UNIT 4 HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTION Animal Behaviour

Structure 4.1 Learning Outcomes 4.2 Introduction 4.3 Anthrozoology 4.4 Animals and Humans 4.4.1 Definition of Animals 4.4.2 Definition of Humans 4.5 Classification of Animal Kingdom 4.6 Domestication of Animals 4.6.1 Meaning of Domestication 4.6.2 Chronological Development of Animal Domestication 4.7 Human-Animal-Interactions 4.7.1 Positive Human - Animal Interactions 4.7.2 Negative Human - Animal Interactions 4.8 Different Purposes of Human - Animal Interaction 4.8.1 Farm Animals 4.8.2 Wild Life and Zoo Animals 4.8.3 Leisure Animals 4.8.4 Research Animals 4.9 Let Us Sum Up 4.10 Keywords 4.11 Bibliography and Further Reading 4.12 Self Assessment Exercises 4.13 Answers / Hints to Check Your Progress 4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES a) Knowledge and Understanding: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Understand the concept of human-animal interactions i.e. Anthrozoology. Assess the key aspects of history of human-animal interaction. b) Practical and Professional Skills: When you have studied this unit, you will be able to: Discuss the factors influencing human-animal relationships. Analyse the positive and negative human-animal relationships in a variety of contexts. Differentiate cultural variation in human perceptions, beliefs and attitudes regarding animals. Synthesise different purposes of human - animal interactions.

53 Introduction to Animal Welfare and Behaviour 4.2 INTRODUCTION

Dear Learner,

You are aware that animals fulfil a variety of roles within human societies. So you can find animals in domestic environments as pets or livestock, to serve as a food or to provide fibre for making clothes. Humans also use animals for entertainment, sports and education. Animals are found in different types of research especially in the medical professions. The relationships between humans and animals are manifold and of varying degrees. The roles of the animals differ but also the roles of the humans and there will be no one theory explaining human-animal relationships. In this unit, you will learn about the theoretical and practical aspects of human - animal interaction by examining the animals’ aspect of the interaction to the wider subject area by adopting a multidisciplinary approach.

4.3 ANTHROZOOLOGY

The study of human animal interaction is often referred to as ‘Anthrozoology’. It is a composite word consisting of the prefix anthro – which is derived from the Greek prefix Anthropo - and means human or human related and the word zoology, which refers to the scientific study of animals investigating their structure, function, ecology and evolution.

Anthrozoology refers to the study of Human-Animal interactions or Human- Animal relations. Anthrozoology aims to understand the relationships between people and animals. This may be on an individual or collective level. Anthrozoology specifically evaluates the way in which animals make human beings feel, and how animals may affect emotions, both in a positive and negative sense. The interdisciplinary nature of Anthrozoology is summarised in Box 4.1.

Box 4.1: Interdisciplinary Nature of Anthrozoology Anthrozoology has been described as being an interdisciplinary research field. This means that it crosses traditional boundaries between various disciplines. You could also describe Anthrozoology as a trans-disciplinary field, which again accounts for the cross of traditional boundaries but also includes the input of stakeholders in defining objectives and strategies. A variation of Anthrozoology definitions can be found in the literature; it may be defined as interdisciplinary, trans-disciplinary, multidisciplinary, cross-disciplinary research. These are partly synonyms and partly not, but they all have in common that Anthrozoology reaches out into a variety of traditional research areas such as anthropology, sociology, psychology, veterinary sciences, medicine, psychiatry to name a few.

After reading the discussion on Anthrozoology, the following questions may come to your mind: What are humans? What are animals? What are Human-Animal-relationships or interactions? 54 These questions highlight that the answers are not straightforward and, depending Human-Animal on whom you would ask, answers may be differing. The following sections will Interaction provide a variety of perspectives on humans and animals for your comprehension. After reading them, you may even have your own concept of what a human or an animal is and how they might interact.

4.4 ANIMALS AND HUMANS

4.4.1 Definition of Animals

Animals can be defined in multiple ways and from different perspectives. Two important definitions are provided below for your understanding. Animals are ‘any of a kingdom (Animalia) of living things including many- celled organisms and often many of the single-celled ones (e.g. protozoans) that typically differ from plants in having cells without cellulose walls, in lacking chlorophyll and the capacity for photosynthesis, in requiring more complex foods, in being organised to a greater degree of complexity, and in having the capacity for spontaneous movement and rapid motor response to stimulation’ - Merriam-Webster Dictionary Animals are living organisms which feed on organic matter, typically having specialised sense organs and nervous systems and able to respond rapidly to stimuli - The Oxford Dictionary. The Oxford Dictionary also sub-defines the term animal: 1. Any such living organism other than a human being. 2. A mammal, as opposed to a bird, reptile, fish, or insect. Animals are generally distinguished from plants by: Being unable to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic ones, so that they have to feed on plants or on other animals. Typically able to move about, though this ability is sometimes restricted to a particular stage in the life cycle. The definitions highlight that animals and plants are separate entities and it is from a biological perspective very easy to distinguish between them. However, in some definitions it is not clear as to whether humans are included in the definition of animals or not. The Oxford dictionary provides sub-definitions, which then states that animals are living things other than humans, which suggest an exclusion of humans. 4.4.2 Definition of Humans

What differentiates humans from other animals? A human is defined as a member of the species Homo sapiens. It has also been defined as relating to or concerning people. From a purely zoological point of view you can argue that all humans are animals since the species Homo sapiens belongs to the kingdom Animalia. However, historically a distinction between animals and humans has been made. In the 17th century the philosopher Rene Descartes started a tradition of views mainly dominated by religious ideologies which form the base of most western societies and to date influence the ways of differentiating between animals and humans. These views include that humans have souls and animals do not, that 55 Introduction to Animal humans make rational choices and animals act instinctively – humans have the Welfare and Behaviour mental capacity for complex cognitive processing.

Distinctions have been made mainly by philosophers, for example Immanuel Kant in the 18th century. A Kantian approach to defining humans would be that attributes humans uniquely claim should be omitted in animals – this explains that the generic concept of ‘animal’ has a negative attribution due to the sum of deficiencies. It has been argued for a long time that the following are unique characteristics for humans: 1) Conscious thoughts and feelings 2) Awareness of one’s own mortality / death 3) Ability to reason 4) Complex social behaviour 5) Ability to team work 6) Ability to manipulate the environment 7) Grammatical language 8) Ability to create culture and cultural products and 9) Ability to transmit learned behaviour from one individual to another. However, most if not all of these traits have been demonstrated in different animal species as well and are, thus, not unique characteristics of humans.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.

Activity 1 (Reflective Thinking): Talk to your friends or colleagues about the meaning and differences between human and animal. Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section. What are the similarities and what are the differences? How could you explain these differences and what might these differences mean in a wider societal context? ......

Check Your Progress 1 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the roles that animals fulfil within human societies...... 56 2) What is Anthrozoology? Human-Animal Interaction ...... 3) Write the meaning of animals and humans ...... 4) In what way animals are generally distinguished from plants? ......

4.5 CLASSIFICATION OF ANIMAL KINGDOM

Animal classification has been a traditional field in zoology and a hierarchical classification is mostly used to describe the animal kingdom. The scientific classification found in most biology textbooks is presented in Box 4.2.

Box 4.2: Scientific Classification of Animals Domain

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Genus

Species

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica 57 Introduction to Animal The classification of human being using this hierarchical classification scheme Welfare and Behaviour is presented in Box 4.3 for your understanding. Box 4.3. Scientific Classification of Humans

Domain - Eukaryote

Kingdom - Animalia

Phylum - Chordata

Class - Mammalia

Order - Primates

Family - Hominidae

Genus- Homo

Species – Homo sapiens

Source: Encyclopedia Britannica

It is possible to classify all animals in this way however, differences may lie in which family or orders some animals are classified in. Due to new genetic testing and some traditionally classified animals may be reclassified. Some authors also use sub-phyla and sub-classes in their classification of animals.

Moving on from a traditional zoological classification animals can be grouped/ or classified in different ways or on some criterion depending on peoples’ perception of animals. Young children mainly use morphological characteristics to classify animals, for example the number of legs, the presence of hair, fins or wings. Additionally environmental aspects are taken into account, for example where the animals live, e.g. in the forest, in water on trees etc. In general these properties maintain into adulthood to characterise animals, however, older children and adults have also been shown to use their perceptions of utility of an animal and their affective reactions (do I like this animal or not) to classify animals. This results in a different categorisation of animals than the traditional zoological classification scheme. We may also categorise animals into farm animals, wild animals, pet animals and birds, each of these groups had a variety of sub-groups. Depending on the environment within which people have to evaluate or classify animals different domains will be used. These domains will be influenced by peoples’ professional backgrounds e.g. farmers will classify animals differently than zoologists or veterinarians, it is also influenced by peoples’ culture for example the Indian farmers are known for being a farm animal loving community and attitudes towards farm animals are mainly positive. People from urban areas differentiate between pets and farm animals and do not necessarily show equivalent positive attitudes towards farm animals. Other cultures might have a more utilitarian view of animals for example as helpers for their everyday work (e.g. horses and donkeys to help with transportation work). These animals are highly valued by their owners but may lack animal welfare standards due to a 58 wide range of environmental and human factors. Please recollect from Unit 1 that for PG Diploma in Animal Welfare, we Human-Animal categorised animals under the broad area ‘Managed Animals’ to study animal Interaction welfare science, ethics and standards for: 1) Dairy animals / Large Ruminants – Cattle and Buffaloes 2) Small Ruminants – Sheep and Goat 3) Pigs 4) Poultry 5) Working animals – Horses 6) Performing animals - Elephants 7) Pet and companion animals 8) Zoo animals other managed wildlife 9) Lab animals used in biomedical research and teaching Before we proceed, please complete activity 2.

Activity 2 (Group Discussion): ‘All humans are animals’ – Discuss this statement with your friends / colleagues / fellow learners on the following perspectives: What makes an animal an animal and a human a human? How do animals and humans differentiate? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write the outcome......

Check Your Progress 2 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How are human beings classified scientifically? ...... 59 Introduction to Animal 2) Write the criterion on which animals can be grouped depending on peoples’ Welfare and Behaviour perception of animals......

4.6 DOMESTICATION OF ANIMALS

4.6.1 Meaning of Domestication

Domestication as defined by Webster is ‘the adaptation of an animal or plant to life in an intimate association with and to the advantage of man or another species, by modifying growth and traits through provision of food, protection from enemies, and selective (artificial selection) breeding during generations of living in association and often to the extent that the domesticated forms lose the ability to survive in nature.’

Another definition provided by R. Bennett, ‘a domesticated plant or animal is one that people have consciously taken into the cultural context of their living space for any purpose whatsoever.’

Both definitions have in common that the domesticated animal is an animal taken from a wild species and artificially modified to meet human purposes. Domesticated animals are usually highly valued and there are clear purposes for which they are kept – these purposes may have changed over time and in some cases are not very clear to us anymore. The breeding of domesticated animals is under complete human control and its survival, whether voluntarily or not depends upon humans. Furthermore, through the selection processes humans changed the domesticated animal’s behaviour, psychology and morphology. Domesticated animals can show morphological characteristics which would not occur in the wild and vice versa.

When talking about domestication of animals it is useful to introduce you to some common terminology (Box 4.4).

Box 4.4: Common Terminology of Animals Wild Animals: When talking about wild animals, we mean animals, which have not been genetically altered by artificial selection processes for the use of by humans. Natural selection processes occur in wild animals.

Tamed Wild Animals: They are wild animals that have adapted behaviourally through the intervention of man to be traceable and useful to humans.

Exotic Animals / Non-Native Animals: They are wild animals belonging to a species whose historic native range lies totally outside the country or continent you are based in.

60 Human-Animal Domestic Animals: They are the animals that have been genetically modified Interaction from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans.

Feral Animals: They are domestic animals that now live in the wild without any human assistance. If these feral animals breed we will call it a feral population.

In the context of domestication, we will not talk about classes and sub-classes but about breeds, variety and strain (Box 4.5).

Box 4.5: Breeds, Variety and Strain Breed: A breed is a population of domestic animals within a species. The individuals of a breed may vary within their defined phenotypic and genotypic boundaries. When individuals are mated within a breed the offspring remain with the original limits. Breeds generally have an organisation or association of breeders, who in general breed their animals / birds according to a stated conceptual standard.

Variety: Within breeds you can encounter a variety. Variety is used in some species to designate groups of animals within a breed that have shared morphological traits, e.g. coat types, comb types or patterns (often used in chickens or turkeys).

Strain: A strain is a sub-population of a breed or a variety that has unique ancestral similarities or a restricted phenotypic range as compared to the original breed variety. If a population of domestic animals has been locally selected, used and generally bred with itself we will talk about landrace. 4.6.2 Chronological Development of Animal Domestication

It has been claimed that without the domestication of wild animals by humans, the human race would probably not have survived. Humans began domesticating animals more than 10,000 years ago beginning with dogs. The first food animals to be domesticated were goats, sheep, cattle, followed by pigs. It has been argued that pigs may have been domesticated to dispose of table scraps and waste products. In contrast cattle and horses were mainly domesticated for transportation and draft work purposes. It may be that early people found animals living in large herds or flocks and that eat a wide variety of foods easier to domesticate than others (Table 4.1).

The domestication of animals involves more than just taming a wild animal. It required a strict selection process. Domestication allowed humans to contain animals with the right temperament. Furthermore, it allowed humans to maintain a constant food supply independent of the growing season. Some cultures domesticated animals for companionship, labourous work and religious purposes. In return the animals received protection, housing and a constant food supply. Selective breeding occurred as humans got rid of animals with undesirable traits and by not allowing them to reproduce.

61 Introduction to Animal Table 4.1: Overview of the most common domesticated animal species Welfare and Behaviour Species When (years) Originated Originated Purpose of b.p. (before in from present) Domestication Dog 12000-14000 Europe Africa Wolf, Jackal Hunting, Pet, b.p. and Asia Companion animal Sheep 9000-10700 Mountains of European Food, Milk, b.p. Southeast Mouflon, Clothing Europe, Asiatic Central and Urial Southwest Asia Goat 8500-9000 Western Wild Goat Food, Milk, b.p. Asia Clothing Cattle 5000-6500 Near the Auroch Food, Milk, Buffalo b.p. boundary of Water Draft, Europe and Buffalo Religious Asia, reasons Southwest Asia Pig 8000-9000 Middle European Food and b.p. East (Meso- Wild Boar Sport (potamia) Horse 4000-5000 Eastern Wild Meat, Milk, b.p. Europe, Horse Transport Western and Warfare Africa Chicken 5000-5500 India, Jungle Cockfights, b.p. Sumatra and Fowl Show, Food, Java, China Religion

Domestication, and in particular specialised breeding of animals, have created a great variety of breeds with exceptional traits. These traits can be of great importance, for example medical detection dogs. These dogs have been bred with a very sensitive olfactory ability. These dogs can smell changes in blood sugar or detect changes in scents from individuals suffering from a specific disease.

Domestication has not always positive effects for the animals. Some animals have benefitted more than other animals, whereas some have not, which of course depends on the perspective and context for which the animal was bred. In recent years the selective breeding for aesthetics, especially in dogs, has become an animal welfare issue due to deformed respiratory parts which has reduced the ability of certain breeds of dogs to breath and thermoregulate normally. A great variety of working dogs are now used as companion dogs or pet dogs and suffer due to the lack of physical and mental activity. These dogs show high levels of stress and high levels of destructive behaviours. Another new trend are Teacup 62 pigs, these pigs are pets and are well cared for by their human owners. However, Human-Animal most of these pigs live in social isolation and are not able to show any of their Interaction natural behaviours such as rooting or nest building activities.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 3.

Activity 3: Discuss with your friends / colleagues / fellow learners on the following: Are there any specific species and breeds in their culture? How socially acceptable is domestication in their culture? What benefits did the domestication process bring to their culture? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your remarks......

Check Your Progress 3 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Write the meaning of domestication...... 2) Write the difference between: a) Wild animal and Tamed wild animal: ...... b) Domestic animal and Feral animal: ...... 63 Introduction to Animal c) Variety and Strain: Welfare and Behaviour ...... 3) Write the positive and negative consequences of domestication for animals......

4.7 HUMAN-ANIMAL-INTERACTIONS

There are great cultural variations in human perceptions, beliefs and attitudes towards animals. There are different ways of thinking about culture and animal welfare: National culture Professional culture Local culture National Culture: This refers to culture of a Nation e.g. in India some animals are worshiped as Gods. Also some animals are worshiped as associates of Gods in many forms. Cows are often fed outside temples and worshipped regularly on special occasions.

Professional Culture: This refers to one’s profession for example the veterinary culture or the equestrian culture (Box 4.6).

Box 4.6: Veterinarian’s Oath As a member of the veterinary medical profession, I solemnly swear that I will use my scientific knowledge and skills for the benefit of society. I will strive to promote animal health and welfare, relieve animal suffering, protect the health of the public and environment, and advance comparative medical knowledge.

Local Culture: This refers people belonging to a certain culture develop a specific way of thinking about animals. There are sub-cultures around human animal interactions – e.g. farming subculture – farmers might think differently about human-animal interaction than the general public or academics such as veterinarians. This will result in differences in what is seen as the norm and will shape attitudes and consequently behaviours towards animals (Box 4.7).

64 Human-Animal Box 4.7: Local Culture vs. Animal Cruelty or Abuse Interaction The meaning of animal cruelty varies among cultures and sub-cultures. For example, the definition of animal cruelty from an animal activist may be very different from that of a hunter, farmer, pet owner or veterinarian. As an example: farmers might not perceive traditional agricultural practices such as de-beaking, tail docking, castration and confinement as forms of animal cruelty whereas the public might and animal activists most certainly do.

The meaning of animal abuse may also vary depending on the type of animals involved or how intelligent people perceive that animal to be. For example, people in the UK would probably think that the slaughter of dogs, horses or whales for meat is cruel, while the killing of cows, pigs and chickens is acceptable to those same individuals. Similarly, to some, the killing of animals for fur or cosmetics testing may constitute unacceptable animal cruelty while the killing of animals for food is acceptable. The more culturally beloved the animal is and the more unusual the harm is, the more likely people are to be outraged and label the harm to that animal as animal cruelty.

Human animal interactions are of two types broadly: 1) Positive Human - Animal Interactions 2) Negative Human - Animal Interactions Interactions with animals regardless of whether they are positive or negative are dependent on peoples’ cultural background, their belonging to a sub-culture but also on their upbringing.

Let us discuss them briefly. 4.7.1 Positive Human - Animal Interactions

Positive interactions with animals are often a result of social learning from parents especially mothers. Children may witness the caring role of other female members of the household to animals under their care and will imitate this behaviour. In many cultures, children will gain the role of animal caretakers at a very young age and have the main responsibility for the animal and its welfare. Within farming culture, interactions with animals will often be transferred from animal handlers to their successors. In both cases the individuals will learn traditional handling techniques.

Positive interactions between humans and animals should be mutually beneficial for both. An example for such interactions is medical detection dogs as described before. These dogs often belong to a working dog breed and need to be presented with a task they can fulfil in order to maintain good psychological welfare. Furthermore, the result of the dogs work is beneficial to the human and therefore both the dog and the human benefit from this relationship. Other examples of positive interactions are guide dogs and a great variety of companion animals. There can also be positive interactions between farm animals and their handlers. Positive interactions with animals are often taken for granted and do not get adequate attention. However, it is important to highlight such interactions to enforce positive behaviour and increase animal welfare.

65 Introduction to Animal 4.7.2 Negative Human - Animal Interactions Welfare and Behaviour Empirically, trends in the study of animal cruelty have linked animal maltreatment to significant anti-social tendencies, particularly interpersonal violence. It has been argued that cruelty towards animals may be one of the first symptoms of conduct disorder appearing in children. Several family risk factors have been associated with childhood animal cruelty and adult violence. These risk factors include physical abuse within the family, sexual abuse, paternal alcoholism and absence, and general exposure to domestic violence. Not only experiencing family violence but also witnessing violence is considered to be a risk factor for disruptive children to be cruel to animals.

A variety of self-reported reasons for animal cruelty have been documented (Box 4.8). Box 4.8: Self-reported Reasons for Animal Cruelty / Abuse Out of boredom or to violate adult civil behaviours Just for fun Belief that animals deserve being treated cruelly Anger Dislike or fear of the animal To control the animal To have sex with an animal For revenge To shock or impress people or because of imitations of others.

Let us discuss different types of animal abusers described in the literature. a) Exploratory or Curious Animal Abusers: They are mostly children at pre-school or primary school age who perpetrate animal cruelty out of curiosity on very few occasions. These behaviours in young children may reflect a lack of knowledge and understanding about the appropriate care for animals. b) Pathological Animal Abusers: They are often older children and pathological animal abuse is understood to be a symptom of psychological disturbances often associated with experience of physical abuse, sexual abuse or exposure to domestic violence. c) Delinquent Animal Abusers: They are mostly adolescents who may or may not have used alcohol or drugs or participated in other anti-social behaviours when abusing animals. d) Animal Hoarding: It is another negative human-animal interaction, which is accumulation of a large number of animals and failing to provide minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation and veterinary care. Examples of animal hoarding cases are: Transportation of large numbers of animals in an in-humane way. Keeping of birds and other animals in a very poor and un-conducive 66 environment. e) Organised Abuse: Examples of this sort of abuse might be the setting of Human-Animal two or more dogs, cocks or any other animal in a fight circle and allowing Interaction them to brutally attack each other for the sole purpose of entertainment. They have been singled out for special attention in the anticruelty laws of many countries. f) Ritualistic Abuse: This can cover pretty much everything from religious ways of killing animal to traditional ways of dealing with animals. g) Animal Sexual Abuse (Bestiality): Bestiality is defined as an affinity, an attraction or sexual attraction by a human to non-human animals, which is against the law.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 4. Activity 4: Discuss with your friends / colleagues / fellow learners on how would they define animal cruelty in their culture and what constitutes animal cruelty in their culture? Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your remarks......

Check Your Progress 4 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) How do National, Professional and Local cultures play a role in animal welfare? ...... 2) Name the two types of human - animal interactions...... 67 Introduction to Animal 3) How does social learning from parents lead to positive interactions with Welfare and Behaviour animals? ...... 4) Name different types of animal abusers...... 5) Write the reasons for animal cruelty......

4.8 DIFFERENT PURPOSES OF HUMAN- ANIMAL INTERACTION

4.8.1 Farm Animals

Through domestication processes we find a great variety of animals with the sole purpose to serve humans as a source of food or fibre (such as raising sheep for wool). The life of farm animals involves breeding, raising, transport and slaughter. At each stage these animals encounter a great variety of welfare issues. The demand of meat as a food source is rising constantly and therefore small family farms have been replaced by industrialised facilities to maximise profits. These animals are often treated as production units rather than sentient beings. The result is ‘cheap’ meat, eggs and dairy products at the cost of animal welfare. 4.8.2 Wild Life and Zoo Animals Wildlife is threatened by humans through harassment, poaching, hunting and trapping, habitat degradation, habitat destruction, culling and killing in various intended and unintended ways. Wildlife protection usually is a governmental issue and needs to be addressed by policy makers and the governments alike. Zoo animals are under special protection, captured and placed in artificial 68 environments. Humans need to take care that the needs of each individual animal is met. There are a great variety of zoo animal welfare education programmes Human-Animal established to protect the animals. Conservation and education should be the Interaction main purposes of zoos, although entertainment is often the main focus. Therefore, if zoos are to be sites of conservation and education, animal welfare plays an important role in zoos. 4.8.3 Leisure Animals

Leisure animals are part of people’s everyday life in the following ways: Pet or companion animals: Pet animals can often have a good standard of animal welfare, and may be highly valued by their owners for social companionship. However, this relationship requires that owners have a good understanding of animal behaviour and welfare needs, and are able to meet these in their homes. Advertising Campaigns: Animals have been used for advertising campaigns, which is perfectly legal but may compromise the welfare of the animals used. e.g. Roaming animals like elephants may be confined to small places, training methods may cause physical and psychological issues. Sport Animals: Animals have also been bred for racing e.g. horse or dog (greyhound) racing. These races take a lot of preparation and training which may have implications for the animals’ welfare, such as the sorts of methods used for training and the increased risk of injury in animal athletes. The fate of animals that are not successful in racing, or when an animals racing career is over, is also of concern. Circus Animals: Circus animals often are obtained illegally from the wild, and are trained with fear inducing methods, the animals are abused and badly treated, have life threatening injuries and there may be few if any welfare standards to protect their welfare. Animals used in tourism: Animals, often wildlife, are used in tourism in many ways, such as providing rides (e.g. elephants), to provide photographic or entertainment opportunities (e.g. primates in ways similar to circus animals), and trophy hunting. These all cause harms to the animals in various ways such as capture and training as described for circus animals, and pain, fear and distress in animals that are hunted. Animals may also play a role in tourism in more positive ways through encouraging eco-tourism to observe and learn about wild animals in their natural habitat with limited or no direct interaction. Designer Animals: Pets like teacup pigs or designer dogs are bred to be exceptionally small or with outstanding morphological characteristics e.g. very flat noses. There are a variety of medical issues related to these pets due to inbreeding of these animals or the selection for flat noses and cause difficulty breathing and heat exhaustion. 4.8.4 Research Animals

There are four main reasons why animals are used in research: Animals are used to advance scientific understanding: Animals are the study 69 Introduction to Animal objects to understand how the healthy body works to maintain and restore Welfare and Behaviour these functions when needed. Animals are also used as models for studying diseases: Animals and humans share a great variety of illnesses and diseases and consequently animals can be means to study these illnesses. For example dogs suffer from cancer, diabetes and bleeding disorders and therefore often serve as animal models to study these diseases. Animals may also be manipulated or changed by genetic processes to make human diseases occur more frequently or in species where they are not normally seen. Animals are used for the development of new potential forms of treatment: Data from animal studies are essential before new therapeutic techniques and surgical procedures can be tested with humans. Animals in research are also used to protect the safety of people, animals and the environment: Medicines are firstly tested in vitro using tissues and isolated organs but legally and ethically it must be tested in a suitable animal model before clinical trials in humans can take place. There are a great variety of laws in place to ensure high animal welfare standards for research animals.

Before we proceed, please complete activity 5.

Activity 5: Visit a nearby research institution with lab animal facility. Discuss with the authorities on main reasons why animals are used in research. Compare their responses to the discussion given in the section and write your observations......

Check Your Progress 5 Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers. b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit. 1) Production of cheap meat, eggs and dairy products is leading to compromised animal welfare. Comment......

70 2) Write the role of leisure animals in people’s everyday life. Human-Animal Interaction ......

4.9 LET US SUM UP This unit started by defining human-animal-relationships from different scientific perspectives. The meaning and varieties of these interactions were explored as well as the definitions of what animals and what humans are. There is no consensus between the different scientific professions or cultures and depending on where you will find yourself you will use different approaches to define animal and humans. Regardless of definitions there are multiple ways in which humans and animals interact. We explored the origin of human animal interactions and we also discussed the current problems and benefits of human animal interactions. The unit finished with the exploration of different purposes and the specific welfare concerns. In the next unit, you will be introduced to the concept of ‘Animal Welfare - History and Variation’ with focus on how animal welfare evolved over a period of time across the globe.

4.10 KEYWORDS

Animal Hoarding: The accumulation of a large number of animals and failing to provide minimal standards of nutrition, sanitation and veterinary care. Animal: Living organism that feeds on organic matter, typically having specialised sense organs and a nervous system, able to respond rapidly to stimuli Anthrozoology: It refers to the study of Human-Animal interactions or Human- Animal relations. Bestiality: It is sexual attraction by a human to non-human animals. Breed: A breed is a sub-species population of domestic animals with definable and identifiable external characteristics. Culture: The customs, arts, social institutions, and achievements of a particular nation, people, or other social group Domestic Animals: Animals that have been genetically modified from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans. Domestication: Process of taming animals and keeping them as pets/on a farm. 71 Introduction to Animal Exotic Animals / Non-Native Animals: Wild animals belonging to a species Welfare and Behaviour whose historic native range lies totally outside the country or continent you are based in. Feral Animals: Domestic animals that now live in the wild without any human assistance. Human: Relating to the characteristics of people or human beings. Leisure Animals: Leisure animals are part of people’s everyday life, such as pets, animals used in advertising, sport, tourism,, and circus animals etc. Strain: Sub-population of a breed or a variety that has unique ancestral similarities or a restricted phenotypic range as compared to the original breed variety. Tamed Wild Animals: Wild animals that have adapted behaviourally through the intervention of man to be traceable and useful to humans. Variety: Groups of animals within a breed that have shared morphological traits Wild Animals: Animals which have not been genetically altered by artificial selection processes for the use of by humans.

4.11 BIBLIOGRAPHY AND FURTHER READING

Samantha Hurn (2012). Humans and Other Animals: Cross-Cultural Perspectives on Human-Animals Interactions (Anthropology, Culture and Society), Pluto Press, London.

Szucs, E., Geers, R., Jezierski,T., Sossidou, E.N and Broom,D.M. (2012). Animal Welfare in Different Human Cultures, Traditions and Religious Faiths. Asian- Aust. J. Anim. Sci. 25 (11): 1499-1506.

4.12 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES 1) How would you define the term ‘animal’? 2) Are humans animals? What differentiates humans from ‘non-human animals’? 3) What characteristics would you expect ‘animals’ to display? 4) What term is more appropriate to refer to animals? Animals? Non-human animals? Other-than-human animals? Discuss. 5) Think about an animal species which you would regard as an appropriate ‘pet’ or companion animal. What is it about the characteristics of that particular species which place it in that category? Now think of other species which you might regard differently (e.g. as enemies, tools, food, or anything else). What factors have helped shape these attitudes? 6) In which ways do humans compromise the welfare of animals?

72 Human-Animal 4.13 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR Interaction PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) Roles that animals fulfil within human societies includes: pets or livestock, to serve as a food or making clothes, for entertainment, sports and education, research.

2) The study of human animal interaction is referred to as Anthrozoology.

3) Animal is a living organism that feeds on organic matter, typically having specialised sense organs and a nervous system, able to respond rapidly to stimuli. Human is relating to the characteristics of people or human beings.

4) Animals are generally distinguished from plants by: being unable to synthesize organic molecules from inorganic ones, so that they have to feed on plants or on other animals, and; typically able to move about, though this ability is sometimes restricted to a particular stage in the life cycle.

Check Your Progress 2

1) Human beings are classified scientifically as: Kingdom (Animalia); Phylum (Chordata); Class (Mammalia); Order (Primates); Family (Hominidae); Genus (Homo); Species (H. sapiens).

2) Grouping of animals with respect to peoples’ perception includes: based on morphological characteristics (number of legs, presence of hair); environmental aspects (in forest, in water on trees); utility of animals (farm animals; pet animals; birds); as helpers (horses and donkeys) etc.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Domestication is the process of taming animals and keeping them as pets or on a farm.

2) (a) Wild Animals are the animals which have not been genetically altered by artificial selection processes for the use of by humans. Tamed wild animals are wild animals that have adapted behaviourally through the intervention of man to be traceable and useful to humans. (b) Domestic animals are the animals that have been genetically modified from the original wild species through selective breeding strategies for the sole use by humans. Feral animals are the domestic animals that now live in the wild without any human assistance. (c) Variety is group of animals within a breed that have shared morphological traits. Strain is sub-population of a breed or a variety that has unique ancestral similarities or a restricted phenotypic range as compared to the original breed variety.

3) The positive consequences of domestication for animals includes: protection, housing and a constant food supply. The negative consequences includes a compromise in animal welfare as a result of industrial animal production, lack of physical and mental activity, social isolation and not able to show any of their natural behaviours. 73 Introduction to Animal Check Your Progress 4 Welfare and Behaviour 1) National culture refers to culture of a nation with respect to animal welfare like respect given to animals, worshipping animals. Professional culture refers to one’s profession for example the veterinary culture or the equestrian culture. Promoting animal health, welfare, and relieve animal suffering are part of veterinarian’s oath. People belonging to a certain culture develop a specific way of thinking about animal welfare.

2) The two types of human - animal interactions are: positive human - animal interactions and negative human - animal interactions.

3) Positive interactions with animals are often a result of social learning from parents especially mothers. Children may witness the caring role of other female members of the household to animals under their care and will imitate this behaviour. In a lot of cultures children will gain the role of animal caretakers at a very young age and have the main responsibility for the animal and its welfare.

4) Different types of animal abusers are: exploratory or curious animal abusers; pathological animal abusers; delinquent animal abusers; animal hoarding; organised abuse; ritualistic abuse, and ; animal sexual abuse.

5) Reasons for animal cruelty includes: out of boredom or to violate adult civil behaviours; fun; belief that animals deserve being treated cruelly; anger; dislike or fear of the animal; control the animal; sex with an animal; revenge, and to impress people.

Check Your Progress 5

1) The demand of meat as a food source is rising constantly and therefore small family farms have been replaced by industrialised facilities to maximise profits. These animals are often treated as production units rather than sentient beings. The result is ‘cheap’ meat, eggs and dairy products at the cost of animal welfare.

2) Role of leisure animals in people’s life includes: as pets or social companions, advertising campaigns, racing or sport, circus, tourism and designer pet animals.

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