Daoism and Animals

E. N. ANDERSON AND LISA RAPHALS

The Animal World ofAncient China three-legged crow in the sun, and the humanoid owl. Ancient China was a world rich in animals. The ancient Chinese knew their fauna inti­ In dramatic contrast to the devastated modern mately. The Classic ofPoetry or Shijing mentions landscape, China's biodiversity was the greatest at least ninety-three species, including twenty­ ofany temperate land. It was a land ofvast lush one mammals (one mythical), thirty-five birds forests, rich grasslands, fertile mountains, and (one mythical, the phoenix), three reptiles (plus enormous expanses of wetland-marsh, swamp, the mythical dragon), one amphibian, thirteen and river bottom. In these dwelt elephants, fish, and nineteen insects.! Here and elsewhere rhinoceri, pandas, apes, tigers, leopards, and in Chinese literature, there is a striking aware­ countless smaller forms. ness of insect life. The songs of the Shi jing re­ The earliest Chinese artifacts from the Shang flect the fresh, direct vision ofpeople who knew dynasty (traditionally 1766-II22 BCE, actually animals from daily experience. The wasp carries somewhat later) include many representations off the caterpillar to feed its young; the rats of dragons and other imaginary creatures, but nibble the grain; the spider spins her web over relatively few portrayals of real-world animals. abandoned doorways. Actual animals depicted include water buffaloes, By the Warring States period (ca. 403-221 tigers, sheep, and birds. Pigs, the most com­ BCE), China's heartland-the North China mon animal found in archaeological remains, Plain, the loess uplands west of it, and the Yang­ are conspicuously absent. In succeeding peri­ tze and Huai river valleys - had already been ods, more and more animals were portrayed, transformed by humans and biotically impov­ as were countless imaginary creatures, such as erished. Rhinos and elephants were exotic crea­ the nine-tailed fox, human-headed birds, the tures, known from trade with non-Chinese ANDERSON AND RAPHALS groups on the margins. The common animals Attributed to Sima Tan in the Historical Records Animals in Early D ofdaily experience were domestic: Horses, don­ or S'hi ji (ca. roo BeE), the term has been keys, cattle, goats, dogs, buffaloes, sheep, pigs, widely used to refer to mystical and quietistic Animals appear in chickens. Ofthese, the last four were native, the interpretations of two texts: the Dao de jing, ings. First, their pI others introduced (as domesticates-although a collection of gnomic verses still wildly popu­ obvious. They pn some had local wild forms) but known for mil­ 200 BeE, lar today. probably compiled abound medicine. Meat, Ie, lennia. Pigs, then as now, were by far the most and Zhuangzi, attributed to the fourth-century derived medicatiot important meat source. Chickens and dogs were BeE figure Zhuang Zhou. Recent archaeologi­ rioned. In the early common, but horses were a luxury for the elite cal finds and contemporary scholarship have cation that such us' and cattle were uncommon beasts of the plow. brought about a reappraisal of the term as ap­ Excessive consumF Rulers kept large game parks, in which they plied to pre-Han texts. Sima Tan's use of the with luxury and dil hun ted deer and other large animals. These were term included a number ofthinkers whose com­ the general tendenc seen by many social critics as wasteful luxuries mon ground was skepticism about active, inter­ was frequently ant that tied up good land. ventionist government. Most of them talked natural process, in Animals per se are not a distinct category in about the need to find dao- the Way. the proper The horse prob: most Chinese texts. Daoist or otherwise. More way of living, acting and governing-but so did tioned animal in eal typically, texts that talk about animals at any most other Chinese philosophers. rifled with wealth, F length use the four or five distinct categories of Another important source was the Chu ci or it was an importal beasts, birds, insects, and fish. with the occa­ a collection ofearly poems by Songs o/the South, elites. One of the r sional addition of dragons and snakes. court officials of Han and immediately pre-Han Zhuangzi attacks w The term Daoism is equally problematic, be­ times. Most of these invoke shamanistic and/or the happiness and j cause of the unclear affiliations of some of the Daoistic images, and some are frankly Daoist. the misery and bad texts and practices in which animals are most The Chu ci is incredibly rich in animal and plant prevalent. Most textual accounts of animals images, mentioning at least eighty-eight animal When they live 0 come from the Six Dynasties period. While hagi­ species, many of which are imaginary. Its pages and drink the w; ographies from the Dao zang are unproblemati­ are rich with dragons, rainbow-serpents, wasps their necks and s cally Daoist, the same cannot be said for the as big as gourds, and ants as big as elephants. swing round and I Soushen and other literature dealing with Even the "real" animals are often completely un­ ji yokes on their nee anomalies, which prominently features accounts identifiable. crossbar: the hors, of animals, both "normal" and anomalous. The is the most philosophically Zhuangzi crossbar, wriggle, In this essay we focus discussion on actual challenging, and the most rich and diverse, of riage hood.3 animals or on individual instances of animals the early sources. Like other early Chinese that are described as anomalies for their kind. works, it was edited and supplemented in the Daoist texts also de This approach largely omits the many accounts Han dynasty, but it retained a solid core ofearly ures mounted on , of mythological animals (the dragon, phoenix, material-presumably by Zhuangzi himself­ and other creatures, unicorn, and the use of animals as purely that have come to be called the "inner chapters." Second, animals directional symbols. We draw on both standard The mentions approximately seventy­ Zhuangzi ancestors, as they st texts from the Warring States period and on re­ five animals, many of them mythical or uniden­ communities. Arch cently excavated archaeological texts. tifiable. Like other early Chinese writers. Zhuan­ practice back to hi! gzi (and the other authors of the material that animals mentioned has accumulated around his name) were con­ oxen, and sheep. n scious of even the smallest insects. A pig louse Early Daoism that Daoists protes becomes a symbol offoolish security, and insect apocryphal anecdot The term "Daoism" as a specific bodyofthought transformations are recorded in exquisite, if bio­ be minister ofstate, is anachronistic when applied to ancient China. logically inaccurate. detaiP self to a sacrificial 1 277 DAOISM AND ANIMALS

~torical Records Animals in Early Daoist Thought point that it is better to be a tortoise dragging erm has been its tail in the mud, free, safe, and unhonored and quietistic Animals appear in many contexts in these writ­ than to live the stiff, artificial, and highly uncer­ ~ Dao de jing, ings. First, their practical value is immediately tain life of a courtier. In some cases, straw and II wildly popu­ obvious. They provided food, clothing, and pottery models were often substituted for the )Und 200 BeE, medicine. Meat, leather, silk, wool, and animal­ real animals, thus saving the latter. "Straw dogs" fourth-century derived medications are very frequently men­ were also used as a metaphor for humans in the Ilt archaeologi­ tioned. In the early Daoist texts there is no indi­ face of Heaven, which treats humans with the ~olarship have cation that such uses were considered immoral. calm indifference of ritualists disposing of sac­ he term as ap­ Excessive consumption of meat was identified rificial straw dogs after the ceremony. m's use of the with luxury and disparaged for that reason, but Finally, animals were also used as models for ~rs whose com­ the general tendency ofanimals to eat each other how to move in powerful, natural, spontaneous, It active, inter­ was frequently and explicitly mentioned as a and healthy ways. In a section of the Zhuangzi f them talked natural process, in harmony with Dao. that probably dates from the Han dynasty, the Vay, the proper The horse probably is the most often men­ anonymous commentator is a bit sarcastic about Ilg-but so did tioned animal in early Chinese texts. It was iden­ those who "huff and puff, exhale and inhale, ... i. tified with wealth, power, and worldly glory, and do the 'bear-hang' and the 'bird-stretch.'" 5 As s the or Chu ci it was an important source of energy for the all of us know who have any acquaintance with early poems by elites. One of the most striking passages in the Chinese martial arts and sexual yoga, the ways !iately pre-Han Zhuangzi attacks worldly power by contrasting of the bear are still with us, along with the ways Ilanistic and/or the happiness and freedom of wild horses with of the monkey, the crane, the snake, and many rankly Daoist. the misery and bad behavior of captive ones: other animals whose motions offer salutary ex­ limal and plant amples of how to move. :y-eight animal When they live out on the plains they eat grass inary. Its pages and drink the water, when pleased they cross ;erpents, wasps their necks and stroke each other, when angry What Animals Did g as elephants. swing round and kick at each other.... Ifyou put completely un­ yokes on their necks and hold them level with a Animals were not viewed simply as useful things. crossbar, the horses will know how to smash the They had varying degrees of spiritual or numi­ )hilosophically crossbar, wriggle out of the yokes, butt the car­ nous power. The most numinous were usually md diverse, of riage hood. 3 the most far from everyday experience - the early Chinese dragons, phoenixes, and unicorns-but ordi­ mented in the Daoist texts also describe and depict human fig­ nary animals such as tortoises and snakes were id core ofearly ures mounted on cranes, dragons, phoenixes, also given numinous attributes. Cranes in par­ 19zi himself­ and other creatures.4 ticular were associated with magical and mys­ nner chapters." Second, animals were sacrificed to gods and tical experiences, and the image of a Daoist nately seventy­ ancestors, as they still are in traditional Chinese riding through the heavens on a crane eventu­ ical or uniden­ communities. Archaeologists have traced this ally became an artistic cliche. Real-world Dao­ "'fiters, Zhuan­ practice back to highest antiquity. Among the ists kept tame cranes, until, alas, the birds be­ e material that animals mentioned are dogs, chickens, turtles, came too rare to be available.6 The crane re­ me) were con­ oxen, and sheep. There is little textual evidence tains its sacred status in Korea and Japan, where ts. A pig louse that Daoists protested these practices. In one the few survivors are venerated and protected. rity, and insect apocryphal anecdote, Zhuangzi, when asked to However, significantly, the early Chinese texts {quisite, if bio­ be minister ofstate, declined by comparing him­ devote very little attention to animal magic, ex­ self to a sacrificial tortoise, or ox, making the cept for purely imaginary creatures like dragons. ANDERSON AND RAPHALS

Real-world animals almost never have magical natures. This spontaneity and naturalness is also teaching story, u or spirit powers. This is in marked contrast to the considered an ideal for human conduct. Accord­ class, finds Zhua shamanistic societies ofNorth and Central Asia, ing to a comment in the wild-horses story: "In poach a bit of d whose animal cults were (and still are) spectacu­ the age when Power [de, spiritual power or vir­ strange bird that larly rich and complex? tue) was at its utmost, men lived in sameness about to eat a cie From the foregoing, it should already be with the birds and animals, side by side as fellow in this instructivi clear that Daoist writers found animals espe­ clansmen with the myriad creatures."13 Today, most caught by t cially important as a source of metaphors, simi­ it adds, humans have lost the Way. They sub­ the incident that les, and subjects of teaching stories. However, ject themselves to lords, to artificial habits, and losophy-as well we should not fall into the modern habit of re­ to gratuitous and limiting mental constructs. Transformatic ducing them to mere figures of speech. Zhuan­ There are countless variations on this theme­ of animal life. 1 gzi's wild horses are not simply metaphors of even individual thinkers like Zhuang'Li were not pillars transform freedom; real horses, like people, want freedom always consistent. The question of whether (or wasps, and so fo and do best when free. Zhuangzi presumably how far) Zhuangzi and similarly minded Dao­ string of transfo thought that the tortoise and ox really did ap­ ist philosophers were cultural relativists remains becomes the wal preciate their lives and really preferred them controversial. It does seem clear that the early other plants and to an honored death. In perhaps the most fa­ Daoists criticized conventional ethical schemas horse is produce. mous animal story in Chinese literature, Zhuan­ of Benevolence, Duty, Ritual, and so forth, and the human-a 1 gzi dreams he is a butterfly, and wakes up uncer­ their power to interfere with all the spontaneity idea. IS Liezi cons tain whether he is a butterfly dreaming of being and naturalness in life. Watching animals could adding several tr Zhuang Zhou.8 A striking poetic image at the help teach humans what really is and is not im­ "Sheep's liver cl: very least, it may also relate to shamanistic tra­ portant and worthwhile. Some texts portray ani­ underground. 11 ditions in which the soul is a butterfly.9 Simi­ mals as able to detect humans. The Liezi de­ become[sl the wi larly, the deer dream story in the later Daoist scribes how gulls came to play with a man but and evolution it text Liezi, in which real and dreamed deer be­ fled when he wanted to capture them.14 (This changes; one can come one, has thought-provoking similarities to became a poetic cliche in later dynasties, even ral flow of things beliefs about deer as magical or spiritual quarry more in Korea than in China.) Here again, free­ More seriousl among the Mongols of north China.lO These dom is seen as a basic desideratum for people death echo this ~ stories reflect a numinous aspect of the human­ and animals alike. body may becon animal interface. These texts also addressed cases where it was horses.2o Such pal Analogy due to real homology is explicit in necessary to capture animals and remove them the world. Even another famous Zhuangzi story, the happiness from their wild state; they make it clear that purely literary pl of fish. Standing on a bridge with his skepti­ there was a right Way even to do that. These actual comments cal debate partner Huizi, Zhuang'Li praises the texts show how to focus on animals, understand ize humble dome free and easy action of the minnows. Huizi asks: exactly how they live and move, and enter into eaves. Lao Dan "You are not a fish. Whence do you know that such harmony with them as to achieve anything. dragon in Zhuar the fish are happy?" Zhuangzi replies that: "You A fisherman catches a whale-sized fish with a gious traditions, aren't me, whence do you know that I don't single silk thread for a line and a wheat awn fOf protected animal know the fish are happy?" and adds that "you a hookl5 A cicada-catcher succeeds by concen­ batim from Con asked me the question already knowing that I trating his mind so much that there is nothing The foundational knew." II Zhuangzi is saying that one intuitively in all the universe for him except the cicada's on these topics, bi knows the pleasure offish. He implies that peo­ wings. 16 The point of the story, of course, is to animals· in as na ple and fish share enough basic similarity that teach us how to live, not how to catch cicadas! Daoists seem not humans can understand themP The early Daoists also recognized the impor­ which animals Wf These stories often emphasize that animals tance of the food chain, and they had no illu­ traction, and med live spontaneously and act according to their sions about that side of animal life. A beautiful as a natural thing 279 DA01SM AND ANIMALS laturalness is also teaching story, used today in many an ecology humans. Tigers, and even mosquitoes, eat hu­ :onduct. Accord­ class, finds Zhuangzi in a game park, trying to mans; why should not humans eat other ani­ horses story: "In poach a bit of dinner. He trains his bow on a mals? Moreover, sacrifice was and still is criti­ ual power or vir­ strange bird that is itself about to eat a mantis cally important to Daoist ritual. Today, Daoist ived in sameness about to eat a cicada. He becomes so absorbed ceremonies observed by E. N. Anderson involve eby side as fellow in this instructive tableau that he himself is al­ sacrifice and consumption ofchickens and pigs, :atures."13 Today, most caught by the wardenP This is said to be and sometimes other animals. It is thus clear that Way. They sub­ the incident that turned his mind to Daoist phi­ Daoists differ from Buddhists in their tolerance ificial habits, and losophy-as well it might! of slaughter and consumption of animals. ental constructs. lransformation is another important aspect on this theme­ of animal life. The Chinese knew that cater­ huangzi were not pillars transformed into butterflies, grubs into The Zhuangzi andAnimal Minds III of whether (or wasps, and so forth. Zhuangzi provides a long rly minded Dao­ string of transformations: the germ in a seed The Zhuangzi uses animals in a new set ofways :elativists remains becomes the water-plantain, which turns into that reflect both observation of (and interest ear that the early other plants and then to insects; eventually the in) their actual behavior, and a keen sense of Jethical'schemas horse is produced, and from the horse is born metaphor. and so forth, and the human - a strange and still unexplained The first representation of the "great knowl­ II the spontaneity idea.ls Liezi considerably expands this account, edge" (d4 zhi *.~) that preoccupies the Inner ng animals could adding several truly uncanny transformations: Chapters of the Zhuangzi is as an animal, or

1 is and is not im­ "Sheep's liver changes into the goblin sheep rather the transformation with which the work

! texts portrayani­ underground. The blood of horses and men begins: the transformation of the Kun fish into ns. The Liezi de­ become[s] the will-o'-the-wisp." 19 Such change the Peng bird in the first chapter of the Zhuan­ ywith a man but and evolution is part of nature. Everything gzi. It is the Peng bird, neither a human or a ure tbem.14 (This changes; one can only resign oneself to the natu­ divinity, that first represents the greater perspec­ er dynasties, even ral flow of things. tive. The distinction between large and small I Here again, free­ More seriously philosophical comments on perspective is elaborated first in the contrast be­ ~tum for people death echo this account. A dying sage says his tween the perspectives of the Peng Bird and the body may become a chariot and his spirit its turtledove that hops from branch to branch. cases where it was horses.2o Such passages say something real about That distinction is elaborated in human terms in and remove them the world. Even when animals are used for the "Qiwu lun" chapter of Book 2. In these pas­ nake it clear that purely literary purposes, we are never far from sages, the Zhuangzi uses a melange of real and to do that. These actual comments on nature. Swallows symbol­ imaginary animals to comment on, and recom­ imals, understand ize humble domesticity because they nest under mend, human choices.23 Animal minds demon­ ve, and enter into eaves. Lao Dan (the apocryphal Laozi) is a strate the desirable attitudes ofgreat perspective achieve anything. dragon in Zhuangzi's metaphor.21 Daoist reli­ and detachment. This kind ofmetaphor extends -sized fish with a gious traditions developed moral charges that to the political. In '~utumn Floods" (Zhuan­ d a wheat awn for protected animal life, sometimes adopted ver­ gzi 17), Zhuangzi himself uses the rhetorical ex­ :ceeds by concen­ batim from Confucian and Buddhist works.22 ample of the "turtle dragging its tail in the mud" It there is nothing The foundational Daoist texts are notably silent to emphasize the priority ofa natural and livable xcept the cicada's on these topics, beyond a general charter to leave life over the demands and dangers of court life ry, of course, is to animals in as natural a state as possible. The and high office. . to catch cicadas! Daoists seem not to have conceived ofa world in The Zhuangzialso uses animal minds to show gnized the impor­ which animals were not used for food, clothing, the limitations of attachment and loss of per­ they had no illu­ traction, and medicine. They saw eating animals spective. Zhuangzi's quarry in the hunting park allife, A beautiful as a natural thing, and therefore appropriate for (see above) is a "strange magpie" whose wings 280

ANDERSON AND RAPHALS

are huge but get it nowhere, and whose eyes The Shamanic Connection mony has its m are huge, but don't see. For all its "uselessness" place to place. ~ -a theme of considerable importance in the An earlier generation of Sinologists often saw logic and struct 17 Zhuangzi-it escapes his attentions, because he connections between Daoism and shamanism. Daurs.3o Howev is distracted by the sight of the cicada stalked Shamanism, a form of religious and curing ac­ animals is not v by the mantis stalked by the magpie stalked by tivity widespread in Asia, involves shamans who ings surveyed he Zhuangzi himself in Zhuangzi 20. send their souls to other realms in order to of spiritual POWl search our the cause and cure of personal and guides in supern social ills and misfortunes. There is every rea­ manism..31 The n Animals, Gender, and Morality son to pursue the issue, for the Han Chinese and cranes used world is surrounded by shamanistic societies. rean realms. This The uses of animals in the arguments of the The English word "shaman" is borrowed from with shamanism two "Classical Daoist" texts and in early medi­ the Tungus languages. Many Tungus groups live sometimes birds. cal literature is even more striking if we contrast in China. One of the Tungus languages, Man­ ously dose. The the use of "birds and beasts" in the arguments chu, was the language of t\VO Chinese dynasties gion that reaches of other Warring States thinkers, sometimes (the Jin and Qing, both ruled by Tungus con­ tral Asia seems a classed as "Huang-Lao" Daoism. The Guanzi querors). It would be inconceivable that China so far as it is reI: contrasts animals negatively with the prehuman would not be influenced by shamanism. Indeed, about sacrifice a state before civilization. In this and other texts, the Chinese word wu ZlI" which now covers a cance of dragon the distinction betvveen men and women (nan­ range of spirit mediums, once clearly applied the tiger, so un nu zhi bie is taken as the defining fea­ to shamans very similar in their practices to throughout its r, ture of human, as opposed to animal, society. the Tungus and Mongol ones?8 Wu and Daoist in Daoist texts. They ascribe the incorrect mingling ofthe sexes, adepts could both send their souls to the heavens know that the i among other things, to the prehuman behavior and to the lands of the immortals, as is clearly foxes and fox s of animals and to the quasi-bestial practices of seen in the Songs ofthe South and in many later lished ..33 The hug 9 primitive society before the civilizing influence Daoist writings.2 Daoist adepts live in a uni­ mals of Zhuangz 24 of the sage-kings. According to the Guanzi, if verse of meditation and inner travel, similar to strange powers, r ministers are allowed to indulge themselves, the shamanic one. manistic cosmol A clear link with shamanic animal lore is evidence of it. C they will follow their desires and behave with the concern with transformations. The general animals ofthe Sh reckless abandon. Men and women will not be texts on transformation, noted above, presaged tains and Seas") kept separate, bur revert to being animals. Con­ a flood of animal tales in later literature. These ary experiences c sequently the rules of propriety, righteous con­ often turn on the proneness of animals to take real "mountains duct, integrity and a sense of shame will not human shape, or vice versa; sometimes the trans­ Shan Hai Jing ne be established and the of men will have formation becomes complete, but at other times text. nothing with which to protect himself.25 we are dealing with were-creatures. Statements Most particul in Daoist texts about the flux and transforma­ seem completel, Part of the "protection" of the ruler is the tion of all things may have roots in shaman­ component so F order of human, as opposed to animal, society. istic traditions as well as Chinese cosmological about hunting. '] The distinction bet\veen men and women is knowledge and belief. Asia and all of one of the defining features of human society. Another link bet\Veen shamanism and Chi­ and shamanic 10 Beasts, by contrast, do not segregate males and nese folk religion is the concern with sacrifices injunction not 26 females. and sacrificial animals. In modern Daoist prac­ usually, no more tice, elaborate sacrifices involve special prepara­ needs. This viev tion and treatment of the animals; each cere­ Hefs about the an 281

DAOISM AND ANIMALS

many has its own patterns, which vary from mented for Altaic peoples on China's fringe. 34 place to place. This is similar to the complex Animals and animal parts are to be treated with ologists often saw logic and structuring of sacrifice among the reverence. This view may well be latent be­ and shamanism. 27 Daurs.3D However, the shamanistic bond with hind Liezi's deer story and several other Dao­ )Us and curing ac­ animals is not very visible in the Daoist writ­ ist stories, but it is not made explicit, nor do lives shamans who ings surveyed here. Animals are not the sources any such moral teachings occur in Daoist writ­ in order to ~alms of spiritual power, nor are they companions or ings. Early Daoist teachings move us away from 'e of personal and guides in supernatural travel, as they are in sha­ explicit moral rules, toward a meditative and 'here is every rea­ manism.31 The nearest we come are the dragons aware state in which we can naturally act in the Han Chinese and cranes used as mounts for travel to empy­ an appropriate manner. Even shamanic moral nanistic societies. rean realms. This is, indeed, no doubt connected rules may have smacked too much of propri­ is borrowed from with shamanism; shamans ride spirit horses, and ety and self-righteousness for the early Daoists. :lingus groups live sometimes birds. But the connection is not obvi­ Later Daoist religious communities adopted a languages, Man­ ously close. The whole complex of animal reli­ variety of moral codes, including the animal­ Chinese dynasties gion that reaches such incredible heights in cen­ related ones noted above; but they came from j by Tungus con­ tral Asia seems absent from Daoism, except in Confucian and Buddhist teachings, not from ivable that China so far as it is related to general Chinese beliefs shamanism.35 unanism. Indeed, about sacrifice and about the magical signifi­ These texts contain an implicit and some­ ich now covers a cance of dragons, turtles, and the like.32 Even times explicitly moral view of animals. Animals e clearly applied the tiger, so universally revered in folk cults have their own natures, their own dao, and hu­ heir practices to throughout its range, gets no special treatment mans should not interfere unless necessary. Such ,8 Wu and Daoist in Daoist texts. Nor does the fox, though we an attitude contains an implicit conservation uls to the heavens know that the incredibly rich folklore about ethic; obviously, Daoists do not like to see lavish rtals, as is clearly foxes and fox spirits was already well estab­ and conspicuous consumption, nor do they like nd in many later lished. 33 The huge, uncanny, and imaginary ani­ to see animals used for any purpose unless real Its live in a uni­ mals of Zhuangzi's and Liezi's stories, with their necessity is involved, Destructive uses clearly travel, similar to strange powers, might hark back a visionary sha­ violate the animals' dao. Animals are sponta­ manistic cosmology, but they give no obvious neous, able to live their good lives without worry c animal lore is evidence of it. Conversely, the bizarre imaginary about rites and ceremonies, morals and duties. Jns. The general animals of the Shan HaiJing ("Classic of Moun­ They do all that they need to do, without think­ above, presaged tains and Seas") are almost certainly the vision­ ing, and nothing more. We are better advised to literature. These ary experiences of shamans traveling to the un­ learn from them than to kill or abuse them. animals to take real "mountains and seas" in question, but the ~times the trans­ Shan Hai Jing never became a canonical Daoist lit at other times text. The Uses ofAnimaLs In Early Daoist Texts Ires. Statements Most particularly, the early Daoist sources llld transforma­ seem completely lacking in the strong moral THE WARRING STATES ots in shaman­ component so prominent in shamanistic lore se cosmological about hunting. Throughout most of northeast Warring States quasi-Daoist accounts of ani­ Asia and all of North America, myths, tales, mals vary widely, and they may contain a few lIlism and Chi­ and shamanic lore encode a very strong moral surprises. Animals are almost completely absent t with sacrifices injunction not to take too many animals­ from the Dao de jing, but, as we have seen, ap­ rn Daoist prac­ usually, no more than one's family immediately pear frequently in the Zhuangzi, as well as in .pecial prepara­ needs. This view, shored up by spiritual be­ the political rhetoric of the Guanzi and other tals; each cere­ liefs about the animals themselves, is well docu- Warring States texts associated with Huang-Lao ANDERSON AND RAPHALS

Daoism. In addition, they appear in recently provide new information about early Chinese -sm:W'?, =[ excavated texts in contexts that range from medical theories. The premier medical docu­ 1is~~, I\'E recipes used to treat animal-inflicted injuries to ment found at Mawangdui is the Recipes for It tLs!liilJ~, metaphors for body movement in sexual arts Fifty-two Ailments (Wushier bingfong literature. m1J). This late-third-century compendium is The first is callt the oldest extant exemplar of a medical recipe cada clinging, t DAO AS INANIMATE IN THE DAO DE fING manual, one of the oldest genres of medical lit­ roe deer buttir erature. Its recipes are listed in fifry-two cate­ the sixth mom Animals are conspicuously absent from the gories, which form the organizing principle of the moon, the c many descriptions of dao in the Dao de jingo Its the text (each category contains up to thirty dragonflies and metaphors for dao are inanimate (water, the val­ recipes). Animal bites and related injuries are in­ ley, the uncarved block) or not quite human (the cluded in several of these: recipes for mad dog Similar exerci! unformed infant), and conspicuously do not in­ bites (category 6), dog bites (category 7), crow's Book" (Yinshu sh clude animals, either singly or collectively. beak poisoning (category IO), scorpions (cate­ at Zhangjiashan i: Animals are not used as positive metaphors gory II), leech bites (category 12), lizards (cate­ that refer to or an for dao. Indeed, they are used as illustrations of gory 13), grain borer ailment (category 18), mag­ ing: inchworms, the kind of negative happenstance that Daoist gots (category 19), chewing by bugs (category owls, tigers, chic self-cultivation protects against. Verse 55 begins: 46), and gu poisoning (category 49).38 dragons.41

One who embraces the fullness of Virtue ANIMALS AS METAPHORS FOR Can be compared to a newborn babe. WHOLE-BODY MOVEMENT Six Dynasties DaG Wasps and scorpions, snakes and vipers do not sting him, The Mawangdui texts also present us with an Now let us turn t Birds of prey and fierce beasts do not seize equally early, and much friendlier, view of ani­ animals in Six D} him.36 mals: the use of animal movements as meta­ phors to describe whole-body movements that HUMAN-ANIMAL Here, animals are clearly viewed as sources do not otherwise lend themselves to clear de­ DAOIST HAGIOG of harm and injury. Early medical texts found scription. The same kinds of metaphors appear in the same tomb as the oldest extant version in the later literature of Daoist-inspired martial The Daoist hagj( of the Dao de jing "flesh out" this concern, and arts, where the modes of movement of cranes, are equally sparin they also present a more positive and imagina­ mantises, and other creatures are taken as mod­ marks the sages ' tive depiction ofanimals in metaphors for body els for the defense and attack of martial artists. are interactions ... movement. These late examples ofthe use ofthe movements mortality, distin. ofanimals may be the Chinese"animal" imagery of secret texts ar most familiar to the nonspecialist. the remarkable ~ Cures for Animal-injlicted Injuries The first known uses of these metaphors are by visitation by a in Daoist sexual technique literature, of which birds would app Before the second century, prevailing views (and the earliest examples extant come from the tomb duse Jie Zitui (ii methods of treatment) of disease treated ill­ excavations at Mawangdui and Jiangjiashan.39 (mm~) raised c ness as the invasive influence of external forces, The Mawangdui texts "Uniting Yin and Yang" gardener Yuan K including natural forces (wind, heat, cold), (He yin yang Jftl ~ Ill\j) and "Discussion of the colored butterfllc demonic entities and magical influence, and Dao of Heaven" (Tianxia zhi dao tan Some do inte animal-inflicted injuries, including bites and the ili~) each contains a section that refer to the animal associate( effects of parasites and insects.37 Recent excava­ movements and postures of animals as whole­ Ma Shihuang Ci'!1 tions of tombs from Mawangdui and elsewhere body metaphors for sexual techniques and pos­ the veterinarian have yielded valuable medical documents that tures: dragon who too~ 283

DAOISM AND ANIMALS

early Chinese ~Bm:Wf, ='B$[lft, -=:BRJI, IZ!lBi£ltfiJ, Shi Men (m F~) lived on flowers, fish, and leaves, medical docu­ 1iBIj£~, 1\B'§i: [1Rl~, tBJill~, /\'B~ and was a master ofdragons (LXZ14). In two of :he Recipes for Jl, fLB~rJ!i, +B~UI these accounts, the human transforms into one ifang -B-+ = of the immortal animals. Huang Di (j[ wn is )mpendium is The first is called roaming tiger, the second ci­ described as "having the form of a dragon" (:fi medical recipe cada clinging, the third inchworm, the fourth ~Jf;, LXZ 5).42 In other accounts, the appear­ of medical lit­ roe deer butting, the fifth locust spreading, ance of the dragon is heralded by a more ordi­ fifty-two cate­ the sixth monkey squat, the seventh toad in nary animal. A red bird appears over the forge Ig principle of the moon, the eighth rabbit startled, the ninth of the blacksmith Tao Angong (1liiV~0) to tell 5 up to thirty dragonflies and the tenth fish gobbling.40 him that a red dragon would come for him and injuries are in­ carry him away on its back (LXZ 60). In a simi­ 's for mad dog Similar exercises described in the "Pulling lar story, Zi Ying (~~) catches a carp and feeds gory 7), crow's Book" (Yinshu shiwen iJ IiH":s'l.J, a text found it. It grows horns and wings; he mounts its back orpions (cate­ at Zhangjiashan in Jiangling, describes exercises and flies away (LXZ 55). , lizards (cate­ that refer to or are named after animals, includ­ Even the story of Mao Nil (=§fr), who grows :gory 18), mag­ ing: inchworms, snakes, mantises, wild ducks, animal-like hair, involves no extended human­ JUgs (category owls, tigers, chickens, bears, frogs, deer, and animal interaction. Seen by hunters over sev­ ~9)·38 dragons.41 eral generations, the "Furry Woman" fled the palace of Qin Shi Huang Di at the end of the Qin dynasty. According to the hagiography, she Six Dynasties Daoism was taught by a Daoist to live on pine nuts, and spontaneously grew a coat of hair (LXZ 54). :nt us with an Now let us turn to a few examples of the use of In summary, on the basis of this evidence, we :r, view of ani­ animals in Six Dynasties and Tang Daoist texts. can make a few speculative observations about lents as meta­ the presence and absence ofanimals in so-called ovements that HUMAN-ANIMAL INTERACTIONS IN Lao-Zhuang and Six Dynasties Daoist texts. ~s to clear de­ DAOIST HAGIOGRAPHIES Despite the considerable prevalence of ani­ aphors appear mals (like plants) in early Chinese texts, spe­ lspired martial The Daoist hagiographies of the Six Dynasties cial interactions with animals are not an ingredi­ lent of cranes, are equally sparing in their use of animals. What ent of the hagiographies of the Liexianzhuan­ taken as mod­ marks the sages of the Liexianzhuan ()11j 1LlI1~) the topos ofthe lifesaving nurture ofabandoned martial artists. are interactions with immortals, longevity, im­ or refugee infants, children, or women by wild he movements mortality, distinct dietary habits, and receipt animals. Even the "Furry Woman" of the Lie­ limal" imagery of secret texts and techniques. In a few cases, xianzhuan learns to survive by the instruction the remarkable qualities of the sage are shown of a Daoist, not by imitating wild beasts. Ani­ metaphors are by visitation by animals. Every morning, yellow mals do appear in these stories as vehicles for hu­ ture, of which birds would appear at the door of the Jin re­ mans who cross the boundary between Heaven trom the tomb cluse Jie Zitui (fr~ti) (LXZ 19). Zhu Qiweng and Earth, mortality and immortality, usually fiangjiashan.39 (tJtm~) raised chickens and fish (LXZ 36); the by mounting to heaven on the back ofa dragon. {in and Yang" gardener Yuan Ke (0 ~~) was visited by five But, as in earlier texts, animals seem largely to :ussion of the colored butterflies (LXZ 47). be used as examples of living naturally. ro tan :R.T Z Some do interact, in various ways, with the at refer to the animal associated with immortality: the dragon. lalS as whole­ Ma Shihuang C~m~) (Horse Master Huang), ques and pos­ the veterinarian of Huang Di, once cured a dragon who took him away on its back (LXZ 3). ANDERSON AND RAPHALS

"STRANGE" ANIMALS IN THE The sixth chapter of the Soushen ji begins plains how the m ZHIGUAI GENRE by explaining the occurrence of possessions and formed from the anomalies: metal, water and Several texts within the genre of zhiguai CGtl), mals made of on or "anomaly" literature, contain extensive ac­ Possessions and anomalies (yao guai) prevail lar forms and Sil counts of animal anomalies, as well as contrast­ over a thing's essential qi (Jirlg qi) and reconfig­ grain (human soc ing accounts of animal "norms." 43 The Bowu­ ure it (~3d£1ll', l¥[;ffl$.Lltxt!JJ1ll'fu). Internally ture; eaters ofgra zhi (t~t?7J,G) or Treatise on Curiosities of Zhang the qi is disordered; externally the thing is trans­ mind; creatures Hua ('*~) (232-300) is organized by thirty­ formed.... ifwe rely on prognostication ofgood duce silk and bec nine subject headings, of which four concern and malauspice ({*~ L ~), in all these cases, it are courageous, f animal anomalies. These are: Marvelous beasts is possible to delimit and discuss them.45 that eat mud lac (~IA yi shou), Marvelous birds (~,~ yi niao), passage returns H Marvelous insects (~~ yi chong), and Mar­ Some cases are partial transformations, where on primal energi, velous fish (~m yi yu). an animal or human grows an extra or inap­ lives; those that, The Soushen ji (J5Ilt$~c) or Records ofan In­ propriate body parts: a tortoise growing hair become numino quest in to the Spirit Realm by Gan Bao c:p Jlf and a hare horns,46 cows, horses or birds with It goes on to (335-349) also contains five very different chap­ extra legs,47 and horses, dogs, and men grow­ mals in several ot ters that bear on animals: monstrous creatures, ing horns.48 In other cases the transformation mode" (JItlE it ci; transformation of humans into plants and ani­ is complete, and an animal (or human) changes by their "male" mals, spirits of mammals, snake and fish spirits, entirely into another, for example, a horse to Creatures that la, and accounts of rewards and retribution byani­ a fox,49 or bears offspring of another species. other creatures t( mals. The third juan of the Yi Yuan (~ffi) Cases of cross-species matings and anomalous "hen mode" nee or Garden of Marvels by Liu Jingshu (iz t,x) births include: a horse bearing a human child,50 tures to reprodt (fl. early 5C) is devoted to fifty-seven items of a dog mating with a pig,51swallows hatching of how animals ( anomalies involving animals: birds (I-I2), tigers sparrows,52 falcons,53 and the birth of two­ one into another (13-17), dragons and snakes (33-47), turtles and headed children.54 In one case, a cow bears a mations is that fish (48-52), and shellfish and insects (53-57). chicken with four feet. 55 Sometimes the trans­ have upward afIil The Soushen houji (J5Ilt$1~~C), or Further Records formation is of gender: a woman turning into list downwards .• ofan Inquest in to the Spirit Realm (late Song or a man, marrying and siring children,56 a man 1.:£~~m).61 early Qi), contains a section (ro) of tales involv­ turning into a woman, marrying and bearing The text goes ing dragons, krakens, and large snakes. Ofthese, children,57 and a hen becoming a cock.58 All tions within cate we explore the account in the Soushen ji at some these anomalies are ascribed to rulers of the to be counted." length. Han and Later Han dynasties and the Three Kingdoms period. Again, the fascination with The movemer EXPLANATION FOR POSSESSIONS the bizarre and surreal continues from Warring follows consta AND ANOMALIES States times and traditions. It and the longevity take a wrong ( cult rather undercut the naturalistic side of Oao­ appear. ... If a As Rob Campanyas pointed out in his study of ism, a point noted by Chinese scholars as well or a beast to a anomaly literature, the animal anomaly stories as modern readers. ($.L~L1ll').~ in the Soushen ji portray several different modes woman becon 62 of anomaly, of which most involve crossing the NATURAL AND ANOMALOUS tion of qi. animal-human boundary. These include: a va­ ANIMAL TRANSFORMATIONS riety of human-animal hybrids and a range of Other chap£( transformations among individual species, gen­ The nineteen items of Book 12 of the Soushen ji other anomalies ders within species, humans, animals, and spir­ describe both "natural" and anomalous transfor­ eluding: transfo its, both human and animal.44 mations ofanimals. The first item in Book I2 ex­ and animals (S 285 DAOISM AND ANIMALS tshen ji begins plains how the myriad creatures (wan wu) were of mammals (55] I8), accounts of snake and lossessions and formed from the five qi of heaven (wood, fire, fish spirits (55] I9) and accounts of reward and metal, water and earth). Its premise is that ani­ retribution by animals (55] 20). These human­ mals made of one kind of qi will display simi­ animal transformations include: a horse into a o guai) prevail lar forms and similar natures. Thus: eaters of silkworm,63 women to birds,64 and women into i) and reconfig­ grain (human society) have intelligence and cul­ turtles (3 cases).65 In the first of the seven fox Hh). Internally ture; eaters ofgrass have great strength and little or fox spirit stories in the eighteenth chapter of e thing is trans­ mind; creatures that eat mulberry leaves pro­ the 50ushen ji, a man turns to a fox in the pres­ tication ofgood duce silk and become caterpillars; eaters ofmeat ence of the Han dynasty Confucian philoso­ 66 11 these cases, it are courageous, fierce, and high-spirited; things pher and anomaly specialist Dong Zhongshu. ; them.45 that eat mud lack mind and breath. Now the Other stories in this chapter involve deer, sow, passage returns to human beings; those that feed and dog spirits, and a rat. Chapter 19 contains nations, where on primal energies become sages and enjoy long six stories of snake, fish, and turtle spirits. extra or inap­ lives; those that do not eat at all do not die and Chapter 20 presents a different kind of ani­ growing hair become numinous immortals (shen).59 mal account, sixteen stories ofrewards and retri­ or birds with It goes on to classify the "natures" of ani­ bution involving animals. In some cases, hu­ Id men grow­ mals in several other ways. One is "cock and hen mans extend "human" compassion to animals, ransformation mode" (iltlE:fflo ci xiong), that is, to classify them and are rewarded. Several of these stories spe­ 60 .man) changes by their "male" and "female" characteristics. cifically involve medical knowledge. One Sun Ie, a horse to Creatures that lack "cock mode" must mate with Deng of Wei perceived that a dragon was ill; ,Other species. other creatures to reproduce; creatures that lack it transformed into a man, he cured it, and it rid anomalous "hen mode" need the nurturing of other crea­ rewarded the district with rains.67 In another tuman child,50 tures to reproduce. It proceeds to an account story, a tiger abducts a midwife named Su Yi lows hatching of how animals of one kind naturally transform to its lair, where she delivers the tigress of a )1rth of two­ one into another; the principle ofthese transfor­ breach birth. The tiger returns her home, and re­ a cow bears a mations is that "creatures of the heavenly son wards her with gifts of game.68 In other cases, a nes the trans­ have upward affinities; those with earthly origins black crane, an oriole, a serpent, and a turtle re­ I turning into list downwards. Each thing follows its kind" (1t­ turn and reward the humans that cure and free :lren,56 a man 61 them.69 In other humans show compas­ ~ and bearing The text goes on to explain that transforma­ sion to fish, ants, and a snake7° In one, a man a cock. 58 All tions within category are normal and "too many is saved from false imprisonment and death by rulers of the to be counted." a mole cricket he feeds.71 In these cases, humans nd the Three extend the benefits of "human" morality to ani­ cination with The movement of things in response to change mals, who react in kind. In other cases, animals from Warring follows constant ways, and it is only when things spontaneously act with human qualities. Two the longevity take a wrong direction that injurious anomalies such stories involve dogs.72 Other stories involve c side ofDao­ appear.... Ifa human gives birth to a beast (shou) misbehaving humans and animals who act "hu­ holars as well or a beast to a human it is case of qi in disorder manely." A mother gibbon suicides when a man (~;L ~_1'J). When a man becomes a woman or a catches, and then kills, her baby.73 A (talking) woman becomes a man, it is a case of transposi­ deer and a serpent bring retribution in the form tion of qi.62 of sudden illness on hunters who kill them74

Other chapters go on to record animal and the 50ushen ji other anomalies without further explanation, in­ Jous transfor­ cluding: transformations of humans into plants tn Book I2 ex­ and animals (55] 14), accounts of the spirits 2.86

ANDERSON AND RAPHALS

Animals and Traditional Chinese Medicine ma/s, and teaches us to treat them with respect. usually attempts to "pre: On the other hand, Daoism is not a philosophy cies or a local habitat, This brief account has hardly touched on sev­ of animal rights in the modern sense. Daoists change is inevitable an( eral other ways in which animals figure in Daoist thought it natural to use animals for food, sac­ cies accordingly. For exa and Daoist-influenced traditions. One of these rifice, and service. However, they held that ani­ an endangered bird, w( is the sobering case of the use of animals in mals should not be used in ways that make them habitat to provide a safe traditional Chinese medicine, which stands in act contrary to their own natures. utter contrast to these Han and Six dynasty ac­ Second, these early Daoist writings, espe­ counts of human-animal moral reciprocity. Ani­ cially the Zhuangzi, were centrally important mals are the objects or means of cure in variety for the development of a distinctive aesthetic of medical texts. Animals, both living and dead, among the educated elites, both scholarly and 1. For translation see appear as elements in the treatment of disease. artistic. The impact of this style went far be­ Book ofOdes (Stockholn In some cases, live animals are used in ritual yond Daoism in any sense of the term. Appre­ Antiquities, 1950). cures; in others, medications made from ani­ ciation for the simple and natural led to a taste 2. Zhuangzi yinde itt mal products are used as treatments. it for flowering apricots (meihua ;flit IT), moun­ the Zhuangzi] (Shanghai here simply to mention the complex overlap of tains, streams, and other beauties of nature. Re­ 90 -95. For translation s Daoism, alchemy, and medicine in the works of cluses chanted poems or played the qin while tzu: The Inner Chapters ( such figures as Ge Hong, (283-343), Tao Hong­ admiring spectacular scenery. Tao Qian, one of Unwin 1981), p. IIO. jing (456-5:)6) and Sun Simiao (581-682).75 The the figures most associated with this style, made 3. Zhuangzi 9/14-1' use of animals in medicine is also of the great­ a cultural icon of the chrysanthemum, which p. 205)· est practical importance, since the (often ille­ he knew as a humble roadside weed. (Suppos­ 4. Edward Schafer, gal) killing of animals for medical products is edly, it became a garden flower because of his University of California a major factor in the depletion of many endan­ love for it, so today's huge florist "mums" are a 5. Zhuangzi IS/S-r. gered animal species today. This problematic re­ later innovation.) This distinctive way of look­ p. 265). These practices lation to animals dates from our earliest records ing at the world persisted through Chinese his­ 6. Schafer, Pacing th of medical practice. Animal products as com­ tory and spread widely in eastern Asia. More re­ 7. Caroline Humph, ponents of medical recipes go back as far as the cently, it has influenced the West, and through ford: Oxford Universil Fifty-two Ailments.?6 The use ofanimal products individuals such as the poet Gary Snyder it has Faune et Flore sacrees da, in traditional Chinese medicine continues to the materially influenced environmentalist thought. Adien-Maisoaneuve, I~ present day. In this sense, Daoism implies a morality of re­ 8. Zhuangzi 2/94­ spect for the inner nature of things, and for the p.6I). place ofall things in the vast, ever-changing cos­ 9. Humphrey, Shan Conclusions mic flow. 10. Ibid. Today, Daoist thinking might find its best II. Zhuangzi 17/88. \Vhat can the contemporary world learn from use in ecosystem management. It could be the p. 12 3). early Daoist attitudes toward animals? First, the grounding philosophy for a view that does not 12. A possible eXal Daoists did not see a sharp barrier between peo­ separate humanity from nature; that looks at subjects is discussed b: ple and animals, or, more generally, between hu­ the whole, not just at segmented parts; and that this volume. However, manity and nature?? In fact, they saw humans focuses on the inevitable flow and change of is no indication in the! and animals as mutually dependent, and, in­ things, not on static and frozen moments. Cur­ humans. deed, regularly prone to change into each other. rently, environmental management suffers from 13. Zhuangzi 9/9 (C Change and transformation are seen in Daoism the opposite tendencies. It usually separates "na­ 14. Liezi JjIFf 2 p. 2 as universal and necessary; human beings can ture" or the "natural ecosystem" as a reified en­ translation see A. C. C only adapt to the changes in the cosmos, and tity. It tends to look at one problem at a time: (London: John Murra theydo best by going along with them. In a deep birds here, insects there, rather than the inter­ 15. Liezi 5, pp. 58-~ and basic sense, dao unites humans and ani- relationship of birds, insects, and the rest. It 16. Zhuangzi 19 « 287 DAOISM AND ANIMALS hem with respect. usually attempts to "preserve" an individual spe­ phe. Ecologists and conservation biologists have not a philosophy cies or a local habitat, rather than seeing that criticized this, but the Endangered Species Act is rn sense. Daoists change is inevitable and setting goals and poli­ still focused on the species, not the totality. Per­ lalS for food, sac­ cies accordingly. For example, when we preserve haps conservation biologists need more Daoist ley held that ani­ an endangered bird, we rarely preserve enough training. '$ that make them habitat to provide a safeguard in case ofcatastro- res. t writings, espe­ Itrally important NOTES :inctive aesthetic

.th scholarly and I. For translation see Bernhard Karlgren, The The reader may be interested in why anyone would ric went far be­ Book of Odes (Srockholm: Museum of Far Eastern catch cicadas. E. N. Anderson has often observed he term. Appre­ Antiquities. 1950). the practice in China. Cicadas are used for chicken raIled to a taste 2. Zhuangzi yinde l1f -'f iJ If~ [A Concordance to feed, and as noisy and active pets for young people. ( #it moun­ the Zhuangzil (Shangbai: Guji chubanshe, 1982) 24/ Small boys, especially, delight in the cicadas' loud es ofnature. Re­ 90-95. For translation see A. C. Graham, Chuang­ songs, and sometimes torment proper young girls d the qin while tzu: The Inner Chapters (London: George Allen and therewith. Naturally, such buyers are not affluent, ao Qian, one of Unwin 1981), p. lIO. and cicada-catching affords a very modest living. this style, made 3. Zhuangzi 9/14-16 (Graham, C'huang-tzu, As he almost always does, Zhuangzi is picking his hemum, which p·205)· human exemplar from the most humble sectors of weed. (Suppos­ 4. Edward Schafer, Pacing the Void (Berkeley: society. because of his University of California Press, 1977). 17. Zhuangzi 20/61-68 (Graham, Chuang-tzu, :t "mums" are a 5. Zhuangzi 15/5-6 (Graham, Chuang-tzu, p. II8). re way of look­ p. 265). These practices are discussed below. 18. Zhuangzi 18/40-45 (Grmam, Chuang-tzu, ~h Chinese hi5­ 6. Schafer, Pacing the Void, passim. p. 184). IAsia. More re­ 7. Caroline Humphrey, Shamans andElders (Ox­ 19. Liezi I, pp. 4-5 (Grallam, Lieh-tzu, p. 21). :t, and through ford: Oxford University Press, 1996); Jean Roux, 20. Zhuangzi 6/51-52 (Graham, Chuang-fLu, y Snyder it has Faune et Flore sacries dans les sociietis altai'ques (Paris: p.88). nallst thought. Adien-Maisonneuve,1966). 21. Zhuangzi 14/60-64 (Graham, Chuang-tzu, morality of re­ 8. Zhuangzi 2/94-96 (Graham, Chuang-tzu, p. 2I4). gs, and for the p.6I). 22. See Livia Kohn, The Taoist Experience (Al­ -changing cos­ 9. Humphrey, Shamans. bany: SUNY Press, 1993). 10. Ibid. 23. Lisa Raphals, "Skeptical Strategies in the t find its best II. Zhuangzi 17/88-91 (Graham, Chuang-tzu, Zhuangzi and Theaetetus." Philosophy East and West t could be the p. 123). 44, no. 3 (July 1994): 501-26. Reprinted as chapter that does not 12. A possible example of the communion of in Zhuangzi and Skepticism, eds., PJ. Ivanhoe and that looks at subjects is discussed by Thomas Berry elsewhere in Paul Kjellberg. Albany: SUNY Press. >arts; and that this volume. However, it should be noted that there 24. Lisa Raphals, Sharing the Light: Representa­ nef change of is no indication in the stoty that animals undetstand tions of W'0men and Virtue in Early China (Albany: oments. Cur­ humans. SUNY Press, 1998), ch. 8. t suffers from 13· Zhuangzi 9/9 (Grallam, Chuang-tzu, p. 205). 25. Guanzilfi-'f (Sibu beiyao edition) XXI 6pb. separates "na­ 14. 2 p. 21 (Zhuzi jichengedition). For For translation see W. Allyn Rickett, Guanzi: Po­ s a reified en­ ttanslation see A. C. Graham, The Book ofLieh-tzu litical, Economic and Philosophical Essays from Early ~m at a time: (London: John Murray, 1960), p. 45. China (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1985), ,an the inter­ 15· Liezi 5, pp. 58-59 (Graham, Lieh-tzu, p. 105). vol. I, pp. 110-II. f the rest. It 16. Zhuangzi 19 (Graham, Chuang-tzu, p. 138). 26. The definition of human ,society by the dis­ 288

ANDERSON AND RAPHALS

tinction between men and women also occurs at 36. Laozi dao de jing ~+lli f.ii1\ ff£ (Zhuzi jicheng ~iZG Wenwu 1 (1985): GuanziXI 31:1a (Rickett, Guanzi, p. 412). edition), trans. Robert Henricks, Lao-Tzu Te-Tao jiashan Hanjian zheng 27. For example, see Arthur Waley, The Nine Ching: a New Translation Based on the Recently Dis­ yinshu shiwen **UJ Songs: A Study ofShamanism in Ancient China (Lon­ covered Ma-wang-tui Texts (New York: Ballantine (1990): 82-86; analysi don: George Allen and Unwin, 1955). Books, 1989). jiashan Hanjian yinsh, 28. See, e.g., ibid. 37. The Mawangdui medical corpus consists of ~, Wenwu 10 (1990): 29. See: David Hawkes, Ch'u Tz'u, The Songs of eleven medical manuscripts written on three sheets 42. In a simita.r S1 the South (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1959); of silk, recovered from Mawangdui Tomb 3 in 1973, Shi could imitate the Waley, Nine Songs; Schafer, Pacing the Void. a burial dating from 168 BeE. The individual manu­ his flute. He marrie( 30. Humphrey, Shamans. scripts are untitled, but have been assigned tides her, transformed into 31. Mongush B. Kenin-Lopsan, Shamanic Songs by Chinese scholars on the basis of their contents. (LXZ 35). Liu Xiang and Myths of Tuva. (Budapest: Akademiai Kiado, For discussion of the Mawangdui medical manu­ f.\IJ [Collected Life Stor 1997), Roux, Faune; and S. M. Shirokogoroff, Psy­ scripts see Donald Harper, Early Chinese Medical ["Treasury of Daoist chomental Complex of the Tungus (London: Kegan Literature (New York: Columbia University Press, cyclopedic collection] Paul, 1935), and Carmen Blacker, The Catalpa Bow: 1999), pp. 22-30; for more general relevant discus­ 43. This literature A Study ofShamanistic Practices in Japan (London: sions, Paul Unschuld, Medicine in China: A His­ overlapped with the [ George Allen and Unwin, 1986), 2nd. ed. Judging tory ofPharmaceutics. Comparative Studies ofHealth above, specifically in from Blacker's work, Japanese shamanism is less Systems and Medical Care (Berkeley: University of a useful survey see R concerned with animals than the Chinese texts con­ California Press, 1986); Douglas Wile, The Art of Writing: Anomaly Acc sidered here. the Bedchamber: The Chinese Sexual Yoga Classics In­ (Albany: SUNY Pres: 32. Roux, Faune, passim. cluding Womens Solo Meditation Techniques (Albany: 52, 58-59 and 79. RI 33. Han texts tell us, for instance, of the nine­ SUNY Press, 1992). from Gan Bao T. tailed fox, a frightening supernatural being. In Chi­ 38. Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature, pp. (55]) [Records ofan J nese popular and literary traditions, fox spirits are 221-22. Gu Ii poisoning, an affiiction of demonic Congshu jicheng v. 2( often malevolent and inauspicious. origins, was sometimes attributed to the pernicious (Tao Yuanming l*diC 34. See, for instance, Kenin-Lopsan, Shamanic activities of women, who were believed to cultivate houji :)'l'lt$f~Bc [FUrl Songs; and also the famous tale of the Nisan Sha­ gu, and pass it down for generations. the Spirit Realm], CO" man; the conservation message is latent in the well­ 39. Mawangdui hanmu boshu zhengli xiaozu,~ J: shan Hanmu zhujian known Nowak and Durranr version (Margaret No­ .!iij!¥lf',l!lH~!J'*,§ [The Official Editorial Board M1H~+*.!L ed. 1985 wak and Stephen Durrant, The Tale ofthe Nisan Sha­ of the Silk Manuscripts of Mawangdui], Mawang­ 44. Campany, StT maness: A Manchu Folk Epic, [Seattle: University of dui hanmu boshu (BS) .~J:.!iij!¥ ~ i! [The Han­ 45· SSJ6:37. Washingron Press, 1977]), bur explicit in a version Dynasty Silk Manuscripts of Mawangdui], (Bei­ 46. SSJ6:38. recorded by Caroline Humphrey (Shamans, p. 306). jing: Wenwu chubanshe, 1980, 1983), vols. 1-4. 47· SSJ6:39,4°, Still further is the complete prohibition on killing 40. Mawangdui Hanmu boshu, 4:155, 165; cf. 48. SSJ 6:39-40, animals, at least in sacred localities, that character­ Wile, Art ofthe Bedchamber, pp. 78- 81. The differ­ 49. SSJ6:38. izes Buddhism. Such prohibition came ro China and ences in terminology between the two sections are 50. SSJ 6:39· added itself to mountain cults, as in Tibet (Toni minor. (This version is the He Yin Yang.) For discus­ 51. SSJ6:40. Huber, The Cult ofPure Crystal Mountain, Oxford: sion see Vivienne Lo, "Crossing the 'Inner Pass': An 52. SSJ 6 :43. Oxford University Press, 1999). 'Inner/Outer' Distinction in Early Chinese Medi­ 53. SSJ 6 :48. 35. E. N. Anderson, "Flowering Apricot: Envi­ cine." East Asian Science, Technology andMedicine 17 54. SSJ 6: 46 and ronment, Practice, Folk Religion and Taoism," in (2000): 15-65. 55. SSJ 6:45· Daoism and Ecology, eds. N.]. Girardot, James 41. Maishu shiwen ~lIH1!n' X [Channel book], 56. SSJ6:39· Miller, and Liu Xiaogan (Cambridge: Harvard Uni­ Yinshu shiwen iJ Ii!~'x [Pulling book]. Reported in 57· SSJ 6:43· versity Press for Center for the study of World Re­ Zhangjiashan Hanmu zhujian zhengli xiaozu, Jiang­ 58. SSJ 6 :41 and. ligions, 2001), pp. 157-84. ling Zhangjiashan Hanjian gaishu tIM' 5& '* wij! FJl 59. SSJ 12:81 cf. : 289 DAOISM AND ANIMALS ill (Zhuzi jicheng Wenwu I (I985): 9-I6. Transcribed in Zhang­ Crump, Jr. (cd. and trans.), In Search ofthe Super­ Lao- Tzu Te- Tao jiashan Hanjian zhengli Zit, Zhangjiashan Hanjian natural: The Written Record (Stanford: Stanford Uni­ the Recently Dis­ yinshu shiwen ~ '* UJ i~ M'} 1~ ~ x, Wenwu IO versity Press, 1996), pp. 142-44. '{ork: Ballantine (1990): 82-86; analysis by Peng Hao fi~ iti, Zhang­ 60. Somewhat misleadingly described by De­ jitlshan Banjian yinshu chutan ~ '* UJ i~ jj" 151 ~:m woskin and Crump as "virility" and "mothering Irpus consists of ~, \.Vt>nwu IO (1990): 87-91. spirit." For more on cock and hen, see Raphals, I on three sheets 42. In a similar story abut the phoenix, Xiao Sharing the Light, ch. 6. Tomb 3 in 1973, Shi could imitate the sound of the phoenix with 61. 55] juan 12 p. 81. ldividual manu­ his flute. He married a princess, and later, with 62. 55] juan 12 p. 81. I assigned tides her, transformed into twin phoenixes and flew away 63· 55]14:93. : their coments. (LXZ 35). Liu Xiang (attrib.), Liexian zhuan 91Jfill 64· 55] 14:94. medical manu­ 11ll fGollected Life Stories ofImmortals], in Dao zang 65· 55] 14:94-95. ';hinese Medical ["Treasury of Daoist Writings" -the complete en­ 66. 55] 18: I2I. Tniversity Press, cyclopedic collection], 138. 67· 55] 20:I33. relevant discus­ 43. This literature is not specifically Daoist, but 68. 55] 2O:IJ3. China: A His­ overlapped with the Daoist hagiographies described 69· 55] 2O:I33-34. tudies ofHealth above, specifically in its treatment of animals. For 70. 55] 20:I34 and I36. ': University of a useful survey see Robert Ford Campany, Strange 71. 55] 20:135· 'ile, The Art of Writing: Anomaly Accounts in Early Medieval China 72. 55] 20:134-35. Yoga Classics In­ (Albany: SUNY 1996), pp. 52-79, especially n 55] 20:135-36. 'liques (Albany: S2, and 79. References to what follows are 74. 55] 20:136. For further discussion see Cam­ from Gan Baa Tllf (335-349), 50ushen ji ~tiJIBc pany, Strange Writings, pp. 384-93. !Literature, pp. (55]) [Records ofan Inquest in to the Spirit Realm], 75. The Baopuzi neipian [Esoteric Chapters ofthe on of demonic Congshu jichengv. 2692-4. See also Tao Qian 1llilJii'f Book ofthe Preservation-of50lidiry }Jaster] Ge Hong the pernicious (Tao Yuanming IllilJ DJl 365-427, attrib.), 50ushen describes the preparation of alchemical elixirs; the 'ed to cultivate houji ~ fIJI [Further Records ofan Inquest in to Daoist scholar Tao Hongjing also authored the 5hen the Spirit Realm], Congshu jicheng v. 2695; Zhangjia­ Nong bencao [Collected Commentaries on 5hen Nong's 'gli xiaozu .~ 3:: shan Hanmu zhujian zhengli xiaozu iJ& '* UJ ~ ~ t1' Classic ofMateria Medica]; the Taiqing danjing yao­ ~ditorial Board fl1'jIEl]l.'j'~fi, ed. 1985-90. jue [Taiqing Elixir Classic Oral Digest] ofSun Simiao iui], lvfawang­ 44- Campany, 5trange Writing, pp. 247-53. contains elixir recipes. r~ [The Han­ 45· 76. For example, one recipe for lizard bites in­ mgdui), (Bei­ 46. 5SJ cludes the instruction to "Seal it with oneyang sheaf ,vols. 1-4. 47· 55] 6: 39, 40, 43 and 44· of jin. Then incinerate deer antler. Drink it with P55, 165; c[ 48. 5SJ and 43. urine." Harper, Early Chinese Medical Literature, 81. The differ­ 49. 55] 6: 38. p·54· '0 sectIons are 50. 55] 6: 39. 77. In fact, taboos and restrictions, so charac­ g.) For discus­ 51. 55]6: 40. teristic of many religions, were and are sparse in nner Pass': An 52. 55] 6:43. Daoism. Unlike Judaism and Islam, it provides no hinese Medi­ 53· 55] 6:48. list of taboo animals and animal uses (though some !tlMedicine I7 54· 55] 6: 46 and 47. Daoist sects do have taboos). Unlike Hinduism and 55· 55] 6:45· Buddhism, it does not enjoin nonviolence (though, lanne! book], 56. 5SJ6:39· again, some Daoist sects do, having probably picked I. Reported in 57· 55] 6: 43· up the idea from Buddhism). Unlike many religions 'Jdaozu, ]iang­ 58.55] 6:41 and 46. (including early Judaism, most "animistic" tradi­ ~~*IJl~M 59· 55] 12:81 cf. Kenneth J. DeWoskin and J. 1. tions, and even Confucianism), it did not origi­ 290

ANDERSON AND RAPHALS nally provide specific directions for animal conser­ take a scientific attitude toward animals, and here vation. Still less were animals worshiped as gods (as animals are considered only as sources for drugs. in Egypt) or as persons who were human in mythic The animal management conspicuous in early Con­ time and still have human and divine attributes (as fucian and syncretist texts (Anderson, "Flowering in most of Native America). Joseph Needham saw Apricot"), based on empirical observation, finds no Daoism as the key ideology underlying early sci­ echo in Daoism (except in obvious borrowings). ence in China, but only in medicine does Daoism