit on modified compact branches that produce fruit buds (spurs), and tend to bear heavily and remain compact.

31 Burford, A Catalogue, 13-22; Michael Phillips, The Apple Grower (White River Junction, VT: Chelsea Green Publishing Co., 1998), 64-68.

32 Hugh Fraser, et al, “Nuts and Bolts of Dwarf Fruit Tree Support Systems,” (paper presented at the 42nd Annual Interna- tional Dwarf Fruit Tree Association Conference, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, February 20-24, 1999). Also available from http://www.virtualorchard.net/default.html.

33 “The United States Apple Crop: Core Facts.” At United States Apple Association Home page [electronic bulletin board]. Mclean, VA, 1998 [cited August, 2001]. Available from http://www.usapple.org.

34 Mitchell Mulholland, et al., “Integrated Cultural Resource Report Morristown National Historical Park” Draft (Univer- sity of Massachusetts Archeological Services, Dennis Bertland Associates, National Park Service Boston Support Office, and The Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation, 2001).

35 John Fraser Hart, The American Farm, How Farming Shaped the Landscape of America (City: Commonwealth Fund Book, 1991, W.W. Norton and Co. Inc, 1993, Barnes and Noble, 1998), 11-13.

36 Beach, Apples, 6-8.

37 Samuel Preston, “History of Desirable Apple Trees, the ‘Townsend’ Apple and Another,” Cincinnati Weekly Gazette (1886). Found in Library of Congress, American Memory, An American Time Capsule: Three Centuries of Broadsides and Other Printed Ephemera Collection.

39 “Pennsylvania: Early Gardening History”. In Gaygardener [electronic bulletin board]. 2001 [cited Spring 2001]. Avail- able from http://www.gaygardener.com/history/penn.html.

40 “Pennsylvania: Early Gardening History”.

41 Peter Hatch, “Bernard McMahon, Pioneer American Gardener”. In Monticello: The Home of Thomas Jefferson [electronic bulletin board]. Charlottesville, Virginia, copyright 1996-2001 [cited August 2001]. Available from http://www. monticello.org/chp/mcmahonn.html.

42 Hart, The American Farm, 11-13. W. Ray Sauers, “Fruit Harvesting and Preservation in Early Pennsylvania”, Pennsyl- vania Folklife, Spring, 1974.

27 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

43 Hart, The American Farm, 16.

44 Sauers, “Fruit Harvesting”, 38.

45 Beach, The Apples of New York, Vol. 1, 56-59.

46 W. Ray Sauers, “Fruit Harvesting and Preservation in Early Pennsylvania”, 39. Beach, Apples of New York, 1905. Dates of introduction can be found in Burford, 1998.

47 Unless otherwise documented, historical information in this section has been obtained from the Cultural Landscape Re- port: Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site (CLR) (Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: KFS Cultural Resources Group, 1997). Historic periods are based loosely on the CLR.

48 These historical periods are outlined in the HOFU CLR, 23-62.

49 This is based on information from a report by Russel Apple, “Documentation for NHS-HV-3007 Historical Base Map- Village Area-1830-1840;” (HOFU Library and Archives, 1956).

50 PA Lessee v. Mock, January 9, 1810, Montgomery Collection, Iron Industry Box, Pennsylvania Historical Society.

51 HOFU NHS Archives.

52 Historian’s Notes, HOFU NHS Archives, John K. Apel, HOFU Apple Orchard Management Plan (HOFU NHS OMP), 1988. Walker, Hopewell Village.

53 John Apel, HOFU NHS OMP. Walker, Hopewell Village, 123-124, 133.

54 Historian’s Notes, HOFU NHS Archives. HOFU NHS CLR.

55 Historian’s Notes, HOFU NHS Archives, Interview with Harker Long, circa. 1940. Note this would be the orchard south of the old Reading Valley Forge Road and the east headrace; HOFU NHS CLR, 1997. HOFU NHS Archives.

56 “Hopewell Furnace Gardens and Orchard, Interview with Cyrus T. Fox”, Reading Eagle, February 25, 1917, copy on file in the History File, HOFU NHS Archives. HOFU NHS CLR, 62.

57 Dolan, A Fruitful Legacy, 72-73.

58 Roy Appleman, Hopewell Furnace Restoration Plan, 1936, 14, HOFU NHS Archives. Original photos in HOFU NHS Archives Slide Library.

28 Hi s t o r i c a l Ov e r v i e w

59 KFS Cultural Resources Group, HOFU NHS CLR, 1997, 62.

60 This author was unable to locate the particular images in park archives. However the series is referenced in Apel’s previous Orchard Management Plan for the park.

61 John Apel, HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Management Plan, 1988.

62 Apel, HOFU Apple Orchard Plan.

63 Apel, HOFU Apple Orchard Plan. HOFU Maintenance Division Files.

29 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

30 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

Part II: Existing Orchard Conditions and Analysis

Existing Orchard Conditions show evidence of a harsh pruning to curb their height, likely in the 1990s. These trees were topped and left The HOFU orchard lies to both sides of the park with large branch stubs in their canopies at approxi- entrance road at approximately the same site as the mately fifteen feet. Because of this fruiting is limited or old furnace orchard (see 1995 Base Map and aerial absent and sucker growth is predominant. Young trees photograph, Figures 26 and 27). The largest tree on the are fenced to prevent deer from chewing on tender far northeastern side of the orchard near the woods, shoots and are relatively healthy. Survivability of young thought to be a Delicious, may be quite old (Figure 28). trees is promising due to consistent maintenance and Other possible remnants of the late nineteenth-century monitoring. Trees planted in the 1980s and young trees planting by Charles Clingan are few. In addition to less than five years old could benefit from limited struc- contributing to the pastoral and historic character of tural pruning. Trees range in age from one or two-year- the site as a whole, the HOFU orchard is used for a old whips to approximately one hundred years old. number of visitor service functions including a U-pick program. The park interprets the orchard primarily in The least healthy trees in the orchard are on the south relation to antique apples as it is removed physically side of the entrance road on lower ground than the from the rest of the historic core of the site and located majority of trees. These trees have some internal rot around the existing parking lot near the Visitors Center. and new growth is poor possibly due to shade from The following condition assessment is based on inspec- the nearby woods or soil quality and drainage. These tions conducted during 2000 and 2001 by William Coli, trees also exhibit evidence of black rot, as do some of University of Massachusetts Extension Specialist, and the trees in the upper area of the orchard. There are no Heidi Cope, Horticulturist, Olmsted Center for Land- immediate or critical stabilization issues pertaining to scape Preservation (OCLP). the orchard.

The HOFU orchard contains one hundred eighty-six trees. Overall structure of mature apple trees in the orchard is good with relatively little internal rot although some black rot fungus is visible. A number of tall old trees (Gravenstein and Rhode Island Greening) on the east side of the orchard, north of the entrance road

Figure 27: Aerial photograph of Hopewell Furnace, 1992 (HOFU Figure 28: The largest tree on the far northeastern side of the Archives). orchard, thought to be a Delicious.

31 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

Pruning methods evident in the HOFU orchard rootstocks (see Tree Inventory). Currently the park represent styles in use in the late nineteenth and early maintains the HOFU orchard groundcover as a mowed twentieth centuries. Most trees are highly pruned, sod of perennial grasses. Mowing occurs consistently originally in an open-bowl style but have developed throughout the growing season. unique, almost weeping shapes (Figure 29). Some trees are overly pruned, with virtually all growth removed Pests typical of the region were evident in the orchard from top scaffold limbs. Sun scald and cold damage are during inspections in 2001. Insect pests evident evident on many trees, possibly due to hard pruning. include sawfly, fruit worm, plant bug, leafrollers, tent Tree trunk length in the HOFU orchard ranges from caterpillars, and rosy apple aphids. Sapsucker injury four to six feet and is characteristic of nineteenth-cen- is evident on some trees, although this is not a critical tury orchards (this likely due to deer browsing on lower management issue. Diseases evident include black rot branches and not historic preservation planning). and powdery mildew. There is little evidence of rodent During the 1980s the park painted apple tree trunks in damage but significant evidence of deer browsing. the orchard to simulate whitewash, a historic practice in eighteenth and nineteenth-century orchards. The In 2001 the HOFU orchard contained one hundred park discontinued this practice in recent years, al- eighty-six trees and included a variety of historic apple though remnants of white paint persist (unless specific cultivars introduced in the eighteenth, nineteenth and evidence suggests this practice was used at Hopewell twentieth centuries (Figure 30). Many of the speculat- Furnace historically, trees should be left unpainted). ed varieties are historically appropriate to the primary period of interpretive importance, 1820-1840, although Trees in the HOFU orchard are spaced approximately it is likely that the early nineteenth-century orchard at thirty feet apart within rows and thirty feet apart Hopewell Furnace contained only seedling apple trees between rows. Mature trees range between fifteen or known cider apples. Three unusual varieties in the and thirty feet tall, a typical height for many standard orchard currently are Early Harvest, a little known apple trees. However, trees in the orchard planted after American introduction dated as early as 1800, Summer the 1950s may be growing on semi-dwarf rootstocks. Rambo, a French variety found in Colonial America in Dwarf trees would be no more than fifty years old, as 1767, and Smokehouse, an early Pennsylvania variety. dwarf rootstocks were not commonly used in the Unit- The orchard also contains a number of later introduced States until after World War II. Many of the trees tions, Red Delicious, Cortland, Grimes Golden, and planted in the 1990s are also planted on semi-dwarf Red Rome, typical of the twentieth-century fruit growing industry.

The Existing Conditions map of the Hopewell Furnace orchard (Figure 31, Table 1 and Table 2) assign a field identification number to each living tree in the orchard. In addition, Table 1 and Table 2 list all trees in the orchard, north and south of the entrance road, with their field identification number, speculated age, speculated rootstock, Diameter at Breast Height (DBH), and condition. This information is based on visual inspection, tree diameter, and HOFU NHP Natural Resources Figure 29: Hopewell Furnace Orchard, view from south of entrance road. Note the unusual weeping habit of the apple trees. Division records.

32 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

U-Pick Program figs documented in (Table 3,) ‘total income’ and ‘total pounds sold’. There is a similar ‘up and down’ pattern The U-pick program at Hopewell Furnace (HOFU). illustrated on the ‘total income’ sheet (Chart 1). The concept of the program integrates education recreation. Park visitors have an opportunity to learn Despite the falling numbers in pounds sold, and about historic mid-nineteenth century apple orchards income generated by the U-pick program (Chart 1 and their varieties. Additionally, the proceeds from and 2,) this report recommends to continue with the the u-pick apple picking are used to help pay for the U-pick program. The program provides an interac- maintenance of the orchard as an important interpretive evolutionary experience that engages educational tive resource. opportunities, interaction with the fruit trees and the cultural landscape, and provides family oriented activ- For the 2002 year, the total income received for apple ity. The following section provides recommendations was $2,953. Apple harvests tend to have a bi-annual on enhancing the U-pick program. production rate. In other words, one good year for apple harvests is followed by one bad year. This premise Enhanced cultural practices will increase apple harvest seems to be factually correct, as indicated by the U-pick rates.

YearYear TotalTotal visits Visits CostCost per per pound Pound TotalTotal Income Income TotalTotal Pounds Pounds Sold Sold 1990 105,000 0.30 5,133 17,112 1991 103,000 0.30 8,903 29,675 1992 111,576 0.30 12,260 40,867 1993 111,892 0.30 10,873 36,244 1994 94,698 0.35 10,251 29,288 1995 94,645 0.35 6,672 19,063 1996 86,980 0.50 4,136 18,042 1997 86,546 0.50 9,021 8,272 1998 91,756 0.50 3,934 7,870 1999 71,774 0.50 4,154 8,310 2000 71,845 0.50 3,445 6,890 2001 65,437 0.50 5,353 10,704 2002 N/A 0.50 2,953 5,904

Table 3: A summary of the apple u-pick program related to visitation numbers.

33 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

Total Income

14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 Total Income 6,000 4,000 2,000 0

0 2 4 6 8 0 2 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 Year

Chart 1: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard annual total income (OCLP).

Total Pounds Sold

45,000 40,000 35,000 30,000 25,000 Total Pounds Sold 20,000 15,000 10,000 5,000 0

0 2 4 6 8 0 2 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 9 9 9 9 9 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 2 2

Chart 2: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard annual total pounds sold (OCLP).

34 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

VarietyVariety NameName Place of Origin Date ofof Introduction Ashmead’s Kernal England By 1700 Baldwin 1793 Massachusetts Cortland 1898 New York Early Harvest Unknown 1800 Fameuse Canada 1739 Golden Russet Unknown 1859 Grimes Golden West Virginia 1904 Jefferis Pennsylvania 1830 Jonathan New York 1826 McIntosh Canada 1870 Mother Massachusetts 1844 Newtown Pippin New York 1759 Red Rome Unknown Twentieth Century Rhode Island Greening Rhode Island 1650 Rome Unknown 1848 Roxbury Russet Massachusetts 1600s Stayman Winesap Kansas 1866 Summer Rambo France Sixteenth Century Tompkin’s King New York 1804 Turley Winesap New Jersey Eighteenth Century Wealthy Minnesota 1860 York Pennsylvania 1830

Figure 30: Apple varieties in the HOFU orchard in 2001, with known introduction dates and varietal places of origin.

Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

" "

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'--' '--' = " "

&" &"

G-

~E" ~E"

111 111

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Fig. 31: Existing Conditions map, Hopewell Furnace Orchard, OCLP, 2001.

36 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

Stabilization Required Work Stabilization Work Work Stabilization Required to trunk one Eliminate structure. stable create

nced. nced.

Condition* 5' scab. Some Healthy. No fruit. Fenced. tall. Some tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Some tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Some tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Fe tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No scab. Some Some tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Some tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Some tall. 6' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Some tall. 4' Healthy. trunks Two Fenced. scab. fruit. No forming. Some tall. 4' Healthy. fruit. No Fenced. scab. Condition*

DBH 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" 1" DBH

- dwarf dwarf dwarf dwarf dwarf dwarf dwarf dwarf dwarf ------

111 Semi 111 Speculated Rootstock Speculated Speculated Rootstock Semi MM106/111 dwarf MM106 Semi MM106 Semi MM106 Semi MM111 Semi MM111 Semi MM111 Semi MM MM106 Semi MM106 Semi

Speculated Age / Date Planting Speculated Planting Planting Speculated Date/Age in 2001 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted

other Cultivar Speculated Cultivar Speculated Unknown Mother M Mother Jefferis Jefferis Jefferis Jefferis Russet Roxbury Russe Roxbury

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 ------Field ID# A A A A A A A A A A Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Inventory 2001—North of Entrance Road 1: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Table

37 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

Stabilization Required Work to trunk one Eliminate structure. stable create to trunk one Eliminate structure. stable create Verify Propagate. Minimal identification. pruning. bowl bowl bowl bowl bowl

- - - - rage fruiting. fruiting. rage

0' tall. 5' trunk. 5' tall. 0' Condition* Struggling. 4' tall. Fenced. Fenced. tall. 4' Struggling. No fruit. Fenced. tall. 4' Struggling. No forming. Two trunks fruit. Fenced. tall. 4' Struggling. No forming. Two trunks fruit. in topmost Fruiting Three large branches. 35' 2'. at branching trunks tall. open Pruned in Small growth. Thin shape. fruiting. stature. Average 2 open Pruned in Small growth. Thin shape. fruiting. stature. Average trunk. 5' tall. 20' open Pruned in Small growth. Thin shape. stature. Ave trunk. 5' tall. 20' open Pruned in Small growth. Thin shape. fruiting. stature. Average trunk. 5' tall. 20'

DBH 1" 1" 1" 30" 15" 13" 14" 12"

dwarf dwarf dwarf - - -

Speculated Rootstock MM106 Semi MM106 Semi MM111 Semi Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted old years 100+ Possibly 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted

Cultivar Roxbury Russet Roxbury Russet Roxbury Pippin Newtown Uncertain Rome Rome Rome Rome

11 12 13 14 1 2 3 4 ------A A A A B B B B Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

38 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

Stabilization Required Work Sterilize rot. black Prune out cut. each after pruners wood. diseased Prune out each after pruners Sterilize cut.

bowl bowl bowl

- -

ge fruiting. fruiting. ge g. Good Good g.

ting. od fruiting. Condition* Pruned in open Pruned in Small growth. Thin shape. stature. Avera trunk. 5' tall. 20' open Pruned in Small growth. Thin shape. fruiting. stature. Average trunk. 5' tall. 20' trunk. Some 5' tall. 20/25' browsin deer fruiting. trunk. Some 5' tall. 20/25' Good browsing. deer fruiting. trunk. Some 5' tall. 20/25' Good browsing. deer frui trunk. Some 5' tall. 15' fruiting. rot. Good black trunk. Some 5' tall. 15/20' rot disease. and black Go trunk. Good 5' tall. 20' fruiting.

DBH 12" 14" 15" 15" 15" 14" 14" 17"

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted in either 1940 or 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted

Cultivar Rome Rome Cortland Red Delicious Red Delicious York Cortland York

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 ------B B B B B B B B Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

39 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

Stabilization Required Work to suckers some Leave sun and from shield trunk scald. cold

open -

unk. unk. Good

bowl shape. 15' tall. tall. 15' shape. bowl all. all. 4' tr sided (large limb limb (large sided - - Condition* 20' tall. 5' trunk. Good trunk. Good 5' tall. 20' fruiting. 20' t fruiting. Pruned to shape. bowl trunk. Heavy 4' tall. 20' scald Some fruiting. over to due possibly pruning. trunk. 6' Healthy. tall. 20' trunk. 5' tall. 15' in Pruned Sparse growth. open Moderate trunk. 5' fruiting. Moderate tall. 15/20' trunk. fruiting. 6' tall. 15/20' Sparse growth. trunk. 5' tall. 15/20' Sparse growth. trunk. 5' sucker Prolific Healthy. fruiting. growth. Heavy trunk. 6' tall. 20' One 5' tall. 15' removed). fruiting. trunk. Good trunk. Good 5' tall. 20' fruiting.

DBH 17" 16" 16" 15" 12" 12" 14" 14" 14" 17" 14" 17"

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

ted in 1942 ted Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1960 circa Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted in 1942 Planted Plan in 1942 Planted 1960 circa Planted in 1942 Planted in 1942 Planted in 1942 Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted

Delicious Cultivar York Red Delicious Jonathan Jonathan Jonathan Rome Jonathan Jonathan Jonathan Red Delicious Red Delicious Red

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 13 ------B C C C C C C C C C C C Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

40 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

ad branches. ad Stabilization Required Work to survive, is If tree this eliminated. be must weeds de Prune out

- bowl bowl -

trunk. Good trunk. Good

fence. Left un Left fence. sided. Weak growth. Weak sided. - Condition* 25' tall. 6' trunk. Good trunk. Good 6' tall. 25' historic fruiting. Classic tree. standard 6' tall. 25' historic fruiting. Classic tree. standard trunk. Good 5/6' tall. 25' fruiting. fenced. Still dead. Almost high very are Weeds inside most unlike mulched trees. young trunk. Healthy. 5' tall. 25' Good fruiting. 5' tall. 15' Sparse growth. fruiting. trunk. Good One Moderate trunk. 5' sunscald. Some fruiting. trunk. Dead 6' tall. 15' branches. Healthy. Fenced. Young. open an Pruned in trunk. 5' tall. 15' shape. Healthy.

DBH 17" 17" 14" 15" 14 12" 14" 1" 12"

- dwarf -

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Semi MM106/111 dwarf Standard Standard Standard Standard MM111 Semi Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted in either 1940 or 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted in 1942 Planted dead in 2000/almost Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 circa Planted in 1942 Planted 1960 circa Planted in 2000 Planted 1960 circa Planted

Cultivar Red Delicious Red Delicious Jonathan Fameuse Red Delicious Cortland Jonathan York Pippin Newtown Rome

12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ------C C C C C C C C C C Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

41 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan Stabilization Required Work

- -

large dead dead large died. 15' tall. tall. 15' died.

sided. Healthy Healthy sided. of because sided - - Weak, old trunk with old trunk with Weak, large a some where rot limb has Good fruiting. Open Sparse growth. 5' tall. 15/20' shape. bowl fruiting. trunk. Good scald. Some trunk. 5' tall. 15' Healthy. fruit and Good leaf growth. One trunk. 5' tall. 15' overall. Good fruiting. One of removal tall. 15' trunk. 5' limb. trunk. Healthy. 5' tall. 20' Good fruiting. Open Sparse growth. 6' tall. 15' shape. bowl fruiting. trunk. Good Condition*

14" 14" 15" 14" 12" 16" 15" DBH

Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Speculated Rootstock

960

Planted circa 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1 or 1940 in either Planted in 1942 Planted in 1942 Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted Speculated Age / Date Planting

Cultivar Cortland Stump Winesap Stayman Red Delicious Jonathan Jonathan Rome Winesap Stayman

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 22 ------C D D D D D D D Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

42 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

propagation may be be may propagation Stabilization Required Work no there is currently Since fruit, necessary. wood. out dead Cut

planted in in planted

' tall. 3' trunk. 3' tall. '

Condition* Sparse growth. Open Sparse growth. 6' tall. 15' shape. bowl fruiting. trunk. Good trunk. Healthy. 6' tall. 20' Good fruiting. tree Young Healthy. (confirm). 2000 No old tree. large Classic at topped Tree is fruit. 5/6 possibly 15', about sucker Prolific ago. years 5' tall. growth. 25/30' trunk. trunk. 6' as above. Same Not as as above. Same healthy. 15/20 leaf and fruiting Healthy limb Large growth. years. recent in removed trunk. Healthy. 4' tall. 25' dead Some Good fruiting. wood.

DBH 12 14" 1" 21" 17" 20" 20" 21"

dwarf -

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard MM111 Semi Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted (needs confirm) in 2000 Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted

Stayman Stayman

Cultivar Stayman Winesap Stayman Uncertain Winesap? Unknown Gravenstein Gravenstein Gravenstein Red Delicious Red Delicious

8 9 10 11 12 13 1 2 ------D D D D D D E E Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

43 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

Stabilization Required Work Allow suckers to develop to develop suckers Allow and trunk protect some to scald. from limbs Repair wood. out rotten Cut if possible. ripped branch

, possibly from from possibly ,

bowl shape. shape. bowl - sided, thin growth. thin growth. sided, - tall. 5' trunk. Sparse, trunk. Sparse, 5' tall. 20' 20' Good open growth. Scald. fruiting. trunk. Some 4' tall. 15/20' Large fruiting. rot. Good limb ripped storm or poor pruning damage. trunk. 3' tall. 15/20' Open fruiting. Good Healthy. planted Probably Young. years. 20 last the within trunk. Central 5' tall. 15' shape. leader One trunk. Good 5' tall. 15' scab. Some fruiting. fruiting Good Healthy. 15/20' growth. foliage and trunk. 3' tall. weak Open, tall. 15' Small. fruiting. growth. Poor scab. Some Condition*

18" 17" 16" 7" 14" 18" 12" DBH - or Semi or

tandard Standard Standard Standard Standard standard Standard S Standard Speculated Rootstock

Planted in either 1940 or 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted Speculated Age / Date Planting

Cultivar Red Delicious Red Delicious Greening RI Baldwin Rome Rome Rome

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 ------E E E E E E E Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

44 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

Stabilization Required Work Trees should be re be should Trees if Propagate identified. necessary. wood. Remove dead broken and Remove dead limbs.

tree. tree. sided.

Condition* 25/30' tall. 6' trunk. 6' tall. 25/30' and #61 to form Similar old Classic #48. the topped in was Canopy Prolific 15'. past about at fruit. No sucker growth. as above. Same as above. Same as above. Same as above. Same as above. Same trunk. Large 5' tall. 15' Moderate limb. dead fruiting. Good health. trunk. Good 5' tall. 20' growth and vegetative Healthy. fruiting. limb Large as above. Same One removed. Large as above. Same dead Some broken limb. wood.

DBH 21" 21" 24" 24" 24" 30" 15" 18" 24" 19"

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

or 1960 or

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted

Cultivar RI Greening RI Greening RI Greening RI Greening RI Greening RI Greening RI Red Delicious Red Delicious Red Delicious Red Delicious

10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 ------E E E E E E F F F F Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

45 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

Stabilization Required Work Remove dead limb. Remove dead to some Limit pruning character. natural promote

. Highly Highly .

ame as above. ame Condition* Thin growth, but good good but Thin growth, 5' tall. fruiting. 15/20' Scald. limb. trunk. Dead trunk. Good 5' tall. 25/30' growth and vegetative fruiting. trunk. 2' tall. 25/30' fruiting. Good Healthy. trunk. 2' tall. 25/30' fruiting. Good Healthy. Healthy. Fenced. trunk. 5' tall. 15' healthy. Moderately fruiting. Moderate trunk. Fairly 5' tall. 15' fruiting. Moderate healthy. trunk. Open 5' tall. 20' shape bowl fruiting. Good trained. as above. Same as above. Same S as above. Same

DBH 17" 17" 16" 24" 1" 18" 14" 19" 19" 19" 18" 17"

dwarf -

rd ndard Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standa Standard MM106 Semi Sta Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted in either 1940 or 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted in 2000 Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted

Cultivar Red Delicious Red Delicious Smokehouse Smokehouse Mother Smokehouse Uncertain McIntosh McIntosh McIntosh McIntosh McIntosh

5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 ------F F F F F F F F F F F F Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

46 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

ssary.

emove dead wood. dead emove Stabilization Required Work Verify identification. Since Since identification. Verify no fruit, isthere currently be may propagation nece dead replace Remove and tree. wood. Remove dead R

as above. sided. 30' tall. 4' 4' tall. 30' sided. - Condition* One and foliage trunk. Good fruit. No sucker growth. rot. black Some trunk. 5' as above. Same tall. 15' as #67. age Same leader trunk. Central 5' fruiting. Good shape. fenced. but still Dead trunk. Good 4' tall. 30' wood. dead Some fruiting. Same More as above. Same open growth. as above. Same 4' tall. 15/20' Smaller. fruiting. trunk. Good branches. dead Some

DBH 20" 20" 6" 20" 20" 20" 24" 14" - -

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Semi or Standard standard Semi MM106/111 dwarf Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

1999/dead, not not 1999/dead,

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted circa Planted removed 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted

Cultivar Gravenstein Gravenstein Baldwin Kernel Ashmead's York York York York York

1 2 3 4 5 17 18 19 20 ------F F F F G G G G G Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

47 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

ove dead wood. dead ove Stabilization Required Work branch. Remove dead wood. Remove dead Rem

Condition* Small. Open growth. growth. Open Small. 5' tall. 15' Struggling. trunk. Scald. as above. Same Large as above. Same branch. dead trunk. Some 5' tall. 20/25' branches. dead healthy. Moderately season. in Fruited earlier Scald. Weak as above. Same of tips growth at branches. as above. Same as above. Same although as above Same Weak healthy. less slightly dead growth and branches. trunk. Good 6' tall. 20' growth. No vegetative fruit.

DBH 13" 13" 13" 17" 14" 16" 16" 15" 15"

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

960 ted circa 1960 circa ted Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1 circa Planted in 1942 Planted in 1942 Planted Plan 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted

Harvest Cultivar Rome Jonathan Jonathan Harvest Early Harvest Early Early Harvest Early Harvest Early Gravenstein

6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 ------G G G G G G G G G Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

48 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

ossible. Stabilization Required Work Remove dead wood. dead Remove stub. branch Remove wood. dead Remove stub. branch Remove if snapped branch Remove p

sided tree. 20' 20' sided tree.

sided. 20' tall. 6' 6' tall. 20' sided.

- 5' trunk. Good trunk. Good 5' Condition* 20' tall. 6' trunk. Open trunk. Open 6' tall. 20' fruiting. growth. Good wood. dead Some and Fenced tree. Young Healthy. tall. 5' mulched. as above. Same One fruiting. trunk. Good Scal stub. branch Large trunk. Good 6' tall. 20' growth. open fruiting and dead and scald Some wood. one Tall, tall. branch Large fruiting. stub. 4' tall. 15' Leaning. Small. Large trunk. Struggling. in center snapped branch fruiting. Moderate of tree. Scald. tree. healthy Young Mulched.

DBH 15" 1" 1" 16" 15" 14" 9" 1" - - - mi

Speculated Rootstock Standard Se MM106/111 dwarf Semi MM106/111 dwarf Standard Standard Standard Standard Semi MM106/111 dwarf

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1960 circa Planted in 2000 Planted in 2000 Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted in 2000 Planted

Cultivar Stayman Winesap Stayman Uncertain Uncertain Winesap Stayman Winesap Stayman Winesap Stayman Winesap Stayman Uncertain

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ------H H H H H H H H Field ID#Field Speculated Table 1: Continued Table

49 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan -

Stabilization Required Work Remove dead wood. Remove dead stub. Remove branch

- -

ing.

ove. One ove.

Condition* 15/20' tall. 6' trunk. Good trunk. Good 6' tall. 15/20' wood. dead Some fruiting. as above. Same as above. Same as above. Same trunk. Moderate 6' tall. 15' Open growth. fruiting. 6' tall. 15' Struggling. fruiting. Moderate trunk. Open growth. as above. Same One as above. Same sided. as ab Same sided. trunk. Good 5' tall. 15/20' growth and vegetative dead Large fruiting. stub. branch trunk. Poor 5' tall. 15' fruit and health

DBH 16" 14" 14" 15" 14" 12" 13" 12" 14" 14" 14"

tandard Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard S Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted circa 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted

yman Winesap yman Cultivar Stayman Winesap Stayman Winesap Stayman Sta Winesap Stayman Rome Rome Rome Rome Rome Red Delicious Rome

9 10 11 12 - - - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 ------H H H H I I I I I I I Field ID#Field Speculated ing. All newly planted trees were mulched in 2001. were ing. All newly planted trees * Unless otherwise noted, all trees in the previous table reflected the following condition during the growing season of 2001: weeping forms, deer damage on low branches and good fruit the following condition during growing table reflected in the previous * Unless otherwise noted, all trees

50 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

dard

standard standard standard standard stan ------or Semi or

rd Speculated Rootstock Speculated Rootstock Speculated Standard Standard Standard Semi or Standard Semi or Standard Semi or Standard Semi or Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standa Standard Semi or Standard

lanted circa 1960 circa lanted Speculated Age / Date Planting Speculated Planting Date/Age Planting Speculated 1960 circa Planted in 1942 Planted 1980 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted in 1942 Planted in 1942 Planted removed in 2001/Not Dead Dates Unknown Dates Unknown P 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 or 1940 in either Planted in 1942 Planted Dates Unknown Dates Unknown Dates Unknown

Baldwin?

Speculated Cultivar Speculated Cultivar Speculated Rome Red Rome Baldwin Baldwin Baldwin Baldwin Baldwin Jonathan Jonathan Lodi Space Empty Rambo Summer Rambo Summer Rome Rome Rome Red Delicious Red Rome King Tompkin's King Tompkin's Space Empty Uncertain

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 - - - - - 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 ------Field ID# J J J J J J J J J J J J J K K K K K L L L L Field ID# Field Table 2: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Inventory--South of Entrance Road 2: HOFU NHS Apple Orchard Table

51 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

warf d dwarf dwarf - - - standard standard standard standard - - - -

Speculated Rootstock Standard Semi or Standard Standard Semi or Standard Semi or Standard Semi or Standard Standard Standard Semi MM106/111 Semi MM106/111 Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Semi MM106/111

nted circa 1980 circa nted tes Unknown Speculated Age / Date Planting Planted in 1942 Planted Dates Unknown in 1942 Planted 1980 circa Planted 1980 circa Planted Pla 1960 circa Planted dead 1942/Almost Planted 1999 Planted 1999 Planted 1960 circa Planted Dates Unknown 1960 circa Planted Da Dates Unknown 2000 Planted

Stayman Winesap? Stayman Turley Winesap

- -

Speculated Cultivar Jonathan Unknown Uncertain Baldwin Baldwin Baldwin Space Empty Uncertain Jonathan Space Empty Russet Golden Russet Golden Winesap Stayman Space Empty Unknown Winesap Stayman Imperial York King Tompkin's King Tompkin's

1 2 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 ------L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L L M M Field ID# Field Table 2: Continued Table

52 Part II: Existing Conditions and Analysis

Speculated Rootstock Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard Standard

Speculated Age / Date Planting 1960 circa Planted Dates Unknown Dates Unknown in 1942 Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted 1942 Planted 1960 circa Planted 1960 circa Planted Dates Unknown 1960 circa Planted Dates Unknown 1960 circa Planted

Space

Speculated Cultivar Empty Space Empty Space Empty Rome Space Empty Spy Northern Spy Northern Golden Grimes Space Empty Smokehouse Winesap Stayman Wealthy Space Empty Winesap Stayman Rome Empty Space Empty Space Empty Baldwin Rome Baldwin Rome

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ------M M M M M M M M M M M M M N N N N N N N N Field ID# Field Table 2: Continued Table

53 Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site Apple Orchard Management Plan

End Notes

1 KFS Cultural Resources Group, HOFU NHS CLR, 108-124.

2 A recent Purchase Order from the HOFU Park to Steven S. Marino Landscape (contractor) revealed that it would cost $5,854.76 for a spray program.

54 Pa r t III: Pe r i o d o f Si g n i f i c a n c e a n d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n

Part III: Period of Significance, Historic Integrity & Management Plan

Creating a mid-nineteenth century orchard for der orchards with fruit orchards. Although the old fur- Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site: Defining nace orchard was likely a farm orchard producing cider and Interpreting its Period of Significance, Integ- and animal feed, evidence suggests new apple varieties rity and Historic Character became available during the mid-nineteenth century. HOFU effectively represents a typical early American

Period of Significance agricultural community of which the orchard was an integral part of other on-going trades and services. Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site (HOFU NHS) is a nationally recognized example of a 19th century in- Integrity dustrial community with a period of significance from 1771 to 1883. The 1985 National Register of Historic The NPS Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports defines Places (NRHP) nomination documents the significance historic integrity as, “(1) The authenticity of a cultural of the site in connection with the nineteenth-century landscape’s historic identity, evidenced by the sur- iron industry, and lists fifty features contributing to vival of physical characteristics that existed during its the site’s significance including the orchard. The historic or prehistoric period” and “(2) The extent to long-range Interpretive Plan for the park identifies the which a cultural landscape retains its historic appear- primary interpretive period as 1820-1840. Further, the ance.” The HOFU CLR asserts that the park’s land- 1997 HOFU Cultural Landscape Report (CLR) recog- scape exhibits a “considerable degree of integrity” with nizes the importance of two other secondary periods, respect to the primary period of significance, despite namely the Civilian Conservation Corps (CCC) and some obvious changes to individual features within the Mission 66 eras. These secondary periods have yet to park. The report examines the landscape as a whole be fully evaluated. Since, the general management plan and using seven aspects of integrity, measures how the (GMP) is pending, this report will assume a primary landscape conveys significance. period of significance for the orchard to be 1820 -1845.

A time when the iron foundry was experiencing growth The 1997 HOFU CLR points out that integrity is and prosperity, as described in an earlier chapter on particularly reflected by the ‘location’ of individual re- HOFU’s orchard history, and played a small part in the sources. One such resource is the present-day orchard, rapidly growing industrial expansion and technological which has existed in or near its current location since improvements of the nation. the late-eighteenth century. Other aspects of orchard integrity have been measured separately (Figure 32), The park is an example of a mid-nineteenth century but the orchard should be seen as part of the overall village which reveals how the workings of a small landscape as suggested in the CLR. iron furnace industry had a direct influence on other trades within and outside its community. This rural From its origins, the orchard composition has changed Pennsylvanian foundry provided a diversity of service- due to different apple varieties, a closer planting orientated and agricultural trade within the local com- pattern, modified pruning techniques, and a loss of munity. During this time, the fruit growing industry in groundcover crops. Today, the planting pattern of the the United States had begun to reach new heights in the orchard reflects a replanting of circa 1940 during the development of named apple varieties. As mentioned establishment of HOFU National Historic Site. A few earlier in the report, this transformed the American individual extant trees date back to the mid-nineteenth fruit growing industry, replacing traditional farm or ci- century, however, many of the trees are on dwarf

55 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n Fo r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l His t o r i c Si t e

Aspect of of History Hist. Integrity Integrity LevelLevel ofof IntegrityIntegrity in in Orchard Orchard #1 Location Orchard has moderate integrity of location to the park period of significance, as an orchard has existed in the same general location since the eighteenth century. #2 Design Orchard has little or no integrity of design to the early nineteenth century period of significance. However, the 1940s reconstruction was likely based on any remaining pattern visible of the “old orchard” and as such may reflect the late nineteenth-century orchard. Orchard has moderate integrity of design to the 1940’s NPS reconstruction period, as the planting pattern dates to this period. However, many of the original trees have died and layout has likely changed somewhat over the past several decades. #3 Setting 1997 CLR: “The appearance of the site differs considerably from its appearance during the mid-nineteenth century. The property is more wooded…Reforestation has obscured former agricultural fields and masked boundaries. Boundary demarcations, such as fences, are almost entirely modern.” Given the site’s complex history, it still possesses a “considerable degree of integrity” in relation to broad landscape patterns. Based on this research, the orchard has moderate or little integrity of setting. #4 Materials Orchard has no integrity of materials to the early nineteenth century and moderate integrity of materials to the 1940’s NPS reconstruction period, as a considerable number of trees likely date to this replanting. #5 Workmanship N/A #6 Feeling Orchard has moderate integrity of feeling to the early nineteenth century with historic character conveyed through the tall trees and tree trunks and historic apple varieties. Orchard has a greater integrity of feeling to the NPS reconstruction period although additional research is required for a thorough understanding of the NPS preservation objectives in replanting the orchard. #7 Association NRHP nomination: Site is significant as associated with “events that have made a significant contribution to the broad patterns of our history” including the American Revolution, the Pennsylvania Iron Industry, the agricultural development of the Pennsylvania Piedmont, and the federal government’s effort to preserve historic resources. Orchard has little or no integrity of association with the American Revolution or the Iron Industry. However, the orchard has a higher integrity of association with agricultural development in Pennsylvania as well as the NPS preservation of the site. As indicated above additional research is required on this period for thorough understanding of the reconstruction and preservation of the orchard and the site as a whole.

Figure 32: Analysis of historic integrity of HOFU orchard based on seven aspects of historic integrity as defined by the National Register. rootstock that were planted in the twentieth century. period of significance. Landscape characteristics such Additionally, the planting density belongs to the CCC as the orchard’s vegetation and spatial arrangement of era. Therefore, orchard integrity is relatively low for the planting pattern help to determine the orchard’s its primary period of significance, but higher with the historic character. This includes pruning style, tree and secondary periods of significance. trunk height, groundcover, and apple varieties planted.

Historic Character In an effort to pin down what a HOFU mid-nineteenth century orchard should look like, some background Historic character is influenced by visible and invisible information is necessary to understand the landscape landscape characteristics and features that are perti- characteristics. The orchard was documented as early nent to and associated with HOFU orchard’s primary as 1788, with an advertisement of the sale of the Birds

56 Pa r t III: Pe r i o d o f Si g n i f i c a n c e a n d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n

borough Estate (later Hopewell Furnace), which was ing orchard is well established, mature plantation and a farm containing a “young bearing orchard of about other treatment plans would not be practical. Although 250 apple trees”. During the early to mid-nineteenth the mid-nineteenth century is the primary period of century, the orchard had been documented regularly significance, other existing landscape features from the among furnace records. These records suggest that the secondary periods of significance should remain for orchard was an integral part of village functions. There the present. These secondary features will be gradually is documentation that the community store sold apple phased out over time. A rehabilitation treatment will products such as cider, dried apples, and apple butter, gradually enhance the historic interpretation and char- products typical of farm and cider orchards. Records acter of the orchard and become increasingly integral also indicate that the orchard had an under-planting of to other associated park features. agricultural crops such as oats and potatoes or a cover crop such as clover. It seems that the orchard provided Specific maintenance recommendations for how the some limited form of employment to the local com- park should rehabilitate landscape characteristics munity. and features (tree height, pruning style, etc.) will be discussed in the next section of this chapter. They are Today, the orchard does evoke a mid-nineteenth cen- based on careful consideration of NPS policy concern- tury character. There are many apple varieties from ing cultural and natural resource management, and the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and the tall HOFU management objectives. Development of the standard trees with wide tree-trunks certainly add to recommended maintenance approach has included the historic character of that era. However, the low discussion with park cultural and natural resource and regularly mown ground cover gives an appearance management and maintenance staff. more akin to a twentieth-century orchard. Orchard layout also from the twentieth-century CCC recon- Management Plan struction may have been denser than from the original plantation. Since the primary period of significance for Introduction the HOFU Park is mid-nineteenth century, the orchard should reflect this period. Further, the orchard is seen Management objectives for Hopewell Furnace (HOFU) by the park as an important, integral feature due to its orchard should support the park’s mission statement predominant, adjacent locality to the visitor’s center. It and visual interpretation of American’s nineteenth also provides an important source of funding through century industrial evolution. Further, orchard manage- the U-pick program for on-going maintenance costs. ment plans should coincide with the park’s existing management objectives, achieved through environ- Therefore, this report recommends that the park mentally responsible practices. The purpose of this should aim to reflect this mid-19th century character of plan is to preserve natural and cultural resources within its orchard to visitors. This goal has been stated within HOFU’s park boundaries. As mentioned earlier in the the park’s existing 1997 CLR, 1993 Statement for Man- ‘defining character’ section, the report assumes a pri- agement, and forth-coming general management plan mary period of significance for the orchard to be 1820 (GMP). The report also recommends that park staff -1845, a period specifically pertinent to the historic site. should rehabilitate the orchard as a treatment mea- Further, the previous ‘long-range Interpretive Plan’ sure. The reason for this type of treatment is to allow identified a similar period of significance. This was a for a flexible preservation maintenance plan. A flex- time of profound changes for both industry and agri- ible maintenance plan is necessary because the exist- culture in America, which includes the nation’s fruit

57 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n Fo r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l His t o r i c Si t e

growing orchards.

The U-pick apple-harvesting program remains one Reasons for Preferred Management Strategy of the more popular visitor programs, despite falling visitation numbers and declining harvests over the past The suggested management plan is relevant to park twelve years. The park wants to continue to manage uses, constraints, and cultural and natural resources. the orchard that supports the U-pick program, which It is consistent with the park’s overall historical theme. provides a resulting cultural interpretation and educa- It supports the 1997 CLR and long-range Interpre- tional experience for the visitor. Currently, the orchard tive Plan, which identified the period of significance is part of a number of visitor programs. The preferred as 1820-1840. The report wishes to extend slightly the management plan described below is based on portray- period of significance by five years (1820-1845), being a mid nineteenth-century character for the orchard cause the iron foundry underwent a period of growth and is inclusive of both the surrounding industrial site and prosperity during this time and is symbolic of and rural community. America’s industrial age. The intention of the suggested strategy is to strike a balance between historic character This management strategy is consistent with the park’s of the orchard and on-going park operations such as period of significance and overall industrial theme. the U-pick and educational programs. First, it emphasizes the visual character of a mid nineteenth-century orchard transforming from a farm/ cider orchard to a fruit orchard. Second, it promotes a Implementation of Management Plan sustainable maintenance regime consistent with park resources and limitations. With this management plan, The managment plan recommends retaining the origi- the orchard will eventually have tall trees with high can- nal (1942) planting layout of the orchard, which should opies and be allowed to grow unhindered. Although, evoke a mid-nineteenth century character. The follow- there will be some minimal pruning to retain a centrally ing management and maintenance procedures below open branching structure. A tree replacement program intend to meet these objectives. must be in place and be supported by threshold and action levels to maintain orchard consistency and con- • Tree replacement program will be based on tinuity. This will ensure that the orchard will not lose a 70% threshold level. This means that if there its character as existing trees die over subsequent years. are more than 30% gaps that exist within A tree replacement program should use historic apple the orchard, then character will have been varieties as pre-1845 introductions. Please note that eroded. It is recommended that an action most of the tree replacements should be of the edible plan must take place to replace lost and dead variety to support the U-pick program. Ideally, the trees trees up to 85% of the total number to restore should be grown on standard seedling rootstocks. Park character to acceptable levels (see images in staff should allow the grass to grow long in the orchard ‘Threshold and Action Levels’ chapter). to reflect a meadow appearance, except around young Ideally, the park should aim for 100% tree trees. A better alternative would be to gradually replace replacement to restore character to its the grass with traditional agricultural or nitrogen-fixing fullest extent. The Fig. of 85% is suggested ground cover crops. Finally, the park would verify the to allow for on-going park financial and identification of all apple varieties as part of its record operational constraints. keeping process.

58 Pa r t III: Pe r i o d o f Si g n i f i c a n c e a n d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n

• Dead trees should be replaced with historic disease-resistant varieties. The park should plant a variety of apple varieties to maintain diversity. Varieties introduced prior to 1845 should be used at Hopewell Furnace to achieve a mid-nineteenth century character. During this period American farmers were just beginning to plant grafted varieties in orchards. In fact, an 1844 invoice, from park archives, records a furnace payment to a William Wood for planting 1289 grafts in Hopewell’s orchard. There are some existing apple tree varieties which date post -1845, which are outside the primary period of significance and therefore should be gradually phased out. Dates of introduction of these trees are given in the feature information chart. A list of suggested pre-1845 apple varieties is given (See Figure 34).

• Replacement trees should be grafted on non- dwarfing rootstocks. It might be worth experi menting with a few ‘No-Vole’ rootstocks to see how the young trees develop and measure the rootstock’s resistance to possible vole damage.

• The initial site assessment revealed that exist ing orchard trees were pruned in either an open-bowl or central leader style and developed into an unusual weeping form. Today, the trees have developed top growth more akin to mid-nineteenth century character due to stoppage of pruning. Therefore, the ‘no pruning’ technique should be encouraged to achieve this character goal. Minimal pruning is only necessary when there are broken branches or where the tree’s central branching habit has become too dense.

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Name Date of Introduction Disease Resistance Source

Early Harvest 1805, unknown. No known disease 1. Sanoma Antique resistant qualities. Apple Nursery (SAN) 2. Southmeadow Fruit Gardens (SFG)

Esopus Spitzenburg Late 1800s, New York. No known disease resistant 1. SAN qualities. 2. SFG

Golden Russet Well-known eighteenth- Resistant to scab and other 1. SAN century cider apple. diseases. 2. SFG

Graniwinkle Vintage cider apple, 1817. Disease resistant.

Grimes Golden 1804, West Virginia. Slightly resistant to 1. SAN cedar-apple rust, and 2. SFG ﬁreblight. Hewes Crab (Virginia Well-known cider crabapple, Slightly disease resistant. 1. SAN Crab) 1800s.

Newtown Pippin 1759, New York. Slight resistance to 1. SAN collar-rot. 2. SFG

Northern Spy 1800, New York. No known disease 1. SAN resistant qualities. 2. SFG

Rambo 1750s, unknown. No known disease 1. SAN resistant qualities. 2. SFG

Rhode Island Greening 1650, Rhode Island. No known disease resistant 1. SAN qualities. 2. SFG

Roxbury Russet Vintage cider apple, 1700s Resistant to cedar-apple 1. SAN century Massachusetts. rust, scab, and mildew. 2. SFG

Siberian Crab 1800, France. Disease resistant. 1. SAN

Smokehouse Before 1837, Pennsylvania. Slight resistance to collar-rot. 1. SAN 2. SFG

Winesap (heirloom, not Cider apple introduced in Highly adaptable, mildly 1. Sanoma Antique modern strain—HOFU may 1804. disease resistant. Apple Nursery (SAN) have modern strain) 2. Southmeadow Fruit Gardens (SFG)

Figure 34: Recommended historic (pre-1845) apple varieties for their disease-resistant or hardiness qualities as future replacements for the HOFU orchard.

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• Orchard trees of the mid-nineteenth century typically • A relatively, intensive spray program exists at had tall trunks (six feet or more above ground level) Hopewell Furnace orchard and is necessary despite the with wide canopies. The tree replacement program existing disease resistant apple varieties, which are still should aim to train young specimens with six feet high prone to apple scab and fire blight attack. Moreover, or more trunks. This has the long term advantage to the harvest from the U-pick program importantly pro- resolving the existing deer browsing problem, as high vides funding for on-going maintenance schedules. It is branches cannot be reached by this vertebrate pest. recommended that the park continue with this practice. It is suggested, however, that the park should entertain • The existing orchard planting pattern reflects an the idea of reducing the number of applications every approximate thirty feet grid pattern. This is consistent year. Damage could be augmented by placing a greater with mid-nineteenth century spacing. So the park emphasis on monitoring for pest and disease dam- should continue to retain its current spacing. age. Cultural management practices could reduce the spread of pest and disease. Again, it is acceptable to

• Presently, there is no deer management program. have some level of pest and disease damage to reflect a Although, there has been some wire woven fencing mid-nineteenth century character. placed around individual trees and which have provided reasonable protection from deer browsing. The • Individual labels on apple trees explaining history problem with wire woven fencing is that it is a twen- and its impact on the American fruit industry would tieth century control measure and detracts from the inform and educate the general public of their orchard historic character. This control measure, however, has heritage. the advantage of being short term and can be easily removed, once the trees have reached a stage to This management strategy emphasizes interpretation withstand damage. A suggestion would be to use deer and character of a mid-nineteenth century orchard repellents integrated with a suitable material (wood at HOFU. This preferred management approach and possibly) for fencing. This would help to discourage rehabilitation effort will enhance the educational value deer browsing on young trees. Regular monitoring is of the Hopewell Furnace orchard. It is hoped that any required and necessary to assess for deer damage, if the change in current management practice will eventually above approach is taken. led to a more cost effective maintenance program.

• Agricultural crops were planted within mid-nineteenth century orchards to maximize farm production. It is unlikely that park staff can implement such a strategy on the Hopewell Furnace orchard. However, nitrogen-fixing cover crops such as clover and alfalfa were used during this time and were correctly thought of as a natural fertilizer. It is recommended that the grass in the orchard should be gradually phased out and be replaced by cover crops. Neatly and regularly cut grass is discouraged as it is not reflective of the historic character. It is also recommended that cutting only take place to accommodate the U-pick program or other visitor use functions.

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Nineteenth Century Maintenance and Horticultural classified three types of mature apple tree orchards: Techniques for Farm and Commercial Apple Or- chards • The Family Orchard – for use in farm stock and family; Introduction

• The Commercial Orchard – produce grown and sold This section provides some useful, but limited infor- for the local market; mation on nineteenth century horticultural theory and practice on commercial apple orchards. The essay • The Fruit Garden – finer varieties grown for domestic assumes that the park may choose a period of signifi- use. cance from this time as defined in the park’s General Management Plan (GMP). It further assumes that the Marketing park may wish to incorporate some of these past horticultural practices from that time period to its present During the nineteenth century, standard apple trees day management and maintenance plans to its orchard. with four to five feet high tree canopies were grown by The essay briefly discusses marketing, site location, commercial apple growers. The most important quali- slope aspect, soil theory, cultural practice, pruning and ties for a successful, commercially grown apple were control treatments for pests and diseases. The essay its hardiness, vigor and productivity. Reasonable fruit notes that late nineteenth century horticultural practice quality and long term preservation of the fruit were had become more scientific and technology based as considered more important attributes than growing compared to mid-nineteenth century practice. the best tasting dessert varieties. This was because the best dessert apples were difficult to grow and therefore Sources from this essay are from the written works of costly. Popular mid-nineteenth century apple varieties Patrick Barry and the brothers, Andrew Jr., and Charles were Newtown Pippin, Northern Spy, Rhode Island Downing. Patrick Barry, an Irish emigrate, who became Greening, and Roxbury Russet. In the late nineteenth a partner for the largest fruit tree nursery in the coun- century Newtown Pippin still remained popular, but try, namely Flushing Nurseries, based in New Jersey. there were others in ascendancy such as Baldwin, Patrick Barry wrote extensively on pomology and Spitzenberg, and Swaar. Susan Dolan’s research+_ on was highly regarded amongst the profession. Andrew the history of fruit tree orchards within America con- Downing Jr., became the acknowledged authority on firms the popularity of the above apple varieties during American pomology. His book ‘The Fruits and Fruit this time. Trees of America’, first published in 1847, was the most widely read horticultural text in America for the time. The selection of apple varieties in the farm orchard was Downing’s brother Charles, another well-respected based on the farmer’s criteria for uses and preferences. pomologist, contributed to the book by adding several Therefore, some varieties were grown for cider, sauce, articles and updated tree variety lists and descrip- and jelly production. Other apple varieties were grown tions to the revised editions. These sources in no way either to feed the farm stock or provide dessert apples completely reflect nineteenth century national apple for the family. The mid-nineteenth century commer- orchard theory and practice, but do give a realistic, if cial orchardist, who was situated nearby large cities or albeit, limited point of view. towns, could afford to grow summer or early autumn apple fruit varieties, which was a profitable advantage During this time nineteenth century pomologists had over the later varieties. Unfortunately, these varieties

62 Pa r t III: Pe r i o d o f Si g n i f i c a n c e a n d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n

did not have good preservation qualities and could not which resulted in checking apple tree growth. It was be transported over great distances. For the nineteenth also realized that stressed trees were susceptible to century apple grower who was further inland, it was severe pest attacks. A deep, dark colored, soil, with a recommended to grow autumnal and winter bearing sufficient amount of sand content and organic matter fruits for the market. These varieties could compete was now the preferred soil for fruit trees. It was under- in the market because the fruit had good preservation stood that a reasonable amount of organic matter could qualities, which meant that it would transport well over retain moisture during drought periods. The docu- great distances. mentation of nursery orchards had shown that this soil type encouraged vegetative growth and delayed fruit

Site location and aspect bearing on immature fruit trees. Another soil identified by Andrew Downing was a ‘clayey loam’ and was only

Mid to late nineteenth century apple orchard theory suitable to southern New England fruit trees. This soil thought that there were no specific, advantageous type was deemed to be a heavy soil and for cultivation aspects to site location. Nevertheless, it was suggested purposes was difficult to work. In northern regions that a site naturally protected from prevailing winds with a moist climate, the fruit trees were more prone to was ideal for orchard placement. Also, current theory canker disease which was thought to be due to clayey suggested that the northern regions of the country loams as they create waterlogged conditions. avoid eastern or northern aspects of slope. Whereas for southern regions, the exact opposite occurred, Planting patterns and distances namely western and southern aspects of slope were to be avoided. Current text made clear to apple growers, Both Barry and Downing suggest that trees in a com- that valley lowlands were geographically the worst site mercial orchard be planted at an equal distance of locations for apple orchards. thirty feet apart. During the nineteenth century, two types of planting pattern were used; square or quin-

Soil theory cunx (Figure 35). The square method was primarily used for small family orchards. Whereas, the quincunx

Nineteenth century orchardists and nurserymen method was preferred for larger-sized commercial or- agreed that dry and well drained soils provided a more chards, which allowed for large, standard trees of heavy suitable environment for apple tree survival than trees grown in wet or poorly drained soils. Mid nineteenth century pomologists recommended that the most ideal soil medium for growing apples was a sandy loam, to which copious amounts of lime would be added. From these soils, they alleged that the best harvests would be produced. By the late nineteenth century, a significant difference in soil theory had emerged. It was accepted that light, sandy loams were friable, loose and easy to cultivate, but late nineteenth century pomologists deemed this soil type to be the worst soil condition for fruit trees. They realized what apples required was a Figure 35: Nineteenth century planting patterns for orchards. To soil capable of retaining moisture. Sandy loams had the the left is square pattern and to the right is the quincunx pat- problem of drying out during the late summer season tern. Source: Barry, Patrick, 1816 – 1890. ‘The Fruit Garden’.p.168

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fruit bearing capacity. It took approximately eight to ten tion injury during the dormant winter season. It was years for standard apple trees to produce a sufficient stressed that careful preparation of planting holes was quantity of fruit for profitable commercial production. essential to promote long term tree growth, since no Most nineteen century pomologists recommended amount of aftercare would make any growth difference growing dwarf standards to cover the initial costs of the to a poorly planted tree. The planting-hole size was orchard, as these trees were able to bear an earlier fruit now reduced. Recommended dimensions were three harvest. In fact, this practice was carried out in Europe, feet square and eighteen inches to two feet deep. The because land prices were at a premium compared to bottom of the hole would be formed ‘like a little hill- American land values. Dwarf standards were planted ock’ rather than in a traditional hollow. The idea was to six feet apart and ten feet away from the standards. A encourage the tree rootlets to grow downwards. Down- surprising fact emerges in Barry’s book, in which few ing’s recommendations differed with Barry’s, suggest- American commercial orchardists had seized upon this ing that the existing orchard soil would be thoroughly idea of the quincunx pattern. The quincunx planting mixed with compost such as well rotted manure. The pattern suggested that the dwarfs would be taken out compost would compose of 2/3rd muck or organic soil eventually, once the standard trees reached a suitable material and 1/3rd fresh farm manure mixed together fruit bearing stage (Figure 36). and left for several months to decompose. This compost was suggested because late nineteenth century

Planting farms had a readily available supply of both materials. Another important difference was watering during the

Mid-nineteenth century planting recommendations for planting stage. Late nineteenth century theory recom- young standard trees had a few similarities to modern mended that water should have a direct contact with day tree planting practice. Planting holes were to be approximately three to four feet wide and two feet deep. A well decayed organic compost (farm manure) would be mixed with the orchard soil. It was understood that direct contact of fresh farm manure would burn the tender rootlets of the young tree. It was also understood that sand, leaf mould and farm manure would aid drainage on compacted soils. For light soils, clay soil or ashes would be added to retain soil moisture. Once the planting hole was dug, compost with lime was first added to the bottom. The tree was then planted on this compost and the roots covered with loosened orchard soil. During the filling stage, the planting mix was firmed by the orchardist using his foot, to anchor the tree. The final stage was to water each tree immediately after planting.

Late nineteenth century pomologists were clear that transplanting or planting of young trees would take place in late autumn. It became understood that young Figure 36: A suggested planting pattern with standard and dwarf rootlets would have a chance to heal from transplanta- apple trees. (Barry, Patrick. The Fruit Garden)

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the barely covered rootlets. that annual top dressings of farm manure were beneficial to established orchards, because essential soil Mid nineteenth century tree planting recommenda- nutrients were replenished. tions were to plant two inches above the nursery line. Late nineteenth century recommendations suggested Young orchards were protected from animal damage that the young trees were to be planted on the nurs- (during this time, cattle were considered more of a ery line. The soil/compost mix was to be two or three problem than deer) using a variety of fencing methods. inches above the existing soil level to allow for planting It was remarkable that hedges were considered to be mix sinkage. It was realized that shallow tree planting the most ideal and practicable form of animal protec- would prevent proper anchorage. Conversely, planting tion. For the northern and eastern regions of America, too deeply would suffocate the tree and eventually kill after numerous plant trials, it seemed that ‘hawthorn’ it. was the best plant material for hedges. It was recommended that approximately 2,000 plants would be suf-

The use of fillers and cover crops ficient to enclose an acre of orchard. Another suggested plant was the ‘honey locust’ because it would establish

Suggested nineteenth century fallow crops for five to more rapidly than other plant species. In his book, six year old orchards were potatoes, carrots, rutabagas Barry curiously suggests that ‘animals will be afraid to and sugar beet. Again, the idea was to defray the initial look at’ this type of hedge. On a more scientific basis, costs of the orchard. Both authors clearly state that it was realized that hawthorn and arbor vitae hedges grain crops such as wheat, oats and rye were detrimen- would encourage birds to nest and as natural insect tal to the health of apple tree orchards. Downing went predators would reduce pest infestations. a little further, explaining that fallow crops should be grown beyond the drip line of apple trees, as their roots Pruning took priority. Later on it was realized that other cover nitrogen-fixing crops such as clover and peas could Nursery apple trees were pruned so that a proper be used as green manure, nourishing poor or depleted canopy head was formed from four to five branches. soils, when the cover crop was turned over. Barry surmised that the young tree would not establish properly unless some pruning was carried out. Charles

Soil management practices and hedges Downing, however, did not completely agree with this, believing it to be detrimental to young tree vigor. He

Mid-nineteenth century mulching techniques rec- suggested that pruning was only necessary when the ommended using decayed manure, saw dust and tan young tree was growing poorly, thereby inducing vigor. bark (a tanning material) to be spread around the tree. Also, pruning would strive for a balance between the Again, it was correctly understood that mulching would top and bottom half of the tree. The role of pruning suppress weed growth and prevent the planting and was to improve the structural form of an established compost mix from drying out. A deep mulch was ap- tree, so that no crossing branches existed within the plied in autumn protecting the tree roots from severe tree canopy. It was also recommended that all weak frost damage. Late nineteenth mulching materials sug- branches within the tree canopy interior be removed gested using coarse straw or barnyard litter. It became and prevent branch breakage. It was realized that ex- widely accepted that mulching not only prevented the cessive pruning encourages sucker growth in standard soil from drying out, but prevented tree death under apple trees and, if unchecked, would lead to poor fruit drought conditions. Both Barry and Downing agreed harvests.

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Treatments of Pest and Diseases young fruit; after hatching, the grub would eat its way into the fruit. This caused the fruit to fall prematurely. In the mid-nineteenth century, fire blight was a seri- The grub would leave the fruit and climb up the tree. ous and an untreatable disease of apple orchards. At From there it would find protection within its bark and the time, it was not understood how the disease was spin a cocoon. During the mid-nineteenth century, two caused, which was by the entrance of a bacterium into control methods were used. One method was to search plant tissue. The symptoms were understood, in which for and destroy the cocoons in early spring. The other the leaves and the branches of the plant appeared to be method was to pick up the infested apples in early burned. The solution was to prune out and burn the in- autumn and destroy them. A late nineteenth century fected wood, leaving the remaining undiseased wood. method was to wrap an old cloth around the base of It was not until 1878, that the casual agent, a bacterium, the tree, just before fruit drop. Apparently this was an was discovered by Dr. T.J. Burrill at the University of effective method, with which thousands of apple worm Illinois. At first Burrill findings received skepticism. cocoons were caught and destroyed. It was until 1885, when a series of experiments performed by a Dr. J.C. Arthur confirmed Burrill’s find- The apple tent caterpillar (Figure 37) was one of the ings. most serious pests of apples throughout the nineteenth century. Large rings of eggs were deposited on Also, in the mid-nineteenth century, both greenfly and the branches of the tree in the summer. The following black fly (aphids) were recognized as serious pests to year these rings of eggs hatch and create webbed tents all kinds of fruit tree orchards. It was understood that around the foliage. Within these tents the leaves were these insects sucked juices at the plant’s growing tips devoured. In left untreated, the tree could be com- and several generations over one season could multiply pletely covered in caterpillar tents. One control method rapidly. Tobacco juice was used on a regular basis to was to examine the tree in early spring and destroy control the pest. Soap was mixed with tobacco juice, the rings of eggs by cutting off the infected branch and which acted as an adhesive when the juice was sprayed burning it. The other method was to climb up a ladder onto the tree. Sometimes, the mixture was too potent, and bring down the tents either by hand or a brush, killing not just the pest, but the leaves of the tree as crushing the grubs on the ground. This practice was well. Another soap used was an extract of whale-oil. carried out in the early hours of the morning, when the Another troublesome pest was the woolly aphid, in pest was inactive. A latter nineteenth century control which large numbers would lodge themselves in the method was to touch the nest with a sponge, which had crevices of old rough-barked trees. Nineteenth cen- been ‘dipped in strong spirits of ammonia or naphtha tury treatment was to smooth out the bark and apply a from coal-oil refinings’. The pest would be killed im- white wash treatment to the exposed wood. The white mediately on contact with the chemical. wash was known as ‘Harris Treatise’, which consisted of, ‘two parts of soft soap and eight of water, mixed Field mice and vole (then known as the meadow with lime enough to bring it to the consistency of thick mouse) damage prevention techniques during the nine- white-wash, to be put on with a brush’. teenth century were to advocate a clean horticultural practice. This meant that grass and weeds were cut The apple worm or Codling moth was only beginning down to ground level. Also, orchard debris was to be to become a major pest problem in the mid-nineteenth kept to a minimum. It was understood that vole dam- century. The pest’s lifecycle was understood during this age (girdled bark) was worst during the wintertime, time. Eggs were deposited into the eye or calyx of the because the snow would protect the voles from their

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natural predators. One suggested nineteenth century control method was to trample down the snow around the bark. The idea was to block vole pathways, preventing damage. Another method was to use a mixture of slaked lime, cow dung, soot, and flowers of sulphur, which would be converted into a thick paint. The paint would be applied to the trunks just before the onset of winter snows. Despite the crude mixture, this was apparently an effective control method for vole and field mouse damage.

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End Notes 1 KFS Cultural Resources Group, HOFU NHS CLR, 108-124.

2 A recent Purchase Order from the HOFU Park to Steven S. Marino Landscape (contractor) revealed that it would cost $5,854.76 for a spray program.

3 KFS Cultural Resources Group, HOFU NHS CLR, 160. HOFU NHS National Register Nomination, 1985.

4 John Apel, HOFU NHS OMP. Walker, Hopewell Village, 123-124, 133.

5 Page, et al., A Guide to Cultural, 137.

6 Page, R, R., Cathy A. Gilbert and Susan A. Dolan. ‘A Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports: Contents, Process, and Tech- niques’. Pp. 71-72. US Dept. of Interior. NPS. Washington, DC.

7 HOFU NHS Archives, Documentation for NHS-HV-3007 Historical Base Map-Village Area-1830-1840. Furnace records indicate that at least one other orchard at a more remote location on the furnace property was rented to a neighboring farmer. In addition, an orchard existed at a Tenant House in the Hopewell Village in the late nineteenth century, and although its location is undetermined, a peach orchard also existed at the Furnace at one time.

8 “Birdsborough Estate”, Pennsylvania Gazette, April 2, 1788. The NRHP suggests the original planting date of this orchard to be 1785.

9 Rehabilitation is defined as the act or process of making possible a compatible use for a property through repair, altera- tions, and additions while preserving those portions or features which convey its historical or cultural values. (Excerpted from The Secretary of the Interior’s Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties, 1995.)

10 For specific information regarding NPS policy on cultural and natural resource management, see Appendices This analysis is based on limited historical research conducted during development of this maintenance plan and documentation of the orchard in the 1997 CLR. Additional research is required for a complete understanding of the integrity of the HOFU orchard (particularly in relation to the NPS reconstruction) and its contribution to the integrity of the site as a whole.

11 For the purposes of this report, “disease-resistant” refers to varieties known for a lesser susceptibility to common apple diseases, longevity of life and overall hardiness. Please note that resistance does cover the whole range of pests and diseases, only some.

12 Downing, A. J. 1815 – 1852. ‘The fruits and fruit-trees of America, or, the culture, propagation, and management in the garden and orchard of fruit-trees generally: with descriptions of all the finest varieties of fruit, native and foreign, cultivated in this country’. Publisher: New York: J. Wiley & Son, 1881, c1872. This book is the 2nd revision and correction, with large additions, including the appendices of 1872 to 1881, and containing many new varieties/ by Charles Downing. Notes are taken from Chapters 4, 6, 7, 8 and 9.

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13 Barry, Patrick, 1816 – 1890. ‘The fruit garden: a treatise intended to explain and illustrate the physiology of fruit trees, the theory and practice of all operations connected with the propagation, transplanting, pruning and training of orchard and garden trees…the laying out and arranging different kinds of orchards and gardens…’/by P. Barry. Publisher: Auburn; Rochester: Alden and Beardsley, 1855. Notes are taken from Part III. Chapter I. Permanent Plantations of Fruit Trees. Sec- tions 1 – 2. (157 – 178).

14 Dolan, Susan. (2001). ‘A Fruitful Legacy: The Historic Context of Fruit Trees and Orchards in the National Park System’. Published for the National Park Service, Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation; Columbia Cascades Support Office and National Center for Cultural Resources Stewardship and Partnerships.

15 Barry, Patrick, 1816 – 1890. ‘The fruit garden’ (1855) p. 366-367.

16 Downing, A. J. 1815 – 1852. ‘The fruits and fruit-trees of America’. Revised edition of 1881. p. 64

17 Folger, John C. (1921). ‘The commercial apple industry of North America, by J.C. Folger … and S.M. Thomson’. Pub- lisher: New York, the Macmillan Company.

18 Waugh, Frank A. (1908). ‘The American apple orchard; a sketch of the practice of apple growing in North America at the beginning of the twentieth century’. Publisher: New York, Orange Judd Company.

19 Source: Folger, John C. (1921). ‘The commercial apple industry of North America, by J.C. Folger … and S.M. Thomson’. Publisher: New York, the Macmillan Company. This table is taken from the above on p.162.

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70 Orchard Management Practices

Part IV: Orchard Management Practices

This chapter outlines specific management practices and desired qualities. to preserve the mid-nineteenth century character of the HOFU orchard. Management recommendations The primary preservation maintenance practices integrate sustainable field practices with cultural included tree pruning, planting, and groundcover landscape preservation objectives. They are informed management. Integrated Pest Management, or IPM, by the National Park Service policies for Natural is a comprehensive strategy to achieve desired levels Resource Management (D.O. #77), Cultural Resource of pest control while limiting the use of chemical Management (D.O. #28), and principles of Integrated pesticides. IPM strategies in this report are outlined Pest Management (See Appendix for D.O. #77 and for deer, voles, invertebrates, and orchard diseases. A #28). For the purposes of this management plan, calendar is included which places each management preservation maintenance principles listed in (Figure practice in a seasonal time line to assist with work 46) are emphasized over standard maintenance objec- planning and implementation. tives. For instance, while safety considerations are central to all maintenance, protecting historic materi- This chapter also includes recommendations on mon- als is more important in preservation maintenance itoring and record keeping. Forms for monitoring and than standard maintenance. record keeping are provided. Routine monitoring and record keeping is critical for understanding the long- Orchard management practices are organized into term trends of the orchard. A detailed understanding three main sections, Preservation Maintenance, In- of past conditions and management operations will tegrated Pest Management, and a seasonal work plan help better diagnose problems and prescribe solu- calendar. Preservation maintenance is performed to tions in the future. maintain plant health, structural stability, overall form,

PRESERVATION MAINTENANCE HIGH PRIORITY STANDARD MAINTENANCE

Safety Issues Safety Issues

Protect and preserve historic materials and Improve aesthetics features Support property operations/current use Perpetuate historic character Encourage lower cost maintenance by Support property operations and current use using new techniques, equipment, materials Use historic methods and materials Protect and preserve historic materials and Encourage lower cost maintenance features

Improve aesthetics Perpetuate historic character

LOW PRIORITY

Figure 46. Maintenance Priorities Chart (National Park Service, Guide to Developing a Preservation Maintenance Plan for a Historic Landscape).

71 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Using Apple Phenology for Orchard Management 9) Fruit Set: Stages ranging from about 4 to 10 Historic apple orchard care requires performing days after bloom when the blossoms numerous management tasks throughout the year. that have or have not set fruit, initially, These tasks include: tree replacement, pruning, pest are clearly evident. and disease management, groundcover management, and monitoring. 10) Fruit Development: Fruit develops in size, but does not change color. Apple trees develop in a series of distinctive annual growth stages which vary in timing and length from 11) Fruit Maturity: Fruit changes color, year to year (Figure 47). Growth stages have their enlarges and tastes sweeter. This can also greatest use in determining precise timing for moni- be considered the time for harvest. toring, planting, pruning and control of plant diseases and pests. For the purposes of managing the HOFU 12) Fruit Drop: Fruit drops off the tree. orchard, there are twelve phenological or key growth stages of apple trees: References to these phenological stages appear throughout the management plan. 1) Dormant: Fruit buds relatively inactive. This is the overwintering stage.

2) Silver Tip: Fruit bud scales separated at tip, showing light gray tissue.

3) Green Tip: Fruit buds broken at tip, showing about 1/16th inch green growth.

4) Half-inch Green: About ½ inch of leaf tissue projects from the fruit buds.

5) Tight Cluster: Blossom buds mostly exposed, tightly grouped, stems short.

6) Pink: All blossom buds in cluster are pink, stems fully extended.

7) Bloom: Blossom buds open.

8) Petal Fall: After about 75 percent of the petals have fallen.

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Apple Growth Stages: Dormancy to Fruit Set

Figure 47: Apple Growth Stages and Monthly Calendar (http://botany.org/bsa/misc/mcintosh/devel.html, 11/2007).

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Preservation Maintenance

• Height Tree Replacement The Novole rootstock, a contemporary rootstock The most important objective for tree replacement is to developed to naturally repel orchard voles, should be perpetuate the historic character of the orchard. The incorporated into the orchard by grafting onto scion general visual qualities of the orchard and the well being wood taken from the older trees in the orchard and of individual trees both play a role in maintaining char- other historic disease resistant varieties. It is recom- acter. The four integral aspects of trees necessary for mended that scion cuttings are taken in the winter or maintaining the desired orchard character are: density; very early spring and grafted onto standard Novole spacing; height; and variety. Density, spacing and height rootstock. This process can take up to four years to impact how the orchard is perceived visually, while the produce a viable replacement tree. It is recommended variety of the trees is critical for the general sustainability that the park regularly propagate replacements to and historic integrity of the orchard. maintain a readily available supply of trees to plant when needed. Novole rootstock is recommended for Monitoring fifty-percent of the tree replacements. Regular stan- Monitoring the orchard will help in the identification dard rootstocks should comprise the other half of the of: widening gaps in the tree rows; broken, diseased or replanted trees to maintain rootstock diversity in the dead trees and to identify work needed to improve tree orchard. condition and prevent loss. • Spacing and Density

Management Actions The spacing of trees should remain consistent with The necessity to replant orchard trees relates primarily to the development of gaps in the rows, as certain density of trees needs to be maintained to perpetuate visual character. At the current tree spacing of 30 feet, three consecutive missing trees leave a gap of 150 feet long. This loss of character is amplified when trees on either side of a missing row are also lost.

While it is not detrimental to the orchard character when a single tree dies or is removed, however, the continued loss of trees and convergence of vacant space has a large impact on the visual qualities of the orchard.

When replanting is needed, all trees in the zone should be replanted. For example, if five missing trees are identified, all five trees should be replanted. The outer two rows of the orchard are especially important areas to maintain in order to preserve the view from fence lines. Replacement trees should reflect the mid-nine- Figure 48: Example of central leader branching habit with parts of teenth century character in height, density, spacing, and the tree labled (UMass Cooperative Extension, Pruning Fruit Trees in variety. the Home Orchard).

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patterns established during period of significance, an In addition, replacement tree varieties can include approximately 30 feet within rows by 35 feet between other historic varieties as indicated in (Figure 34). rows. It is recommended that before removing dead Planting historic varieties that are disease resistant but or dying trees, they should be assessed for disease not currently growing in the orchard is recommended. and structural instability. If they are highly diseased Park records indicate that the CCC attempted to re- or structurally unstable, the trees should be removed plant historic varieties to the best of their knowledge, immediately. If not, the trees may remain as long as however the entire inventory of apple trees planted at they don’t threaten other trees in the orchard or until the time is uncertain.1 the park is prepared to replace them. However, if the area around the tree requires replanting, the dead tree It is recommended that a variety of trees are used at should be removed as part of the replanting process. each replanting, including cuttings taken from existing orchard trees and other nursery sources of historic apple • Variety trees. Planting a diversity of young trees is a sustainable In order be to reflective of mid-nineteenth century practice that utilizes the different genetic strengths and character, it is recommended that replacement trees are weaknesses, of each variety to minimize the overall ef- propgated from existing trees that are pre-1845. The fects of stresses, diseases, and pests. Replanting young older tree varieties that are still alive from this time pe- trees will most likely be needed every three to five years riod include Roxbury Russet, Golden Russet, Grimes as converging gaps of five or more missing trees develop Golden, Northern Spy, Rambo, Rhode Island Green- in the orchard. ing, Smokehouse, Newtown Pippin, and Early Harvest.

Activity Description Schedule Plant trees Plant young trees to maintain the character Mid March, April, First week of the orchard. Recommended replanting of May every 3-5 years, or as needed. Take cuttings for Take cuttings of historic varieties for Mid January until mid March propagation propagation, especially trees that predate WWII. Use standard rootstock and Novole rootstock for 50% fo propagation replacement trees.

Table 5. Tree replacement calendar for HOFU (OCLP).

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Pruning Recommendations For The HOFU Apple Orchard Eighteenth and nineteenth century American farm orchards usually contained unpruned, tall standard trees with high canopies. The fruit of these well-known apple varieties were commonly used for cider produc- Figure 49. A heading cut releases apical dominance and encourages tion or feed for farm animals during the wintertime. lateral buds to grow (www.ext.colostate.edu). Trees trunks were usually five feet high with their canopies, often reaching forty to fifty feet high. These latter day apple trees differed considerably in appearance from their late nineteenth and early twentieth century Cohorts. These more recently, developed trees were “headed low” (topped early in life), which allowed for a short trunk (one to three feet in length) and shorter, open, vase-shaped canopy. The purpose of shorter trees was to allow for easier access during harvesting time.

Presently, existing trees in the HOFU orchard are beginning to represent the unpruned style of the mid- nineteenth century. It is only recently that this practice has occurred as trees used to appear as a weeping form, Figure 50. Example of open bowl branching habit (OCLP, 2007). after pruning. The majority of the trees were originally proving structural form, reflecting character and health trained as either a central leader or open-bowl style. are as follows: This report recommends that pruning should be kept 1. Protect and preserve historic trees, including to a minimum. This will allow for natural tree forms mature trees that are in poor health. with high trunks, and wide canopies to develop and 2. Perpetuate mid-nineteenth character mature. Thereby, the character of a mid-nineteenth visually. century orchard will be evoked. 3. Eliminate dead, dying or diseased wood and crossing branches. Pruning for the HOFU orchard should focus on the 4. Eliminate selected branches to allow light preservation and rehabilitation objectives as given in and air into the tree canopy. the preferred management plan alternatives section. This procedure differs from standard maintenance The pruning program that is reflective of mid-nine- practice and highlights a contrast in horticultural pri- teenth century character will be included as part of the orities, philosophy and practice (Fig. 46). This includes integrated pest management strategy plan. immediate stabilization measures and aiming for long- term tree health and vigor within the orchard. Priority There are a number of specialised words related to should be given to the mature specimen apple trees by pruning techniques. An illustration is perhaps the best improving its structural form and thereby preserving method to clearly explain these pruning terms (Table health. A list of objectives for pruning are given for im- 7). A glossary is given at the end of this section.

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Branch bark Branch bark ridge ridge Branch bark ridge

Branch collar Branch collar No visible collar exists

Branch bark Branch bark ridge intact Branch bark ridge ridge intact remove from trunk

Circular-shaped woundwood U-shaped woundwood closing over cut Oval-shaped woundwood closing over cut closing over cut

Figure 51. The top images show the correct place to make a collar cut on a variety of branches. The bottom image, on the left, shows what wound closure looks like when a collar cut is done correctly. The center image on the bottom shows an oval wound closure that occurs when the collar is cut incorrectly. The image on the bottom right shows a “U” shaped wound closure. This type of wound closure can occur for a number of reasons and does not mean that the cut was done incorrectly (“An Illustrated Guide to Pruning”).

Figure 53. On the left is an example of a proper pruning cut. The middle image has harmed the tree by removing the collar. The image on the right left too much of a stub which may impede wound closure (“An Illustrated Guide to Pruning”).

Fig. 52 A & B: Stages to avoid bark tear (University of Massachu- setts Extension System, Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard)

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Purpose of Pruning should be disposed of off site.

Mid-nineteenth century pruning removes low fruit Pr u n i n g To o l s a n d Pr o p e r Cu t s bearing branches, maintains reasonable light and air circulation, and maintains an overall branching struc- The most essential and popular tool is a pair of se- ture. cateurs. A good make (Felco) should regularly cut branches of ½ inch diameter. Other pruning tools are The whole point to pruning for a commercial orchard lopping shears and a pruning saw, which are able to is to establish a strong system of branches to support a handle thicker branch diameters. Another pruning tool substantial fruit crop. So, a vision of the tree’s desired is the ‘pole pruner’, which is useful for cutting back shape as it matures should be perceived. This desired branches that are high up the tree canopy. The disad- shape can only be achieved, if pruning is done during vantage of this particular tool is that it is tall and heavy. the youthful stage of the tree’s life. Although, maxi- This means that the handler has difficulty in keeping mum fruit production at HOFU orchard may not be the tool upright and balanced, when used. the primary objective, obtaining the desired shape of a mature standard tree is important. A careful pruning technique is essential for minimizing disease, insect entry and, helps the wound to close When to Prune properly and quickly. A sharp, secateurs should make a clean cut as close as possible to the branch collar Regular annual pruning for apple trees occurs between without damaging the nearby branch or twig. (Figure January and April, the season when the trees are dor- 51). The cut should leave a small stump. While, lateral mant. Any weak branches or twigs should be pruned branches should be cut in stages to avoid bark tear (Fig- during the summer. In general, pruning of dead and ure 52A). This procedure is discussed in the following diseased wood can occur anytime during the year. Wa- stages. ter sprouts should be pruned during the mid-summer. Water sprouts are rapidly growing shoots that usually 1. Two or three inches away from the trunk make a originate from the base of the trunk. All prunings small partial undercut into the branch, until about halfway through the branch or when the saw becomes pinched (Figure 52B).

2. From the top of the branch make another cut starting downward nearby the bottom cut. This will allow the branch to fall away without tearing bark down toward the trunk (Figure 52B).

3. Remove the remaining stump near the collar. There are three types of pruning cuts and are as follows:

Fig. 54: The drawing shows that branches A and B are competing with the leader. The drawing to the right shows Heading Cuts: A heading cut removes the top portion how the problem is corrected. (UMass Extension System, on one-year-old branches or twigs. This will encourage Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard) over-all growth of lateral branches.

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Fig. 55: Minimal pruning is required for an aged and neglected apple tree. The photograph shows removal of heavy branches should be kept to a minimum, so that mid-nineteenth character is retained. The purpose of such light pruning is to allow some light and air penetration and encourage some regenerative growth. (UMass Extension System, Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard)

shoot growth. Thinning cuts should be used on water Thinning Cuts: These are pruning cuts that eliminate sprouts. an entire shoot or branch from the tree. These cuts encourage directional growth, while reducing branch Pruning Youthful Tree Replacements competition and excessive growth. If park staff selects one year old trees, then the tree Stubbing Cuts: These cuts are similar to heading cuts should be healthy with a strong central leader. The but removes the top portion on two year old or older leader should be allowed to develop without any prun- wood. This will encourage branching and will force the ing. If a two year old is selected, then the tree should development of side shoots. have a dominant central leader with non-competing side branches. These side branches will develop into (Figure 53) depicts examples of proper and improper the tree’s main structural framework. Careful pruning pruning cuts. at the time of planting should reflect this framework (Figure 53). By the third year, attention must be given In the HOFU orchard stubbing cuts should be avoided to encourage spreading of the tree’s lateral branching as the tree will lose its character as a standard tree. system. The central leader and other branches should Heading cuts should be limited only to encourage side be allowed to grow and develop. During this stage, the

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lower branches of the young tree should be removed to a height of 24 to 30 inches above ground. By the end Renovating Aging, Neglected Trees of the fourth year, the branching framework of the tree should have been established. Subsequent years, weak It should be pointed out that fruit quantity and qual- and crossing lateral should be removed. During this ity will be less from an aging and neglected apple period, lower branches would be removed to a height tree compared to relatively young, mature apple tree. of 4 feet. The idea is to develop tall trunks, as a histori- Also, mid–nineteenth century varieties tend to bear a cal characteristic of mid-nineteenth century orchards. heavy fruit crop bi-annually. Ideally, pruning of an old, neglected tree should occur over a period of two to Pruning Young Trees three years. Otherwise, immediate and heavy pruning will cause excessive vegetative growth with small fruit- Ultimately, tree trunk height would be six feet achieved ing harvests over the next years. As with young trees, by removing a few of the lower limbs, as the tree grows all diseased and dead branches should be removed and matures. The leader should be allowed to grow to a throughout the year. Some of the heaviest crossing height of 14 to 15 feet, and then cut back to the top- branches should be removed, not all of them. Again, most, outward-growing lateral branch. This will have the idea is to reflect mid-nineteenth century character, the effect of developing a dense, branching system. The in which apple growers of this time allowed trees to tree will continue to grow in height, but not to the same grow naturally. The idea is to let some light through the degree. As the main lateral branches continue to grow, center of the tree and let some basic structural form of they will bend due to the weight of the fruit. This will the tree remain. It is obvious that the tree’s main lateral lead to the development of upright young shoots and branches will have numerous secondary branches cre- water sprouts on the main lateral branch. Water sprouts ating a dense canopy. The weakest secondary branches are to be thinned out, as are upright shoots. Shoot thin- should be thinned out, but pruning should not be to a ning involves heading or stubbing some of these shoots point where the tree looks bare and overly pruned (Fig. to the main lateral branch. The aim of pruning young 55). The tree height could be lowered to no more than trees is to develop a tall standard tree with a six feet 1/3 of the tree’s canopy, if the tree exceeds 25 feet in high canopy of a dense branching habit and numerous height. The following years it should be monitored for fruiting spurs. excessive growth, if any, and routine pruning of dead and diseased wood carried out. There maybe some It is recommended to train new trees at the HOFU water sprout growth, which should be removed during NHS Orchard in two styles: central leader and open the growing season. bowl. To maintain positive central leader habit, eliminate the lowest scaffold limbs (Figure 47). If a young tree has developed multiple central leaders, retain the strongest in the first season and prune the scaffold branches in the second or third season after planting. Accomplish this with a heading cut, by pruning the actively growing portion of a new shoot, which encourages the growth of lateral branches and strengthens the central leader (Figure 48). The horizontal branching habit engouraged in central leader trees are stronger than those attached to the trunk by an acute angle.

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Activity Description Schedule Prune dead wood and Remove dead wood and broken limbs to All year broken limbs hasten wound closure and minimize damage to lower branches.

Prune diseased wood (see Remove diseased and infected wood January through mid-August Pest and Disease Section for sanitation purposes. Calendar) Improve structural Prune crossing branches, multiple leaders character and watersprouts to maintain desired character

Remove lower scaffolds Lower scaffold branches are removed to December through February of young trees establish desired character of trees Remove mummified fruit Remove fruit to increase orchard sanitation September through February and limit the spread of pests and disease.

Table 6. Pruning Calendar (OCLP, 2006).

Term Definition

Branch Collar The distinctive area of a branch at its junction with the trunk or larger branch. Dormant Pruning The practice of pruning during a plant's dormant season when no bud growth occurs. Fruiting Spurs Shoot growth on certain apple trees, on which fruiting buds are produced.

Latent Bud A dormant bud beneath the bark of branches older than one year, which only initiates growth after stimulation by pruning or injury. Root Sucker Shoots originating at the roots of a tree below the graft union, which if left to grown will resemble the characteristics of the rootstock variety.

Scaffold Limbs Primary lateral branches of a tree that form the canopy.

Terminal Bud Actively growing bud at the terminal end of every branch. Eliminating this bud encourages active growth in lateral buds below it.

Watersprout A vertical shoot on scaffold limbs or lateral branches. Whirl A young fruit tree often with lateral branches or central leader pruned back to encourage new growth Whorl A collection of three or more branches radiating around the trunk.

Table 7. Pruning Glossary (OCLP, 2006).

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Integrated Pest Management 2. Setting Action Thresholds: Establishing action thresholds is the

Ov e r v i e w process of determining acceptable levels of Integrated Pest Management (IPM) is a comprehen- a particular pest or disease. In an IPM sive strategy to achieve desired levels of pest control framework, corrective actions are only in an environmentally responsible manner, reducing taken if pests reach the action threshold. The the need for chemical pesticides. action threshold, identifies the level at which action must be taken to prevent significant The “I” in IPM refers to the “integrated” use of cul- resource damage. tural practices, biological controls, physical and mechanical controls, and chemical pesticides to prevent, 3. Control Practices: minimize, or suppress pest problems. These diverse If the impact of pests reaches the action tactics are combined into a system that improves the threshold, control steps must be taken. The effectiveness of pest management. use of multiple control practices is recommended and can include cultural, The “P’ represents “pests,” unwanted organisms that biological, and chemical treatments. are a nuisance or can cause injury to humans, animals, plants, structures, etc. Pests can include insects and a. Cultural Controls are methods that change other arthropods, diseases, nematodes, vertebrates, the environment of the pest, making it less and weeds. favorable. Practices such as planting and pruning, and maintaining proper soil pH The “M” is for “management,” which is the process and nutrient levels are cultural techniques. of making decisions in a systematic way to keep pests Cultural controls also include practices that from reaching or exceeding unacceptable levels. Total are sometimes classified as physical controls eradication of pests is not necessary in IPM. Rather, or mechanical controls. These include accepting some populations of pests is tolerated structural modifications and barriers to and only when pre-identified damage thresholds are prevent pests from entering a site, such as a reached is it necessary to implement control actions. fence.

The essential elements of IPM are monitoring, setting b. Biological Controls refer to the use of action thresholds, using multiple control practices, natural enemies or biological control agents and keeping records. to help manage pests. Biological control agents include predators, parasites, and 1. Monitoring: diseases. Monitoring refers to tactics used for acquiring important information about the c. Chemical Controls, often referred to as need for control actions, as well assessing pesticides, are used to prevent damage whether control actions are effective. from occurring or assist the desired resource Regular inspections of a site and early with recuperation from pest infestation. detection of pests can function as a way to These are important and commonly avoid or prevent serious resource damage. used tools in IPM. Like all control actions, pesticides should be selected that are

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effective in managing the pest, least habitats preferred by deer. Unlike the deer, their preda- disruptive to natural predators, tors such as the wolf (Canis lupus), mountain lion (Felis least hazardous to human health and least concolor) , bobcat (Lynx rufus) and black bear (Ursus damaging to the environment. americanus) have not adapted as well as the deer and have been pushed out of the area by fragmentery habi- 4. Record keeping: tat due to their decline have resulted in increased deer Record keeping involves the systematic population. storing and retrieval of IPM information. Records can indicate the location of In the case of national parks, especially in the east- problem areas and whether pests or natural ern region deer population levels as stated by Coffey predators are increasing or decreasing in ‘are probably higher than they have ever been’. Deer numbers. Weather records, coupled with in nearly all parks are not hunted unless it has been control practices and pest sampling records authorized by the park itself. The eastern parks by can indicate how well a specific treatment comparison with the nation’s parks are relatively small performed. and are often of historic importance and surrounded by residential or private farm areas. So hunting is not At the Hopewell Furnace orchard, IPM strategies may usually permitted or restricted adjacent to these highly include the use of monitoring techniques, increased sanitation in orchard maintenance techniques, the use of natural pest enemies, and when necessary, the judicious use of low toxicity pesticides.

Wh i t e -Ta i l e d De e r Ma n a g e m e n t This section outlines deer habitat, foraging habits, and other behaviors that cause damage to trees, followed by a discussion of recommendations for managing deer in the Hopewell Farm orchard. Figure 61. Adult male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) (www.nhptv.org).

White-tailed deer in the National Park Service

Over the past ten years white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations have increased dramatically from under ½ million in the early 1990’s to an estimated 24 million in 1999. The reasons for the deer population explosion can be attributed to changes in habitat, which includes abandoned farmland transforming to forest land through the process of succession, and Figure 62. Female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). shifts in human population to rural and suburban areas. (www.nhptv.org). These developments have created open and forested

83 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

sensitive areas. The role of the park manager is restrict- positive and negative impacts is one method to develop ed in taking action on a particular deer problem. He the goal and objectives for a deer management plan. or she is bound by the ‘laws, policies, and regulations Community partnerships and agreements will help to that govern natural and cultural resource management identify problems with deer and hopefully arrive at in the National Park Service to decide whether deer- measured and comprised solutions. related effects warrant action’. These regulations were adopted from the National Park Service Act of 1916, Identification National Environmental Policy Act (NEPA) and other White-tailed deer are one of the most widespread and laws from Congress. Park managers are to adhere to most recognizable wild animals in the northeast United preserving natural and cultural resources aimed at ben- States. The buck, or male deer, stands three to three efiting today’s public and future generations. In short, and a half feet tall at the shoulder, weighs between 125 the primary goal is to minimize negative human impact to 200 pounds, and grows antlers that shed annually on native animals and their natural population fluctua- (Figure 54). Does, female deer, are smaller and lighter tions. Of course, the National Park Service can remove than the males and lack antlers (Figure 55). The white- some deer under special circumstances, when deer are a threat to human safety or health as determined by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and where the park manager is required by mandate to preserve and protect cultural resources and landscapes.

There is an increasing conflict between balanced management of deer and serving the public need. While increasing deer population provide opportunities for recreation and education for both hunters and non-hunters, but can cause serious socioeconomic and Figure 64. Buck rub occurring on a tree with a DBH between five ecological problems such as deer-vehicle accidents, and twelve inches (www.vividlight.com, 2006). crop depredation, and reduced forest regeneration.

From the overall park context point of view, managing deer herds is controversial because a high deer population density will be seen as beneficial to some groups and detriment to other groups. The process of docu- menting deer populations within the park to inform task force groups who will either experience both

Figure 65. Illustrative image of deer’s ability to browse different Figure 63. Young fawn and young male (buck) white-tailed deer levels of apple tree canopies (http://www.adirondackcraft. (Odocoileus virginianus) (www.nhptv.org). com/Images).

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tailed deer’s coat and color will change throughout the act of damaging trees as a territorial marker. The sec- year appearing reddish during the summer months and ond is thought to initiate a decrease in blood flow from brown-gray during fall. the removal of velvet on the antlers eventually causing the antlers to drop later in the fall or early winter. Habitat Finally, rubbing against the tree trunk strengthens the White-tailed deer are a forest edge species that prefers buck’s neck muscles preparing it for sparring and fight- fragmented habitats typical of the suburban fringe ing over breeding territory during the breeding season. where human development and wild natural lands overlap with one another, much like the landscape Buck rub, which occurs most often on trees with a around HOFU NHS. The lack of natural predators in diameter of five to twelve inches, can cause serious these areas has contributed to extremely high numbers injury to the trunks. The open wounds on affected of deer in suburban locations. In rural areas, hunting trees are susceptible to bacterial diseases like canker helps control epidemic deer populations but suburban and fire blight. The transfer of essential nutrients can environments and national parks like HOFU NHS, be disrupted through damage to transport vessels and where hunting is not currently permitted, offer sanctu- cambium tissue. There is also a threat of small trees ary to deer populations. being uprooted by the bucks.

Reproduction and Behavior White-tailed deer typically breed from October White-tailed deer use two mechanisms to avoid preda- through late December. Female deer have one to three tion: freeze behavior to avoid detection; and flight, fawns about six months after mating in the fall. The or running from a threat. Deer are able to blend into fawns are usually reddish-brown at birth with white their surroundings by freezing or standing still. In spots that provide camouflage from predators (Figure flight, deer are incredibly adaptable and agile with an 56). ability to jump over fences and debris effortlessly. In flight they use a signal to convey danger, tail flagging. It Male deer rub the bark of trees with their antlers in the involves raising the tail so that the bright white under- late summer and early fall, a practice commonly known side is exposed. Tail flagging can be observed in all age as “buck rub” (Figure 57). There are three principle and sex groups but is greatest among young fawns and purposes for this behavior in male deer. The first is the in groups. This innate behavior is an alarm signal that reduces predation through group cohesion in white tailed deer.

Deer agility often allows them to outmaneuver the devices and actions used to protect trees from damage. They are able to jump fences and stand on their hind legs to forage (Figure 58).

Damage and Symptoms The effects of deer browsing on apple trees in the orchard is apparent in the early spring and late fall, and during harsh winters that reduce the availability of other food supplies. Figure 66. Evidence of deer browse in the Wick Farm Orchard Damage can also be extensive during drought years where (OCLP, 2006). the nutritional value of grass and herbaceous plants is

85 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

reduced. These seasonal fluctuations can also affect the acorn and nut crop of various native trees like oak and chestnut. Nuts are a prime, high-fat food source for white- tail deer during the late fall and early winter months.

Deer have no upper front teeth, only back teeth on the upper jaw, and must pull or tear branches to remove the growing end or bud from the branch of a tree. Deer browsing on apple trees is indicated by ragged, broken ends on branches (Figure 59). Young trees are especially susceptible to damage on their terminal buds, which in turn suppresses growth and delays the development of a strong central leader and lateral branches. Damage typically occurs on young branches under three inches in diameter.

Monitoring There are a range of consistently changing climatic and environmental factors that effect the damage to the orchard each year. Careful monitoring is an important Figure 67. Plastic netting to prevent buck rub (OCLP, 2006). tool in helping to prevent extensive damage to young Management Actions - Cultural Controls: trees. • Hunting Monitoring the size, health, and vigor of the local deer Control of deer populations must consider population would be helpful to understand trends that the “laws, policies, and regulations that govern natural could assist with predicting damage to trees in the or- and cultural resource management in the National Park chard. However, deer population monitoring is beyond Service to decide whether deer-related effects war- the scope of this management plan. rant action.” These regulations were adopted from the National Park Service Act of 1916, National Environ- It is recommended that the park seek assistance from mental Policy Act (NEPA) and other laws enacted by the Northeast Region- Natural Resources and Science Congress. The National Park Service can control deer Program. Monitoring individual trees for damage is populations under special circumstances i.e., when important for determining whether orchard manage- deer are a threat to human safety or health as deter- ment practices need to be adjusted. mined by the Centers for Disease Control and Preven- tion. Deer in most national parks are not hunted unless Action Thresholds it has been legally authorized. Parks in the northeast The protection of young trees from deer browsing is region in comparison with many of the nation’s other critical in the first ten years after planting. The most parks are relatively small, often of historic importance, important phase to protect trees from buck rub is from and typically surrounded by residential or suburban the time of planting to the point when the tree diameter areas where hunting is not usually permitted. In the reaches twelve inches. case of HOFU, the deer are negatively impacting the orchard, but hunting is currently not a management alternative.

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4-5 feet

4-5 plastic zip ties per 4-5 feet post to secure the fencing to the post sink posts 18 inches into the ground

Figure 68. Recommended deer exclosure construction detail Figure 69. Exclosures can be unsightly and should be constructed (OCLP, 2006). of visually unobtrusive materials and be removed when no longer needed to protect invidual trees (OCLP, 2006).

• Fencing Netting should be wrapped around the trees before Fencing is suggested as part of the deer management the onset of the deer breeding season in early fall (late program, but should be compatible with the historic September-early October). Tree trunks should be orchard character of HOFU. Protecting individual protected from one foot off the ground to four or five young trees with fencing is the most applicable method feet high. Once the plastic netting is installed it should to control deer damage in the orchard. Fencing the be regularly monitored and repaired two times per year perimeter may have negative impacts on the cultural to ensure that it is in good condition, securely fastened landscape and for this reason it is recommended that a to the tree, and not constricting the diameter growth of detailed cultural landscape report be prepared prior to the trunk. The plastic netting should be installed when the consideration of perimeter fencing. Perimeter fenc- a tree has reached two inches DBH and removed when ing options that could be considered in the preparation it reaches twelve inches DBH. of a cultural landscape report appear in the appendix. A wide variety of deer exclosure fences may be con- Plastic netting installed directly around the trunk of sidered to protect young trees from deer browsing. A an apple tree, secured with a plastic tie, can be effec- typical exclosure includes four or five posts, supporting tive in reducing damage from buck rub (Figure 60). four to five foot high black wire or plastic fencing mate- The thickness and weight of the material should be rial, secured with plastic ties that attach the fencing to heavy enough to withstand the wear from buck rub and the posts. The major advantage of wire or plastic fenc- severe weather conditions but flexible enough to easily ing is the ease of removal when the tree has grown tall wrap the entire base of the trunk. enough to avoid deer browsing. The area enclosed by

87 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

the fence should not be larger than four feet in diam- during the growing season. It is critical to check with eter (Figure 61). the NPS Integrated Pest Management Program to identify what repellents are currently recommended and/or The disadvantages associated with exclosures include approved for park use. the visual appearance and issues with groundcover management (mowing) inside the fence (Figure 62). If used, repellents should be applied in the winter and The vole management section in this chapter suggests early spring to deter deer from eating the buds and ways to minimize the groundcover management prob- shoots. Young trees need to be completely covered lems inside the exclosures. In order to minimize the vi- with a repellent within the browse-line (a range from sual impact of the cages, they should be removed if the five to six feet of canopy), whereas older trees only tree inside dies, or when the tree grows tall enough that need their terminal buds treated within the deer’s eighty percent of the canopy is out of browsing range. feeding range. Regular application is necessary for repellents to be effective, and must be timed appropri- Wire fencing, commonly known as chicken wire, ately with rainfall. A repellent program would be most comes in various shapes and sizes and can be used to effective in providing targeted protection to specific protect trees. Recommended wire fencing should at-risk trees. contain two inch hexagonal openings. One major dis- Vo l e Ma n a g e m e n t advantage to the wire exclosure material is that it may Voles can have a significant negative impact on apple become bent or damaged from mowing, deer pressure, orchards throughout the eastern United States.5 Low or park maintenance operations in the orchard. Plastic fruit yields and high tree mortality, especially in young fencing is more flexible and less likely to be damaged trees, are attributed to bark and root girdling by these or bent. Once a length has been cut for an exclosure it small rodents. Vole damage is one of the factors in may be reused for many years and is much easier to un- tree mortality at HOFU. The long term survival of the roll and store than wire fencing materials. Fencing with orchard depends on protecting trees from vole damage 2” or larger holes in green, brown or black colors that during the first five to ten years after planting. The pri- blend into the natural environment are recommended mary objective in managing the orchard for voles is to to minimize the visual impact of the exclosure. Sources ensure that trees survive beyond this highly susceptible for fence exclosure materials include: Geo Synthetics: juvenile period to reach a mature stage where they are http://www.geo-synthetics.com/Plastic_Construction_ more resistant to vole damage. Fence_Materials.asp; and Utility Safeguard:http://www. utilitysafeguard.com/Fence/Safety-Fences-by-Resinet. An Integrated Pest Management (IPM) program is recommended for managing voles in the orchard. This Chemical Controls: includes having a thorough understanding of: pest Chemical controls are a secondary management rec- identification; vole damage recognition; a monitoring ommendation. Repellents are only recommended as a program; an established Action Threshold level; and a supplement to other control practices, such as fencing, combination of control and management practices. yet they can be an important component of an IPM deer management strategy. Identification Two species of voles commonly found in Northeast There are two categories of repellents; taste-based and fruit orchards (Figure 63 and Figure 64) are meadow smell-based. Repellents are usually applied as a spray voles (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and pine voles (M. pi- to apple trees, and as such, few are acceptable to use netorum). Both species prefer heavy groundcover for

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Activity Description Schedule Install and secure deer Exclosures should be checked for Install and/or maintain in exclosures taughtness and stability. Any areas that November through February. are sagging should be repaired. Some deer Retain in place until canopy is browsing is acceptable, but the terminal beyond reach of deer browsing. buds of young trees must be protected.

Install and secure Each year tree guards should be Install and/or maintain in plastic netting that maintained before buck rub occurs in the August through September. protects the tree from fall. Ensure that netting is: Retain in place until trunk buck rub reaches 12" in diameter. - Not constricting to the trunk, - Netting and associated straps and bands should also be loose to allow for 1/2" diameter trunk growth each year

Apply deer repellent This is a secondary browse control measure Every two months between that should be used to supplement other Mid August and Mid March, management practices. Repellent needs but also re-apply after rain to be reapplied after each rain and/or every few months. Monitor damage to trees Inspect for deer browse and buck rub. All year - minimum once per Adjust trunk netting and tree fencing month. as needed.

Table 9. Deer Management Calendar (OCLP, 2006).

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free of vegetation, and often littered protection against predators. They spend much of their with brown or green droppings or grass time seeking food, especially during dawn and dusk, cutings. The preferred habitat for meadow and remain active throughout the year.7 It is important voles are low meadows, swampy pastures, and to know which species are present and the difference any field with a plentiful supply of overlying between the two because management practices used debris providing cover against predators.8 for one may not have the same effectiveness against the Meadow voles build intricate, globular nests other. (six to eight inches in diameter) of dry grass above ground and, on occasion will occupy For the purposes of this management plan however, underground burrows of other animals. Nests both meadow and pine voles should be considered in can also be found under old boards, discarded monitoring and control practices due to their typical metal, logs, or other cover. presence in other orchards in the northeastern region of the United States. They feed on the stems and leaves of grasses • Me a d o w Vo l e (Microtus pennsylvanicus) and a wide variety of other broadleaf plants. Adult meadow voles, sometimes referred to as meadow When food sources are scarce in late fall, mice or field mice, have brown and black fur with a winter, and early spring, meadow voles will eat dusky gray underside. Meadow voles are slightly heavi- seeds and the bark of young trees. They occupy er and longer in length than pine voles (Figure 65). The a small range within 2000 square feet of where most distinguishing characteristic of the meadow vole they live and feed, although they may travel is tail length of over one and a half inches. greater distances in winter in search of food.

Habitat Reproduction: Meadow voles are most active above ground, Meadow voles are short lived with a lifespan developing a network of surface trails, rarely more than a year, but they are usually covered by grass or other dense vegetation (Figure 66). Their well traveled runways are one to two inches wide,

Figure 70. Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) distribution. Figure 71. Pine vole (Microtus pinetorum) distribution (National (National Museum of Natural History ©2004 Smithsonian Museum of Natural History ©2004 Smithsonian). Institution).

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promiscuous breeders.9 After a 21-day during peak population times. gestation period, they give birth to litters that average four to seven young. Females can • Pine Vole (Microtus pinetorum) breed as early as one month after birth and will Adult pine voles, sometimes referred to as pine mice or mate again shortly after giving birth. They can woodland voles, have adapted to a subterranean lifestyle. produce a litter every months weeks Pine voles are lighter and smaller than meadow voles throughout the entirety of their life cycle. with a reddish-brown to chestnut-brown fur color. The Meadow vole populations rise and fall tail of pine voles is very short, measuring 3/4 inch or less on a regular basis. Every three to five in length (Figure 67). In general the pine vole is smaller years, populations can reach epidemic and more stocky in shape and has small eyes in compari- levels and crash after a few growing seasons.10 son to the meadow vole. These cycles are hard to predict, since they are dependent upon food quantity, climate, Habitat: predation, and physiological stress. Extensive Pine voles spend most of their time in under damage may occur in apple orchards, especially ground burrows and extensive subsurface trail systems, which run along the root systems of the trees, two to six inches beneath the leaf litter layer or ground surface (Figure 68). Surface openings from underground tunnels and small conical, dirt piles excavated from burrows indicate the presence of pine voles.11 Pine voles have a similar diet to meadow voles and only feed on trees and roots when other food sources are short in supply (Table 9).

Figure 72. Meadow vole (Microtus pennsylvanicus) (www. Reproduction: volecontrol.com) Pine voles have lower reproductive rates than meadow voles and the females have a slightly longer gestation period of 24 days with a litter averaging two to three young. Pine voles can easily reach epidemic populations and are subject to the same cycles as the meadow vole.

Damage and Symptoms Meadow voles chew the bark and cambium of apple trees at several inches above and/or below the ground. Girdling and gnawing marks without additional symptoms do not necessarily indicate the presence of voles, since other animals, such as rabbits, may cause similar damage. Vole girdling can be differentiated from other

Figure 73. Meadow vole paths are in the groundcover, just animals by the non-uniform gnaw marks that occur at above the soil (www.volecontrol.com).

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various angles and in irregular patches. Generally, rab- understanding the rise and fall of vole populations and bit gnaw marks are larger and more uniform. Rabbits when those populations have reached epidemic levels. neatly clip bark with oblique, clean cuts. Two types of monitoring is recommended: observing tree damage trends, and monitoring the vole presence Damage from pine voles typically occurs underground. directly. Evidence of damage can be seen in entrance holes 1 ½ inches in diameter and small piles of earth near the tree Field monitoring is used to assess the vole damage trunks and along the edges of the tree roots (Figure 69). caused by voles to apple trees. This involves on-going Symptoms of root girdling in apple trees include yel- observation of trunk and root girdling damage. It is lowish leaf color and pinkish bark, which result from recommended to assess the orchard every four to six reduced nitrogen uptake due to damaged roots. months to create a consistent record of tree condition. Root girdling affects the fruiting capacity and overall vigor of orchard trees.12 Often by the time weak or unhealthy trees are identified, the damage to tree roots is extensive.

Monitoring Monitoring vole populations to understand what type of vole is present is important to determine effective management strategies. Monitoring is also critical for

Figure 74. Pine vole (www.volecontrol.com) Figure 75. Pine vole tunnel located under a landscape timber (www.volecontrol.com).

Characteristic/ Action Pine Vole (M. pinetorum) Meadow Vole (M. pennsylvanicus)

Physical Characteristics Very short tails, ¾” or less. Short Longer tails than pine voles, 1.5/1.8” in length. bodies, 4-5” long, beady eyes, and Bodies are larger than pine voles, 5-7” long, and small almost concealed ears. eyes are more prominent. Brown mixed with black Reddish-brown to chestnut-brown fur. fur. Food Source Roots, tubers, seeds, and bark. Grasses, seeds, grain, bark, and some insects.

Damage and Evidence in Girdled graft union and/or roots of Gnawing and girdling of bark and cambium at base Orchard trees. Spongy soil with subterranean of trees. Gnawed fruit. Above-ground runways in tunnels. grass or groundcover.

Table 10. Vole Characteristics (OCLP, 2006)

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The other monitoring approach involves conducting a population inventory. Since, vole populations fluctu- ate dramatically even within a small area, accurate monitoring should occur evenly throughout the target area and be repeated over time. Vole populations may be monitored by trapping the animals or by observing their response to strategically placed food. Apple slices can be left in meadow vole runways or pine vole en- trances and tunnels for twenty-four hours to determine where vole activity is highest.

Trapping to determine the types of voles present in a target area is an another monitoring method. There are a wide range of acceptable traps, but it is critical that the selected traps work both underground for pine Figure 76. Damage from meadow and pine voles (OCLP, 2006). voles and above ground for meadow voles. Place a trees, under the age of ten years old, within the bounds bait of peanut butter or a slice of apple to attract voles of the action threshold. Just before replanting, an ag- to the trap. This method is effective in determining gressive monitoring program should be undertaken. If the type of voles present and is recommended before there is a spike in the population, replanting should be control strategies are developed. postponed until the population wanes or appropriate control measures reduce vole numbers. While trapping is an effective method for determining the type of voles present, it is time consuming, labor intensive, and expensive. Assessing vole response to Management Practices food in the orchard can also be time consuming and Vole management will be most effective if the IPM potentially inaccurate. Monitoring for damage is the principle of combining control methods is employed. most reasonable option because it is less labor intensive A mixture of cultural, biological, and chemical controls and provides a good indication of vole populations. is suggested, including fencing, mowing, using Novole Vole monitoring should take place at least two times a rootstock, attracting vole predators, and as a last resort, year until trees are approximately ten years old or until applying rodenticides and repellents. they are large enough to be unappealing to voles. Since • Cultural Controls: voles prefer young tender bark, older and larger trees Multiple cultural controls are recommended for vole have tougher bark and are less prone to fatal reactions management including tree barriers, groundcover man- from vole damage. It is recommended that trees reach agement, and Novole rootstocks. a DBH of at least five inches before vole barriers are removed. Barriers: An effective method of preventing meadow vole dam-

Action Threshold age to orchard trees is the installation of hardware cloth Vole damage to the HOFU orchard has been the high- or wire mesh barriers around the trunks (Figure 70). est cause of tree mortality in the orchard in the last de- Hardware cloth of ¼ inch mesh should be installed cade. Because of this, it is critical to consider all young to prevent girdling. Installation should allow for five years

93 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

of tree growth and should extend six inches above anticipated snow levels. The guards should be removed when the tree DBH is five inches, or when the tree is approximately ten years old. The recommended technique is to circle the hardware cloth around the trunk several times, leaving it loose so it doesn’t bind as the trunk grows. Wire should be buried four to six inches below the ground surface if possible, without severing any existing tree roots. This will help to minimize impact by pine voles, which are generally subterranean.

Plastic tubing can also be placed around the trunks of young trees at planting time to protect them from vole damage (Figure 71). They should be expandable to prevent trunk girdling. Because they are visually intru- sive, this type of barrier should only be used if hardware cloth is ineffective or unavailable. Plastic tubes should be removed if they become tight around the tree or when the trunk reaches five inches in diameter, at approximately ten years of age.

Figure 77. Wire tree guards should be wrapped loosely around the If vole barriers such as these are used they will also trunk to prevent girdling (http://www.agnr.umd.edu/). provide protection against deer buck rub. Once the vole barriers are removed, recommendations for buck rub protection should be implemented. Wood mulches provide ideal habitat for voles, so the use of this material is not recommended. However, the Groundcover: use of synthetic products such as rubber or plastic mats The ideal habitat for voles is long grass and other herba- could be considered. It is recommended that such mate- ceous groundcovers, their primary source of food and rials be used on a trial basis and monitored before using cover. Mowing, mulching, and good sanitation are all throughout the orchard. techniques that can be used to disrupt vole habitat.

Weeds within a three to four foot radius from the trunk Repeated mowing of grass and ground cover to a height should be removed either by hand or sprayed with an of three to six inches, particularly underneath orchard approved herbicide. Contact the Northeast Regional trees, will expose voles to predators and reduce their IPM Coordinator for more information on recommend- food source. Suggested mowing strategies are discussed ed herbicides. in the Ground Cover section of this chapter.

Vole populations can also be affected by orchard sanita- An ongoing problem that has encouraged optimal vole tion. Organic matter, such as grass clippings, fallen habitat at HOFU is the use of deer exclosure systems apples, and leaves should be cleared from underneath around trees that make mowing difficult. The grass trees to discourage voles. This practice has benefits directly around the trees is able to grow long, providing for invertebrate pests and diseases as well. For more ideal habitat for voles.

94 Orchard Management Practices

sary because the Novole stock will not establish roots on it own. There are no incompatibilities for grafting historic varieties onto this rootstock.14

Bridge Grafting: Girdled trees can be saved by bridge grafting; a process of using a stem or shoot to join portions of the tree above and below the damage (Figure 72).15 This type of grafting is time consuming to complete and may not prove effective, as voles have been known to girdle the grafts themselves. Bridge grafting should be used as a last resort to protect the most important trees in the orchard.

Gravel: Installation of gravel can create an unfavorable environment for both pine voles and meadow voles. According to Penn State Fruit Tree Production Guide, a layer of crushed stone or gravel three to four inches deep, extending fifteen to eighteen inches from the trunk, may discourage voles from damaging roots and Figure 78. Plastic tube tree guards should only be used as a secondary girdling tree bark by making it difficult to create tunnels barrier (http://members.tripod.com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls. and paths. html) information, refer to the Invertebrate Pest and Disease This is a labor intensive control method due to instal- Control section. lation, replacement, and clean up. If the gravel goes untended, it infills with dirt and debris. Likewise, if Novole Roostock: the apple tree does not survive and must be replaced, The Novole rootstock was produced by Cornell Uni- the gravel is time intensive to remove. Because of these versity and the United States Department of Agricul- drawbacks, it is not recommended. ture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) in 1968. Novole rootstocks are distasteful to meadow and pine voles and trees with this rootstock often have • Bi o l o g i c a l Co n t r o l s reduced damage from voles during winter months. Voles have several natural predators, including short- Additionally, Novole rootstock is resistant to fire blight tailed shrews, coyotes, foxes, bobcats, owls, and snakes. and collar rot. According to the Penn State Fruit Tree Production Guide, voles make up 50% of a hawk’s diet. The Novole rootstock is used as an inter-stem graft, meaning that the vole resistant tree is first grafted onto Predators, like hawks, will not keep the orchard a seedling rootstock and grown for a couple of years vole free, but they can help keep populations within until the roots become established. After the tree has reasonable levels when combined with other man- established a root system and is two to three feet tall, agement strategies. Certain management techniques the desired fruit bearing variety is grafted onto the can encourage predator presence through habitat Novole rootstock. This three step process is neces-

95 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

modification, including adding hawk perches and owl houses. In order to be effective, design, placement, and density of the structures need to be taken into account.

Hawk perches allow hawks to perch at an elevated point during hunting (Figure 74). Perches are particu- Preparation of Scion Preparation of Stock Insertion of Scions Finished Bridge larly effective during winter and early spring months Figure 79. An example of bridge grafting, where the scion () is carefully inserted underneath the bark and directly adjacent to when groundcover is not profuse and voles are most the cambium tissue (http://www.ces.ncsu.edu/depts/hort/hil/ exposed. The perches should be at least fifteen to grafting.html). twenty feet high and oriented so that the sides point . east and west to provide optimum visibility during the peak hunting times of morning and dusk. One perch- ing pole every 200 feet provides the birds with enough perches for optimum hunting.16 The perches should be located on the periphery of the orchard, tucked into the edge of the woods to help screen them from view. See the Appendix for more examples of hawk perches.

Owl houses are another option for attracting vole predators to the HOFU orchard. Owls use these houses to nest in and to perch on. The design should include an interior space and an external perch, as seen in (Figure 75). They should be at least twelve feet high. In order to be most effective, there should be an owl house every five acres. However, not all owl houses that are installed will be inhabited , so installing extra Figure 80. Gravel leftover from a vole control method at the houses is suggested.17 It is recommended to place as Wick Farm Orchard, Morristown. The apple tree is dead and has many as four houses around the site. They should be been removed (OCLP, 2006). positioned away from human activity in a protected area. See Appendix for specifics on the design of owl nator for recommendations on the use of chemical houses. control for voles.

• Chemical Controls In the case of vole management, chemical controls are suggested during population spikes. If there is excessive damage in a given season, it is recommended that the population be controlled chemically. Before using chemical controls, the specific vole species should be identified so that the appropriate control method is used. Check with Northeast Regional IPM Coordi-

96 Orchard Management Practices

2 x2 x 18 inch Wood Block

3/4 inch Flange

8 ft. of 3/4 inch Galvanized Pipe

3/4 inch Coupler

10 ft. of 3/4 inch Galvanized Pipe

3 ft. by 6 inch Hole Filled with Concrete

Figure 81. A hawk or kestrel perch design (http://members.tripod.com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls.html).

Figure 82. An example of an owl house with shelter and perch (http://members.tripod.com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls.html).

97 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Activity Description Schedule Install and secure vole Vole barriers should be installed prior to August through April barriers and secured at times when food is scarce, in the fall, winter and spring.

Monitor damage to trees Look for girdled bark around the base of All year the tree. If any damage is noticed, make sure to implement management actions.

Set and monitor traps For monitoring vole populations and Every two months between and bait species diversity August and April.

Install mulch Install mulch directly after planting.

Chemical Controls The use of pesticides should only be used March through April, and as a secondary control measure if there are October through November extreme spikes in vole population and damage to trees is anticipated or observed.

Table 11. Vole management calendar (OCLP, 2006).

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Disease and Invertebrate Pest Control are all considered primary threats to the Wick Farm Orchard due to their ability to directly affect the vitality

Ov e r v i e w of the tree. This section outlines identification and management suggestions for the most prevalent and threatening Each pest is greatly affected by seasonal variations in pests and diseases to the orchard. The potential list of climate from year to year. Rainfall variation can ac- orchard pests and diseases is extensive so only selected centuate the need for specific pest management actions pests that are potential threats to the preservation of in- in the orchard. Periods of extreme moisture can bring dividual trees and the historic character of the orchard about infestations of many fungi like apple scab and are covered in this management plan. powdery mildew. In periods of drought, trees that are stressed due to lack of moisture are more susceptible to The management objective for disease and inverte- leaf damaging pests such as red mites and various aphid brate pest control is to maintain tree health and overall species.20 Monitoring for pests and diseases is critical orchard character. The production of high quality fruit for effective control. is important for the U-pick program, but extensive pesticide application has financial as well as health implica- Monitoring the orchard should follow a systematic tions for the site. protocol from year to year and provides an approach to monitoring the orchard for specific pest and disease Sound management techniques should be practiced threats. regularly to prevent pest problems. Cultural practices such as regular pruning, removal of fruit fall, record Or c h a r d Di s e a s e s keeping and disease monitoring all help to reduce the Fire blight (Erwinia amylovora) damage caused by pest and disease. Spray applications Fire blight is caused by the bacterium Erwinia amy- should only be used to treat diseases and pests that are lovora which is very destructive to apple trees and over potentially fatal or harmful to the trees. Prior to con- seventy-five other species of plants in the rose family. sidering the use of any pesticide or chemical control of pests, the Northeast Region IPM Program Coordinator • Damage and Symptoms should be contacted. The two main symptoms of fire blight are shoot blight and cankers on limbs. Fire blight begins with the Typical pests and diseases of apple trees are numer- infection of young, succulent growing tips. Leaves wilt ous and include insects, fungi, bacteria, and viruses rapidly, turn black, and remain attached (Figure 84). A which attack fruit, foliage, and woody parts of the tree. characteristic symptom of fire blight is the U-shaped Insects and disease that cause widespread defoliation bending of the terminal growth. Cankers, slightly have a negative impact on a tree’s ability to photosyn- sunken areas of various sizes surrounded by irregular thesize, inhibiting seasonal growth. Repeated defolia- cracks, occur on small to large limbs, trunks, and even tion can suppress a tree’s ability to stave off further roots. threats from other pests and diseases. Fire blight may occur any time during the season while Apple trees are susceptible to a variety of diseases, as the shoots are growing and when environmental condi- well. The most prevalent apple diseases in the Greater tions are favorable for the disease. Ideal weather condi- North Eastern United States are Apple Scab, Cedar tions for fire blight are slightly humid, warm weather. Apple Rust, Fire Blight, and Powdery Mildew.19 These

99 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

• Disease Cycle Fire blight bacteria overwinter in the margins of cankers on branches and trunks. Once the temperature reaches about 65°F, bacteria begin to multiply and appear on the outsides of the cankers in drops of clear to amber-colored droplets. The bacteria are spread to blossoms primarily by rain with some transmission by flies and ants. Blossom-to-blossom transmission is carried out mainly by bees and other insects that visit the flowers. Insects also transmit bacteria to growing shoots. If the temperature is 65°F or above and relative humidity is 60 percent or more, or there is rain, new infections can occur. At 75°F, blossom blight and shoot Figure 84. Typical shepherds crook dieback of fire blight (www. blight will be evident in four to five days. Bacterial agf.gov.bc.ca). discharge appears on the new infections soon after the symptoms appear, providing additional sources of bac- when bacteria enter late-opening blossoms or grow- teria for new infections. In early to midsummer, during ing tips of new shoots. Consistent monitoring of trees prolonged periods of muggy weather, blighted shoots and spurs, infected fruit, and new branch cankers all for fire blight is necessary to prevent the spread of may be covered with diseased discharge (Figure 85). this highly contagious and damaging bacterial disease. The bacteria usually enters the flowers through natural Monitor trees visually in every monitoring zone every openings, like stomates. Wounds are also potential two weeks from the green tip stage until petal fall. entry points to leaves, shoots, and fruit. Aphids, leafhoppers, lygus bugs, and other insects with piercing • Action Threshold mouthparts may transfer fire blight bacteria directly Fire blight is a serious threat to the orchard and should into susceptible tissues. Wounds fromspring time hail be managed as soon as it is noticed. The trees directly often lead to a severe outbreak of fire blight. Any fresh adjacent to the infected tree should also be visually wound can serve as an entry point. inspected and treated accordingly.

• Monitoring • Management Actions Monitoring for fire blight involves keeping track of the Fire blight most commonly occurs on young, succulent temperature for infectious periods and more critically, tissues. Maintenance practices that favor moderate monitoring trees for visual signs of infection. Moni- growth, such as low fertilization and limited pruning toring temperature just before and during bloom in are recommended. Sanitation is the most important early spring will help forecast potential outbreaks of measure for controlling fire blight once it has infected fire blight. Temperatures consistently at or above 65°F a tree. When the disease is noticed, prune out all in- during pink stage through petal fall are favored by the fected branches. Remove shoots eight to twelve inches disease. It is important to monitor the trees carefully below the last signs of interior browning. Disinfect for signs of fire blight if the temperature remains above pruning tools between each cut with alcohol or a 10% 65°F for over a week. bleach solution, as contaminated tools can spread the disease. The disease can also occur later in the growing season

100 Orchard Management Practices FIRE BLIGHT DISEASE CYCLE

Rain washes bacteria to natural openings at flower base; infection occurs

Insects

Bees transefer bacteria Insects are attracted to additional flowers; Flower cluster to ooze, transfer bacteria multiply on becomes blighted bacteria to flower stigma at temp. > 65*F stigmas

Insects, rain, wounds In spring, bacteria reactivate and multiply; cankers expand, ooze sticky droplets of bacteria Bacteria are Overwintering bacteria multiply, spread from move through wood to nearby blighted clusters Early shoots, causing them to blight to young growing Spring shoots; infection occurs through wounds

Bacteria overwinter Repeated infections of in cankers succulent shoots occur through wounds, as bacteria are spread by insects and rain Insects, rain Infections expand from succulant wounds shoots into supporting wood, causing cankers

Susceptible rootstock suckers become Bacteria from blighted shoots infected; infection move systematically within the expands and causes tree; cause blight of susceptible rootstock canker rootstock, killing the tree killing the tree

Figure 85. Fire blight disease cycle (www.apsnet.org).

During the winter, all blighted twigs, branches, and were severe outbreaks in the previous growing season. limbs with cankers should be pruned eight to twelve Applying a dilute Bordeaux spray with a horticultural inches below the last point of visible infection, and oil at silver tip stage can be an effective preventative removed off site. Any branches or limbs one inch measure to minimize outbreaks of fire blight. This spray or more in diameter with cankers should be pruned is not warranted if there are only occasional infections out. The shears should be dipped in alcohol or a 10% in the orchard. bleach solution between cuts. Antibiotic sprays are another alternative for proactive Once infection has occurred, there is no spray or other treatment of fire blight. Streptomycin applications can treatment, beyond quickly cutting out infected limbs. be made anytime after the first blossoms open when The most important control practice for fire blight daily temperatures are above 65°F or are expected during the summer months is to control sucking insects within twenty-four hours. When daily temperatures like aphids and leafhoppers to prevent further infec- average 65°F or higher during the pink stage through tions and spread of bacteria. petal fall, make at least two applications of a streptomycin formula. Repeat sprays at five to seven day intervals Chemical controls can be used as proactive measures through the late bloom stage. A minimum of two ap- against fire blight, but are only recommended if there plications is necessary to provide control. Streptomy-

101 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

cin formulations are much more effective when applied 6-week period. This period usually coincides with the during slow drying conditions, such as at night. When time that elapses from the 1/4 inch green stage until two average daily temperatures fail to reach 65°F during to three weeks after petal fall. pink through petal fall, delay the streptomycin application until temperatures rise. When the spores land on wet apple buds, leaves, or fruit, and if they remain wet for a few hours, they Apple Scab (Venturia inaequalis) germinate and grow into the apple tissue. The time Apple scab is a widespread fungal disease that can required for germination and penetration depends have serious effects on tree growth through repeated on temperature and the presence of a wet surface. At defoliation. The fungus is especially problematic in the 40°F, almost 48 hours of continuous wet weather is Mid-Atlantic region where spring weather is humid and required for infection, while at 65 to 75°F, only ten cool. The scab fungus can over-winter in bud scales on hours are required (Figure 85). After the fungus has trees and on fallen leaves and fruit on the orchard floor. penetrated, it continues to grow and enlarge beneath the cuticle. • Damage and Symptoms The first infections often occur on leaves surrounding flower buds. Dull, olive green areas visible on the underside of leaves are the first evidence of the disease (Figure 86). As the lesions become older, they assume a definite outline of olive green or brown circular spots (Figure 87). Leaves are susceptible to infection for about five days after they unfold in the pink stage. Severe early leaf infection can result in dwarfed, twisted leaves, which may drop prematurely in the season. Fruit may become infected at any time in its development. Typical fruit lesions are rough-surfaced, olive green spots up to ¾ inch in diameter. Heavily infected fruits are usually misshapen and may crack and drop prematurely. Figure 86. Apple scab and its various lesion occurrences (www. tfpg.cas.psu.edu).

• Disease Cycle The apple scab fungus (Venturia inaequalis) overwinters in infected leaves that have fallen to the ground.

Fruiting bodies are produced within the dead leaf tissue. As spring approaches these begin to mature and produce spores (ascospores) that are discharged into air currents and carried to developing apple buds. The fruiting bodies in the fallen leaves must be wet for the spores to discharge. The spores are not all discharged Figure 87. Evidence of apple scab on leaves (www.summit.osu. with the first spring rains, for they mature over a 4- to edu).

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After 8 to 18 days (development occurs most rapidly season. Removing mummified fruits hanging on trees at high temperatures) a visible scab lesion is produced. in the fall will also reduce the chance of the disease The spores, or conidia, are easily dislodged when the overwintering. lesions are wet. The spores are splashed around by rain and blown by wind to new leaf and fruit surfaces To control serious primary scab infections, fungicides within the tree. They germinate on wet surfaces, infect may be applied at regular intervals throughout the the tissue, and produce a new lesion. In this manner, growing season starting at the bud break-green tip several secondary infection cycles may occur in the stage through petal fall. Fungicide applications at this course of a growing season. time may also contribute to the control of other early season apple diseases including fire blight. Consult

• Monitoring with the Northeast Regional IPM Coordinator before The severity of apple scab infections will depend on applying fungicides. the duration and severity of cool, moist weather prior to the green tip stage. The peak outbreak of apple scab A cultural control used to prevent apple scab infections spores (ascospores) usually occurs around the pink is to plant disease resistant varieties. There are a few stage, depending on weather conditions. historic varieties with scab resistance including golden russet and malus pumila. If disease resistant variet- Monitor growing shoots on four or five trees in each ies are considered, standard, vole resistant rootstocks monitoring zone of the orchard and check for signs of should be used. early scab development during the green tip stage. If apple scab infection is noticed at this point, check the leaves again after they have fully unfolded by examin- ing leaves from each tree to determine the extent of the disease. Leaves should be observed on different sides and from different levels of the tree.

• Action Threshold If two thirds or more of the leaves surveyed from any one tree show signs of apple scab, or if over half of the trees in any monitoring zone are infected, action should be taken to control the outbreak.

• Management Actions Primary scab presence can be reduced by maintaining a sanitary orchard floor through removing infected leaves and fruit. When leaves and fruit are left over the winter, cool, wet spring conditions facilitate the growth and spreading of new spores.

If infected leaves or fruit are collected from the orchard floor before the onset of winter, the disease cycle can be broken and infection will be reduced the following

103 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Ascospores discharged into air during rainy periods from green tip until shortly after petal fall

Ascospores form within sacs (asci) during spring; first spores become mature about bud break (green tip)

Secondary spores (conidia) form on surface of infected tissues throughout spring and summer

Infected leaves Fungus forms fall to the ground fruiting bodies (pseudothecia) Additional fruit, during winter and young leaves early spring become infected

Fungus overwinters in infected leaves on the ground

Figure 88. Apple scab disease cycle (www.aspnet.org).

Black Rot (Botryosphaeria obtuse) few weeks, a secondary enlargement of the Black rot is a fungus that attacks the fruit, leaves, and leaf spots occur, indicating the “frog-eye” bark of apple trees. This fungus may occur in three stage of the fungal disease has set in. Small, forms: fruit rot, frogeye leaf spot, and limb canker. The pimple-like fruiting bodies of the fungus, damage from black rot results in the cankering of large called black pycnidia, may appear in the limbs and dieback of twigs and branches. centers. The most susceptible varieties to leaf spots in the orchard are the Stayman and

• Damage and Symptoms McIntosh. Leaves: Branches and Limbs: The first sign of black rot are small, purple Throughout the growing season, infections spots on the upper surfaces of may occur through wounds on the bark leaves in the early spring when leaves are and branches. Weakened fruit spurs or twigs, emerging. The spots appear as small, particularly those injured by fire blight, purple specs on the upper surface of the leaf pruning wounds, winter injuries, and sunscald that eventually enlarge into circular lesions are commonly infected by the black rot fungus. 1/8-1/4 inch in diameter (Figure 89). After a Canker formations are usually associated with

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bark wounds and are a source of maturity. Fruit rot usually appears at the innoculums which can then infect leaves, calyx (upper) end of the fruit. It can originate fruit, and branches. Infected areas on in any wound that penetrates the epidermis, branches and limbs are reddish brown and are including insect injuries. The infected area slightly sunken below the level of becomes brown or black. As the rotted area surrounding healthy bark (Figure 90). increases, often a series of concentric bands These cankers may expand each year and form, darker bands of reddish-brown to black can eventually reach several feet in length if alternating with brown bands. Eventually, the left untreated. The margins of older apple completely decays, dries, and shrivels. cankers are slightly raised, and the bark within Spores of the black rot fungus appear on the their centers usually turns light-colored and surface of rotted tissue (Figure 91). flaky (Figures 88 and 89).

• Disease Cycle Fruit: Black rot fungus overwinters in fruiting bodies (py- Initial fruit infections occur during the bloom cnidia and perithecia) on dead bark, dead twigs, and period but are not usually apparent until mid mummified fruit. It can invade almost any dead, woody summer when the apple approaches tissue and is frequently found in tissue killed by fire blight.

In the spring, black pycnidia and perithecia release conidia and ascospores, respectively. Conidia may continue to be produced during wet periods throughout the summer and may remain viable for long periods. When wet, the pycnidium produces a gelatinous coil containing thousands of spores. Disseminated by splashing rains, wind, and insects these spores can infect leaves, the calyxes of blossoms, tiny fruit, and Figure 89. Black Rot in the frog-eye leaf spot stage (J. W. Travis- wounds in twigs and limbs. Leaf infection develops www.caf.wvu.edu).

Figure 90. Limb cankers are observed as a superficial roughening Figure 91. Lesions resulting in canker formation usually are of the bark (photo courtesy of J. W. Travis-www.caf.wvu.edu). associated with a wound in the bark (A. R. Biggs-www.caf.wvu. edu).

105 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Figure 93. Apple black rot (Botryosphaeria obtuse) shown in its Figure 92. Serious infestations and later stages of the limb various forms: fruit rot and leaf spots (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu). canker can kill the bark to the wood eventually girdling the tree (J. W. Travis-www.caf.wvu.edu).

Botryosphaeria obtusa (Schwein.) Shoemaker

old fire blight strikes are often colonized by B. obtusa 20-26 X 9-12 mm

frogeye leafspot symptoms conidia are produced in infections on more pycnidia mature fruit may young infected thoughout the produce lesions fruits produce growing season with concentric apple mummies rings of black pycnidia cankers often develop around pruning wounds

pseudothecia form on cankers over a year old ascospores 25-33 X 7-12 mm

Figure 94. Black rot disease cycle (www.tfpg.cis.psu.edu)

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during petal fall, at which time conidia attach, germi- fruit, or wood of the twenty-five to thirty monitored nate in a film of moisture within five to six hours, and trees. If cultural controls are not effective and a tree penetrate through stomata or wounds. Infections of dies from black rot, chemical controls may be imple- fruit and wood may not become visible for several mented. weeks. • Management Actions Pruning infected limbs and removing infected leaves Initial fruit infections occur during the bloom period and fruit are the primary recommendations for manag- but are not usually apparent until midsummer as the ing black rot. Any damage from the presence of black fruit approaches maturity (Figure 94). Throughout rot cankers, leaf spots, or fruit rot should be removed the growing season, infections occur through wounds. during each pruning session, two to four times a year. Harvest injuries may become infected and the fruit may decay during or after storage, especially if the fruit Prune branches with cankers at least fifteen inches was harvested during a wet period. Dead fruit spurs below the basal end of the infected branch. Sanitize or twigs, particularly those killed by fire blight, pruning pruning tools between cuts with alcohol solution or a wounds, winter injuries, and sun scald, are commonly 10% bleach to water solution to prevent the spread of invaded by the black rot fungus. the fungus to other parts of the tree.

• Monitoring Any dieback from infections of fire blight, structural Sample twenty-five to thirty fruit and leaves on differ- damage from deer browse, or wind damage should ent trees sometime between fruit set and fruit maturity be removed regularly by pruning. Proper disposal of to monitor for frog-eye leaf spots caused by the black pruning debris by burning or removal from the site will rot fungus. Select these samples from three trees in help minimize further infections. each monitoring zone. Check each tree for cankers on the trunk or branches. Record heavily infected trees It is recommended to focus on cultural practices to or trees with an abundance of dead wood, damage to control outbreaks of black rot in the orchard. How- bark, and cankers so they can be scheduled for pruning ever, fungicides should be considered in cases of severe during the dormant period. infection. If sprays are used, the timing of chemical • Action Threshold treatments is especially important. The application The action threshold for black rot is reached when of fungicides on trees with severe presence of black symptoms are noticed on any of the sample leaves, rot from the silver tip stage through harvest will be the

Narrow, distorted leaf

White leaf surface

Figure 95. Typical damage from powdery mildew (Podoshaera Figure 96. Evidence of powdery mildew (www.orchard.uvm.edu). leucotricha) (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu).

107 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Germinating spore, germ tube, and haustoria

Ascospores Conidia

Ascus

Cleistothecium

Section through leaf

Figure 97. Powdery mildew disease cycle (www.apsnet.org). most effective in controlling the disease. • Disease Cycle Powdery mildew fungus overwinters as mycelium (fun- Powdery Mildew (Podosphaera leucotricha) gus threads) inside infected buds. As these buds open Powdery mildew is caused by a fungus that attacks all in spring, all of their parts become covered with a pow- vegetative parts of the tree. It affects photosynthetic dery coating of spores. The spores, easily windblown, leaf functions and reduces shoot growth and fruit set. infect new leaves, fruit, and shoots. Fruit infection takes place during and shortly after the blossom period.

• Damage and Symptoms Leaf and shoot infection may continue as long as shoot In early spring, leaves and blossoms infected with growth continues. Buds can become infected as they powdery mildew become covered with a light col- begin to form until they are matured for overwintering. ored powder, which are the spores of the powdery Infections occur at temperatures of 65 to 80°F when mildew fungus. Eventually, the infected leaves will relative humidity is high (Figure 97). curl upwards and quickly become fully covered with a powdery coating. If the disease remains untreated, the Spraying should begin at the tight cluster bud stage, leaves and shoots will turn brown leading to prema- when the disease is potentially the most severe. Spray- ture defoliation during the season (Figure 95 and 96). ing should occur in the spring after it rains for several Photosynthetic capacity is reduced and tree vigor and days and be repeated every five to seven days based on health suffer. Powdery mildew is primarily a foliar dis- rainfall, until petal drop. ease, but it can affect fruit if the infection is severe. It is important with protective-type fungicides, such as sulfur, to insure that new tissues on rapidly expanding

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young leaves and fruit are always covered with fungi- vigor, thin foliage, cracked and dying branches and cide during an infection period. Fungicide applications eventual mortality. Damage is often more extensive need to be continued until new shoots stop growing. during periods of drought.

Sterol inhibitor fungicides applied to control apple scab • Monitoring are also very effective in controlling powdery mildew. Each year between the pink stage and fruit set, inspect Contact the Northeast Regional IPM Coordinator for five trees in each monitoring zone. If there are signs of current pesticide control recommendations. San Jose Scale on any of the trees, management action should be initiated before the population becomes well Or c h a r d Pe s t s established. San Jose Scale (Quadraspidiotus perniciosus) The San José Scale is a sucking insect that can kill an Trees can be visually assessed for mature scale pres- apple tree in a few years if left untreated. There can be ence or monitored for crawlers by installing a tape and two or three infestations of San José Scale each growing petroleum jelly trap. Wrap branches under one inch in season. The scale over-winters as immature blackcaps, diameter with black electrician’s tape. Apply a thin film with adults maturing during the bloom period. of petroleum jelly over the middle section of the tape and check it often for crawlers trapped in the jelly. • Damage and Symptoms Crawlers, or what the insects are called during their Another way to monitor for scale is to examine twenty mobile period of the growing season, are lemon-col- pieces of fruit in each monitoring section at harvest ored and very small, about one-twenty-fifth of an inch time. If any of the fruit display signs of scale (Figure long. When crawlers settle on the tree, they secrete a 99), management action should be taken the following waxy substance that produces a grayish-yellow scale growing season. covering on the bark of the tree which darkens with age

(Figure 98). Evidence of infestation can also be seen in • Action Threshold fruit with reddish purple rings surrounding each scale. If San Jose Scale is noted on any tree, cultural and Damage from San Jose Scale can result in reduced biological control actions should be taken. If after one month of using cultural and/or biological controls

Figure 98. Damage from San Jose Scale as seen on a branch Figure 99. San Jose Scale on an apple (http://www.uky.edu/Ag/ (www.umass.edu). Entomology/entfacts/fruit/ef204.htm).

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the infestation has spread to adjacent trees or if any ment because it provides conditions unfavorable to the discoloration or defoliation of the tree canopy occurs, insect’s natural predators. chemical control actions should be implemented to prevent further damage. • Aphid Life Cycle Rosy Apple Aphid eggs are laid on the bark of apple • Management Actions trees, are oval in shape, and about 3/100 inch long. The first control action is to prune out infested branch- When first laid, they are a bright yellow that gradually es to reduce the population. If this does not curtail the changes to greenish yellow and within two weeks to spread of the scale, biological controls or pheromone shiny, jet black. The eggs hatch between the silver tip traps, should be placed in the trees. and 1/2-inch green stages. Upon hatching, the young seek out the opening buds of the apple, seeming to Utilize pheromone traps to catch adult males. The prefer the fruit buds. They feed on the outside of the traps should be hung in trees with known or suspected leaf bud and fruit bud clusters until the leaves begin over-wintering scale populations, or trees that display to unfold. Then they work their way down inside the signs of scale infestation. Follow the trap instructions clusters and begin sucking the sap from the stems and and replace traps regularly for effectiveness. newly formed fruits. Their feeding causes the leaves to curl, affording the aphids protection from insecticide If pheromone traps do not control the outbreak and applications and some natural enemies. the tree is under continued stress or adjacent trees show signs of an outbreak, a chemical control should The first young develop into “stem mothers” when be implemented. Using an oil plus insecticide spray at apple trees are coming into the pink phenological stage. the dormant or delayed dormant stage is one option. The production of young usually begins 2 or 3 days An insecticide can also be applied at the early petal fall after the last molting cycle and continues without inter- stage to control crawlers before they have a chance to ruption for over a month. A single female “stem moth- mate.21 Before spraying, consult with the Northeast er” produces an average of about 185 young. Typically, Regional IPM Coordinator current control for recommendations. Rosy Apple Aphid (Dysaphis plantaginea) The Rosy Apple Aphid has been a major pest to apple trees since the end of the nineteenth century. The body of this aphid has a waxy coating and usually a slight purplish or rosy tinge (Figure 100 and 101). As soon as they hatch, the young seek out opening buds of apples. Figure 100. Rosy Apple Aphid, left, and Green Apple Aphid, right (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu). They feed on the outside of the leaf bud and fruit bud clusters until the leaves begin to unfold.

• Damage and Symptoms A common symptom of aphid infestation is tightly curling leaves. This gives the aphids protection from insecticide applications and natural predators. They cause harm to the tree vigor by foliage loss and damage to the fruit. A cool, wet spring favors aphid develop- Figure 101. Rosy Apple Aphids, left (www.pbase.com) and Green Apple Aphids, right (www.inra.fr).

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the period of reproduction extends from about May 10 among the first trees selected for monitoring. Count to June 20. The maximum period of productive activity the number of fruit spurs showing curled leaves from often coincides with the period when young fruits are aphid infestations. beginning to set and grow actively. • Action Threshold Young aphids congregate closely around the “stem If more than ten aphid-infested clusters of leaves are mother.” In some cases, the congregations are made observed per tree it justifies a control treatment to up of more than one layer of aphids. This habit soon prevent tree or fruit injury. causes the death of the infested leaves and the con- sequent migration of the aphids. When several stem • Management Actions mothers congregate on a single leaf, forced migration Properly pruned trees can aid in creating less favor- soon follows. The young move actively to locate a suitable conditions for aphids and can help achieve better able feeding ground. It is at this period that they are pesticide coverage when needed. Biological controls, frequently found congregated on the forming fruits or like the release of beneficial insects, are another option attacking the new succulent unfolding foliage. for aphid control. There are several insects that are considered predators of aphids including; Aphid Midge A single “stem mother” located on the underside of a (Aphidoletes aphidimyza Cecidomyiidae), Ladybird leaf near the midrib will cause the leaf to fold almost as Beetles (Coccinellidae), Multicolored Asian Ladybird tightly as the outer wrappings of a cigar. The presence Beetle (Harmonia axyridis), Syrphid Flies, Woolly of only a few “stem mothers” can cause a severe curling Apple Aphid Parasitoid (Aphelinus mali), and Minute of all leaves surrounding an opening flower bud; within Pirate Bug (Orius insidiosus). The introduction of these such curls ideal protection is afforded to the rapidly insects or the careful management for retention of developing aphids. these insects can help prevent or curtail damage from aphids and keep their levels under pesticide applica- Nymphs of the second generation, all of which are tions. females, reach maturity in 2 to 3 weeks; the great majority begin to reproduce on the apple, although a few may develop wings and migrate to the weed plantain. The third generation is produced in June and early July. The majority of this generation develop wings and migrate Adult female Adult male to plantain. In some seasons wingless females of the Overwintering egg third generation produce a fourth generation on the apples. In the fall, the winged females fly back to the apple trees to lay eggs, from which males also develop. The males mate with the females, which then deposit eggs on the bark (Figure 102).

• Monitoring Starting around the early pink phenological stage, three to five trees should be selected from each of the nine monitoring zones. Varieties such as Golden Delicious Immature stages and Stayman are especially susceptible and should be Figure 102. Green aphid (www.ipm.ncsu.edu).

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Figure 103. Life cycle of winged and unwinged aphids, including Rosy Apple Aphids, Green Apple Aphids, and Wolly Apple Aphids (www.polyphenism.wordpress.com).

Rosy Apple Aphids migrate from apple trees to other and should be monitored, using the common name hosts in the winter, so late fall controls may not be ef- Green Aphid. fective on their populations. • Damage and Symptoms Chemical application is an option for aphid control. As with the Rosy Apple Aphid, nymphs and adults of Optimum timing for control of rosy apple aphid is at the Green Aphid suck plant sap from small fruit, leaves, the green tip to the half-inch green stage. Pyrethroid and the tips of shoots. The feeding habits cause leaf, insecticides are often used. If the green tip to half-inch bud, and flower distortions. Any fruit that forms will be green stage application was not made and the threshold misshapen and stunted. Heavy aphid infestations result is exceeded, an insecticide applied from the pink stage in a honeydew coating on the leaves, making the trees to petal fall is recommended. Consult with the North- prone to further disease and viral infection. east regional IPM coordinator for current control recommendations. Unlike the Rosy Apple Aphid, Green Aphids live on the apple tree year round. Young terminal shoots are Green Aphid (Aphis spiraecola) prone to infestations, especially in the late summer. Two species of aphid, the Green Aphid, and Apple Aphid should be managed similarly because of the • Life Cycle difficulty in distinguishing between them (Figure 103). Green Apple Aphid overwintering eggs are small, shiny, The Green Aphid has displaced the Apple Aphid, Aphis and black and are virtually indistinguishable from those pomi, in commercial orchards since the mid-1980s of other aphid species. “Stem mothers” are wingless because of their broader range and greater resistance females that are pear-shaped and bright green. Im- to insecticides. However, both the Green and Apple mature green aphids can readily be distinguished from Aphid are potentially damaging to the HOFU orchard immature rosy apple aphids by shorter antennae and

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less well-developed cornicles. In the summer, aphids ing zones. Determine the number of leaves that have vary from a yellow-green to a light green and have black Green Aphids. cornicles. • Action Threshold Eggs are laid on bark or on buds in the fall by the wing- If an average of more than four leaves per shoot are less female. They hatch at about the silver tip stage aphid infested, and less than twenty percent of the into “stem mothers” which give birth to a generation of aphid colonies have signs of predators, action should green aphids, about three-quarters of which develop be taken. Also if any trees appear to be stressed or in into winged females. The rest remain wingless. The jeopardy of dying from aphids, action should be taken winged forms spread the species to other parts of the immediately to control the outbreak. tree or other trees. About half of the second generation and some of the later generations may develop wings • Management Actions and migrate (Figure 103). Green Aphids should be managed in the same method as Rosy Apple Aphids. See Management Actions for Unlike the Rosy Apple Aphid, Green Apple Aphids may Rosy Apple Aphids for more information. live on the apple tree all year, breeding continuously during the summer. In August and during the autumn Woolly Apple Aphid (Eriosoma lanigerum) months, these aphids are found almost exclusively on The Woolly Apple Aphid is a common pest of apple watersprouts or terminal branches of young trees that trees. Its body is covered by a woolly mass of long are still growing. waxy fibers that gives the aphid a whitish, mealy appearance (Figure 104). • Monitoring

Over-wintering eggs from the Green Apple Aphid are • Damage and Symptoms virtually indistinguishable from the Rosy Apple Aphid Injury caused by the Woolly Apple Aphid consists of and share the same control methods. However, Green gall-like formations and swollen enlargements on roots. Aphids do not migrate to alternate hosts as Rosy Apple Once started, these galls increase in size from year to Aphids do and must be monitored and managed until year as a result of aphid feeding. Galls form favorable the terminal shoots harden. places for fungi to attack.

Beginning in early June or just before the early pink Aboveground colonies of aphids may develop around stage, select ten to twenty growing shoots, not water- leaf axils on sprouts or on new growth, particularly at sprouts, on three to five trees in each of the monitor- abrasions or cuts, and they prevent injured bark from healing. They are often found on the crowns of trees just above the roots. They may also develop in large knots on roots and underground parts of the trunk. Infested trees often have many short fibrous roots. The underground forms are more damaging, while the aboveground forms cause little damage, especially on larger trees. The foliage of infested trees takes on a yellowish appearance. Young trees are easily uprooted Figure 104. Woolly Apple Aphid, left (www.tfpg.cas.psu.edu) and typical presence of Wooly Apple Aphid on right (www.insectimages. when infested. org).

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• Life Cycle • Monitoring Woolly Apple Aphid bodies are nearly covered by a Monitor for Woolly Apple Aphids in early June, during woolly mass of long, waxy fibers that give them a whit- the early pink phenological stage. Drought years are ish, mealy appearance. especially troublesome for trees with aphid infestations due to the sucking action of the pests and their abil- The aphid overwinters in two stages: the egg stage ity to extract vital fluids needed to sustain tree health. and the immature nymphal stage. Nymphs hibernate Monitoring is especially important during these dry underground on the roots of the tree. When elms periods. Select three to five trees within each moni- trees were prevalent, eggs were usually laid in fall in the toring zone. It is important to examine a range of tree cracks or crevices of bark. Eggs hatched in the spring varieties as some varieties might be more prone to apple into wingless stem mothers. These fed on elm buds aphid infestations than others. and leaves for two generations during May and June, causing the elm leaves to curl into a rosette. They then • Action Threshold produced a winged third generation that migrated to If any trees in the monitoring zone appear stressed or in apple, hawthorn, or mountain ash. After establishing jeopardy of dying from signs of Woolly Apple Aphids, new colonies the migrants produced repeated genera- action should be taken immediately to control the out- tions during the summer that fed in wounds on the break. On each shoot, determine the number of leaves trunk and branches of the tree. that have wingless aphids. If there are more than five infested leaves and only a few natural predators, insecti- In the fall, winged aphids developed in both the aerial cides may need to be used. and the root colonies. They flew back to the elm, where they gave birth to wingless males and females. If any sign of natural predators is present, allow the op- A few days after mating, the female laid a single, long, portunity for them to take effect before using chemical oval, cinnamon-colored egg almost as large as her body. means to control the aphids. The egg was laid in the crevices of the bark.

• Management Actions With the near disappearance of elm trees, the Woolly Some apple varieties, such as Northern Spy, are resis- Apple Aphid now lives primarily on apple trees tant to this pest. Elm trees in the vicinity of orchards throughout the year. Each group of aphids, small or increase the migration of the aphid to apple trees. large, is termed a colony. Aphids are present year- Infested nursery stock is also a source for spreading round on the roots. Females in the aerial colonies may aphids. give birth in spring, summer, or fall (see Figure 103). The best control of Woolly Apple Aphid is a cultural one, Newborn nymphs are very important in the distribu- planting resistant rootstocks like M.106. The Malling tion of Woolly Apple Aphid. They spread by being transported on birds or other insects or directly by crawling. Crawlers are generally more abundant in spring and fall and begin to infest the roots early in the growing season. Infestations by aerial colonies are not a true indication of root infestations, since trees can have aerial infestations over a season without their Figure 105. European Red Mite drawing, left (www.tfpg.cas.psu. roots becoming infested. edu) and European Red Mite magnified, right (www.hort.wisc.edu).

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Merton series of rootstocks was bred specifically for from the eggs, molt to eight-legged protonymphs, then Woolly Apple Aphid resistance.22 As an alternate to the deutonymphs, and finally adults. Novole rootstock, standard rootstocks should be grafted to this type of rootstock in order to limit wooly aphid Overwintering eggs are laid in groups on roughened outbreaks in the HOFU orchard. These rootstocks bark, in crevices and cracks, and around bud scales on should be used for grafted tree varieties that display a twigs and branches. Eggs begin to hatch at prepink greater susceptibility to the Woolly Aphids. bud stages and continue until the tree has completed blooming. The use of chemical controls is also an option for Woolly Apple Aphids. Applications of pesticides such Young mites move to newly opened leaves where they as carbamates and pyrethroids may actually encourage feed, mature, and reproduce. The first generation outbreaks of aphids by killing beneficial predators and requires approximately three weeks to develop, yet the should be used sparingly. An application of a summer rate at which mites develop is primarily temperature insecticidal soap treatment can help control popula- dependent. Hot, dry weather favors development, tions of aboveground Woolly Apple Aphids. Consult while cool, wet weather delays mite activities. Each the Northeast Regional IPM Coordinator for current female is capable of laying 35 eggs during her average control recommendations. life span of 18 days. Eight to ten generations occur during the year. Red Mite (Panonychus ulmi)

The Red Mite was introduced from Europe in the early • Monitoring 1900s and emerged as a major pest in American apple In order to determine if the trees have a mite problem, orchards soon thereafter. Both males and females are visually scan all trees within each monitoring zone for eight-legged and bright red in color, but the males are signs of bronzed leaves. If leaf bronzing is observed, smaller and have pointed abdomens (Figure 105). scan random leaves with a 10x hand lens within each monitoring zone. Count the number of mite infested • Damage and Symptoms leaves, out of a total of twenty-five leaves for each Mites feeding on leaves cause injury to the tree by monitoring zone. Monitor susceptible varieties such as removing leaf tissue. The most serious injury occurs Delicious and Stayman more closely. for the following season. Moderate to heavily infested If red mites are a recurring problem in the orchard trees produce fewer and less vigorous fruit buds. Mites and the health and vitality of the trees are threatened, feeding on leaves also reduce the ability of leaves to the trees should be monitored for the presence of manufacture enough food for desirable sizing of fruit. over-wintering eggs in the dormant period up to the A characteristic brown foliage that, in severe cases, pre-pink stage. Use a hand lens to inspect the bases becomes bronze, results from heavy mite feeding. Left of twigs and spurs on three to five trees within each unchecked, mite populations can affect fruit color and monitoring zone in the orchard. Look for clusters of result in premature fruit drop. tiny (less than 1/50 inch), red spheres.

• Life Cycle • Action Threshold Overwintering Red Mite eggs are round, bright red, It is not important or recommended to eliminate entire and have a small stalk, approximately the length of the populations of the red mite. Small populations of red diameter of the egg, arising from the top. Summer eggs mites are tolerable and not a problem to the health and are pale and translucent. Six-legged nymphs hatch vitality of the trees in the orchard. If over wintering

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eggs are easily visible, especially to the unaided eye, • Damage and Symptoms and red mites impacted the health and vitality of trees Larvae pierce into the fruit and tunnel to the core, the season before, action should be taken. If five trees leaving holes in the fruit that are filled with reddish- from each monitoring zone show signs of mite activity, brown crumbly remains called frass (Figure 106). If left bronze leaves and related defoliation, orchard wide ac- untreated, they can cause significant harm to the fruit; tion should be taken. possibly infesting 20 to 90 percent of the fruit.

• Management Actions • Life Cycle Biological controls for red mites are recommended to As full-grown larvae, codling moths overwinter in a keep major outbreaks under action threshold levels. If thick, silken cocoon usually under loose scale of bark high populations of natural predators such as the Lady- and in soil around the base of trees. Larvae pupate bird Beetle (Stenouus) are present in the orchard, mites in their cocoons in early spring and emerge as adult may not be a threat to tree health. For effective biologi- moths in mid-March to early April. The moths are only cal control, avoid insecticides that are toxic to natural active a few hours before and after dusk and they only enemies. Green and Brown Lacewings (Chrysopidae and Haemorobiidae) and Minute Pirate Bug (Orius insidiosus) are two common predators of red mites that may be managed or introduced to control unacceptable levels of mites.

If red mite populations are threatening the health and vitality of the orchard trees and biological controls are not effective, a pre-bloom application of oil or a miti- cide-ovicide may be necessary. Contact the Northeast Regional IPM Coordinator for current mite control recommendations.

Codling Moth (Cydia pomonella)

Continue monitoring male captures in pheromone Figure 106. Frass left from coddling moth larvae tunneling their traps as discussed in the earlier growth cycle. The way to the core of the fruit, http://www.ncw.wsu.edu/treefruit/ codlingmoth.htm, 11/2007. degree-day table will determine the correct timing for insecticide treatment.

• Identification Codling moths appearance blends well with tree bark, making them difficult to detect. Adults grow to be about ½ to ¾ inch long with dappled gray wings that are held tent-like over their bodies. They can be differentiated from other moths by their copper-brown band on the tip of their wings. The larvae look like white to Figure 109. Codling moth life stages, http://tfpg.cas.psu.edu/281. htm. light pink worms with a dark brown head.

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mate when sunset temperatures are above sixty-two ral enemies to keep codling moth populations down degrees. After mating, the female deposits thirty to has limited effectiveness, because it is too expensive for seventy small, disc-shaped eggs individually on fruit, practical use. nuts, leaves, and spurs. The progeny hatch and are immediately in search of nuts or fruit. After development Cultural controls for treatment consists of removing is complete the larvae leave the fruit and drop from the the host trees to destroy codling moth reservoirs. Also trees in search of adequate pupation sites to continue remove props, picking bins, fruit piles from the or- the life cycle in the soil, on debris under the tree, or chard, and pruned branches from the orchard. Hand some crawl to crevices in the bark. Climate permitting, thinning to remove all infested fruit during each gen- there can be two, three, and sometimes four genera- eration, before worms leave the fruit, is effective, but tions of codling moth per year. too time consuming. Dropped fruit must be removed to reduce codling moth populations. • Monitoring Codling moth eggs are tiny and usually hidden. Use Mating disruption is the preferred tool because of past biofix dates to time monitoring applications. its low toxicity to people, natural enemies, and the Biofix is the first date that moths are found three con- environment, but it may need to be supplemented with secutive times and sunset temperatures have reached insecticide sprays, especially during the first few years. sixty-two degrees. Setting out hand-applied pheromone dispensers in an • Action Threshold aerosol canister are not recommended for they are very Codling moth has the greatest potential for significant short lived. If applied, they should be installed in the damage to orchards than any other apple pest. With upper third of the tree canopy. When placed upwind, proper timing they can be treated effectively. Action the dispensers should be spaced fifty to sixty feet apart, should be taken at the first observation of codling whereas, downwind placement is every one hundred to moth. Inspection is especially important when sunset one hundred thirty feet apart. Reapply the dispensers temperatures exceed sixty-two degrees. A range of according to the manufacturer’s guidelines. apple varieties should be examined as some varieties European Apple Sawfly(Hoplocampa testudinea Klug) might be more prone to infestation than others. The European apple sawfly is a small wasp-like insect accidentally introduced from Europe into North

• Management Actions America in the late 1930s. It was first noted infesting Parasitic Wasps (Trichogramma platneri) have been crabapples on Long Island, NY and Vancouver, B.C. used to reduce codling moth populations. Using natu- Today, it seen New Jersey, Vermont, New Hampshire, New York, Massachusetts, Connecticut, Rhode Island, southwestern Quebec, eastern Ontario, and limited in Egg the Pacific Northwest at the Vancouver Island. The in- Larvae sect is dispersed all over Europe, but is mostly common

Pupate in the north.

Adult The larvae feed on all apples and crabapple varieties but prefer early or long-blooming varieties with heavy Figure 107. Periods of peak activity in each of the life cycle stag- set fruit. In Europe, two generations per year are re- es, http://www.hortnet.co.nz/publications/hortfacts/hf401008. htm, 11/2007. corded, but in North America, merely one takes place.

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• Identification Adult European Sawfly are about six to eight mm long. The head, antenna and lower body are light orange- yellow; the upper body and eyes are shiny and dark brown. Females tend to be slightly larger than the males.

• Damage and Symptoms Larvae usually feed just below the skin of the fruit, later creating a very visible spiral path around the calyx end of the apple. After feeding the larva generally molts Figure 112. European Apple Sawfly Larvae, http://orchard.uvm. edu, 11/2007. and begins tunneling towards the core of the apple or an adjacent fruit. A trail of frass is usually left behind on the fruit and leaves giving them an unsightly appearance. A single sawfly can injure an entire cluster of fruit. The timing of insecticide application is crucial in protecting apple crops.

• Life Cycle The female sawfly lays her eggs in apple blossoms, often at the base of the stamen. When laying eggs, the female often leaves a brownish discoloration on the sepal or receptacle, which helps detect infestation. The egg is about .8 mm in length, oval, shiny, and colorless. Depending on the temperature, the eggs hatch within a Figure 113. Damage around the calix end of the apple by European Apple Sawfly larva, http://www.nysipm.cornell.edu, week or two. 11/2007.

The larvae are usually about 1.7 mm in length and are

Stage Timing Where to Look

Adult Late pink to fruit set On the blossom clusters during warm days

Egg Bloom to fruit set Oviposition scars visible on fruit sepals

Larva Petal fall to "June drop" In fruit

Pupa Midsummer to next spring In soil

Figure 111. European apple sawfly, http://www.nysipm.cornell. Figure 110. Guide to European Apple Sawfly Life Stages, http:// edu, 11/2007. www.nysipm.cornell.edu, 11/2007.

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light cream with a dark head and caudal (rear) shield. Sawflies are in the same family as bees, wasps, and ants, Codling moth often feed at the same time as the sawfly. so adversely, many useful insecticides will affect bees as The sawfly can be distinguished by looking at the well. Bees play a major role in apple crop pollination, prolegs on the abdomen. Prolegs are the fleshy, stump- so insecticide sprays should not be used during the like appendages that extend beneath the abdomen bloom period. This creates a problem with a diversity behind the three pairs of true legs. Sawfly larvae have of apple bloom times of different varieties. There are seven pairs of prolegs, and codling moth only have two options to deal with this problem; have multiple five. When full-grown the larvae leave the fruit, make sprays as each apple variety drops its petals; or the va- cocoons a few inches in the soil, in which they remain riety that loses its petals first is likely to have some fruit as pupae until the next spring. The cocoons are egg- injury until the insecticide is applied. shaped and usually 4 by 8 mm in size. Green Fruitworms Lithophane antennata (Walker) In the spring, the larva pupates and emerges as an adult fly or wasp between the late pink to fruit set apple Identification stages. Male are the first to come out, and as the season progresses both sexes can be seen flying erratically Adult green fruitworm are approximately two-thirds around the blossoming of apple trees. Adults feed on inch, and have grayish pink wings. Each are marked pollen and are most lively around midday, when the sun near the center with two purplish gray spots, which are is intense. The adult lifespan typically lasts about one to two weeks.

• Monitoring Set out sticky-coated, nonultraviolet- reflecting white rectanglar traps every three to five acres along the orchard periphery, during the pink stage, on the south sides of trees about five to six feet above ground level. This is used in determining adult populations. The number of adults captured will determine the necessity for treatment.

• Action Threshold Figure 114. Adult green fruitworm. Treatment thresholds are 5.5 flies per trap by petal fall if no prebloom insecticide have been applied or 4.7 flies per trap by petal fall with a prebloom insecticide. Ac- tion should be taken as soon as pollination is complete.

• Management Actions Because European Apple Sawflies is an introduced pest, many of the natural enemies remain behind in Europe. An application of an effective insectide as soon as pollination is complete at, petal fall, is the best control tactic for orchards with a history of sawfly. Figure 115. Mature larvae a grayish green body with several white stripes along the sides.

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bordered by a narrow, pale outline (Figure 114). Adults fly at night beginning around the green tip stage and ends by the pink stage. Eggs are white with a grayish tinge and have many ridges radiating from the center. Before hatching, the egg looks mottled. The larvae feed on a range of deciduous shade, forest, and fruit trees. Mature larvae have a grayish green body with several white stripes along the sides, and a brown head (Figure 115). Pupae are dark brown and about five-eighth inches long. These pests have only one generation each Figure 116. Damage from fruitworm. They tend to eat deep year. holes to the core of fruit.

Females lay their eggs on twigs and leaves when apples Monitoring are in half inch green stage. They normally leave one or two eggs at any given site, but are capable of laying sev- From pink stage to fruit development, examine twenty eral hundred eggs. Two to three weeks after petal fall, fruit clusters per tree on multiple trees throughout the they drop to the ground and burrow two to four inches orchard. Look for larvae or signs of fresh feeding on beneath the soil surface to pupate over the winter. leaves, flower buds, and fruit on different parts of the tree crown. Damage and Symptoms

Action Threshold Larvae are often found feeding on bud clusters or Treatment is recommended if evidence of larvae or leaves. Flower clusters are damaged during bloom and fresh feeding is seen. then the larvae move to developing fruit and leaves after petal fall. Most fruit damaged before or after petal Management Actions fall drop prematurely, although, buds that continue to Fruitworms were introduced from Europe, so there are harvest, exhibit fruit deformation. The fruitworms’ no known predators in the United States. It is recom- name derives from their tendency of eating deep holes mended to use pesticides to control infestations of this into the fruits of apple, peach pear, cherry and plum pest. Pesticides must be applied before bloom stage to trees (Figure 116). Larvae will generally feed on one to prevent injury. Contact the Northeast Regional IPM a dozen fruit.

Life Cycle Adult green fruitworms overwinter and lay their eggs in the spring during the silver and green tip stages. The eggs hatch when apple buds have reached the half-inch green bud stage. Young larvae feed on the unfolding leaves, and may or may not feed on fruit. The feeding will take place from fruit set until fruit maturity. About seventy percent of infested fruit will not survive.23 As larvae matures, they drop to the ground and pupate until the following spring.

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Coordinator for recommendations about the use of Visual examinations tend to be extremely time consum- pesticides. ing and give inconsistent results, since the temperature and time of day are precarious variables. It is recom- Plant Bug (Lygus lineolaris) mended to use a beating tray sampling system for moni- Identification toring. This may be done by using a framed white sheet Tarnished plant bugs are small; light brown with place on the ground under the tree, or with a hand held dappled spotted insects, about one fourth inch long. square yard canvas. With a rubber mallet or heavy stick The spots are usually white, yellow and black with a wrapped with rubber hose three to four times beat one clear yellow triangle with a black dot on the lower wing or two branches approximately one inch in diameter. as seen in (Figure 220). Young tarnished plant bugs are This can also be done by simply shaking the branch called nymphs. They are similar to the adults except abruptly. Immediately count the number of insects that they have wing pads. land on the canvas.

Damage and Symptoms Fruit should also be monitored by sampling fruit from The tarnished plant bug is among the most damag- various trees throughout the orchard. Old and fresh ing to fruit and vegetable crops of the true bugs and is plant bug feeding should be recorded. The detection of known to transmit plant diseases. These bugs use their fresh injury is critical, if plant bugs are feeding on the needle-like mouth to extract plant juices. They feed on fruit. terminal buds causing discoloration or distortion and reducing plant growth and fruit productivity. Leaves Action Threshold from damaged buds are often ragged and discolored. No more than one or two percent fruit injury should Flowers from damaged buds often fail to develop com- be tolerated at any one time. Treatment should be ap- pletely, the entire bud sometimes aborts prematurely. plied during times of adult activity, since it is the most damaging stage in orchards. Life Cycle Adults overwinter in dead weeds, leaf litter, under tree Management Actions bark, stones, rock piles, and stream and ditch banks. In Ground covers usually yield higher populations of tar- early spring, adults become active and feed on newly nished plant bug where flowering weeds are abundant. developing buds and shoots. Most damage occurs Good weed control, especially chickweeds, dandelion from mid-April to late June. and clovers, and mowing grass will aid in overall insect management. Do not mow from bloom to petal fall to Eggs are often deposited in leaf petioles or at the base prevent adults from flying into trees. of leaves. Seven to ten days later, yellowish-green nymphs hatch and begin feeding. The life cycle is com- There are several tarnished plant bug natural enemies, pleted in three to four weeks after the fifth nymphal including other true bugs, spiders, parasitic wasps, and stage. There are two to three generations annually. ladybird beetles. Biological controls will lower pest Generally, population peaks for adults occur in early populations, but tend to not be a complete control. July, early August, and early September. They should be used with another control method, or chemical treatment. Contact the Northeast Regional Monitoring IPM Coordinator for recommendations about the use Trees should be visually examined for tarnish plant of recommended pesticides. bug especially during the most critical time, petal fall.

121 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Fruittree Leafroller (Archips argyrospila) During the pruning season, inspect tree branches for egg masses. Inspect and monitor ten trees for Identification egg hatching in the orchards north and south of the The eggs of fruittree leafrollers are deposited in patches entrance driveway weekly. A small dark hole will ap- of sixty to one-hundred fifty eggs on small branches. pear in the hatched eggs. When selecting egg masses The eggs are dark-colored and placed close together to monitor, select only egg masses that do not have and covered with a heavy coating, and are hard to dis- any dark spots. From green tip to fruit maturity flower tinguish individual eggs. Leafroller larvae are approxi- buds, leaves, and fruit should be inspected on a weekly mately one millimeter long, light to dark green with a basis to monitor for young larvae. A pheromone-baited black head. The body is dappled with long, hairs along trap is commercially available to monitor fruittree its sides. Mature larvae grow to be fifteen to twenty- leafroller adults. five millimeter, with a head capsule of one-half to two millimeters. When disturbed, the larvae wriggle vigor- Action Threshold ously. Pupa are light brown and usually ten millime- While monitoring branches for egg masses, action ters long. Fruittrree leafroller moths are about twelve should be taken if fifty percent or more eggs hatch on millimeters long bell-shaped, with a gold, tan and white a single tree in one week. If signs of larvae are noted, pattern on the wings. Females are larger than males. action should be taken.

Damage and Symptoms Management Actions Young larvae crawl into bud clusters and feed on buds There are a number of biological control alternatives and bud stems, often destroying them before they available to control fruittree leafrollers. Tachnid flies open, weakening the fruit and forcing them to drop and ichneumonid wasps are its primary predator, along prematurely. Just before blossoms open, larvae crawl with lacewing and various beetles. Various birds occa- inside and web the petals together so they are unable to sionally feed on the larvae and pupae. Natural preda- bloom and be fertilized. Larvae will also feed on flower tors help keep fruittree leafroller populations low, but petals at petal fall and on newly set fruit. They burrow should be used in union with other controls. their way to the core often leaving an exposed cavity in Branches with eggs or larvae found on them can be the fruit (Figure 118). As the season progresses, larvae pruned as an alternative control. Pruning cuts should will feed on foliage causing some degree of defoliation. be made with a sharp, clean tool as close to the branch collar as possible. The essential tools for pruning fruit Life Cycle trees are hand shears, lopping shears, a pruning saw Fruittree leafroller overwinters as an egg on leaves and ladder. A pole pruner is also useful if trees are very and small twigs. The eggs hatch into tiny larvae in the tall. Proper pruning cuts are essential for minimizing spring from March to mid-May. Larvae feed on leaves, insect activity, and to facilitate wound closure. bud stems, flower bud clusters, and fruit for about A multitude of pesticides are available to control thirty days before pupating in a cocoon rolled in a leaf fruittree leafrollers. Fruit trees should be sprayed no or comparable shelter. The adult moth emerges about later than petal fall. Contact the Northeast Regional eleven days later to mate and lay eggs and then dies IPM Coordinator for recommendations about the use about a week later. They fly from May to June. Each of recommended pesticides. year, only one generation occurs.

Tent Caterpillar (Malacosoma americanum) Monitoring The eastern tent caterpillar is more a nuisance than

122 Orchard Management Practices

it is hazardous. Heavy infestations can cause serious Life Cycle defoliation, but eastern tent caterpillars rarely kill trees except those already damaged by disease or other In late spring or early summer, female moths deposit an stresses. These caterpillars get their name from the egg mass of 100 to 300 eggs encircling small twigs or on tent-like nests that they spin in the crotches of trees. tree trunks. The egg masses are present on trees during They are native to North America east of the Rockies. most of the summer, fall and winter. The adult moth These pests prefer black cherry trees, but will also in- uses a sticky, frothy adhesive to attach eggs to bark or fest other cherry trees as and other fruit trees including twigs. apples and assortment of shade trees. In early spring, around the time that plants leaf out,

Identification larvae hatch from eggs. Tent caterpillars feed on new Eastern tent caterpillars are black and hairy with a leaves of trees, and form small webs at the crotch of white band and a series of blue dots along the length small tree limbs within a few days of hatching. The of the body. Adult caterpillars are about 2 to 2 ½ inches web enlarges as the caterpillars grow serving as a refuge long. The moth is reddish with white bands on the for the larvae over night and rainy days. The webs are forewings. Females are usually twice the size of the easily recognizable as seen in (Figure 120). Larvae feed males with a wingspan of 2 ½ inches. on leaves in groups in the vicinity of the nest, so any defoliation is in concentrated areas. Eastern tent caterpillars lay their eggs around twigs in masses of 100 to 300 to increase survival rates through Larvae wander considerable distances from the web the winter. Eggs hatch in early spring when trees leaf to feed on other trees, shrubs and herbs, in late spring, out. Young caterpillars feed on the leaves and spin the before finding a place to pupate. Cocoons are formed characteristic ‘tent’ nest usually in the crotch of trees. in the web, generally under bark, under dead plant As the caterpillars keep feeding, the nest will grow material, or inside rolled leaves. The cocoons are larger as well. After about six weeks, the caterpillars made of silk and have a white or yellow crystalline pupate in silken cocoons that are visible on the tree, substance covering it. The crystalline substance can on the sides of buildings and on fences. In July, moths cause extreme skin irritation, so cocoons should not be emerge to mate lay eggs and then die. handled.

Damage and Symptoms Adult caterpillars are brown and yellow moths with In the larval stage, tent caterpillars will eat all of the two diagonal markings on the front wings (Figure 120). leaves on one branch before moving to the next. As They are drawn to bright lights and will swarm in copi- they grow, they divide into smaller groups and infest ous amounts at a time. Adults do not feed. They only several branches. A single tent may result in 20% defo- live a few days, during which they mate and lay eggs. liation of a small tree. Trees infested by several tents are There is only one generation of caterpillars per year. often totally defoliated. A single occurrence will rarely kill a tree; although, it does reduce growth and makes the tree more susceptible to other hazards such as Monitoring drought, freezing, or disease. A healthy tree which has been attacked will usually grow new leaves by midsum- Tent caterpillars should be monitored at different times mer. of the year. Inspect tree crotches for silky webs during the spring. Check for cocoons in the summer and in

123 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

the spring and fall search for egg masses (Figure 122). chalcids depress populations in some years. Orioles Look for egg masses encircling young twigs during win- have been known to eat entire infestations. At least ter pruning. 24 species of parasites are known to attack either the larva or caterpillars. Tent caterpillars are also subject Action Threshold to a virus called wilt. Natural enemies will reduce tent caterpillar populations over two or more years. During Tent caterpillar infestations rarely threaten the survival that time, the infested trees may suffer severe damage of trees unless several nest infestations are found on a that they may not recover from. Contact the Northeast single tree. Control is generally for aesthetic purposes. Regional IPM Coordinator for more information about The caterpillars feed leaves so the fruit is not harmed; natural predators. although, heavy infestations on a single tree, can harm a tree, and stunt its growth or fruit production. If tent When populations are high or hard to reach, chemical caterpillars are found they should be dealt with in the controls are recommended. Spray leaves within the winter, spring or summer. vicinity of the web masses in early morning or evening in the early spring to mid summer, because they do not Management Actions move far for food, they tend to congregate in the nests at night. Contact the Northeast Regional IPM Coordi- Many methods can be used to eliminate tent caterpil- nator for recommendations about the use of pesticides. lars. The easiest method is to use gloves to remove and dispose of web masses. Caterpillars can be killed by dropping them in soapy water. Do this in the evening when caterpillars are not active and resting in their tent. If there is a repugnance to touching the web mass, a stick or pole may suffice, or, prune and dispose of the branch with the tent. Some people burn the web- bing out of trees. This is not a recommended practice because of fire hazards and the possible damage to the trees.

During winter pruning, inspect tree twigs for eggs. If some are found, either prune the branch or twig and dispose of it immediately, or, a knife or straight edge can be used to scrape the egg masses off. Adult tent caterpillars are attracted to lights at night, and females may lay eggs on building surfaces near the lights. Use yellow light bulbs to reduce the impact. Yel- low lights are far less attractive to night-flying insects. This tactic is most effective during the adult flight period in July.

There are many natural enemies to tent caterpillars especially birds, ichneumonid wasps, braconids, and

124 Orchard Management Practices

Activity Description Schedule Monitor and treat for Keep track of the temperature for March through September fire blight infectious periods, and for visual signs of infection just before and during bloom in spring to forecast porential outbreaks. Fire blight is a serious threat and should be managed as soon as it is noticed. Monitor and treat for Monitor growing shoots on four of five Monitor: Mid-March through apple scab trees in each monitoring zone for signs of Mid-June, and September apple scab. If two thirds or more of the through October leaves surveyed from any tree show signs Treat: Mid-March through of apple scab, or over half of the trees in Mid June and monitoring zone are infected, action should be taken to control the oubreak. Monitor and treat for Check for "frog eye" leaf spots and canker Monitor: May through July, black rot on the trunk or branches. Record heavily and November through infected trees or trees with an abundance December of dead wood for pruning during dormant Treat: March through July period. Monitor and treat for Scan leaves on two or more trees from Mid-March through Mid-June powdery mildew each monitoring section with 10x hand lens for white to light gray powder. If signs of heavy powdery mildew infestation, action should be taken. Monitor and treat for Check limbs, foliage and fruit. If any of Monitor: May through July, scale the fruit display signs of scale, cultural and November through treatment action should be taken the December following growing season. If after a month Treat: March through July of using cultural/biological controls the infestation has spread to adjacent trees or any discoloration or defoliation of tree canopy occurs, chemical control should be implemented. Monitor and treat for In the dormant season, monitor for egg April through September aphids masses. In the growing season, monitor for for insect activity. activity. If more than ten aphid-infested September through April for clusters of leaves are observed per tree, egg masses. control treatment should be implemented immediately to prevent tree or fruit injury. Monitor and treat for In the dormant season, monitor for egg April through September mites masses. In the growing season, monitor for for insect activity. activity. If over wintering eggs are easily September through April visible especially to the unaided eye, and for egg masses. redmites have impacted the health and vitality of the trees, action should be taken. Monitor and treat for Use past biofix dates and monitor sunset Early Febuary through codling moth temperatures for below 62 degrees to time Mid-November applications. Use a combination of natural enemies and pesticide to keep codling moth populations down. Action should be taken at first observation of codling moth. Monitor and treat Around the late pink season set out monitoring Monitor: May through early June european apple sawfly traps, and if populations exceed action thresh- Treat: Late May through July old, use pesticides after petal fall. Rake and remove debris Very important task to prevent the spread Mid September through from the orchard floor of disease and insects, and it allows for Mid-November, January easy mowing. Do this several times through March, and Mid-June thoughout the season. through Mid-July

Monitor ripe fruit for This can be done while the mature fruit is September through infection or disease still on the tree or up to a week after it has Mid-November fallen off the tree.

Table 12. Orchard disease and pest management calendar (OCLP, 2006).

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Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

Glossary of Pruning Terms

Branch Collar: The distinctive area of a branch at its junction with the trunk or larger branch.

Dormant Pruning: The practice of pruning during a plant’s dormant season when no bud growth occurs and after risk of deep-freezes to avoid winter damage.

Fruiting Spurs: A type of shoot growth on certain apple trees, upon which fruiting buds are produced.

Latent Bud: A dormant bud hidden beneath the bark of branches older than one year, which only initiates growth after stimulation by pruning or injury.

Root Suckers: Shoots originating at the roots of a tree below the graft union which if left to grow will resemble the characteristics of the rootstock variety.

Scaffold Branches: Primary lateral branches of a tree that forms the canopy.

Terminal Bud: Actively growing bud at the terminal end of every branch. Eliminating this bud encourages active growth in lateral buds below it.

Watersprout: A vertical shoot on scaffold limbs or lateral branches.

Whip: A young fruit tree often with lateral branches or central leader pruned back to encourage new growth.

Whorl: Collection of three or more branches radiating around the trunk.

126 Orchard Management Practices

Endnotes

1 Lowenthal, Larry, Morristown National Historical Park Administrative History, draft 2005, p 84. 2 Coffey, Michael A. 1999, ‘White-tailed Deer in National Parks,’ Natural Systems Management Office, National Park Service. Taken from the National Park Service Natural Resource Fact Sheet. Web adress: http://www.nature.nps.gov/facts/fdeer2.htm. 3 Ibid. 4 Personal Communication with Robert Masson, 2006. 5 Tobin, M.E., and M.E. Richmond, “Vole Management in Fruit Orchards,” Biological report #5, U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service,1993. 6 Personal Communication with Robert Masson, 2006. 7 Horsfall, F. Jr., “Mouse Control in Virginia Orchards,” Virginia Agricultural Extension, Technical Bul- lentin Number 465, 1951. 8 Burt, W.H. “Mammals of the Great Lakes Region, University of Michigan Press, 1957. 9 Oliveras, D and M. Novak, “A comparison of paternal behaviour in the meadow vole (M. pennsylvanicus), the pine vole (M. pinetorum), and the prairie vole (M. orchrogaster),” Animal Behavior, 34:515- 526, 1986. 10 Tobin and Richmond, 1993. 11 Oliveras and Novak, 1986. 12 Tobin and Richmond, 1993. 13 Personal Communication with Robert Masson, 2006. 14 Personal Communication with Steve Cummins, inventor of Novole Rootstalk, 2006. 15 Atwood, G.G., “Grafting and Budding,” Department of Agriculture Bulleting 79, The Fruit Industry in New York State, Albany, NY, 1916; Silver, J., “Mouse Control in Field and Orchard,” U.S. Department of Agriculture, Farmers Bulletin 1397, 1924; Hatt, R.T., “The Biology of the Voles of New York,” Roosevelt Wildlife Bulletin, 1930. 16 http://cru.cahe.wsu.edu/CEPublications/eb1602/eb1602.html 17 http://members.tripod.com/~Tommy51/aboutbarnowls.html 18 Personal Communitcation with Robert Masson, 2006. MORR Park Files on IPM. 19 Personal Communication with Wayne Millington, NER IPM Coordinator 2006. 20 Personal Communication with Wayne Millington, 2006. 21 Pennsylvania Tree Fruit Production Guide (http://tfpg.cas.psu.edu/19.htm)

22 www.virtualorchard.net 23 http://www.canr.msu.edu/vanburen/ffworms.htm

127 Orchard Management Plan for Hopewell Furnace National Historic Site

128 Bi b l i o g r a p h y

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books and Published Reports

Bailey, L.H. The Principles of Fruit-Growing. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1915.

Beach, S.A. The Apples of New York. 2 vol. Albany: J.B. Lyon Company, Printers, 1905.

Browning, Frank. Apples: The Story of the Fruit of Temptation. New York: North Point Press, 1998.

Carman, Harry J. Jesse Buel, Agricultural Reformer, Selections from His Writings. New York: Columbia University Press, 1947.

Cobbett, William. The American Gardener: or a Treatise on the Situation, Soil, Fencing and Laying-out of Gardens, on the Making and Managing of

Hotbeds and Greenhouses, and on the Propagation and Cultivation of the Several Sorts of Vegetables, Herbs, Fruits and Flowers. London: C. Clem- ent, 1821.

Coffin, Margaret, and Regina Bellavia. Guide to Developing a Preservation Maintenance Plan. Boston: Olmsted Center for Landscape Preservation,

National Park Service, U.S. Department of the Interior, 1998.

Cole, S.W. The American Fruit Book. New York: C.M. Saxton, Barker and Company, 1860.

Coxe, William. A View of the Cultivation of Fruit Trees in the United States and the Management of Orchards and Cider. Philadelphia: M. Carey and

Son, 1817.

Day, Clarence A. History of Maine Agriculture 1604-1860. Orono, Maine: University of Maine Press, 1954.

Deane, Samuel. The New England Farmer. Worcester, Massachusetts: Isaiah Thomas and Company, 1790.

Downing, Andrew Jackson. The Fruits and Fruit Trees of America. New York: Wiley and Putnam, 1845.

_____. Victorian Cottage Residences.1873. Reprint, with a preface by Adolf Placzek, New York: Dover Publications, 1981.

Forsyth, William. A Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit Trees, in which a New Method of Pruning and Training is Fully Described.

New York: Ezra Sargent and Company, 1802.

Hatch, Peter. The Fruits and Fruit Trees of Monticello. Charlottesville and London: University of Virginia Press, 1998.

Hedrick, Ulysses P. A History of Horticulture in America to 1860. Oxford University Press, 1950. Reprint by Timber Press, Portland, Oregon, 1988.

Hitt, Thomas. A Treatise of Fruit Trees. London, 1757.

129 Or c h a r d m a n a g e m e n t Pl a n Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l h i s t o r i c Si t e

Kendrick, William. The New American Orchardist, or an Account of the Most Valuable Varieties of Fruit, Adapted to Cultivation in the Climate of the United States, from the Latitude of 250 to 540, with their Uses, Modes of Culture, &c. also a Brief Description of the Most Ornamental Forest

Trees, Shrubs, Flowers, &c. Boston: Otis, Broaders and Company, 1833.

McMahon, Bernard. The American Gardener’s Calendar. Philadelphia, 1806.

Otto, Stella. The Backyard Orchardist. Maple City, MI: OttoGraphics, 1993

Page, Robert, Cathy Gilbert and Susan Dolan. A Guide to Cultural Landscape Reports: Contents, Process, and Techniques. Washington DC: U.S.

Department of the Interior, 1988.

Phillips, Michael. The Apple Grower: A Guide for the Organic Orchardist. White River Junction, Vermont: Cheslea Green Publishing Company,

1998.

Sanders, Rosanne. The Apple Book. New York: Philosophical Library, 1988.

Schmidt, Hubert G. Agriculture in New Jersey: A Three Hundred-Year History. New Brunswick, New Jersey: Rutgers University Press, 1973.

Waugh, F.A. The American Apple Orchard: A Sketch of the Practice of Apple Growing in North America at the Beginning of the Twentieth Century.

New York: Orange Judd Company, 1908.

Whealy, Kent, and Steven Demuth, ed., Joanne Thuente and Arllys Adelmann, comp. Fruit, Berry and Nut Inventory. 2nd ed. Decorah, Iowa: Seed

Saver Publications, 1993.

Wyman, Donald. Wyman’s Gardening Encyclopedia. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1986.

Articles

Bramlage, William J. “On the Origin of the Edible Apple.” Fruit Notes 66 (2001): 1.

Larson, Chiles T.A. “Albemarle Pippins’…eaten and praised by Royal lips.’” Colonial Williamsburg, (autumn, 1998): 29.

Larson, Paul. “The International Dwarf Fruit Tree Association, Its Legacy and Future.” Compact Fruit Tree 14 (March 1981): 4-10.

“Extracts from the Letter-Books of Lieutenant Enos Reeves, of the Pennsylvania Line.” Pennsylvania Magazine of History and Biography 20 Letter

148.

Unknown author. “Fruit.” American Farmer 2 (1829): 5.

unpublished Reports and Technical Bulletins

130 Bi b l i o g r a p h y

Baker, Andrew. “Fruit Culture of the Early 19th Century.” Old Sturbridge Village Library and Archives, Sturbridge, Massachusetts, 1989.

Burford, Thomas. “Apples: A Catalogue of International Varieties.” Monroe, Virginia: Burford Brothers, 1998.

Dolan, Susan. “A Fruitful Legacy: The Historic Context of Fruit Trees and Orchards in the National Park System.” Draft, Boston and Seattle: Olm- sted Center for Landscape Preservation, Columbia Cascades Support Office, National Center for Cultural Resources Stewardship and Partnerships,

2001.

Ehrenfeld, Joan. “Vegetation of the Morristown National Historical Park: Ecological Analysis and Management Implications.” National Park Service

Cooperative Research Unit, Center for Coastal and Environmental Studies, Rutgers University, 1997.

Fraser, Hugh et al. “Nuts and Bolts of Dwarf Fruit Tree Support Systems.” Paper presented at the 42nd annual International Dwarf Fruit Tree As- sociation meeting, Hamilton, Ontario, February 20-24, 1999.

Lord, William J. and James Anerson. “Pruning Fruit Trees in the Home Orchard,” (University of Massachusetts Cooperative Extension System,

Department of Plant and Soil Sciences, and United States Department of Agriculture).

Mulholland, Mitchell, et al. “Integrated Cultural Resource Report Morristown National Historical Park.” Draft. Amherst: University of Massachu- setts Archaeological Services, Dennis Bertland Associates, National Park Service Boston Support Office, and the Olmsted Center for Landscape

Preservation, 2001.

Russel, Kirk. “Pruning in 19th-Century New England.” Old Sturbridge Village Library and Archives, 1990.

Miscellaneous Documents

Fraser, Hugh, et al. “Nuts and Bolts of Dwarf Fruit Tree Support Systems.” Paper presented at the 42nd annual International Dwarf Fruit Tree As- sociation Conference, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada, February, 1999.

Preston, Samuel. “A History of Desirable Apple Trees, The ‘Townsend’ Apple and Another.” American Farmer (1828). Reprinted in the Cincin- nati Weekly Gazette 1886. Library of Congress, American Memory, An American Time Capsule: Three Centuries of Broadsides and Other Printed

Ephemera Collection.

Web-Sites

Green Mountain Cidery Incorporated Homepage: http://www.woodchuck.com/history/html

Library of Congress American Memory Collection Homepage: http://rs6.loc.gov/ammem/amhome.html

131 Or c h a r d m a n a g e m e n t Pl a n Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l h i s t o r i c Si t e

Long Island History.com: http://www.lihistory.com/3/hs329a.html

Microsoft Encarta, 2001. http://www.encarta.msn.com

National Park Service: http://www.nps.gov/refdesk/DOrders

Gaygardener Homepage http://www.gaygardener.com/history/penn.html

United States Apple Association Homepage http://www.usapple.org

Libraries and Repositories

American Memory Collection, Library of Congress. Washington, D.C.

Tower Hill Botanical Garden Library. Boylston, Massachusetts.

132 Ap p e n d i c e s

APPENDIX A: NPS RESOURCE MANAGEMENT WITH AGRI- NPS policy recommends that management of complex eco- CULTURAL GUIDELINES systems be facilitated by the creation of distinct park Manage- ment Zones with distinct priorities. The CLR includes the

The HOFU orchard is a biotic cultural resource, possessing HOFU orchard within a park management zone. However, both cultural and natural values, including agricultural values. as the park has yet to complete a GMP these zones may be Management of such biotic cultural resources presents cer- eventually redefined. In addition, the orchard is a significant tain challenges. NPS guidelines for management of cultural contributing feature to the cultural landscape. This presents and natural resources are defined separately in separate direc- distinct management issues. An orchard can be managed tives (DO# 28 and DO# 77). Although priorities for manage- primarily as an agricultural or natural resource or it can be ment of these distinct resources are defined through careful managed as an historic or cultural resource. In the case of consideration, these priorities sometimes conflict. manage- the HOFU orchard, integration of these two management ment of the orchard must include balancing these various philosophies is useful. natural and cultural resource priorities. The following overview is provided as a reference for NPS resource management Guidelines for Agricultural Uses: NPS natural resource policy as it relates to the management of historic orchards. guidelines include guidelines for agricultural activities. These guidelines are briefly reviewed here in relation to the HOFU

NPS Resource Management orchard. DO# 77 guidelines stipulate that agricultural activities may occur in cultural zones if they conform to practices

Cultural Resource Management: NPS policy concerning occurring within the significant historic period of the site, cultural resource management is laid out in the Director’s thus contributing to the historic scene. In addition, agricul- Order #28. This document contains management guidelines tural activities must not undermine other park values and for archeological resources, cultural landscapes, historic and objectives. Critical agricultural topics related to management prehistoric structures, museum objects and ethnographic of the HOFU orchard include the following: resources. • Pest Management

The HOFU orchard fits into this policy as a feature of a significant cultural landscape. Most of the individual apple trees NPS management policy requires the implementation of IPM in the orchard date to plantings within the past one hundred practices for monitoring of pest problems and determining years and lack integrity to the primary period of significance, the necessity for use of particular mechanical, physical, chem- as defined in DO #28. However, as the nineteenth-century ical, and cultural or biological controls. Pest management orchard is known to have existed in the area of the current and IPM recommendations specific to the HOFU orchard are orchard, it is therefore representative of the actual historical more thoroughly described in the IPM and pest management scene. In addition, various characteristics of the orchard such section of this report. as pruning, tree spacing, and historic apple varieties contained therein represent historic trends. • Historic Character

Natural Resource Management: NPS policy concerning NPS guidelines define the historic character of an agricultural natural resource management is covered in the Director’s Or- area to include details such as crop height, vegetation pattern, der #77. This document contains guidelines for management field size, stone walls, etc. In the HOFU orchard, historic of numerous complex ecosystems including the management character considerations include tree spacing, tree height of agricultural lands and IPM programs, specifically useful in and trunk length, turf or other cover-crop management and this discussion. fencing. Specific recommendations are more thoroughly

133 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

described in the Feature Information and Pruning sections of sections of this report. this report.

• Conservation Practices • Historic Methods

NPS guidelines require that parks consider soil erosion, NPS guidelines recommend that upon implementation or ground and surface water runoff, and the spread of exotic restoration of an agricultural species in relation to agricultural landscapes. The park should consider soil improvement activities such as crop rotation, area, historic methods of production or simulation of such grazing and fertilization as well as detrimental effects of methods be considered. Examples of historic methods pos- pesticides and fertilizers. In the HOFU orchard this guideline sible at the HOFU orchard include pruning of orchard trees pertains to species introduced in the future as groundcover. in a particular style; allowing livestock grazing in the orchard Invasive or exotic species should be avoided. as a method of fertilizing and maintaining groundcover; and the cultivation of certain cover crops typical of a particular • Harvesting and Disposal historic period. Specific recommendations are more thoroughly described in the Feature Information and Pruning NPS guidelines suggest consideration of harvesting and sections of this report. disposal issues in relation to agricultural uses. Currently harvesting is accomplished by a public U-pick operation • Wildlife Impacts and by a large deer population contributing to the elimina- tion of drops. However, if management in the future should

Since orchard management may interfere with the existence substantially change, orchard drops should be collected, if left of beneficial insects such as bees and butterflies NPS guide- uneaten by deer, as ignored drops attract bees and promote lines suggest that such insects be monitored, and interference insect and disease problems. Possibilities for eliminating limited. Human traffic and other activities may also affect bird drops include composting or sale or donation of drops to lo- habitats and should be monitored. In the HOFU orchard, cal farmers for animal feed. the current spray program and mowing regime may interfere somewhat with such populations. Orchard maintenance • Hazards practices should not interfere with nesting. For instance, mowing times may be altered to avoid nesting times. NPS guidelines require consideration of hazards in relation to agricultural uses. Possible hazards in the HOFU orchard • Crop Selection include public picking accidents and bee-stings as well as deer related hazards such as car accidents and contamination of

NPS guidelines suggest that the value of specific cultivated drops from deer droppings. varieties should be considered, and historic varieties retained. Possible crop selections for the HOFU orchard include • Fertilizers white clover, specifically known to have existed in the HOFU orchard or other appropriate vegetable crops, and appropriate NPS guidelines suggest that modern fertilizer use be lim- historic apple varieties including, but not limited to, historic ited when unnecessary in preserving the historic scene. In cider apples available from nurseries. Specific recommenda- the HOFU orchard occasional fertilizer application may be tions are more thoroughly described in the Recommended necessary to maintain the health of young trees. In such cases Maintenance Alternative, Feature Information, and Pruning organic fertilizers should be used in the orchard.

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APPENDIX B: CALCULATING DEGREE DAYS Calculate the Average Daily Temperature:

Maximum Temp + Minimum Temp

Degree Days 2

Calculations that predict seasonal insect and plant development based on measurements of ambient temperature. Degree-days are thermal Base Temperature = 40 degrees F units or accumulated degrees above a particular temperature, the Degree Days Fahrenheit = Average Temperature - Base Temperature base temperature, for each day. If the temperature goes up one degree (40 degrees F) above base temperature during one day, the accumulated degree-days Degree Days Celsius = Average Temperature - Base Temperature (5 will be one. degrees C)

Conversions:

Although the Orchard Maintenance Calendar provides a general DDC x 1.8 = DDF prediction for stages of growth, this varies from year to year. Keeping DDF x .55 = DDC track of degree-days will help you predict plant growth stages, when certain insects will emerge and keep you in tune with the ecology Based on this information the following growth stages and insect of the orchard. Keep track of degree-days and write them into your emergence times can be calculated. Use this chart in reference to your calendar. The chart below provides calculations for emergence of own calculations of accumulated degree-days. This chart uses Fahren- various pests. heit. Use the conversion formulas for Celsius calculations.

Activity will occur # of DDF above 40 F Activity will occur # of DDF above 40 F

Green Tip 120 DDF E. Apple Sawfly 430 DDF

Red Banded Leafroller 120 DDF Petal Fall 540 DDF

1/2" Green 150 DDF Adult Codling Moth 540 DDF

Gypsy Moth 150 DDF 1st Moth Eggs Hatch 250 DDF

Tight Cluster 225 DDF 2nd Moth Eggs Hatch 540 DDF

Pink 300 DDF Fruit Set 630 DDF

Plum Curculio 300 DDF Buffalo Treehopper 630 DDF

Bloom 430 DDF Apple Maggot 1170 DDF

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APPENDIX C: NPS IPM GUIDELINES

NPS management policy requires the implementation of Integrated

Pest Management (IPM) practices for monitoring of pest problems and determining the necessity for use of particular mechanical, physical, chemical, and cultural or biological controls.

General IPM procedures include identification of a pest problem, monitoring and regular observation of that pest population. Injury and Threshold Levels as well as treatment plans should be devised.

An Injury Level is defined as a pest population of a size which causes unacceptable damage to a resource. A Threshold Level is defined as a pest population of a size which warrants some management in order to remain below the Injury Level.

Treatment options can be instituted through indirect or direct suppression of a pest. Habitat modification is a form of indirect sup-

pression, which can include reduction or reorganization of the pest

environment or food supply and/or enhancement of the environment

of natural predators, pathogens or parasites. Human activities such

as mowing, cultivating, watering and pruning can also be modified to

suppress a pest population. Examples of direct suppression tech-

niques are physical or mechanical removal of pests through weeding,

pruning, mowing and trapping, control via biological entities such as

parasites and predators, and chemical.

IPM programs must include an evaluation process with a good record

keeping system of monitoring and treatment activities as well as a

training and continuing education requirement for staff involved in

pest management activities. For additional information regarding IPM

Program Operations, consult DO # 77.

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APPENDIX D: IPM IN THEORY AND PRACTICE effectiveness of each method. The IPM practitioner also integrates in- Background formation from different disciplines, such as disease information from

plant pathologists, weed information from weed scientists, and insect

Since the advent of modern pest control chemicals in the information from entomologists, into a decision-making framework. 1940’s, traditional methods of pest control typically involved periodic applications of pesticides whether or not pests were Pests are unwanted organisms that are a nuisance to people or present or were in numbers sufficient to cause economic or domestic animals, and can cause injury to humans, animals, plants, other losses. This approach resulted in several problems, structures, and possessions. Pests can include insects and other including development of insect, disease and weed pest arthropods, plant diseases (including fungi, bacteria and viruses), resistance to chemicals; outbreaks of previously minor pests; nematodes (microscopic worms that attack plants), vertebrates (such and environmental contamination. In addition, substantial as deer, rodents, and birds), and weeds. Management is the process of concern arose about the possibility that pesticides could be making decisions in a systematic way to keep pests from reaching un- causing adverse effects on public health. acceptable or intolerable levels. Small populations of pests often can be tolerated; total eradication often is neither necessary nor possible.

Beginning in the 1950’s and continuing to the present day, Proper management depends on acquiring and using information. In University-based scientists and others began to develop a new an IPM system, information is usually obtained from a regular and approach to pest control, now known as Integrated Pest Man- thorough site inspection called monitoring. agement or IPM. Although IPM had its roots in agriculture, IPM concepts and principles have now been applied to such Why Practice IPM? non-agricultural settings as golf courses, schools, homes, and There are a number of reasons to use a broad approach to pest restaurants. Consequently, specific definitions of IPM vary management rather than relying solely on the prophylactic use of greatly depending on which setting it is being applied to. chemicals.

What is IPM? Keep a Balanced Ecosystem: Every ecosystem, systems made up

Many different general definitions of IPM exist. For the purposes of of living things and their non-living environment, has a balance. this report, the following definition is used Changes to one aspect of the ecosystem usually affect other organisms

in that system. The introduction of chemicals into an ecosystem can

Integrated Pest Management or IPM is a comprehensive strategy of upset the natural balance by destroying certain species and allowing pest control to achieve desired levels of pest control in an environ- others (sometimes pests themselves) to dominate. Beneficial species mentally responsible manner and reduce the need for reliance on such as the ladybird beetles (ladybug), lacewing larvae, tiny non- chemical pesticides. More specifically, an IPM approach utilizes a stinging wasps, and spiders, all of which attack pests, can themselves combination of pest controls, which address conditions that support be killed by pesticides, thereby leaving few natural mechanisms of pest pest habitats. This may include the use of monitoring techniques to control. Destroying such natural enemies can lead to secondary pest determine immediate and ongoing need for pest control, increased outbreaks whereby pests whose population has been kept low, can sanitation, physical barriers to pests, the use of natural pest enemies reach outbreak levels. For example, spraying carbaryl (Sevin™) as a and, when necessary, the judicious use of lowest risk pesticides. fruit thinner or for other purposes in orchards may kill mite predators, thereby leading to outbreaks of spider mites. IPM can often reduce

the quantity of chemical pesticides entering the environment. Integrated Pest Management in Practice

The “I” in IPM refers to the integrated use of cultural practices, biological controls, physical and mechanical controls, and chemical pesticides to prevent, avoid, minimize, or suppress pest problems.

Several diverse tactics are integrated into a system that improves the

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Pesticides Can Be Ineffective: Chemical pesticides are sometimes In settings such as buildings, IPM programs have resulted in lower ineffective because pests have become resistant to their effects. Resis- costs than traditional pest control programs through use of non- tance can become a problem because any pest population naturally chemical tactics such as repairing structural problems, sealing cracks has some members that are genetically more able to tolerate a pesti- and crevices, or removing sources of food, water or harborage for cide than others. When pesticides kill susceptible individuals, only pests. Once such improvements are completed, a resulting reduction less susceptible ones survive to reproduce. With repeated exposure in pesticide use will usually result in lower costs over the long term. to pesticides, resistance or tolerance to the pesticide can become the Over time, IPM programs can become cost effective via the benefits dominant genotype in the population. Over 600 cases of pesticide such as improved work environments, reduced energy costs, and resistance have been documented to date from all classes of pests; in- reduced building maintenance.

cluding, weeds such as common lamb’s quarters, insects such as cock- roaches, house flies, Colorado potato beetle, and Indian meal moth, However, cost effectiveness is not based purely on the price of a gallon vertebrates such as Norway rat, and diseases such as apple scab. Pests or pound of a pesticide. Even where pest pressure is high, an IPM may survive because the chemical does not reach them, is washed off, practitioner should consider using low-risk control tactics such as ap- is applied at an improper rate, or is applied at the wrong time during plying microbial pesticides for mosquito control. Although the use of the life cycle. Pesticide use can also lead to pest resurgence, whereby a microbial pesticide may be more expensive than another pesticide, pests are initially controlled but later increase in numbers that then the resulting risk to humans and other non-target organisms is lower. require additional pesticide applications.

Promote a Safer and Healthier Environment: We have much to

IPM Is Not Difficult: Although some of the terms and ideas may seem learn about the persistence of chemicals both in the indoor and out- new, practicing IPM is not difficult. Often, a good IPM system will door environment, and their effects on living creatures. Many cases incorporate many common sense practices that have been in use for of contaminated ground and surface waters have occurred as a result generations. For example, such practices as crop rotation, selecting of outdoor use of pesticides, and disposal of containers and unused resistant seeds or plants, sprayer calibration, soil and tissue testing pesticides still pose challenges for applicators. Even though long-term for nutrients and pH, and proper pruning, are all common practices documentation of the effects of all pesticides is still unavailable, it is that have pest management implications. The most important step generally agreed that using fewer pesticides results in lowers risk to in implementing an IPM system is accurately identifying a pest or its surface and groundwater, and less hazard to wildlife and humans. damage, the extent of damage (or potential damage), and recording Indoors, building occupants may be exposed to chemical pesticides this information to decide on appropriate actions. through the air or by direct contact with treated surfaces. Since the

preventive aspects of IPM can result in fewer pests, they may also lead

IPM Is Cost Effective: IPM can be economical by avoiding losses due to less pesticide use. Fewer pesticides often mean lower exposure to pests, and unnecessary pesticide expense whether in an agricultural and/or risks to occupants from misapplications, spills, etc. or non-agricultural setting. For example, onion growers who followed IPM recommendations in 1987 saved more than $23 an acre in Maintain a Good Public Image: Public concern about the presence insecticide costs. Golf course superintendents who replace fungicides of pesticide residues on produce has raised awareness of the need to with organic fertilizers or composts can save up to $1500 every time shift to more biologically-based approaches. Consumers pressure a fungicide is not applied. Applicators are able to save on sprays be- food stores who pressure growers for produce grown with as few cause the calendar is not the basis for spraying; the need is. In certain pesticides as possible. Growing food with IPM can help allay these years, or in agricultural settings where pest pressure is high, pesticide public concerns. Structural pest management professionals making reduction may or may not result, but use of an IPM approach can recommendations for improvements in sanitation, clutter reduction, often improve quality crop. Connecticut sweet corn growers had less and/or structural modifications, can minimize the need for chemical caterpillar damage after switching to an IPM program, and experi- control and benefit by favorable public attitudes to their efforts. Use enced an average increased profit of $227 per acre. of IPM in sites that are open to the public, such as National Parks,

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can help assure the public that the agency is doing all in its power to In the case of plant diseases, it is most often impossible to protect public resources in the most environmentally- and public assess levels of the disease organism itself. However, it is possible to health-conscious way. monitor environmental conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, and

leaf wetness) that drive the disease infection cycle, and the develop-

Required by Policy or Regulations: In response to concerns about mental stages of the plant. Disease infection depends on three things: pesticide use and potential overuse, many state and Federal agencies presence of the disease organism in levels sufficient to cause infection,

(including the National Park Service) have enacted policies or regula- plants at a susceptible developmental stage, and the appropriate tions requiring the use of IPM. Throughout the country, schools environmental conditions. Weather forecasting can help determine if and other sites are required to develop IPM plans and utilize IPM conditions will favor development of disease. Should favorable condi- contracts with professional pest managers. Municipalities in many tions be forecast to occur when disease pressure is high and the tree is areas have specific contract requirements mandating IPM for town susceptible, preventative fungicide sprays are justified. If no preventa- buildings and roads. In some states, pesticide use may be limited to tive sprays have been applied, but monitoring of wetting periods (the use only under an IPM plan in sensitive areas such as groundwater length of time apple leaves remain wet) and temperatures indicate an recharge zones. IPM plans are also often required for vegetation man- apple scab infection period has occurred, sprays can be applied after agement along roads, power lines and other rights-of-way. the fact, using materials that eradicate infections in their early stages.

Essential Elements of IPM Properly identifying pests is an important prerequisite to handling problems effectively as certain management practices may

control one species but not another. Correct identification allows a The essential elements of IPM are monitoring, establishing appro- pest manager to target the real source of the problem and avoid merely priate action thresholds, use of multiple types of control measures, treating the symptoms (or controlling non-pests). For example, in record keeping and evaluation, and communication and education. apple orchards, knowing the difference between Apple Grain Aphids

(which are harmless and can provide early season food for beneficial 1. Monitoring refers to a number of different tactics for predators), and Rosy Apple Aphids (which are harmful, especially to acquiring important information about the need for control actions, as young trees), is critical. well assessing whether control actions are effective. Regular examina- tion of a site and early detection of pests can function as an early Unless the pest is properly identified, the management warning system, and help to avoid or prevent a pest problem. For ex- program may have as its target the wrong pest, or even a non-pest. ample, checking around a structure in the spring for the nest building Identification allows a pest manager to determine the best course of activities of wasps (i.e. yellow jackets) may prevent the need for using action to solve a pest problem and avoid negative impacts to non-tar- pesticides later in the summer as well as preventing a potential health get organisms. It also allows use of pesticides that are pest-specific; to problem. control the pest effectively during the most susceptible stage of its life

cycle; or the use of a non-chemical control. Monitoring can sometimes be accomplished using traps that are attractive to pests such as visual traps (attractive because of Periodic assessment of the effects of pesticides or biologi- their shape, color, or wavelength of light they emit), pheromone traps cal controls results in an accumulated knowledge of effective and inef- (attractive because of a chemical odor), and mechanical traps (ensnare fective materials and beneficial natural enemies that target these pests. a pest by some mechanical means). Monitoring is also possible by Sometimes pests are naturally kept in check, and at other times pest direct observation of the site or crop. Typically, since it is impossible to populations sharply increase. Similarly, due to poor spray coverage, observe every plant in a field or orchard, and pests are not uniformly improper spray timing, or pest resistance, labeled pesticides some- distributed in nature, a sampling plan is used to insure that findings times fail to adequately maintain pests below economic or aesthetic are representative of the pest population throughout the site. injury levels.

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2. Establishing thresholds is the process of determining ment of the pest, making it less favorable. Practices such as crop intolerable levels of a particular pest population. Important questions rotation, proper planting and pruning, and maintaining proper soil in establishing thresholds include the following. Will yield or quality pH and nutrient levels are also effective cultural techniques. suffer? Is the pest likely to transmit a disease? The economic injury level (EIL) is the number of pests that will cause damage (loss of yield A common (and old) cultural method is the use of plant varieties that or quality) equal to or greater than the cost of controlling the pest. are less susceptible than other varieties to certain insects and diseases.

Economic injury levels are dependent on many factors, including the Use of such pest-resistant varieties often means that growers or pest value of, and intended markets for the crop, crop developmental stage; management professionals can apply much less pesticide than with the amount and type of damage the pest causes, and the cost of a spe- susceptible varieties. Apple growers can save up to eight fungicide ap- cific treatment. Put simply, it makes no sense to spend $100 to treat plications a year by growing scab-resistant apples such as the cultivars a pest that is only going to cause $50 worth of damage. The advan- ‘Liberty’ and ‘Freedom’. Management of many pests is improved tage to using thresholds is that there is no risk of economic loss and, when sanitation programs are implemented, and pest harborages therefore, no need to spray, if a pest has not reached the threshold are eliminated. For example, removal of pre-harvest apple drops can level. Once pest numbers have reached the threshold level, however, remove a significant source of over-wintering larvae of the Apple action is justified. By definition, the cost of control will be less than Maggot Fly, a key direct pest of the apple. the estimated loss if the pest is uncontrolled.

Cultural controls also include practices that are sometimes classified

Ideally, action should be taken before the EIL is exceeded. as physical controls or mechanical controls. These include structural

This is referred to as the action threshold, or the level at which action modifications and barriers to prevent pests from entering a site or in- must be taken to prevent economically significant damage that will festing a crop. An example is the use of floating row covers or netting occur if the pest is not controlled. In an IPM framework, corrective over small fruits and vegetable crops. Physical barriers are extremely actions are only taken if pests reach the action threshold. Not surpris- important in deer and rodent management. Other physical controls

ingly, like the Economic Injury Level, action thresholds will differ include light traps, sticky traps, multiple-catch and snap mousetraps,

depending on the situation. heat and cold treatments, electrical current, and simple physical

removal of the pest via handpicking or vacuuming. Cultural controls

In some settings, however, it is often difficult to assign a are often simple and inexpensive but they usually must be applied value to pest controls. How much is a putting green on a golf course in advance of a pest problem in order to be effective. Therefore, ad- worth, or a cockroach-free school cafeteria? In some landscapes, vanced planning is important and once an IPM plan is implemented, pest management may be driven by aesthetic rather than economic these preventive measures should be used annually and/or seasonally considerations. Public health issues (such as West Nile virus) may also to reduce the buildup of pests. determine action thresholds for pests, and there are settings in which the tolerance for a pest or its associated damage may be zero. A zero b. Biological Controls refer to the use of natural enemies (biologi- threshold forces action if only one pest has been detected. Such zero cal control agents) to help manage pests. Biological control agents thresholds often occur in hospitals, food processing, warehousing, include predators (e.g. ladybird beetles and other beetles, fly larvae, and retail facilities. adult wasps, ants), parasites (e.g. nematodes and specialized flies and

wasps) and diseases (especially bacteria, fungi and viruses). There

3. Use of Multiple Control Measures Once the number of are three types of biological control: introduction, augmentation and pests reaches an action threshold, steps (actions) must be taken to conservation. minimize the impact of the pest. IPM measures that contribute to minimizing this impact include the following. Introduction refers to the release of natural enemies of pests into new

areas or regions. Introduction of natural enemies is carried out under a. Cultural Controls are methods that change the environ- government regulations to insure that these introduced natural en-

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emies do not themselves become pests. Many of our pests originally c. Chemical Control Pesticides are important and com- came from different continents. These include the European red mite, monly used tools in IPM. However, they must be used in an appropri- the European apple sawfly, the gypsy moth, and the Japanese beetle, ate and timely manner to ensure that the IPM system functions. This among others. When these pests were imported, their natural enemies requires determining whether a pesticide is necessary and selecting were left behind. By collecting natural enemies from the region where one that best fits the management program. In recent years, the US the pest originated, and introducing them in the “new” location, pest Environmental Protection Agency has taken steps to register pesticide populations can be reduced and stabilized. An introduced parasitic active ingredients that are considered reduced risk. These reduced fly and a fungus have successfully reduced gypsy moth populations in risk pesticides include biological or microbial pesticides (microorgan- some settings. isms such as fungi and bacteria formulated as pesticides), biochemical

pesticides (including pheromones, hormone-like chemicals exter-

Augmentation is the addition of natural enemies (usually native) di- nally detected), insect and plant growth regulators (which affect the rectly into a system to reduce pest numbers. Many biological control growth and molting process), and hormones. Other reduced risk agents are commercially available for augmentation. Predatory mites pesticides include petroleum oils (to suffocate insects, mites and their are released into orchards and strawberry fields to reduce spider eggs), repellents (widely used in vertebrate management) and soaps mite numbers. Parasitic nematodes are applied to cranberry bogs (specifically formulated and tested as insecticides and herbicides). A to control root weevils. Ladybird beetles are commonly released in new category of pesticides, that is not yet widely used, is minimum greenhouses to control aphids. Augmentation includes both inocula- risk pesticides. Active ingredients included in this category are corn tive releases, in which small numbers of beneficial insects are released oil, mint oil, garlic, peppermint, and white pepper. When consider- over a period of time and reproduce to become effective against pests, ing which pesticides to use, it is important to note that the efficacy of and inundative releases, in which high numbers of beneficial insects some of these “new” pesticides is unknown. are released.

Certain pesticides (usually conventional chemical pesti-

The most important biological control method in agriculture is con- cides) can provide immediate results in reducing pest populations. servation. This is a selection of methods to preserve and encourage However, because of their toxicity and potential environmental natural enemies already present. In agriculture, conservation methods impact, and because they are disruptive to biological systems, they include providing refuges for natural enemies, planting food crops, should be used as a control measure only when no other materi- spraying in alternate rows, planting cover crops, managing water use, als or strategies will bring the pest population under threshold. For and applying pesticides selectively. In order to conserve natural en- example, in an apple IPM system, consideration should be given to emies, pesticides with low toxicity to natural enemies must be selected potential negative impacts of fungicides used to control apple scab on and applied in a manner to reduce natural enemy exposure. Leaving biological control agents of plant-feeding mites. Similarly, in consider- a low population of pests in the field also encourages natural enemies; ing choice of insecticides to control chinch bugs attacking lawns, care since, when their prey is eliminated, natural enemies do not remain in should be taken to avoid those that may have a negative impact on bio- the area for long. logical control by predators such as big-eyed bugs. In any IPM system, the use of certain pesticides that affect natural predators or parasites,

or which have other undesirable non-target effects, should be avoided. It is important to remember that biological control is part of a biological system. In order for it to work effectively, a stable environment must be provided. Disturbances to the system such as wide tempera- Like all control actions, pesticides should be selected that ture and moisture fluctuations or pesticide applications may reduce are effective in controlling the pest, least disruptive to natural enemies, the probability for successful biological control. Biological control least hazardous to human health and least damaging to the general also takes time, so the practitioner must plan releases in advance. environment. These pesticides are likely to have a narrow host range,

Also, because biological control is a dynamic system, it does not com- have low mammalian toxicity, and breakdown quickly in the environ- pletely eliminate pests, but can reduce them to low levels. ment. Additionally, pesticides of a similar mode of action should not

141 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

be applied repeatedly, so as to prevent pests from developing pesticide manage pests effectively, while using the least amount of chemical resistance. methods necessary.

4. Record keeping involves the systematic storing and retrieval of IPM information. While federal and/or state law requires pesticide application records, in most situations the collection and use of other information can improve decision-making and provide more effective control. For example, results of a monitoring program will indicate what a pest population is like at various points in time.

Records can indicate whether pests or natural enemies are increasing or decreasing in numbers, knowledge, which can influence a treatment decision. Weather records, coupled with pesticide application and pest sampling records, can indicate how well a specific pesticide performed in a certain situation. This information could be useful in future seasons.

Another type of record useful to an IPM practitioner is the previous pest history of the site. Previous evidence of a disease such as fire blight in the orchard within the preceding two years will prepare a resource manager to take action if environmental monitoring reveals conditions (heat and humidity) that are conducive to growth of and infection by the organism. Similarly, an uncontrolled outbreak of a pest insect the previous season, while not an absolute guarantee that the problem will recur, will, at minimum, indicate the need for diligent monitoring of that pest’s activity in a subsequent year. This is why accurate and detailed record keeping is a key element of any IPM program.

5. Communication and Education involve having informed individuals available to report pest problems or conditions conducive to these problems. Examples include field scouts and food service workers in a cafeteria. In addition, these individuals can educate and train others to understand the essential elements of IPM in order to involve them in the IPM program. Communication and education can play an important role in the overall success of any IPM program.

In summary an IPM approach refers to the use of multiple tactics to prevent pest problems, including monitoring pest populations, assessing damage, making informed management decisions, and keeping in mind that pesticides should be used judiciously, after other alternatives have been tried. Ultimately, an IPM strategy serves agriculture, the environment, and human health as the most logical means to

142 Ap p e n d i c e s

Glossary strips) or chemical compounds like sodium chloride (common salt).

Bio-pesticides: Pesticides that contain substances that control pests, Monitoring: Regular checking and identification of pests and effects of

sometimes by non-toxic mechanisms. Bio-pesticides include: phero- biological control.

mones, hormones, natural plant regulators, natural insect growth

regulators, enzymes, naturally occurring and genetically engineered Multiple catch trap: A mechanical device that attracts certain kinds of

microorganisms (microbial pesticides), and genetically engineered pests, such as mice, that can automatically reset and can catch many

plants that produce their own pesticides (plant-pesticides). pests.

Biological Control: Pest control without the use of chemicals. Para- Natural Enemies: The predators and parasites in the environment that sites, predators, diseases, etc., are used to control pests attack pest species.

Chemical Pesticide: Synthetically-produced chemicals that kill pests. Nematode: A tiny, hair-like worm that causes damage by feeding on

These include fungicides (kill fungi) insecticides, (kill insects), herbi- roots or other plant parts. cides (kill plants), rodenticides, (kill rodents), miticides (kill mites),

etc. Parasite: A plant or animal that harms another living plant or animal

(called the host) by living or feeding on or in it. Sometimes parasites

Economic threshold: The level of pest infestation at which applica- are helpful to man by attacking and controlling pests that injure crops

tion of a control measure would return more money that the cost of or animals. These parasites are forms of biological control. the control procedure.

Pesticide Resistance: Genetic ability of pest populations to resist the

Harborage: An area or site that pests find suitable to live or find shel- effects of certain types of pesticides that is toxic to other members of

ter in (e.g., cluttered and/or unclean places). that species.

Insect growth regulators: Pesticides that disrupt the molting, matur- Predator: An organism that attacks kills and feeds on other animals or

ing from pupal stage to adult, or other life processes of insects. insects.

Juvenile hormones: Natural insect chemicals that keep the earlier Pheromones: Chemicals emitted by an organism to influence the

stages of an insect from changing into the normal adult form. behaviors of other organisms of the same species.

Microbial pesticides: Pesticides that contain microorganisms, such as Pheromone traps: A device that contains a pheromone that is used to

bacteria, fungi, viruses, and protozoa, as the active ingredient. These attract, trap, or kill a target pest. pesticides can be applied like chemical pesticides in the form of dusts

and spray mixtures. Plant growth regulators: Substances (excluding fertilizers or other

plant nutrients) that alter the expected growth, flowering, or repro-

Minimum risk pesticides: Chemical pesticides classified by the EPA duction rate of plants. as exempt materials under 40 CFR 152.25. The active ingredients

covered by this exemption include, cedar oil, citronella, corn gluten Reduced risk pesticides: Pesticides that contain active ingredients that

meal, dried blood, garlic, mint oil, thyme and white pepper. Most of pose reduce risk to human health, reduce risk to non-target organ-

these active ingredients come from plants. Others come from animals isms, reduce potential for contamination of the environment, and/or

(dried blood and putrescent whole egg solids), metals (zinc metal broadens adoption of IPM or makes it more effective.

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Refuge: A place where beneficial insects are sheltered.

Repellent: A pesticide that keeps or drives insects or other pests away from the plant, animal, or surface treated.

Sticky traps: A non-chemical device that has a sticky surface, which catches pests. It is used as a monitoring tool to confirm the presence and identity of pests.

Acknowledgement: The preceding information was modified and adapted for use by William Coli from the Massachusetts Core Manual

Supplement #12 Integrated Pest Management authored by: Patricia

Vittum, Natalia Clifton, Kathleen Nowicki, William Coli and Craig

Hollingsworth, Department of Entomology, and Mark Buffone, Mas- sachusetts Department of Food and Agriculture. November 14, 2000.

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Variety Identification Specialists

Universities/USDA

Dr. Kim Hummer

Research Leader/Curator

USDA/ARS

National Clonal Germplasm Repository

33447 Peoria Road

Corvallis, Oregon 97333

Phone: 541-750-8712

Email: [email protected]

Dr. Philip Forsline

Apple and Tart Cherry Curator

Plant Genetic Research Unit

Cornell University

Geneva, NY 11456-0462

Phone: 315-787-2390

Email: [email protected]

Antique Apple Specialists

Thomas Burford

International Orchard Consultant

PO Box 367

Monroe, VA 24574

Phone: 434-845-6074

Email: [email protected]

Southmeadow Fruit Gardens

15310 Red Arrow Hwy.

Lakeside, MI 49116

(616) 422-2411 www.southmeadowfruitgardens.com

Sonoma Antique Apple Nursery

4395 Westside Road

Healdsburg, CA 95448

Phone: 707-433-6420 www.applenursery.com

145 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

APPENDIX G: ORCHARD MANAGEMENT RESOURCES Cummins Nursery

Sources of Antique Apple Trees and Scionwood 18 Glass Factory Rd.

Bay Road

Adams County Nursery, Inc. Geneva, NY 14456

26 Nursery Road 315-789-7083

PO Box 108 www.cumminsnursery.com

Aspers, PA 17304 http://www.acnursery.com This orchard and nursery offers a wide range of fruit and ornamental

trees including both modern and antique apple varieties on dwarf,

This company sells various fruits including antique and modern apple semi-dwarf and standard seedling rootstocks. Web site provides use- varieties on a choice of rootstocks. They sell some orchard supplies ful horticultural information and an on line bookstore. such as tree-guards and supports and pruners. Their web site is useful and informative. Fedco Seeds

P.O. Box 520-A

AppleKrisp Nursery Waterville, ME 04903

968 N. 2250 W. http://www.fedcoseeds.com

Vernal, UT 8407 www.applekrisp.com This cooperative seed company and nursery sells a wide range of

seeds, fruit trees, perennials, ornamentals and organic farming sup-

This company sells both modern and antique apple varieties on semi- plies. dwarf rootstocks. Their web site is useful providing information on grafting practice, pollination and planting. The web site also provides Johnson Nursery, Inc. numerous recipes. 1352 Big Creek Road

Ellijay, GA 30540

Bear Creek Nursery http://www.johnsonnursery.com

PO Box 411

Northport, WA 99157 This company sells various fruits including antique and modern

Fax: 509-732-4417 apple varieties on dwarf and semi-dwarf rootstocks. They sell limited

Email: [email protected] orchard supplies including some sprays.

Big Horse Creek Farm J.E. Miller Nurseries, Inc.

Ron and Suzanne Joyner 5060 West Lake Rd.

P.O. Box 70 Canandaigua, NY 14424

Lansing, NC 28643 800-836-9630

336-384-1134 www.bighorsecreekfarm.com This nursery offers a broad selection of fruit trees including antique

and modern apple varieties. Web site provides on line order form.

This nursery specializes in antique apple varieties particularly popular Call for a free catalogue. in southern Appalachia and custom grafting. Web site provides useful information about individual varieties and a great on line catalogue.

146 Ap p e n d i c e s

Manning’s Nursery Tower Hill Botanical Garden (scionwood)

681 Maplewood Road 11 French Dr.

Lester, WV 25865 P.O. Box 598

304-934-6558 Boylston, MA 01505-0598

(508) 869-6111

Orchard Lane Growers www.towerhillbg.org

5014 Orchard Lane

Gloucester, VA 23061 Tower Hill Botanical Garden, managed by the Worcester County Hor-

804-694-0470 ticultural Society, operates a large preservation orchard with over 100

antique apple varieties. Tower Hill is a good source for antique apple

Rocky Meadow Orchard and Nursery scionwood. Call for order form.

R-1, Box 104

New Salisbury, IN 47161

(812) 347-2213

This company sells both antique and modern tree fruit varieties.

Sanoma Antique Apple Nursery

4395 Westside Rd.

Healdsburg, CA 95448 www.applenursery.com

This is one of the best nurseries in business for antique apple varieties.

It is a good source for custom orders of antique varieties on particular rootstocks. They sell bare-root plants, scions, rootstocks, and books and the farm is a Certified California Organic Farm. Web site provides useful information and electronic order form.

Southmeadow Fruit Gardens

15310 Red Arrow Hwy.

Lakeside, MI 49116

(616) 422-2411 www.southmeadowfruitgardens.com

This is one of the best nurseries in business for various types of fruit tree purchase including modern and antique apple varieties on a variety of rootstocks. Web site provides useful information and an electronic order form.

147 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

Non-Profits, Government Agencies, Educational The Real Cider and Perry Page Institutions, and On-line Journals http://web.bham.ac.uk/GraftonG/cider/homepage.htm

Apple Journal This site provides information on cider apples and perry pears as well www.applejournal.com as instructions about the cider/perry making processes, trades people,

events, cider presses and links to other related organizations.

This site provides apple-related information ranging from photographs of individual varieties to recipes as well as links to other related sites.

Fruit Notes of New England http://www.umass.edu/fruitadvisor

This site provides information on pest management, current research, and regional events and meetings as well as useful links.

International Dwarf Fruit Tree Association http://www.idfta.org

This site provides information on conferences, tours and other events sponsored by IDFTA as well as on-line publication of Compact Fruit

Tree in PDF format.

North American Fruit Explorers http://www.nafex.org

This organization, dedicated to the “discovery, cultivation and appre- ciation of superior varieties of fruits and nuts” provides a web site with information on the NAFEX’s mission, library and publications.

North Carolina Apple Newsletter http://henderson.ces.state.nc.us/newsletters/apple

This is an informative monthly newsletter consisting of articles by

North Carolina extension specialists on issues such as nutrition and fertility management, groundcover and pest management, planting, harvesting, and business management. Links to other useful sites.

Scaffolds On-line Fruit Journal www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/scafolds

148 Ap p e n d i c e s

U.S. Apple Industry, Commercial Orchard Management New Jersey Commercial Tree Fruit Production Guide and Maintenance and Agricultural Research http://www.rce.rutgers.edu/pubs/treefruitguide/index.html

Appalachian Fruit Research Station This is a useful on line publication of the New Jersey Commercial Tree http://afrsweb.usda.gov Fruit Production guide in PDF format.

This site reports on contemporary ongoing research related to fruit New York State Extension Integrated Pest Management Program growing. Tree Fruit Fact Sheets

Cornell Fruit Information Page One of the best sites for detailed information on tree fruit pests and www.hort.cornell.edu/extension/commercial/fruit/index.html diseases, this site provides digital tree fruit fact sheets produced by

New York Extension on pests and diseases.

This site provides information on rootstocks, pest facts and manage- www.nysipm.cornell.edu/fruits.html ment, harvesting, fruit handling and storage, cider-making, and links to other state extension and fruit related agency web sites. Ontario Ministry of Agriculture, Food, and Rural Affairs

www.gov.on.ca/OMAFRA/english/crops/facts/98-013.htm

Michigan Apple Committee http://www.michiganapples.com This web site provides fact sheets particularly related to disease resis-

tant apple cultivars.

This site represents the state’s apple industry and includes information on the trade such as new apple varieties, regional farms and trades Penn State Fruit Research and Extension Center people, recipes and useful links. http://frec.cas.psu.edu

Michigan State University Extension, Apple Web sites and Informa- One of the best extension web sites for in depth information on tion rootstocks, pest facts and management, harvesting, fruit handling and www.canr.msu.edu/vanburen/appleweb.htm storage, and many other aspects of fruit production as well as links to

other state extension and fruit related agency web sites.

The Mid-Atlantic Regional Fruit Loop http://www.caf.wvu.edu/kearneysville/fruitloop.html University of California Davis Fruit and Nut Research and Informa-

tion Center

This is a collaborative site including links to Virginia Tech, West http://fruitsandnuts.ucdavis.edu/address.html#site

Virginia University, USDA, Penn State, Rutgers and University of

Maryland. Extremely useful resource for pomological information at This web site provides crop information on fruits and nuts including all of these educational institutions. articles and current research on apple production.

New England Apple Pest Management Guide University of Maine Apple IPM Program http://orchard.uvm.edu/aim/9697neapmg/default.html http://pmo.umext.maine.edu/apple/applepage.htm#NearTop

This is an on line publication providing useful information on apple This site provides the University of Maine Apple IPM Program pest management in PDF format. Newsletter on line as well as links to other newsletters and on line

publications. It also provides the 2000 New England Pest Manage-

149 Or c h a r d Ma n a g e m e n t Pl a n f o r Ho p e w e l l Fu r n a c e Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c Si t e

ment Guide. This organization houses one of the largest collections of fruit tree

varieties in the world with over 2300 apple varieties. They also offer a

U.S. Apple Association fruit identification service. Web site provides useful fruit information. http://www.usapple.org

Thomas Burford

This site represents the U.S. apple industry and includes informa- International Orchard Consultant tion on the trade such as market statistics, apple varieties, consumer PO Box 367 concerns, recipes and useful links. Monroe, VA 24574 Phone: 434-845-6074

Email: [email protected] Virtual Orchard http://www.virtualorchard.net National Clonal Germplasm Repository (NCGR)

http://www.ars.grin.gov This site provides a forum for discussion of current news, research and extension projects related to commercial fruit production. The site provides an excellent list of tree fruit related web sites. NCGR Regional Offices

West Virginia Index of Fruit Disease Photographs, Biology, and Dr. Kim Hummer

Monitoring Information Research Leader/Curator www.caf.wvu.edu/kearneysville/wvufarm8.html USDA/ARS National Clonal Germplasm Repository 33447 Peoria Road

Corvallis, Oregon 97333 This site is indispensable for identification of hundreds of tree fruit Phone: 541-750-8712 pest and disease problems through photographic documentation. Email: [email protected]

Wisconsin Apple Growers Association Dr. Philip Forsline http://www.waga.org Apple and Tart Cherry Curator

Plant Genetic Research Unit This site represents the Washington’s apple industry and includes Cornell University information on the trade such as new apple varieties, events and Geneva, NY 11456-0462 educational opportunities, regional farms and trades people, recipes Phone: 315-787-2390 and useful links. Email: [email protected]

Fruit Identification and Antique Apple Specialists Plant Genetic Resources Unit, Cornell University Brogdale Horticultural Trust www.ars-grin.gov/gen Home of the National Fruit Collections

Brogdale Road This site, collaboration between the USDA and Cornell University Faversham provides information on genetic diversity in agricultural crops includ- Kent ing fruit crops. ME13 8XZ www.brogdale.org.uk/index.html

150 Ap p e n d i c e s

Record Keeping • Date the work was performed and weather Ongoing record keeping is an important component of conditions a comprehensive orchard management effort. A multi- year record of changes in orchard conditions helps • Location of planting including a map and establish patterns and trends, facilitating better treat- photographs ment decisions in the future. Such records become especially valuable after changes in personnel, to help • Information regarding the protection of provide management continuity over the years. adjcent resources

Records should be kept for each tree in the orchard, • Size of the tree removed and/or replanted using a numbering system. Figures 108, 109, and 110 are an examples of forms used to record orchard • Method used to remove the stump and replant activities. Information that should be collected and the tree recorded includes: • Source of replacement materials including the • Description of the work completed tree, backfill soil, mulch, etc.

• Recommendations or observations from cultural resource specialists such as archeologists, landscape architects, etc.

• Additional information that future landscape staff would find useful to understand the history and scope of work accomplished

151 Ol m s t e d Ce n t e r f o r La n d s c a p e Pr e s e r v a t i o n Bo s t o n Na t i o n a l Hi s t o r i c a l Pa r k Ch a r l e s t o w n Na v y Ya r d , Qu a r t e r s C Bo s t o n , MA 02129 phone: 617.241.6954 fax: 617.241.3952 email: [email protected] web: www.nps.gov/oclp/