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Home , Animals in sport, Anthrozoology, Hunting in New Zealand

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ANTHROZOOLOGY • Interdisciplinary study of interaction b/w + à transcends academic fields • - relationships= complex + multifaceted • Many people have deep personal relationships w/ animals • Highly divisive à debate over moral status of animals contributing • fields • • • • •

DEFINITIONS OF AN ANIMAL • Personal/legal perception doesn’t always align w/ scientific definition • Varies by context à source, , country, time biological • Eukaryotic multicellular organism definition • Biological kingdom Animalia GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS • Heterotrophic à energy from ingesting other organic material • Motile à exceptions (e.g. sponges + coral) • Aerobic respiration à take in O2 + release CO2 • Sexual reproduction à exceptions • Specialised sensory organs • No cell wall • Grow from blastula during embryonic development australian • Vary by state legal • Determines which animals are protected by legislation definitions • Select elements of bio definition based on external factors à e.g. industry + • More recent legislation= broader definition à catching up to advances in research NEW SOUTH WALES • Vertebrate species: o Amphibian o Bird o Fish o Mammal o Reptile o Crustacean à only where food prepared/offered for consumption by retail sale • Excludes invertebrates WHERE IS THE • Conservation SCIENCE • Legislation APPLIED? • Entertainment • Pharmaceuticals • • Ethics • Health à human + animal

∙ module 1∙ animal-human health

HUMAN PHYSIOLOGICAL IMPACT • Main focus= companion animals à primarily dogs + cats cardio- EVIDENCE FOR vascular • 1980 study= 92 heart-attack victims à inspired flurry of research benefits o owners= 28% survived 1+ years o Non-pet owners= 6% survived 1+ years • 2002 study= maths test à HR + BP benefits in dog/cat owners o Lower resting HR + BP o Less likely to spike when stressed o Faster return to normal after stress • Pet dog in room when stressed= reported to lower BP better than certain BP meds • Stroking animal= help lower BP + cholesterol EVIDENCE AGAINST • Scepticism à Not all studies support association= controversial • 2010 aus study= cardiac patients à cardiac death + readmission over year after hospitalisation o Pet ownership associated w/ increased morbidity/mortalityà Cats=significantly increased • CV benefits= associated w/ perception à dependent on person’s perception of animals allergies • Not enough evidenceà good/bad for allergies= unknown • Some suggest increase desensitisation + some suggest decrease • 2013 study= mice exposed to dust from dog protected from allergies o Protected by gut bacteria à same bacteria also present in humans w/ dogs POSSIBLE AFFECTING FACTORS • Host-environment interaction= various factors likely to influence effect on allergic response ¨ Genetic predisposition ¨ Type of animal/pet o E.g. bird in 1st year of life= respiratory symptoms more likely o E.g. dog/cat in 1st year of life= childhood allergies less likely ¨ Age of exposure to animal ¨ Level of exposure à direct/passive physical • Study= 2 surveys 5 yrs apart wellbeing o Ppl with pets at both surveys= fewest doctor visits o Women w/ dogs= fewer sick days + more exercise • Elderly peopleà Dog/cat= better ability to do daily living activities regardless of attachment • Some pets likely have greater affect à attachment level/ animal • Evidence on both sides à some studies show no long term effect zoonosis • Diseases transmitted from animals to humans à can be lethal

HUMAN MENTAL IMPACT animal • Dogs= most common assisted • Increasingly popular but not a new concept therapy • 1964= psychiatrist found difficult children would open up more if animal present (AAT) • Some evidence suggests same effect as psych meds • Divided evidence • Ppl who like animals= may be effective mental + behavioural disorder treatment (e.g. addictions/ depression) • 2013= robot cat à positive effect on behaviour + depression DOLPHINS • 2005= ppl w/ mild-moderate depression interact w/ dolphins on dolphins’ terms à symptoms COMPANION BIRDS • Decrease depression in older adults à no impact on morale or loneliness

∙ module 2∙

Cross-cultural relationships

OPERANT CONDITIONING • Reward associated w/ behaviour • Most • Voluntary activity= rewarded • trial + error • Reinforcement strengthens desirable response • Increased animal controllability à animal has control REINFORCEMENT • Increase behaviour frequency by rewarding desirable behaviour • Only applies to behaviour it immediately follows POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT • Reward= something positive introduced • E.g. give dog treat for sitting= will learn to sit when commanded • Used to train at Taronga à e.g. seal show + teaching animals NEGATIVE REINFORCEMENT • Reward= something negative removed • E.g. Stop nagging child when does dishes= will do dishes SECONDARY REINFORCER • Not intrinsically rewarding but become associated w/ primary reward • Must be perfectly timed + promptly followed by primary reward • Clicker training= click immediately after desired behaviour + before reward • E.g. seal training at Taronga= blow whistle PUNISHMENT • Decrease behaviour frequency by punishing undesirable behaviour • Can stifle creativity + impede innate problem solving skills • More defiant animal= greater punishment intensity POSITIVE PUNISHMENT • Punishment= introduce aversive consequence • E.g. yelling at child for back-chatting= will learn not to back-chat NEGATIVE PUNISHMENT • Punishment= remove positive thing from animal • E.g. confiscate favourite toy from child for hitting sibling= will learn not to hit sibling

Animals in • Sport= physical activity for pleasure + entertainment • Diverse perspective= highly divisive • Use of driven by cultural perceptions + factors EXAMPLES • à horses, greyhounds, camels, donkeys, snails • Jumping + agility à horses, rabbits, dogs • • • Fighting à bulls, dogs, roosters • à horses, elephants • INFLUENCING ANIMAL FACTORS • Availability/ accessibility • Natural behaviour/skills • Intelligence + trainability • Level of disturbance by human activity à minimal= preferable • Flight distance à short= preferable HUMAN • Religion + spirituality à some animal revered • Values à which animals valued by culture • Historical context

∙ module 3 ∙ Conservation

INTRODUCTION WHEEL OF • Shows all steps to achieving conservation outcomes CONSERVATION

BIODIVERSITY • Biodiversity= variability of life in a particular area LEVELS OF • 3 levels of biodiversity à interrelated + contribute to overall biodiversity BIODIVERISTY GENETIC DIVERSITY • Unique individuals • Variety of genotypes + alleles in species/population • All individuals are genetically unique • Within + among populations • Provides evolutionary flexibility à more diverse= more likely to survive environ change + withstand natural selection • Low genetic diversity pop= inbreeding à less viable offspring SPECIES DIVERSITY • Unique species • Variety of species in habitat/region • Each species= genetically unique • May be many populations within species à different populations= genetically unique • Species survival depends on conservation of several populations ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY (highest level) • Unique habitats • Variance between ecosystems/ habitats • Ecosystem= Living organisms + abiotic physical environment o Defined on various scales à e.g. entire reef to single coral • Ecosystem integrity= Ability of ecosystem to support/maintain ecological processes + organism diversity o Fine balance à easily disrupted o Protect integrity= protect species + genetic diversity BIODIVERSITY • Regions where biodiversity is HOTSPOTS high • E.g. Eastern Australia, , Amazon, South Africa, NE Africa, Mexico, SE Asia

∙ module 4 ∙ LEGISLATION + ETHICS

CASE STUDY: ANIMAL • Estimated 50mill animals used per year EXPERIMENTS • Benefits= shorter life cycle + easy to maintain/control • Not all experiments harmful/lethal • Often, requires any new human medicine to be tested on at least 2 live mammal species • Companies must undertake regardless of ethical stance ARGUMENTS FOR • Prioritise advantages to humans à utilitarian perspective= means to beneficial end • More cost + time effective • More reliable than in-vitro/computer alternatives • Have made the world a much safer place à e.g. antibiotics/ insulin/ vaccines • Veterinary medicine benefits as well • Have shown effective translation to humans ARGUMENTS AGAINST • Not complete representatives of human biology à poorly predictive of human outcomes • Even small differences in DNA are significant • Ethical concerns à inflicting suffering/ disease on sentient beings • Animals stress skews results • Successful alternatives in progress • Cosmetic testing= unnecessary à harming animals to satisfy human vanity COMMITTEES (AEC) • Animal research cannot be undertaken w/o approval • Researchers must justify research, describe animal impact + outline welfare procedures for alleviating/preventing distress • Committee= vet, researcher, rep + independent layperson EXAMPLE: LAIKA (FIRST DOG IN SPACE) • 1957= Launched into space • First to orbit earth + study effects of weightlessness • Pros= important step towards humans in space (weightlessness didn’t cause major changes) • Cons= died within hours à re-entry strategy not worked out in time for launch • Had always been intended to die à can this is be justified by scientific advancement? • Prompted protests against animal testing

WELFARE SCIENCE • Strives to provide rigorous scientific evidence to estimate welfare state of animals IMPORTANCE • Animal welfare integral to conservation success TO • Ensures animals are provided w/ best living standards and treatment CONSERVATION • Breeding program success à reproduction only happens when animals comfortable + healthy • “Social license to operate”= public only support initiatives/orgs that provide good welfare à need social support to achieve outcomes EVOLUTION • Historically= little consideration/understanding of animal welfare à e.g. elephant parades, bear pits at Taronga, chimp tea parties at Taronga, dog carts in WW1 • Recently= consideration of animal welfare enhanced alongside advanced understanding of welfare, behaviour + evolution o Many orgs have animal welfare charters to ensure public support (e.g. Racing NSW) o Public more aware + engaged • Currently= new focus on thriving, not just surviving Current • Science continues to affirm sophisticated cognitive + emotional capacity of non-human animals RESEARCH • Published research exponentially grown since 1980s • “The weight of evidence indicates that humans are not unique in possessing neurological substrates that generate consciousness”- Cambridge Declaration on Consciousness (2012) Maslow’s • Lower level must be satisfied before hierarchy of higher levels can needs

WHAT DOES • Animal welfare= spectrum à always fluctuating b/w surviving + thriving WELFARE LOOK • Absence of bad signs ≠ good welfare LIKE? • Not one-size-fits-all à thriving for one species might look different for another GOOD WELFARE • mainly pleasant experiences à unpleasant experiences naturally occur but not more frequently/prolonged than typical for healthy individual • Able to mitigate unpleasant conditions

BAD WELFARE • unable to mitigate compromising conditionsà unpleasant experiences more often than pleasant

5 Domains • Note: Must be positive in all measurable domains to be positive in mental domain Model