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Home , Anthrozoology, Hidden curriculum, Speciesism

ARTICLE .1 Schools, , and Hidden Curricula: The Role of Critical for Humane Futures

Helena Pedersen Göteborg University Sweden

Abstract This article discusses approaches to educational theory and practice, influenced by moral philosophy, and ecofeminist social analysis, that build on an expanded moral sphere also including non- species. The theoretical framework is reflected against 1) the humane education approach, contextualis- ing the human- relation within a broader framework of social justice; and 2) empirical material from a pilot study, focusing on how this relation is dealt with within a Swedish primary school. A Causal Layered Analysis is proposed as a platform from which to explore educational futures encompassing the human-animal relation, and strategies for developing humane curricula are discussed.

Keywords: animal objectification, , critical pedagogy, hidden curricula, humane education, speciesism.

Bringing the Human-animal Relation into sion of yet another category from the education dis- 1 Education Research course - non-human . Although education researchers and practitioners are often quick to recog- The education discipline as we know it today nise the relevance and interests of various subordinated recognises the importance of issues related to class, groups in , the problems related to the situation race, gender, and groups of human minorities, as well of other species than our own have been largely as the importance of addressing problems of unequal ignored. This article challenges the current order of power relations with regard to these categories. Such anthropocentrism, human-centredness in education, approaches are undeniably crucial for the role of educa- and explores the rationales for an alternative approach tion today, but from a critical perspective it can also be to values educational research and practice that is more argued that they have effects of polarisation and exclu- inclusive in character. Journal of Futures Studies, May 2004, 8(4): 1 - 14 Journal of Futures Studies

The anthropocentric tendency is not cation science to integrate anthrozoological restricted to the . The entire perspectives as well.4 The school is part of a divide between the natural and social sciences societal order in which objectification of ani- reflects a tradition according to which social sci- mals to a large extent is socially accepted. The ence researchers usually leave the study of ani- routine exercising of violence toward animals mals to the natural science domain. for consumption, entertainment, experimental, and animals are thus normally studied within and a multitude of other purposes, often takes separate discourses, in separate terminology, place in institutionalised forms. When a school and within separate value systems. Moreover, engages, for instance, in animal experimenta- social scientists tend to uncritically adopt a view tion for educational purposes, or allows repre- of animals that has been constructed by the nat- sentatives of the animal industries to display ural sciences. This order has been criticised by their company names or logotypes in the the anthropologist and philosopher Barbara school's premises, it does not only as an author- Noske (1997), who holds that it maintains a con- ity legitimate the acceptability of oppressive structed subject-object relation between human-animal domination structures, but also humans and other animals. The establishing of serves to sustain and reproduce a worldview of such a subject-object relation nurturing a animal objectification in which the socialisation reductionistic view of other species, and over- of children and youth to uncritically embrace looking human-animal continuities which may such a view as "normal", "natural" or "inevitable" spark an ethical challenge to our tendency to plays an important part. There are several prob- view animals in society as commodities, renew- lematic implications that should be highlighted able natural resources, production units, or here. Regarding the situation of animals, ethical research 'models' for human diseases. We have problems emerge when humans subject ani- a multitude of mental strategies for keeping mals to suffering or other forms of harm. intact the human-animal boundary we have Another problem concerns the impact harmful constructed, and for legitimating our continu- treatment of animals has on the human being: ous utilisation of other species for our own ben- An emotional desensitisation process may be efit. In so doing, the value we assign to animals part of the short- and long-term consequences is instrumental rather than intrinsic: We relate for the harm-inflicting individual (Capaldo 2002, to them in accordance with their usefulness for Solot & Arluke 1997). us, rather than as beings living for their own The situation also accommodates possibili- sake and with their own purposes. ties of transformation and change. Since the The scientific order supporting an anthro- school is viewed in this article as an active agent pocentric worldview is, however, being called in reproduction processes, rather than just pas- into question: The interdisciplinary area of sively reflecting established structures and anthrozoology2 has been established as the sci- worldviews, the school has a potential to criti- entific study of human-animal relations. There cally re-assess its own mediation of normative are several research and centres devot- value messages concerning the human-animal ed to the study of animals in society3, and jour- relation and to change its ways of dealing with nals such as Anthrozoos (ISAZ 2002) and Society these. How this may be accomplished in a man- & Animals (PsyETA 2003b) deal with theoretical ner sustainable for both humans and animals and empirical perspectives on anthrozoological will be explored in the next sections. The dis- issues. One of the most recent contributions to cussion that follows is based on two presump- the field may be the establishment of an tions of ontological character: 1) The human- Animals and Society section of the American animal relation is not predetermined; neither by Sociological Association (Alger 2003). These ini- force of a 'natural order' nor of a religious or tiatives express a growing awareness of the rel- other form of authority. It lies entirely within evance of human- to social sci- the control of human beings to change this rela- 2 ence research. There are many reasons for edu- tion. 2) This article does not embrace the Schools, Speciesism, and Hidden Curricula

Cartesian view on animals as biological automa- contain speciesist components (Martin 2001). ta, but considers animals as individual, sentient Hidden curricula of speciesist character are not beings whose situation matters to them. likely to problematise the philosophical issues that introduced this section, and thus enforce animal objectification on diffuse, arbitrary A Place for Animal in the grounds. Some schools do, however, seem to School Context initiate discussions on , since this is a subject that seems to engage many young In order to justify the ethical boundary people today. In Sweden, such discussions have between humans and animals and our continu- recently been encouraged by the Ministry of ous utilisation of them for our own ends, we Agriculture, which has produced discussion need to define which individuals are entitled to material on animal ethics aimed at upper sec- moral status, and on what grounds: We thus ondary school and teachers need to pinpoint what morally relevant differ- (Jordbruksdepartementet 2002). If, however, ences exist between humans and animals. The schools adhere to the subtle messages within differences we tend to come up with, such as the directions laid out by this material, the rationality, self-awareness, linguistic ability or human-animal relation is likely to be dealt with moral agency, are usually favourable to humans. in isolation; disconnected from many other However, they also bring about a problem of issues that are ascribed primary concern in val- inconsistency: Whatever ability no animal ues education and shape our understanding of seems to possess, not all human beings possess what this area is about. Moreover, the discus- it either. Or to put it in another way: Abilities sions on human-animal relations will probably that are possessed by all human beings are usu- be framed within a fundamentally anthropocen- ally possessed by at least some other species as tric and value hierarchical discourse according well. We are then facing a situation where we to which the human species is the yardstick either have to exclude some members of the against which all other species are measured human species from our sphere of moral con- and valued. cern, such as infants or severely mentally retard- There are alternative approaches to con- ed people, or expand this sphere to include at ceptualising the human-animal relation in a way least some animals, such as primates (Singer that locates it in a wider societal context, in 1999). If we reject this argumentation and keep which its links with and relevance to other val- holding on to an absolute human-animal ethical ues education issues, such as human rights, boundary on the sole basis of an idea of human 5 equality, and , appear. superiority, we display speciesist attitudes. Such approaches make animal ethics a part of a Within moral philosophy, theories have been more holistic view of patterns of oppression developed on non-speciesist grounds that and exclusion in society, and contribute with ascribe moral status to animals. Two examples new perspectives to our collective understand- are and rights theories. These ing of values educational practice and research. regard the traits of having interests6 (Singer 7 The following section outlines a proposal for a 1999) and being a subject of a life (Regan 1999), theoretical basis of such an approach. respectively, as the relevant criteria for moral concern. In education, value related messages may Expanding the Scope of Critical be mediated as explicit elements of curricula Pedagogy and in other formally acknowledged manners, or more implicitly, as part of the so-called 'hid- To shed light on the human-animal rela- den ' of schools. In much the same tion in an educational context, schools must manner as a hidden curriculum may convey critically scrutinise their own hidden curricula racist or sexist , it may be found to with regard to these issues. Such an approach 3 Journal of Futures Studies

implies formulating and analysing alternative nation in society. Oppressive structures com- worldviews to the normativity surrounding the prise value hierarchical thinking and value dual- situation of animals in our society. Although istic categories (such as man/woman, critical pedagogy does not explicitly recognise human/animal, reason/emotion, /nature), animals as part of its emancipation aims, critical power relationships, and privileges. An expres- pedagogy will form a general framework for my sion of this way of thinking is that the exploita- discussion, since it seems reasonable that a criti- tion of nature has been legitimated by human cal theory of education has as its core the inclu- beings' superior capacity to reason; something sion, not exclusion, of oppressed categories. that has been regarded as a primarily male Further, a of education incorpo- capacity (Warren 2000). thus rating the human-animal relation will, as I see it, makes explicit the link between an androcentric not differ in any vital manner from its basic (male-centred) and an anthropocentric (human- ideas on which the aim of human emancipation centred) worldview, and according to this analy- is grounded; ideas characterised by a wish to sis, the human-animal relation is part of a wider make the educational system act against pattern of dominance, subjugation and oppression and injustice (Masschelein 1998). An exploitation in society. These connections have important component is to view educational been explored further by a number of activities as intimately linked to ethics and researchers. Congruities between speciesism power relations. These are located within a and sexism have been examined by, for wider political framework, which means that instance, Adams (1990); between speciesism teachers must recognise how different discours- and class subordination by Noske (1997); and es provide students with different ethical refer- between speciesism and by Spiegel ences which structure their relations with the (1996). Scholars such as Nibert (2002) and rest of society. Recognition of hidden curricula, Patterson (2002) have also contributed to this resistance against dominating and oppressive research. structures, as well as efforts to change the situa- Kahn (2003) links environmental and criti- tion of subordinated groups in society through cal education in his outline of recent move- critical awareness and active citizenship educa- ments and obstacles to the formation of a radi- tion are all crucial elements of a critical theory cal . Ecopedagogy goes beyond of education, behind which the school has a conventional as it potential to become a driving force (Giroux involves a wider awareness of how to be in the 1983, 1997). world. Related to this idea is the importance of One view of critical pedagogy shares with acting collaboratively and non-anthropocentri- ecofeminism the idea of a common ideological cally with a diversity of others, having an open- basis for different expressions of dominance. In ness toward different knowledge systems, this sense, not only humans but the ecosystem involving a critical understanding in our ethics, as such, is part of a pattern of oppression and constantly integrating our own life prac- (Giroux 1997). Ecofeminist philosophy, which tices with our ethical responsibility to act on has been claimed to have its origin in the behalf of the world. Kahn suggests that animal version of critical theory liberation and environmental movements must (Warren 2000), is based on the idea that there join forces, and expand their reach to include are important links between ideologies that dis- the fight for social justice, in order to transform criminate on the basis of, for instance, sex, race, curricula into challenging anthropocentric and and class, and ideologies that sanction exploita- technocratic paradigms. An environmental edu- tion of nature (Sturgeon 1997). These ideolo- cation discourse must, however, avoid reinforc- gies express themselves within oppressive soci- ing the human/animal and culture/nature etal structures based on fundamental notions, dichotomies; dichotomies I would describe as values and attitudes that explain, sustain and the idea that "the environment" and "nature" is 4 legitimate relations of dominance and subordi- something located outside of ourselves, where- Schools, Speciesism, and Hidden Curricula

as other species are assumed to be part of it; Humane education has become a holistic and and that "nature" is something "out there" for us comprehensive movement that draws connections between human rights, animal protection and to explore or discover, rather than a construct. environmental preservation. It is a field of study Animal, environmental, and other issues of and method of teaching that examines what is social justice should be embodied within educa- happening on our planet, from human to tion on equal terms and in an integrated fash- animal exploitation; from globalization to ecologi- ion, since they are intimately interlinked. cal degradation; from media monopolies to cul- Locating the human-animal relation within tural ideologies. It explores how we might live with a wider conceptual framework of values educa- compassion and respect for everyone: not just our tion such as proposed above, by a critical peda- friends, neighbors and classmates, but all people; gogical approach informed by an analysis of the not just our companion dogs and cats, but all ani- similar fundaments, dynamics and strategies mals; not just our school and home environment, uniting different manifestations of exploitation, but also the earth itself, our ultimate home. It invites students to envision creative solutions and increases our possibilities of revealing and chal- to take individual action, so that their life choices lenging a speciesist hidden curriculum; not only can improve the world. (Weil 2002:19) recognising it just to substitute it for a new one. Four broad aims have been identified for With these tools, a values education based on HE: The development of a life-affirming ethic; genuine and non-violence may be consciousness of how humans, animals and shaped; a values education that can be an nature are interconnected and mutually interde- empowering invitation for students to actively pendent on each other; consciousness about participate in changing society itself. As an different value systems and a critical discern- example of a concrete approach to values edu- ment with regard to these; and engagement in cation based on these ideas, the basic principles democratic principles and processes in which of humane education will be presented below. active citizenship is central (Selby 1995). Empowering students to realise that their life Humane Education: A Holistic style choices matter, and can contribute to improving the life of somebody else or the envi- Approach to Values Education ronment, is another important element in HE. Humane education (HE) is an innovative In the classroom HE emphasises, for instance, teaching and process that supports stu- dialogue; the experiences and perspectives each dents in their development of empathy, respon- brings into the learning process, curios- sibility, critical thinking, and active citizenship. ity, interaction, participation, and self-esteem. HE can contribute greatly to the role that educa- Letting students experience the content of their tion must take in promoting compassion and education is as important as textbook studies respect for "the other", in the broadest sense of and other traditional learning methods. the word. HE integrates human beings' relation Examples of HE inspired learning activities can with animals, the environment, and other peo- be to compare different consumption products ple, in order to challenge and prevent violence, and evaluate them on the basis of their impact exploitation, oppression, and negative stereo- on the environment, human beings and ani- typing of other people as well as of animals. HE mals; or to analyse learning materials produced also explores interconnections between these by the animal industry in comparison with issues at local as well as global levels (Selby materials from and 1995). Zoe Weil, one of the founders of the organisations. Other HE topics may include organisation International Institute for Humane rainforest protection, consequences of genetic Education, which in affiliation with Cambridge engineering, alternatives to animal experiments College has established a Master's programme in education, and the impact of a -based in humane education, describes the fundamen- diet versus a meat and dairy-based diet on ani- tal ideas behind HE as follows, mal, environment, development and health 5 Journal of Futures Studies

issues, to name just a few examples. HE educa- pedagogy sensitive to anthropocentric bias, tion in its many forms can be carried out as a speciesist hidden curricula, and normalised dis- subject in its own right, or be integrated into courses of human-animal domination and other subjects. objectification, is an instrument relevant for the- As I see it, one of the main assets of HE is oretically approaching the human-animal rela- its potential as a tool that allows us to concep- tion in an educational context. Can these terms tualise, and make explicit, speciesist hidden cur- contribute also to our understanding of empiri- ricula in schools. Due to the normativity that cal perspectives from the school arena? issues of animal objectification are usually embedded in, most of us do not have our mind- sets tuned into critically detecting the power The School as a Research Site for structures and value systems that enforce them. Human-animal Domination Dis- At this point, speciesist issues differ in character courses. Findings of a Pilot Study from issues of sexism and racism, which we are now often attentive to with regard to the medi- Between January - March 2003, I conduct- ation of implicit value related messages in the ed a small-scale pilot study at a primary school school context. Special efforts may therefore be just outside a Swedish urban area. Among the required from educators in order to raise and main purposes of the pilot study were to reflect shed light on the complexities and problems the theoretical framework outlined above involved when dealing with the human-animal against an empirical material; to get some indi- relation in values education. Shifting the focus cations of how a school works with values relat- from dealing with this relation as a subjective ed issues; what messages about the human-ani- moral position, to dealing with it as a part of a mal relation may be manifested, explicitly or wider context of social justice - and as such, as a implicitly, in the school context; and to get topic of our common responsibility - may not some feedback on how school staff may relate be easily accomplished for educators who to issues of animal ethics when they are dis- themselves may have been socialised into a cussed within a values education framework. human-animal relation discourse in which ani- The empirical material is limited, and the pur- mal objectification is normalised and natu- pose of presenting it here is solely to give a few ralised; especially in a societal and educational examples of what may happen when the theo- structure that still works to uphold this dis- retical reflections above meet perspectives from course. Under such conditions, HE may fulfil a a school. particularly important purpose to raise aware- The pilot study comprised three parts: A ness about the problems involved. In the USA critical analysis of some national and local policy and in England, HE is carried out as formal as documents, including the national curriculum; well as non-formal education up to university analysis of sponsored textbook materials; and level. Non-formal education is carried out by a two semi-structured interviews (one with the number of HE specialised NGOs that lecture and school principal, and one with a inform in schools at different levels; in the form teacher). The school was selected through a of classroom teaching as well as teacher train- personal contact of mine who herself works as ing activities. At present, 13 US federal states a teacher at this school. The interviews were have legislated about HE programmes in structured around three main topics or themes: school. In California, the establishment of a HE 1) How the school works with values related charter school is currently being planned issues in general; 2) If, and how, the school (Antoncic 2003). South Africa will be the first deals with issues related to animal ethics; and 3) country in the world to include HE in its revised The school's co-operation with external actors national curriculum due to come into effect in such as sponsors. The interviews were tape- 2004 (The Humane Education Trust 2003). recorded and took about one hour each. 6 Humane education, in terms of a critical The interviews gave the impression that Schools, Speciesism, and Hidden Curricula

the gap between the natural and social sciences At this school, the pupils were also taken is distinct when it comes to issues regarding on study visits related to animals. The study vis- animals. These are dealt with almost entirely its appeared to be focused on local sites where within the natural science area, where animals animals are kept in small-scale systems, such as are studied in terms of biological facts (and pos- nearby farms and 4-H yards. Whether pupils are sibly in terms of their role in the ecosystem). also taken to visits in, for instance, slaughter- Animals are seen primarily as species represen- houses, to experience the less idyllic aspects of tatives, rather than as individual beings. (An the human use of animals, was not mentioned exception is the pupils' own , who are dis- during the interviews. cussed in terms of individuals.) Social science Implicit messages concerning animals may education, especially the EQ ["empathy quo- also be manifested by the presence of external tient"] related sessions that had been intro- actors in school. In general, school sponsoring duced at this school as an approach to values and similar forms of co-operation seem to education, is exclusively devoted to relations actively engage many actors today, since chil- between humans. To the extent that the dren and youth, as future consumers, are obvi- human-animal relation is raised as an ethical ously seen as important target groups for many issue from a societal perspective, this seems to companies and branch organisations. At this occur primarily on initiative from the pupils school, however, the interviewees expressed a themselves. Such a discussion may be triggered view that sponsoring activities are very limited. when, for instance, media has been reporting This notwithstanding, the school had a text- about long-distance animal transports in the EU, book material produced by the Swedish dairy which obviously may be perceived as upsetting. company Arla/Mjölkframjandet (Mjölkfrämjan- This way of treating issues of animal ethics con- det 1996).8 The booklet is a clear example of a trasts sharply with other value related issues, sponsored material imbued with messages for- such as human rights, tolerance for diversity, mulated to support the profit-making aims of and gender equality, where both interviewees the producing company: The efforts to encour- gave the impression of thinking that it is an age schoolchildren to consume more dairy absolute responsibility of the school to convey products are not subtly expressed. The result is these values. This is an attitude in full accor- a product in which text and pictures all work dance with the directions of the Swedish toward serving this aim; constructing an national curriculum, where the human-animal euphemistic worldview in which all welfare relation is completely absent, but the effect may problems and ethical problems surrounding the be an ad hoc treatment of animal ethics in situation of the animals utilised in the agricul- school: The issues may only be highlighted in tural industry are conveniently glossed over. case an extraordinarily engaged, and verbally The last pages of the booklet display recipes active, pupil is present. From the point of view designed to appeal to the primary school age of the school, the signals will be that the issues group. All recipes contain dairy products. have a very limited legitimacy, since they are In the Swedish national curriculum and the not formally integrated in the regular values other documents governing the activities of the education scheme. school, the human-animal relation is not Ethical discussions concerning humans referred to. The documents encourage the and animals respectively thus seem to be dealt development of critical thinking and active par- with as completely disparate discourses in this ticipation in society, but in effect, the message school. This order is enforced by the national is that this aim has definite limitations: The soci- curriculum and the course syllabi (which the etal order that permits and legitimates a sys- interviewees also referred to during the inter- tematic exploitation of animals is not to be seri- views), and appeared not to be subject to ques- ously questioned or challenged. There are, how- tioning or internal discussions within the ever, elements of resistance among pupils, even school. among the youngest, indicating that not all of 7 Journal of Futures Studies

them feel inclined to adjust themselves to this animals fulfil for us, as dead bodies or as living order. One of the interviewees recalled a discus- beings. We thus seem to locate our relation sion in a kindergarten group about animals. A toward animals within different discourses, fol- little boy in the group raises the issue of what lowing a logic of how they best serve our animals are eaten, and not eaten. A little girl in anthropocentric self-interests. A humane educa- the group then reacts by putting her hands over tion approach would, on the other hand, exam- her ears; repeating that she does not want to ine the driving forces behind our contradictory hear since she does not like the fact that ani- attitudes toward animals, and discuss alterna- mals are being killed. How the school handles tive perspectives. such feelings among children is not explained The pilot study raises questions about rela- by the pilot study, but the material available tions of domination and power in different gives little support to the likelihood that this forms and at different levels: Who dictates what child can expect to have her feelings confirmed values are to be included in, and excluded from in a serious manner. school activities, and whose interests are repre- Another episode recalled in one of the sented in teaching and in the policy docu- interviews tells about a visit to a 4-H yard, when ments? If schools prefer to focus on small-scale, a group of pupils found that "their" rabbits that local farms rather than , and on had been kept there had been killed. This act pets rather than laboratory animals, why are seemed to be acknowledged by the school as certain practices hidden, and what actors have an ethical problem, and was brought up for dis- something to gain from this? What structures cussion with the pupils, whereas the act of sys- are upheld, and why? What is the level of tematic slaughtering of animals in the food pro- awareness among school principals and teach- duction industry does not appear to be dealt ers when it comes to recognising, and con- with in a similar manner, or evoke the idea on fronting, institutionalised exploitative practices? the part of the school that it might be an ethi- This study gives a hint of how elements of cally problematic issue. What, then, is the actual a speciesist hidden curriculum may manifest difference between these two cases of killing? themselves in a school. The absence of animal Slaughtering animals in the food production ethics in the documents, the ways in which the industry is a normalised and socially accepted school separates humans and animals in values procedure, facilitated by the institutionalised education, the choice of study visits, the mes- and hidden conditions under which the act is sages embedded in textbook materials and carried out, as well as by the power and eco- other artefacts in schools, and the way of deal- nomical interests of the industry behind it. It is ing with students' emotions, are all part of such also a continuous process, which may con- a hidden curriculum. The study does not pre- tribute to the desensitised view we have con- tend to offer anything that even remotely structed of it as something "natural" or resembles a coherent idea of all the complexi- "inevitable". The rabbits, on the other hand, ties involved here. What I have attempted to have in this case been ascribed a qualitatively show is that the approach of a critical education different form of moral status since their role theory is a useful tool with which to approach has been constructed as "pets" for human the human-animal relation in educational beings. research. This enterprise, however, confronts The interpretation I have made from the critical pedagogy with the challenge to scruti- findings of this pilot study is that this school nise its own delimiting tendencies to exclude seems to express, and reproduce, a view on the the species category from its emancipatory con- human-animal relation that tells us to care cerns, and to redefine its language and concep- about the interests of animals as long as we do tual scope in order to embrace all oppressed not need to modify our own purposes. Our atti- categories and to see how these are intercon- tude to killing animals, for instance, seems to be nected. Otherwise critical pedagogy will face a 8 completely dependent on which function the situation in which it becomes guilty of implicitly Schools, Speciesism, and Hidden Curricula

sustaining the same oppressive rationale as it tions to educate primarily for the job market, seeks to abolish, and thus contradicting its own and also to find their own sponsors; thereby fundamental principles. restricting the space in which paradigmatic cri- tique can take place in schools. The animal ethics discussion material may be the compro- Looking Forward: A Causal Layered mised outcome of these two competing dis- Analysis of Animal Ethics in courses. At the level of myth, underlying Education metaphorical statements may be constructed, such as 1) 'The School as a Panacea': The school What can a Causal Layered Analysis (CLA) as a main socialisation instrument by which to approach add to our understanding of the achieve various desirable aims (notably aims of dynamics of the human-animal relationship as certain powerful actors in society, be they an framed within a school context? CLA, a futures elitist, patriarchal church, a government, or theory and research method seeking to create multinational corporations); and 2) "The transformative spaces for the formation of alter- Cartesian Heritage": If animal exploitation is native futures, sees the notion of reality as verti- abolished, human welfare will be jeopardised, cally constructed at four levels: the empirically- since the advancement of humanity is, and will oriented "litany" level (isolated events, issues continue to be, built on this exploitation. and trends), the systemic/social causes level, the Another example of a litany level issue is discourse/worldview level, and the myth/ the Humane Education charter school that is metaphor level. Research based on CLA currently being established in California. At the explores issues at each level and integrates systemic level, this school has been spearhead- these into a network of alternative logics, in ed by the animal welfare movement together which each level deepens the understanding of with teachers. The level of discourse may in this the others (Inayatullah 2004). Since CLA is par- case involve an increased awareness of "the vio- ticularly suitable for critical futures research, it is lence link" according to which animal abuse has applied to the topic of this article. desensitising effects and may also lead to vio- At the litany level, we have seen that a lence also toward humans; as well as an number of issues, or "weak signals", concerning increased awareness of relations of power and animal ethics in education have recently oppression related to the idea of "the other", be emerged. In Sweden, one example is the they humans or animals. One possible Ministry of Agriculture's discussion materials on metaphor here is "The Web of Life": All beings animal ethics. It appears as if this material has on Earth are mutually interconnected and inter- been produced as a superficial response from dependent on one another. However, for cer- the authorities to a driving force at the systemic tain parties to whom the establishment of this level; namely, a growing awareness among school is controversial, there may be a fear that young people about animal ethics, that may the human privileges that follow from the dis- have created a pressure on schools to address course of anthropocentric hegemony are threat- the issues. At the worldview level, there are dif- ened. The dominant metaphors in this case may ferent competing discourses: We may consider be 1) "The Creation": Human beings' supreme the debate concerning the role of the school as role as masters of the world have been ascribed a value fostering actor in society rather than just to us by some omnipotent, religious authority; an institution for transmitting knowledge, and, 2) "The Food Chain": Since human beings are since democratic values are highly esteemed in predators at the top of the ecosystem, it is natu- this context, how the position of the student ral (or even inevitable) for us to use other has changed accordingly, making student influ- species for our own purposes; or, alternatively, ence an impetus for change at schools. Another 3)"The Zero-Sum Game of Ethics": Ascribing discourse is a liberal market oriented ideology moral status to animals undermines the value of that places responsibility on educational institu- human beings proportionally. 9 Journal of Futures Studies

From these sketches of CLA frameworks, the findings of a pilot study. different future scenarios may be constructed. In order to outline some factors and forces Scenarios could range from shorter-term empir- behind the transformation of anthropocentrism ical-systemic levels, such as the widespread and speciesism in schools toward a more implementation of humane education in nation- humane education approach, and to create plat- al curricula due to student pressure and forms for the formation of alternative future alliances between new social movements and scenarios, a Causal Layered Analysis has been politics; to the longer-term levels of worldview presented. An important part of a CLA frame- and myth/metaphor where a "wild card" scenario work is measures that may be taken in order to could lead to the concept of speciesism com- create a preferred future. What, then, can we pletely losing relevance and being replaced by do in order to transform traditional curricula new, hitherto unimagined forms of "otherness", into humane education discourses? Here I join since technological development, unexpected Kahn (2003) in emphasising the urgent impor- global disasters and evolutionary forces may tance of forming alliances and shared strategies result in the existence of only one single species between the different agendas of the develop- on Earth. A relevant myth here may be "Nature's ing social movements. Since the academy, Revenge": A fear that morally wrong behaviour teacher training institutions, educational policy will strike back at ourselves in the end. makers, and the students themselves are key actors in the process of transforming education, these groups must be involved in debates and Challenging Anthropocentric "Com- boundary-crossing project initiatives, and in co- fort Zones" in Education: Steps operation with them, innovative ideas, spaces toward a Humane Future for action and synergy effects may be generat- ed. Compiling and spreading successful exam- This article has appealed to educational ples is another way of promoting changes at dif- researchers and practitioners to critically scruti- ferent levels. Furthermore, including the nise and challenge what is referred to as "dan- human-animal relation in futures research and gerous memories" by Welch and McLaren in other research projects of global concern is (McLaren 1998), and as "comfort zones" by essential. Langley (2003), with regard to the mediation of At university level, Andrzejewski (2003) has values toward animals taking place in our provided a detailed outline of how speciesism schools; in explicit manners as well as through linked to other oppressive discourses may be hidden curricula. The expression "dangerous critically contextualised within the framework memories" denotes the way that the stories and of a Social Responsibility degree programme. struggles of the oppressed often are lodged in Selby (1995) also offers a rich and diverse the social system's repressed unconscious, and amount of ideas, examples, strategies and "comfort zones" describes the implacable resist- advice for the practical integration of humane ance that people who try to change the status education activities at the classroom, school, quo in intellectual and social often curriculum, and teacher education levels. As a meet due to the power of tradition, a lack of first step, the overlap and connections between vision, or simple unwillingness. As an attempt humane education and the "ordinary" subjects to promote actions addressing anthropocentric taught in school may be explored, and the status quo in schools, the article has explored a numerous pedagogical possibilities emerging few paths toward an expanded notion of critical from these insights can be applied by the indi- values education, in which the human-animal vidual teacher. What is to be done if the obsta- relation is included and linked to wider patterns cles and resistance from the "comfort zones" of domination and subordination in society. inhabitants seem insurmountable? As Shor The theoretical discussion has been reflected (1992) notes, the space required for critical 10 against the humane education approach and teachers to carry out transformative education Schools, Speciesism, and Hidden Curricula

and bring about curricular changes cannot be curricula of our schools may be brought to light taken for granted in the traditional institutions and their ethical implications critically exam- where most teachers work. This space has to be ined. discovered and broadened in alliance with oth- ers. Realising that humane education is part of Correspondence a broader framework of global and futures ori- [email protected] ented education, may in itself trigger incentives Kastellholmskajen 1 c for educators and policymakers to initiate 111 49 Stockholm changes within the system. Selby (1995) Sweden describes the connections as follows; Phone: +46-8-645 46 49 The EarthKind classroom is, by definition, futures- oriented. Humane educators seek to promote kind- The author upholds a doctoral student ness, caring, compassion, respect for all living position at the Department of Education, things, human and non-human, and a commitment Göteborg University to justice, as a means of creating a better tomor- row. They advocate an educational process predi- cated upon those values and having as a principal Notes outcome the emergence of "practical visionaries", i.e. people with both a clear vision of a preferred 1. The term "animal" refers approximately in future and the commitment, confidence and practi- this article to vertebrate animals with cogni- cal skills to go about realising that vision. tive capacity, although this definition may The EarthKind classroom provides a springboard be subject to discussion. for practising being a 'practical visionary'. Having 2. The term is also used (Arluke identified their individually and collectively pre- 1993). ferred futures, students can be encouraged to take 3. A few examples being ISAZ (International steps to realise those futures through school-based Society for ); PsyETA social, political and environmental action projects (Psychologists for the Ethical Treatment of /.../. This is what Alvin Toffler has called the Animals); Tufts University Center for process of "anticipatory democracy". (Selby Animals and ; Center for the 1995:290) Interaction of Animals and Society, University of Pennsylvania; and Department This article has argued why the stories for Animals and Society, University of about animals that are told in our schools, and Utrecht. the discourses within which they may be locat- 4. For over 50 examples of Ph.D. dissertations ed, are matters of concern for the area of values in education science dealing with the education; by force of their own right, as well as human-animal relation, see PsyETA (2003a). of their potential to add new perspectives to For studies of animal dissection and vivisec- our collective pedagogical understanding. All tion in the classroom, see also Balcombe educators who believe that one of the most (2000); Pedersen (2002); Solot & Arluke important challenges the school is facing today (1997). is to contribute to the formation of a non-vio- 5. Speciesism, a term analogous with racism lent and profoundly humane future society, and sexism, refers to the arbitrary oppres- sion or of other living beings should work toward the regular integration of on sole basis of their belonging to another the human-animal relation in programmes of species than our own (Ryder 1998). values education, in teaching and learning 6. Based on the capacity to experience suffer- materials and approaches in various subjects, in ing. academic discussions, and in national curricula. 7. Based on a number of capacities such as In so doing, the anthropocentrically biased having preferences, an emotional life, and "comfort zones" in education may be chal- an individual welfare in the sense of a lenged, and speciesist elements in the hidden capacity to care about one's own situation. 8. It is not clear to what extent, and in what 11 Journal of Futures Studies

manner, the material was actually used at Inayatullah, Sohail. 2004. The Causal Layered this school. Analysis (CLA) Reader. Integrating policy understandings in science, social science, philosophy and mythology. Tamsui: References Tamkang University Press (forthcoming). ISAZ. 2002. Anthrozoos. Retrieved 2003-07-10 Adams, Carol J. 1990. The Sexual Politics of from http://www.vetmed.ucdavis.edu/ Meat. A Feminist-Vegetarian Critical CCAB/anthro%7E1.htm Theory. Cambridge: Polity Press. Jordbruksdepartementet. 2002. Djuretik - ett Alger, Janet. 2003. "IJSSP Publishes a Special diskussionsmaterial för gymnasieskolan. Issue on Animal Studies." Animals and Retrieved 2002-10-29 from http://jord- Society 3:1-3. bruk.regeringen.se/djuretik/djuretik.htm Andrzejewski, Julie. 2003. "Teaching Animal Kahn, Richard. 2003. "Towards Ecopedagogy: Rights at the University: Philosophy and Weaving a Broad-based Pedagogy of Practice." Philosophy Liberation for Animals, Nature, and the and Policy Journal 1:11-26. Antoncic, Lydia S. 2003. "A New Era in Humane Oppressed People of the Earth." Animal Education: How Troubling Youth Trends Liberation Philosophy and Policy Journal and a Call for Character Education Are 1:26-41. Breathing New Life into Efforts to Langley, Gill. 2003. Foreword. In: Nick Jukes & Educate our Youth about the Value of all Mihnea Chiuia (Eds.) From Guinea Pig to Computer Mouse (2nd ed.). Leicester: Life." Animal Review 9:183-213. InterNICHE. Arluke, Arnold. 1993. "Associate Editor's Martin, Jane R. 2001. "What should we do with Introduction: Bringing Animals into a hidden curriculum when we find one?" Social Scientific Research." Society & In: Paul H. Hirst & Patricia White (Eds.) Animals 1(1):3-5. Philosophy of Education. Major Themes Balcombe, Jonathan. 2000. The Use of Animals in the Analytic Tradition. Problems of in Higher Education. Problems, Educational Content and Practices 4:453- Alternatives, & Recommendations. 469. Taylor & Frances e-library. Washington, DC: The Masschelein, Jan. 1998. "How to Imagine Press. Something Exterior to the System: Capaldo, Theodora. 2002. The Psychological Critical Education as Problematization." Effects on Students of Using Animals in Educational Theory 48, 4:521-530. Ways They See as Ethically, Morally, or McLaren, Peter L. 1998. Religiously Wrong. Paper presented at Life in Schools. An the Fourth World Congress on Introduction to Critical Pedagogy in the Foundations of Education (3rd ed.). New Alternatives and Animal Use in the Life York: Longman. Sciences, New Orleans, 2002-08-13. Mjölkfrämjandet. 1996. Säg mu till livet. Giroux, Henry A. 1983. Theory & Resistance in Stockholm: Tryckmedia. Education. A Pedagogy for the Nibert, David. 2002. Animal Rights/Human Opposition. New York: Bergin & Garvey Rights. Entanglements of Oppression and Publishers, Inc. Liberation. Lanham, Md.: Rowman & ______. 1997. "Crossing the Boundaries of Littlefield. Educational Discourse: Modernism, Noske, Barbara. 1997. Beyond Boundaries: Postmodernism, and ." In: A.H. Humans and Animals. Montréal: Black Halsey et al. (Eds.) Education: Culture, Rose Books. Economy, Society. New York: Oxford Patterson, Charles. 2002. Eternal Treblinka. Our University Press Inc. Treatment of Animals and the Holocaust. The Humane Education Trust. 2003. A World New York: Lantern Books. First! Africa to hold an intra-continental Pedersen, Helena. 2002. INDABA on teaching kids about kindness, Humane Education: morals and values. Retrieved 2004-02-13 Animals and Alternatives in Laboratory from http://www.animal-voice.org/ Classes. Aspects, Attitudes and 12 av/htdocs/page3.htm Implications. Stockholm: Swedish Fund Schools, Speciesism, and Hidden Curricula

for Research Without Animal Experiments. PsyETA. 2003a. Dissertation Database. Retrieved 2003-07-10 from http:// www.psyeta.org/dissertations/disserta- tions.html ______. 2003b. Society & Animals. Retrieved 2003-07-10 from http://www.psyeta.org/ sa/ Regan, Tom. 1999. Djurens rättigheter. Nora: Bokförlaget Nya Doxa. Ryder, Richard R. 1998. Speciesism. In: & Carron A. Meaney (Eds.) Encyclopedia of Animal Rights and Animal Welfare. London and Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers. Selby, David. 1995. Eartkind. A Teachers' Handbook on Humane Education. Stoke- on-Trent: Trentham Books Limited. Shor, Ira. 1992. Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change. Chicago and London: The University of Chicago Press. Singer, Peter. 1999. Djurens frigörelse (2nd ed.). Nora: Bokförlaget Nya Doxa. Solot, Dorian & Arluke, Arnold. 1997. "Learning the Scientist's Role. Animal Dissection in Middle School." Journal of Contemporary 26, 1:28-54. Spiegel, Marjorie. 1996. The Dreaded Com- parison: Human and Animal Slavery. New York: Mirror Books. Sturgeon, Noël. 1997. Ecofeminist Natures. Race, Gender, Feminist Theory and Political Action. New York: Routledge. Warren, Karen J. 2000. Ecofeminist Philosophy. A Western Perspective on What It Is and Why It Matters. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. Weil, Zoe. 2002. "Begin with Children." SATYA Nov. 2002:19-20

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