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A/EEC see attaching and effacing Escherichia aerobic digesters 414, 417 coli aerosols 34, 38–9, 246 abattoir wastes 419–20 AFLP see amplified fragment length 234 polymorphism abrasions 33 AFOs see animal feeding operations Acanthamoeba 256, 259 93–108 ascarid nematodes 295 age factors acceptable risks 24 animals 414 see also tolerable... control envelope 79 acid-fast staining 285 Cryptosporidium 183 acquired syndrome (AIDS) dose-response studies 464 142, 143 Giardia 182–3 283, 286 tolerable microbial risk 457–8 microsporidia 258, 326, 327 AGI see acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown acute gastrointestinal illness of unknown origin origin (AGI) 125 agriculture adaptation capacities 9, 309, 310–11 animal systems 409–12 adenoviruses 343, 355 biosecurity 177 486 Waterborne Zoonoses

campylobacteriosis risks 201 versus human 450 industrial systems 21–4, 411 animal feeding operations (AFOs) 433–4 mixed systems 411 animal husbandry New Zealand 194, 196–7 Campylobacter 176–7 pastoral 194, 200 control envelope 69–71 public health impact 200 emerging diseases 21–4 outbreaks 231–2 environmental impact 21–4 distribution 52–3 Escherichia coli O157 178–9 AIDS see acquired immunodeficiency syndrome global densities 22 air drying 413, 417 global increase prediction 21 Alaria marcianae 300 ‘livestock revolution’ 21 algal 35 management 69–71 alkaline treatment 414, 417 New Zealand 191–200 alveolar hydatid disease 301–2 Salmonella reservoirs 232–5 ambient waters 442, 449, 450 Scotland 167–8 amitochondriate parasites 479 stocking levels 199 amoebae 211, 256, 259–61 zoonose distribution 52–3 Amoy Gardens, Hong Kong 38–9 see also domestic animals amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) animal products demand 6 352, 353 animal reservoirs anaerobic digestion 413, 415, 417 control strategies 377–8, 380–401 Ancylostoma 296 pathogen evaluation 9–10 Andean countries 307, 308 risk factors 381–4 Andes 105 Salmonella 232–5 Angiostrongylus 296–7 Scotland 151, 167–8 animal densities 382 246–50 animal faeces/wastes animal viral transmission 246 Campylobacter 176 anthropogenic factors 46–61 Cyclospora cayetanensis 287 anthroponoses 29 cyclosporiasis 287 antibiotic resistance analysis 352 dead animals 419–21 antibiotics disposal 22–3 animal agriculture 412 Escherichia coli O157 187–8 71 field application 416–17 control envelope 70, 71, 78 human exposure 439–40, 443–4, 448–9 genetic exchange 477 manure treatment 416 resistance 71, 233, 238, 389–90, 477 pathogen control 378–9, 409–22 Salmonella 233, 238 pathogen sources 14 virulence genes 78 policies 418 zoonosis distribution 58 Salmonella 237 250, 251 treatment processes 412–16, 417 antigens 243 Index 487 antimicrobials 389–90 USA 123–4, 126, 132 Apicomplexa 265–75, 479 ARCC see average rate of correct classification bacterial source tracking see faecal source Argentina 105 identification; microbiological source Ascaris tracking /Africa/ 94 bacteriocins 392 A. lumbricoides 122, 292, 294 bacteriophages 343, 354, 392, 477 A. suum 294 Bacteroides 355–6 ascaris pneumonia 294 Bacteroidetes faecal markers 355–6, 359 Asia 93–108, 295 Balantidium coli 121–2, 256 asymptomatic 156, 158, 457 bank filtration 433 at-risk groups bats 103, 104–5 control envelope 77 Baylisascaris procyonis 295 future perspective 6 beaches 339, 462 microsporidia 326–8 behaviour, human 10, 53–4, 79–80 zoonosis distribution 55–6 Belgium 177 see also immunocompromised groups benchmark organisms 8–9 attaching and effacing Escherichia coli (A/EEC) beta-Poisson models 464–5 214–15 beverages 315–16 Australia 104, 231 Bifidobacterium 357 Australian bat lyssavirus 104 binning procedures 467 Austrobilharzia variglandis 122, 299 biochips 374 average rate of correct classification (ARCC) 351 biofilms 55 average surface temperature 61 biosecurity 177, 388–9, 399–400 avian 104 biosensors 373–4 avian schistosomes 299 birds 151, 167–8, 273 avian viruses 248, 249 310–11 Blastocystis 100, 121 Bacillus anthracis 479 Blastomyces hominis 116 Bacillus coli see Escherichia coli ‘boil water’ requirements 185, 187 backflow, distribution systems 434 Bolivia 307, 308, 310 backwashing, filtration 427–8 bone meal 395, 398, 481 bacteria 210 bottled water 188 Asia/Africa/South America 101–3, 106 bovine reservoirs 246–7 control in animal wastes 411–12 bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) 41–2, emergence/re-emergence 478–9 394–9, 400 expert consensus 12 bovine reservoirs 247 genetic exchange 477 dead animal wastes 419–20, 421 gorillas 101–2 emergence/re-emergence 481 115 Bradley’s classification 31–4 488 Waterborne Zoonoses broilers 22–3 symptoms 137–8 treatment 138 Brucella 103 Canada 221, 222, 268 BSE see bovine spongiform encephalopathy Canary Islands 220 Bunyaviridae 105 candidate agents 246–50 Burkholderia pseudomallei 479 cantaloupes 231 Buxtonella 256 Capillaria hepatica (syn. Calodium hepaticum) 297 carbon-source utilization (CUP) 352 caffeine 350 Caribbean 113–18 calciviruses 244, 248, 249 case definitions 159 calves and calving 171–2, 381, 390–1 case-studies 151–207 Campylobacter catchment basins 9–10 Asia/Africa/South America 102 cats 77, 267–9, 294 farming transmission 222, 223 cattle gastrointestinal illnesses 231 BSE 394–9, 481 New Zealand 191–202 Campylobacter 176 outbreak investigation 183–4 Cryptosporidium 274 QRA application 461–3 Escherichia coli 51–2, 178–9, 210, 222, 223 risk models 158, 160 industrialization 21–3 Scotland 169–70, 172, 176–7 manure disposal 23 seasonal patterns 171, 173 Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis surveillance systems 163 325 survival rates 198 New Zealand 191–202 USA 123, 128–9, 132 risk factors 381 C. coli 102, 176–7, 371 Salmonella reservoirs 233–4, 237 C. jejuni Salmonella Typhimurium 172–3 Asia/Africa/South America 102 Scotland 168, 171–3, 175 automated PCR detection 371 trade effects 51 chlorine inactivation 429 viruses 246–7 control envelope 68, 71, 78 VTEC reservoirs 217–18 dose-response studies 464–5, 466 CDSC see Communicable Disease Surveillance New Zealand 197 Centre prevalence in animals 381 cell receptors 243, 245 sarafloxacin 78 Central America 113–18 Scotland 176–7 cercarial dermatitis 299, 300 campylobacteriosis cestodes see tapeworms case-study 461–3 chemical indicators 350, 447 causative agents 137 chickens see poultry health consequences 138–9 children management responses 201 congenital 145–8 New Zealand 192–3, 194, 197, 199 diarrhoea in Latin America 114 Index 489

Dominican Republic 116 (CDSC) 163, 164 El Salvador 117 community fingerprinting methods 357 Giardia infections 263 competitive exclusion 391–2 Guatemala 118 composting 413, 415 haemolytic uraemic syndrome 223 concentration distributions 467 Honduras 117 congenital toxoplasmosis 145–8 Mexico 115 conjugation 476 mortality/morbidity 56–7 Connecticut freshwater study 195–6 Nicaragua 117 consumption habits, human 53–4, 80 tolerable microbial risk 457–8 contact diseases 32–3 chips see microarray technology contamination chloramine 432 animal/human 450 chlorine 74, 325, 384, 392–3, 429–31 beaches 339, 462 chlorine dioxide 432 control envelope breach 75 chronic wasting disease (CWD) 249, 252, 421, Cryptosporidium 274–5 481 epidemiological concerns 155 cisterns 236 Giardia 265 civets 38 human faeces 194–5, 444 CLB see cyanobacteria-like bodies poultry 233 Clean Water Act (US) 442–3 Stockholm framework 452–8 climatic issues Toxoplasma 269 climate change 58–61, 318 control envelope 66, 67–80 climate cycling 59 control strategies Cryptosporidium outbreak 186 animal reservoirs 377–8, 380–401 emerging zoonoses 477–8 animal wastes 378–9, 409–22 fascioliasis transmission 317–18 disease transmission 420 greenhouse gases 418 drinking-water 379, 426–35 clinical parasitological studies 98–9 future perspective 7 cloned animals 444 monocytogenes 456 369 regulatory perspective 439–51 co-infections 29 Corsica 310–11 coagulation 427, 428 Costa Rica 115–16 coastal waters 236 246 cold-tolerance 239 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) see variant coliforms 360, 431 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease coliphages 343 Crohn’s disease 72, 189, 325 collaboration 164, 447 cross-resistance, antibiotics 389–90 colonization power 309, 312–13 cross-sector collaboration 16 combining distributions 467 crossover between species 12 Communicable Disease Surveillance Centre cryptosporidiosis 256, 271 490 Waterborne Zoonoses

Mexico 115 bias 343–4, 354 New Zealand 192, 194, 195 Escherichia coli O157:H7 218 symptoms 142 culture-dependent faecal source identification treatments 142–3 351–5 Cryptosporidium 269–75 culture-independent faecal source identification 358 age factors 183 CUP see carbon-source utilization Asia/Africa/South America 95–9 CWD see chronic wasting disease chlorine resistance 74 cyanobacteria-like bodies (CLB) 283 contamination reduction 274–5 cyclophyllid cestodes 300–2 control envelope breach 75 Cyclops 297–8 Cuba 116 Cyclospora cayetanensis 116, 122, 211, 256, disease models 159 283–8 HACCP-like processes 81 cyclosporiasis 143, 283–8 HIV 67–8 cystic hydatid disease 301, 302 oocysts detection tests 96–8 cysts 260, 262, 263–4, 266 outbreak investigation 183–4 regulation 441, 442 DAEC see diffuse adherent Escherichia coli Scotland 169–70, 171–2, 180–1, 186–7 dairy cattle seasonal patterns 173 management responses 201 surface waters 97 New Zealand 191–2, 194, 197, 198, 200, 201 surveillance 92, 163–4 public health impact 200 treated waters 98 Scotland 168, 171 USA 121, 128–30, 131–2 DALYs see disability-adjusted life years UV light treatment 432–3 dams 53 C. hominis 180 DBPs see disinfection by-products C. parvum dead-end hosts 28–9 automated PCR detection 371 DEC see diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli coagulation 427 definition, zoonoses 5, 28 control envelope 68 deforestation 54 disease risk 339, 340 demographic changes 55–7 dose-response studies 464, 465 density of animals 382 immunocompromised groups 384 deposition/yield studies 199 immunoprophylaxis 390–1 desiccation 413, 417 prevalence in animals 381 design of distribution systems 434 resistance 390 detection methods surveillance 473–4 Cryptosporidium 96–8, 274 types 180 epidemiological surveillance 159 waste treatment systems 414 Giardia cysts 96–8 Cuba 116 microsporidia 258 culling 419, 420–1 outbreaks 161 culture rapid 367–74 Index 491

Salmonella 237 DNA replication 476 Toxoplasma oocysts 268 dogs 294 diarrhoea domestic animals 217–18, 259, 267–9 age/income factors 458 see also animal husbandry; pets cases per year 4 domestic hygiene 32, 76, 77 cryptosporidiosis 271 Dominican Republic 116–17 cyclosporiasis 284–5 dormancy 31 263 dose-response studies Latin America 114 Campylobacter jejuni 466 diarrhoeagenic Escherichia coli (DEC) 213–24 campylobacteriosis 462 die-offs 420–1 regulation and control 448 diffuse adherent Escherichia coli (DAEC) 214–15 uncertainties 464–5, 467 digenetic trematodes 292 Dracunculus medinensis 32–3, 297–8 Diphyllobothrium 303 drinking-water Diplogonoporus grandis 303 Cyclospora cayetanensis 287 Diplostomum spathaceum 300 diseases control 379, 426–35 direct epifluorescent filter technique 370 emerging patterns 474 direct life cycles 292 Entamoeba histolytica 260 direct transmission 28–9 epidemiological concerns 155 direct zoonoses 28–9 Escherichia coli O157:H7 222 disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) 11, 454, faecal contamination 340–1, 342 455–6, 457, 458 indicators 342 discharge permits 449, 450 regulation and control 275, 441–2, 449 disease emergence 19–25, 36–42, 339–40, 471–84 risk factors 383 disease models 157–8, 159 Stockholm framework 452–8 disease specificity 230–1 toxoplasmosis 268 disease-based surveillance systems 159 USA outbreaks 128–9 disinfectants 429–33 driving forces 5–6 disinfection by-products (DBPs) 428 drought 59 distribution systems 75, 434–5 drug resistance 58, 107, 309 distribution of zoonoses drying animal waste 413, 417 anthropogenic factors 46–61 dynamic risk assessment 468 calculation methods 467–8 Cryptosporidium 271 EAggEC see enteroaggregative Escherichia coli Entamoeba histolytica 260–1 Echinococcosis 301–2 environmental factors 46–61 education 77, 107–8 Giardia 262–3 effluents human fascioliasis 307 Cryptosporidium dispersal 272 microsporidia 257 health risks 200, 201 Toxoplasma 266 New Zealand 193, 194–5, 200, 201 492 Waterborne Zoonoses

see also animal faeces/wastes; human concerns 155–9 effluent/faeces Cryptosporidium 273–4 EHEC see enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli cyclosporiasis 286–7 EIEC see enteroinvasive Escherichia coli data 151–207 El Niño Southern Oscillation 59–60 dynamic risk assessment 468 El Salvador 117 emerging disease patterns 20–1 emerging diseases 4, 19–25, 36–42, 339–40, 471–84 human fascioliasis 308–9 empowerment 108 limitations 154–5 Encephalitozoon 57, 257–9, 326 New Zealand 194–6 encephalomyocarditis virus 328, 329 outbreaks 151–207 endemic diseases 161–2 protozoa 212 endogenous infections 213 QRA relationship 460–1 Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule regulatory approaches 443–4 (ESWTR) 275 risk management 81–2 Entamoeba coli 116 Salmonella 231–2 Entamoeba histolytica 260–1 studies 154–65 enteric organisms 228–39 surveillance 159–64, 170–1 enteroaggregative Escherichia coli (EAggEC) 214–15 VTEC 215–17 enterococci 342–3, 360 Escherichia coli 210 Enterocytozoon bieneusi 257–9, 326–8 Asia/Africa/South America 102–3 enterohaemorrhagic Escherichia coli (EHEC) 52– Campylobacter comparison 463 3, 210, 215, 339–40 chlorine inactivation 429–30 enteroinvasive Escherichia coli (EIEC) 214, 215 concentrations 200 enteropathogenic Escherichia coli (EPEC) 214, 215 control envelope 74 enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (ETEC) 214, 215 deposition/yield studies 199 enterotoxins 356 diarrhoeagenic 213–24 243, 246–7, 343, 355 dose-response studies 464 enumeration methods 367–74 faecal contamination indicator 336, 341, 342– environment introduction 9 3, 360 environmental changes 477–8 genetic diversification 57–8 environmental distribution factors 46–61 health consequences 140 environmental impact of animal agriculture 21–4 infectious dose 77 environmental persistence 10, 30–1, 74 regulation 441–2 Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) 441–4, symptoms 139 449–50, 457 genes 356, 359 environmental resistance 10, 31, 74 treatments 139 environmental transmission 30–1 USA 123, 128–30, 132 EPEC see enteropathogenic Escherichia coli Escherichia coli O6:H16 123, 128 epidemics, worldwide increase 46–7 Escherichia coli O121:H19 123, 130, 132 epidemiology Escherichia coli O157 case-studies 151–207 Asia/Africa/South America 102–3 Index 493

Scotland 167, 169–72, 177–9, 183–5, 187–8 faecal wastes see animal faeces/wastes; human seasonal patterns 173 effluent/faeces Escherichia coli O157:H7 farming see agriculture; animal husbandry agricultural practices 52–3 Fasciola buski 300 control envelope 68, 71–2, 73, 75 Fasciola gigantica 300, 305, 310, 312, 313 distribution system failures 434, 435 Fasciola hepatica 69, 299–300, 305, 310–13 PCR detection 371 fascioliasis, human see human fascioliasis pH and survival 78 fasciolids Swaziland outbreak 410 adaptation capacities 309, 310–11 transmission 218–23 colonization power 309 USA 123, 128, 130, 132 drug resistance 309 waste treatment systems 414, 415 fatty stools 263 Escherichia coli O157:[H7] 215–18 feedlots 389 estuarine areas 236 feral cats 269 ESWTR see Enhanced Surface Water Treatment fields 416–17 Rule filtration ETEC see enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli detection/enumeration methods 367–8 European surveillance systems 159 drinking-water 427–9 excision 477 groundwater 433 exotic pets 85 parasites 479 expert consensus 3–16 fingerprinting techniques 352–3, 357 exposure Finland 220 calculation methods 467 fish kills 39, 40 control envelope 79 fish transmission 35 environmental transmission 31 flagellates 261–5 epidemiological patterns 20–1 flocculation 427 key concentrated sources 14 flooding 59, 60, 324 QRA 460–1 flukes 212 eyes 295 flying fox 103 Fonterra 201 facultative lagoons/storage 413 faecal coliforms 431 consumption habits 53–4, 80 faecal contamination epidemiological concerns 155 Bradley’s classification 32 on-farm safety programmes 386–7 Escherichia coli indicator 336, 341, 342–3 food poisoning notification 170–1 regulation 448–9 effluent 237 faecal environmental loading 23–4 food sources faecal indicators 442–3, 446–7 cyclosporiasis 286–8 faecal source identification 349–61 E 249 see also microbiological source tracking Listeria 456 494 Waterborne Zoonoses

Salmonella 228–9, 231–2, 234–5 filtration 428 177 regulation 441 forecasts 317–18 Scotland 169–70, 171–2, 181–3 Fossaria 311, 312 seasonal patterns 173 fowl plague 104 surface waters 97 fragrances 350 treated waters 98 France 327, 328 USA 121, 128–30, 131–2 Francisella tularensis 124, 479 UV treatment 432–3 freshwater plants 314–15 G. duodenalis 95, 99, 381 freshwater quality criteria 442 G. intestinalis 457 freshwater snail vectors 311–13 G. lamblia 116, 144, 339, 340, 464 freshwater studies giardiasis 144, 192, 193, 263 campylobacteriosis 462 Gigantobilharzia sturniae 299 Connecticut 195–6 global temperature rise 61 Giardia survival 264 globalization 51 New Zealand 196–8 Gnathostoma spinigerum, USA 123 fungi 13 Gorilla gorilla 101–2 Fung’s Double Tube Method 369 governments 440 future trends 5–7, 471–84 grazing systems 194, 196–200, 410–11 ‘great plate count anomaly’ 343–4 Galba truncatula 311, 312–13 greenhouse gases 418 gastrointestinal illnesses groundwater 133, 236, 383, 433 Campylobacter 195, 196, 197 group benchmark pathogens 8–9 child morbidity/mortality 56–7 Guangdong 37, 38 Cryptosporidium 273 Guatemala 118 Escherichia coli 214 guidelines 452–8 Giardia 262 Guillian-Barré syndrome 138 Salmonella 231 guinea worm 32–3, 297–8 surveillance systems 159–60 tolerable microbial risk 457–8 habitat creation 54 genetic characterization 99 HACCP see hazard analysis and critical control genetic exchange 476–7 points genetic mutations 9, 57–8, 211, 475–6 haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) 177, 178, genetic variations 245 215–16, 223 genotypic methods 352–3 haemorrhagic fevers 105 genotyping 313, 326–7 Haiti 286, 287 Giardia 261–5 hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (HPS) 105 Asia/Africa/South America 95–9 hantaviruses 105 chlorine resistance 74, 430–1 HAV see virus cyst detection tests 96–8 Hawaii 369 drinking-water regulations 275 hazard analysis and critical control points Index 495

(HACCP) 80–1, 455 HPS see hantavirus pulmonary syndrome hazard assessment, QRA 460–1 human activities impact 47, 48–9 health criteria, USA 448–50 human behaviour 10, 53–4, 79–80 health education 107–8 human effluent/faeces health policy, USA 444 contamination 193, 194–5, 444 health targets 452–8 Cyclospora cayetanensis 286 heavy rainfall 60, 73, 382 versus animal 201, 443, 450 helminths 212, 291–303 human fascioliasis 212, 305–18 cestodes 300–3 adaptation/colonization power 309 control in animal wastes 411–12, 415 environment colonization 317–18 expert consensus 13 epidemiology 308–9 life cycles 292 geographical distribution 307 nematodes 293–8 human infection sources 314–17 transmission routes 292–3 reservoir hosts 310–11 trematodes 298–300 snail vectors 311–13 see also parasites transmission 306–7 Hendra virus 103–4 transmission foci 314 hepatitis A virus (HAV) 79, 124, 328, 329 human host changes 478 hepatitis E virus (HEV) 248, 249–50 human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) 257 control envelope 69 Cryptosporidium 67–8 emergence/re-emergence 480 cryptosporidiosis 142 328–9 Giardia infections 263 USA 124 toxoplasmosis 77 high-risk groups see at-risk groups; human migration 10, 47–8, 54 immunocompromised groups human population growth 6, 21, 49–50, 157 highly pathogenic 104 human susceptibility 10–11 HIV see human immunodeficiency virus human viral reservoirs 246 Honduras 117–18 human-to-human transmission see person-to- Hong Kong 38–9, 196, 339 person transmission hookworms 292 humans, see also pathogen–human factors horizon-scanning perspectives 15 Hurricane Mitch 117–18 host origin databases 351–3 HUS see haemolytic uraemic syndrome host specificity hydatid disease 301–2 control envelope 70 hygiene 32, 76, 77 Salmonella 230–1 viruses 243–4 ID see infectious dose host susceptibility 10–11, 155, 156–7, 478 IID see infectious intestinal disease host-agent-environment relationship 157–8 immunity 11, 54, 76, 79 host-specific polymerase chain reaction 359 immunocompromised groups 384 household factors, control envelope 76–7 control envelope 79 496 Waterborne Zoonoses

disease surveillance 84 irrigation systems 53, 315 microsporidia 326, 327 Japan 219, 221, 295 pathogen evaluation 11 Johne’s disease 72, 189, 324–5 zoonose distribution 56 Juquitiba virus 105 see also at-risk groups immunoprophylaxis 390–1 kidneys 243 imported infections 182 in vitro infectivity 243–4 lagoons 413, 415 income factors 6, 458 lambing 172 index pathogens 454 larva migrans 295 indicator methods latency 30 criteria requirements 446–7 laundry brighteners 350 EPA 450 LEE see locus of enterocyte effacement limitations 444–5 Legionella 34 viral indicators 343 Legionnaires’ disease 34, 54, 91 water quality criteria 442–3 length heterogeneity polymerase chain reaction indirect life cycles 292 (LH-PCR) 356, 357 indirect transmission 21, 28, 29 Leptospira 124, 129–30, 132 industrial farming systems 21–4, 411 L. canicola 141 infants see children L. hebdomadis 141 infection patterns, emerging 472–82 L. icterohaemorrhagiae 141 infections with water-related insect vectors 34 L. interrogans, USA 124 infectious agents environmental transmission 30–1 leptospirosis 324 infectious dose (ID) 31, 77 causative agents 141 infectious intestinal disease (IID) 183–4 climatic factors 478 influenza viruses 248–9, 329 Costa Rica 115 infrastructure changes 54–5 Honduras 117–18 ingestion diseases 32–3 Mexico 115 inhalation 14, 34 Scotland 169–70, 171 insect vectors 34 symptoms 141 Institute of Medicine of the National Academies transmission 33–4 (USA) 472–3 treatments 142 interdisciplinary collaboration 16 391 international issues LH-PCR see length heterogeneity polymerase conflicts 50 chain reaction control programmes 385–6 library-based faecal source identification 351–3 networks 85–6 life cycles surveillance 160–1, 164, 165 cestodes 292 trade 85 Cryptosporidium 270 travel 50–1 Cyclospora cayetanensis 284 invasive infections 213–14 Entamoeba histolytica 260 Index 497

fasciolids 306–7 MAR see multiple antibiotic resistance method Giardia 262 marine studies 196, 264, 268–9 helminth parasites 292 marine water quality criteria 442 microsporidia 257 mass culling 419, 420–1 nematodes 292 Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs) Toxoplasma 265–6 441–2 trematodes 292 MBM see meat and bone meal zoonose criteria 35–6 meat lime stabilization 414, 417 consumption trends 21 Listeria 371, 372, 456 demand 6 , raw 316 preparation 54 liver fluke disease see human fascioliasis processing 85, 419–20 livestock see agriculture; animal husbandry meat and bone meal (MBM) 395, 398, 481 lobose amoebae 259 membrane processes 428–9 local communities empowerment 108 Menangle virus 103 local surveillance 160–1, 164 meningitis 297 locus of enterocyte effacement (LEE) 216 metacercariae 298 Lyme disease 171 Mexico 113–14, 115, 118 lymnaeids 299, 311–13 microarray technology 342, 374 microbial flora 235 MAC see Mycobacterium avium complex microbiological source tracking (MST) 447, 450, 451 ‘mad cow disease’ see bovine spongiform see also faecal source identification encephalopathy microfiltration membranes 429 Malaysia 104–5 microsporidia 13, 95–9, 211, 256–9, 326–8 malnutrition 11 microsporidiosis 257–8 management migrants, human 10, 47–8, 54 campylobacteriosis risks 201 military conflicts 50 distribution systems 435 Miller Fisher syndrome 138 future perspective 7 Milwaukee, USA 440–1 health risks 456 Ministry of Health (New Zealand) 202, 206–7 manure treatment 416 mixed farming systems 411 Stockholm framework 452–8 mobile genetic elements 477 management interventions, control envelope molecular beacon technology 372 human characteristics 79–80 molecular techniques, protozoa 212 livestock/animal management 70, 71 molecular tracers 350 point of use/household 76, 77 monkeys 243 source water protection 72–3 Monte Carlo simulations 462, 467 water supply 74–5 mortality MAP see Mycobacterium avium ssp. children 56–7 paratuberculosis DALYs 455, 456 498 Waterborne Zoonoses

foodborne listeriosis 456 risk models 158, 160 helminth infections 291–2 surveillance 152 most probable number (MPN) methods 370 zoonotic infections 191–202 mountain gorillas 101–2 Nicaragua 117 mouse studies 272 niche widening 312–13 movement Nipah virus 104–5, 328, 329 hosts 157, 164, 437, 478 nitrate leaching 22 pathogen reservoirs 47–51 non-O157 VTEC 216–17, 218 pathogens 412 non-VTEC DEC 224 MPN see most probable number methods non-zoonotic agents 195 MST see microbiological source tracking 184, 243, 480 multibarrier protection 426–7 notifications 170–1 multiple antibiotic resistance (MAR) method 352 NPDES see National Pollutant Discharge multiple array probe technologies 446 Elimination System multiple host susceptibility 292 nucleic acid segments 476 multiresistant strains 234, 238 nucleic acid sequence-based amplification municipal water supplies 49 technique (NASBA) 373 mutation 9, 57–8, 211, 475–6 nutria see Myocastor coypus mycobacterial aerosol transmission 34 nutrient 418 Mycobacterium avium complex (MAC) 74, 479 Mycobacterium avium ssp. paratuberculosis O157 VTEC 215–16 (MAP) 68, 71, 72 occupational exposure 33, 170, 474 Myocastor coypus 311 ocular toxoplasmosis 145 Office International des Epizooties (OIE) 385–7 Naegleria 132, 256, 259 on-farm control 386–93 nanofiltration membranes 428 Ontario 221, 222 NASBA see nucleic acid sequence-based oocysts amplification technique Cryptosporidium 181, 270, 272–3, 274 national conflicts 50 Cryptosporidium parvum 473 National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System Cyclospora cayetanensis 284, 285 (NPDES) 443, 450 Toxoplasma 265–8 national surveillance 160–1, 164, 165 oral doses 233 Necator americanus 296 otters 268–9 nematodes 212, 292, 293–8 outbreaks neonatal sepsis 146 Campylobacter 176 286, 287 epidemiology 151–207 Netherlands 23, 220 Scotland 183–7 New Zealand surveillance systems 160, 162–3 beaches 339 outcome factors 10–11 campylobacteriosis 461–3 oxidants 429–33 Ministry of Health pamphlet 206–7 ozonation 433 Index 499 pamphlets 202, 206–7 pets 76, 85, 235 pandemic influenza 328 PFGE see pulsed-field gel electrophoresis pandemic Salmonella 238 Pfiesteria 39–41 35 pH 78 103, 104 phenotypes, new 475–6 parasites phenotypic methods 352 Asia/Africa/South America 94–100, 106 picornaviruses 244, 245 Cyclospora cayetanensis 284, 287 pigeons 235 emergence/re-emergence 479 pigs see also helminths Campylobacter 176 passive infected carriers 461–2 Fasciola hepatica 311 pastoral farming 194, 196–200 manure disposal 22 see also animal husbandry production effects 52 pathogen-free animals 387 Salmonella reservoirs 234–5 pathogenicity islands 477 Scotland 168 pathogens vesicular disease 246, 247 changes in 475–6 viruses 247–8, 328–9 characteristics 57–8 waste lagoons 415 control envelope 67, 68, 77–8 Yersinia enterocolitica 210, 238–9 detection 341–2 pinniped caliciviruses 249 emerging 4, 19–25, 36–42, 339–40, 471–84 plant ingestion 314–16 main groups 12–13 plasmids 476–7 reservoir mobility 47–51 Pocomoke River, Maryland 40 pathogen–human factors, control envelope point source exposure 20 livestock/animal management 70–1 point of use 76–7 point of use/household 76 policies source water protection 71–2, 73 animal wastes 418 water supply 74 Listeria control 456 patterns of infection 472–82 risk profile usage 468 PCR see polymerase chain reaction US public health 444 PEAS see possible estuary-associated syndrome 85–6, 430 pectin gel tubes 369 ‘pollution trading’ 449, 451 persistence in environment 10, 30–1, 74 polycystic echinococcosis 302 person-to-person transmission polycystic hydatid disease 301 Escherichia coli 210 polymerase chain reaction (PCR) 371–2 Giardia 183, 262 cyclosporiasis diagnosis 285 infectious intestinal disease 184 enteric virus quantification 355 VTEC 223 methods 450 personal hygiene 32, 76, 77 water quality surveillance 342, 344 Peru 286, 287 Pontiac fever 34 500 Waterborne Zoonoses population growth 6, 21, 49–50, 157 protozoa 211–12, 255–76 possible estuary-associated syndrome (PEAS) 41 expert consensus 13 potable water transmission routes 95 acceptable risks 24 USA 121–3, 126, 131–2 Asia/Africa/South America 106 pseudophyllid cestodes 300, 303 Nicaragua 117 Pteropus 103, 104 poultry public health biosecurity 388 agriculture impact 200 Campylobacter 71, 177 driving forces 5–6 competitive exclusion 391–2 pathogen evaluation 11–12 control programmes 386–7 Stockholm framework 452–8 industrialization 22 pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) 352, 353 manure disposal 22–3 risk factors 381 QRA see quantitative risk assessment Salmonella 232–3 quality assurance 83 Scotland 168 quality criteria undercooking 195, 196, 461 ambient waters 449, 450 viruses 249 Clean Water Act US EPA 442–3 precipitation water distribution systems 435 control envelope breach 73 quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA) 81–2 global change 58–9 quantitative risk assessment (QRA) 460–8 heavy rainfall 60, 73, 382 quarantine procedures 70, 71 77, 145–6, 266 presence/absence data 468 racehorses 103 pressure, water systems 434, 435 racoons 295 prevalence Radix 312 Cryptosporidium 271 rainfall see precipitation Entamoeba histolytica 260–1 rapid detection/enumeration methods 367–74 geographical factors 157 rats 250, 310–11 Giardia 262–3 raw liver 316 microsporidia 257 re-emergence 4, 478–81 socioeconomic factors 157 reassortant virus strains 29 Toxoplasma 266, 267 recombination of genetic elements 477 preventative quality assurance framework 83 recontamination 55 primers 356, 358 recreational waters 33 prions 12, 394–9, 421, 481 campylobacteriosis 461–2 private water supplies 168–9, 185, 474 Cryptosporidium 181 probability of illness 465 emerging patterns 474 probiotics 392 epidemiological concerns 155 processing methods 85 Escherichia coli O157:H7 218, 222 protein coating 242–3, 244, 245 faecal contamination 340–1 Index 501

faecal indicators 342 water usage 441 New Zealand 193–6, 197–9 risk communication 77 quality criteria 442, 443 risk factors regulatory approaches 441 animal reservoirs 381–4 risk factors 383 diseases occurrence/spread 47 swimming-associated illness 339, 341 risk management 66, 80–6 USA 127, 129–30, 133 disease surveillance 84–5 regional effects 59 epidemiological studies 81–2 regulations HACCP system 80–1 Cryptosporidium contamination 275 international networks 85–6 Toxoplasma contamination 269 QMRA 81–2 regulatory perspective 437–51 quality surveillance 338–44 Reiter’s syndrome 138 targeted studies 84–5 remote sensing 318 water safety plans 82–4 repetitive extragenic palindromic polymerase risk profiles 461, 462–3, 467–8 chain reaction (REP-PCR) 352, 353 rivers see streams and rivers replication 31, 244, 476 RNA see ribonucleic acid reservoirs rodent reservoirs 250 animal 377–8, 380–401 247, 480 human fascioliasis 310–11 ruminants Salmonella 232–5, 237 biosecurity 388–9 Scotland 167 Cryptosporidium infections 270 viruses 246–50 risk factors 381 VTEC 217–18 see also cattle; sheep resistance runoff 22, 73 antibiotics 58, 389–90 rural health regions 194–5, 197, 200 chlorination 384 drugs 58, 107, 309, 389–90 Safe Drinking Water Act (US) 441–2 environmental 10, 31, 74 SALINPORK programme 387 environmental stressors 9 Salmonella 210, 228–39 respiratory illnesses 196 Asia/Africa/South America 101–2 reverse osmosis membranes 428 competitive exclusion 391, 392 ribonucleic acid (RNA) 57, 244, 480 definition 229 ribotyping 352, 353 dose-response studies 464, 465 risk assessment 437–69 emerging problems 238 emerging zoonotic diseases 24–5 Mexico 115 modelling 153, 156, 161 outbreak investigation 183, 184 quantitative 460–8 pathogen-free animals 387 Stockholm framework 452–8 PCR detection 371, 372 uses 437–8 Scotland 169–70, 172–5 502 Waterborne Zoonoses

seasonal patterns 171, 173 self-contained film system 369 USA 123, 128–9, 132 sensitivity, surveillance systems 159, 161, 162 S. Abortusovis 234 Seoul virus 105 S. bongori 230 severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) 37–9, S. Choleraesuis 234–5 105–6, 246 S. enterica 229, 230, 238, 381 control envelope 77 S. Enteritidis 172, 174, 232–3, 238 emergence/re-emergence 480 S. Kottbus 231 host change capacity 57 S. Poona 231 sewage see animal faeces/wastes; effluents; S. Typhimurium 172–4, 232, 233–4, 238 human effluent/faeces salmonellosis 140–1, 192 shedding 246, 262 sanitary surveys 435 sheep , control envelope 76, 77 Campylobacter 176 sapoviruses 243 Cryptosporidium 186–7, 274 sarafloxacin-susceptible/resistant strains 78 MAP-infected 72 SARS see severe acute respiratory syndrome New Zealand 191 SCCWRP see Southern California Coastal Water Salmonella 234 Research Project Scotland 168, 172 Schistosoma 33, 298–9 scrapie 395, 398–9, 481 Schistosomatidae 129–30 shellfish schistosome cercarial dermatitis, USA 122 Campylobacter 198, 462 Scotland 151, 167–89, 219–21 growing and harvesting 443 scrapie 395, 397, 398–9, 481 transmission 35 sea level rise 59 transportation 51, 54 sea lions 249 water quality criteria 443 sea mammals 264, 268–9 shellfish waters seafood see shellfish animal/human faeces 340–1 seals 264 faecal indicators 342 seasonality 59–60 Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) Campylobacter 197, 198–9 192, 194, 210, 214, 219–21 Cryptosporidium 164 Shigella 101–2, 215 human fascioliasis 317 skin injuries 33 Scotland 171–2, 173 snails cercarial dermatitis 299 Cryptosporidium 272 Fasciola hepatica 299 Entamoeba histolytica 260, 261 Galba truncatula 311, 312–13 Giardia 264 human fascioliasis 311–13 microsporidia 259 lymnaeids 299, 311–13 secondary transmission 155, 156 Schistosoma 298 sedimentation, drinking-water 427 socioeconomic factors 157 sediments 60, 199 sodium chlorate 393 Index 503 soils, animal wastes application 416 Strongyloides 100, 296 216 surface temperature 61 source tracking 349–61, 447, 450, 451 surface waters source water protection 71–3 Entamoeba histolytica 260 South Africa 219 grazing systems 410 South America 93–108 microsporidia 258–9 Southern California Coastal Water Research Salmonella transmission 236 Project (SCCWRP) 358–60 surveillance specific pathogen-free animals 387 diseases outbreaks 162–3 spill over exposure 21 Dominican Republic 116–17 spiral plating method 368 emerging pathogens 473–4 Spirochetes emergence/re-emergence 479 epidemiological 159–64 Spirometra 122–3, 303 importance 91–2, 152–3 sporadic diseases 161–2 limitations 153, 154–5 spores 257, 258–9 primary purposes 160–1 sporulation 265–6, 267–8, 270 QRA relationship 460–1 sprouts 231–2 risk management 84–5, 338–44 square bacteriological filter 368–9 Scotland 170–88 stability, viruses 246 studies 154–65 standards, US 448–50 US 120–1 statutory reporting 170–1 veterinary 163–4 steatorrhoea (fatty stools) 263 water quality 338–44 STEC see Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli survival rates 31 Stockholm framework 452–8 Campylobacter 198 stocking levels 199 Cryptosporidium 272 stomach acidity 210 Giardia cysts 263–4 stool samples 163, 175 microsporidia 258–9 storage, animal wastes treatment 413 Toxoplasma 267–8 storm events 73, 74 susceptibility strains changes 155, 156–7, 158, 478 differentiation 15 pathogen evaluation 10–11 dose-response uncertainties 465 Swaziland 410 infectious dose variation 77 Sweden 163 streams and rivers swimmer’s itch see schistosome cercarial Campylobacter 198–9 dermatitis Escherichia coli 200 swimming pools see recreational waters management 201 swine see pigs sampling 197 symptom-based surveillance systems 159–60 sediments 199 system failures 82 streptococci 360 systematic errors 156 504 Waterborne Zoonoses

T-RFLP see terminal restriction fragment length transmissible spongiform encephalopathy (TSE) polymorphisms 394–9, 421, 481 Taenia 122, 301 transmission tapeworms 122, 212, 292, 300–3 Bradley’s classification 31–4 targeted studies 84–5 control 420 technological interventions, control envelope criteria 36 human characteristics 79–80 Cryptosporidium 270 livestock/animal management 70, 71 cyclosporiasis 286–7 point of use/household 76, 77 emerging diseases 21 source water protection 72–3 emerging patterns 474 water supply 74–5 Entamoeba histolytica 260 temperature rise 61 environmental 30–1 terminal restriction fragment length fish 35 polymorphisms (T-RFLP) 356, 357 foci 314 thermophilic Campylobacter 198 Giardia 262 thermotolerance 229 helminths 292–3 tiered monitoring 447, 449 human fascioliasis 306–7, 314 Tioman virus 103 microsporidia 257 TMDLs see total maximum daily loads modes 5, 155–6, 158 tolerable disease burden 83–4 multiple modes 5 tolerable risks 454, 456–8 principle vehicles 14 total maximum daily loads (TMDLs) 449, 450, protozoan parasites 95 451 shellfish 35 total viable cell count method 368–9 Toxoplasma 266–7 tourism 50–1 TSE 481 toxin genes 356, 359 water aerosols 34 Toxocara 294–5 transport Toxoplasma 99–100, 265–9 animal wastes 412, 416, 420 Toxoplasma gondii 68, 77, 122, 144–5 shellfish 51, 54 toxoplasmosis 266, 268 travel issues 50–1, 85 congenital 145–8 treatment health consequences 148 261 ocular 145 animal wastes 412–16, 417 Scotland 171 cryptosporidiosis 271 symptoms 144–5 cyclosporiasis 285 treatments 146–8 drinking-water 426–34 trade issues 51, 85 Giardia 263 traditional livestock systems 21 microsporidiosis 257–8 training 107–8 trematodes 292, 298–30 transboundary movements 437 Trichobilharzia 299 transformation process 476 Trichuris 122, 123, 292, 295 Index 505 triclabendazole 309 surveillance systems 163 tropical forest invasion 54 tolerable microbial risks 457 tropical organisms 93–108 Toxoplasma 267, 268 tropism 243 VTEC outbreaks 219–21, 222 TSE see transmissible spongiform uracil-D-glycosylase (UDG) 372 encephalopathy urban agriculture 6 tularaemia 124 urban wildlife 6 typhoid 192 urbanization 6, 49–50 typing schemes 176, 177, 180 urine 23 uropathogenic Escherichia coli 213, 214 UDG see uracil-D-glycosylase UV light see ultraviolet light Uganda 101–2 ultrafiltration membranes 429 vaccination ultraviolet (UV) light treatment 432–3 control envelope 76 United Kingdom immunoprophylaxis 390–1 Escherichia coli O157 isolates 178, 179 wildlife 393–4 Salmonella 233 worm infection effects 94 Scotland 151, 167–89, 219–21 variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (vCJD) 42, 247 surveillance systems 163 emergence/re-emergence 481 VTEC 218, 219–21, 222 potential waterborne pathogens 396, 397, United States of America 120–34 398, 400 beaches 339 vegetables 286, 287–8 control programmes 152 verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia coli cryptosporidiosis 440–1 (VTEC) 192, 194, 210, 213–24 Cryptosporidium 273 vertical transmission 232–3 Cyclospora cayetanensis 286, 287 vesicular diseases 246, 247, 249 distribution systems 434 veterinary surveillance 163–4 drinking-water regulations 275 viable but non-culturable (VBNC) state 31, 198, Giardia 262–3 237 health criteria 448–50 Vibrionaceae 479 hepatitis E virus 329 Vietnam 286, 287 Institute of Medicine of the National virulence Academies 472–3 control envelope 77–8 Listeria control 456 Escherichia coli 215 microsporidia 327–8 Salmonella 230–1 principal pathogens 121–5 viruses 211, 242–52 regulatory approaches 441–5 Asia/Africa/South America 103–6 reported outbreaks 125–30 control in animal wastes 411–12 Salmonella 231 drinking-water regulations 275 standards 448–50 emergence/re-emergence 480 506 Waterborne Zoonoses

expert consensus 12 whipworms see Trichuris faecal source identification 354, 355 WHO see World Health Organization faecal virus indication 343 wildlife host specificity 243–4 microsporidia 259 Mexico 115 reservoirs 389, 393–4, 400 pigs 328–9 SARS virus 38 replication 244 Toxoplasma prevalence 267 USA 124–5, 126 viruses 249–50 vital dyes 370 VTEC reservoirs 217–18 VTEC see verocytotoxin-producing Escherichia Wisconsin, USA 440–1 coli World Health Organization (WHO) 452–8 worm infections 32–3, 94 Walkerton, Ontario 222 wounds 33 washing 316 WSP see water safety plans Washington County Fair 222 wastes see animal faeces/wastes; effluents; human years of life lost to premature death (YLL) 455 effluent/faeces years lived with a disability (YLD) 455 water distribution, control envelope 73–5 Yersinia 123–4, 128–9 water quality Yersinia enterocolitica 123–4, 210, 238–9, 339 assurance framework 81 yield studies see deposition/yield studies criteria 435, 442–3, 449, 450 young animals 381 management 82–3 targets 83 zoonoses water safety plans (WSP) 82–4 definition 5, 28 water shortages 93, 106 determining criteria 28–9 water storage, control envelope 73–5 water systems infrastructure changes 54–5 water treatment control envelope 73–5 emerging patterns of infection 474 parasites 479 viruses 480 water-based infection classification 32–3 water-borne infection classification 32 water-related disease classification 36, 37 criteria 30–5 water-washed infections 32 waterborne outbreaks definition 120 watercress 314–15 weather patterns 59–60