Introduction made revalorised and profitable. The enough to shun the homeless but even Neoliberalism in contemporary typical ‘annihilation of space’ (Harvey, contribute in making strategies – legal times can be characterised as a producer 2008) it leads to, stands to get legalised or non-legal – to prove the latter’s of extremely diverse trajectories of through governmental action that seeks right over the urban space as illegal. In development and underdevelopment, to cleanse the cities of those who are country after country, large, small and and simultaneously a begetter of a left behind the globalisation process. medium cities are getting gentrified changing urban order. Urbanisation, in in order to become more investment- this worldwide regime of ‘disciplinary In the above circumstances, friendly. It is a tautology to state that neoliberalism’, is found to have been consideration of basic necessities for this necessitates a drastic overhauling playing an even more crucial role in the poor, such as, shelter, transport, of the urban space and its expansion in the absorption of surplus capital at water and sanitation, employment greater quantum for elitist consumption. the price of a burgeoning intensity of opportunities, etc. which since long have Cities are becoming crucially interrelated dispossession of the urban masses that been a structural part of a welfare state, to the process of materialising is rejecting their right to the city in all get de-prioritised in the urban planning neoliberalism as an ideology (Brenner possible forms. By the power of the above agenda, skilfully armed with postmodern and Theodore, 2002) in the Global South. process, cities are emerging as hyper- methodologies like ‘participatory active sites of ‘creative destruction’, to planning’ or ‘public forum’ and terms It is interesting to know what dismantle the old and give birth to the like ‘visibility’ or ‘transparency’ as key is happening in countries like the United new, wreaking havoc on the city space instruments of capture and penetration States, the cradle of neoliberalism. Since and lives of the urban poor. Through (Benjamin, 2010). The contemporary 1980s in the U.S. budget, allocation for innumerable urban redevelopment cities in this way have become a highly public housing projects has steadily Homeless projects, cities are getting transformed, contentious phenomenon, both within decreased. The three million economically pushing out the poor from the domain the academic discourse and the daily weaker populations in cities spend more of public space, taking the entire urban urban experience, taking the meaning than half of their monthly income on in Neoliberal praxis to an extremely critical level. and control of the urban space (Mitchell, house rent. What happens then to the 1997a), to an altogether different level, urban homeless? Mitchell (1997b) states In the West, since 1970s, and in theory and praxis, comprehension that every night their number hovers Cities: View in the Global South, since 1990s, an and implementation. It is important to around 7,50,000 which is quite huge increasing amount of money has gone note that behind all these debates lie the in terms of the total city population. into creating financial assets in cities. In contentious issue of institutionalisation recent years, this has become quite an of power that provides a new way A careful look at the policy from Mumbai overpowering process in Indian cities, of governing the city, by instituting for the homeless reveals that instead as well. With increasing transaction restrictive rights over its space, by of prioritising necessary provisions for of these assets, urban property prices legitimising the denial of rights of shelter, a number of new laws have have shot up, making the cities more many for favouring the aggrandisement been introduced and old laws getting and more expensive and capable of of the excessive rights of a few. strengthened for tightening surveillance fetching higher returns from investment over this group. Let us look at such laws in land and similar assets. In the process, The sight of the poor and enacted in a few cities in different time creation of more land and more space homeless in contemporary cities is no periods since 1980s. In Dallas it was has become the base point of making longer seen with sympathy; the uppish made illegal to sleep in the public, in the cities investment-friendly that middle class population – earlier dwelling San Francisco no one could make any again makes it an imperative that the on progressive thoughts and carrying shack in the open, in Remo city of Nevada Swapna Banerjee-Guha poor are driven off, devalorised land is apology of denying justice to the poor if one was found spending more than Professor, Tata Institute of Social Sciences reconstructed from their living areas, – have not only become nonchalant four hours at a stretch in a park, she/he

062 / 02 housing 02 / 063 would face arrest. In Chicago, begging of the homeless low. The number of have no place to perform elementary for rigorous implementation of neoliberal was made illegal and in New York, homeless in cities like Toronto, Paris or home activities like urinating, washing, programmes (mostly state sponsored, sleeping in the train (Mitchell, 1997b). Munich has magnified in recent years. sleeping, cooking, eating and standing at central and regional levels) in several around. People who own private places cities located in different parts of the According to Harvey (1989), In Hong Kong, the homeless live in … which they can do these things country, impacting the urban economic all these surveillance laws are meant to in ‘cage homes’, an inhuman arrangement are increasingly deciding to make public base, municipal finance, infrastructure, destroy the organic relationship between of iron beds tied up on all four sides spaces available only for activities other basic services, land and housing people (especially the poor) and space. with wire; one bed sits on the other and than these primal human tasks … Since market, land use, urban form and most These punitive laws look at the poor as goes up to four (Banerjee-Guha, 2010b). the public and private are complementary, importantly, the shelter and livelihoods a specific socio-economic class and are In Tokyo, in 2001, the author found the the activities performed in public are of millions of urban poor. Reproduction used as weapons of class war against homeless scattered in the famous Ueno the complements of those performed in of urban space under this framework them. The need for promoting such laws Park of the metropolis, outside railway private. These complementarities work essentially reflects the contradictions is clear in the minds of the lawmakers. stations, on the other side of the Sumida fine for those who have the benefit of both of economic globalization at local According to them, it is the poor who river, living in shacks, tents and cardboard sorts of places. However, it is disastrous scale (Sassen, 1999), exposing a deep bring down the quality of life in cities boxes. Official statistics state that the for those who must live their whole structural imbalance in which modernity and should be held responsible for the homeless in Tokyo numbers around lives on common land … It is the most and post-modernity are marked with reduction of open spaces and greens. 4000. Every year 300-400 die on the callous and tyrannical exercise of power ephemerality and chaotic flux (Harvey, Following this view, in 1999, in Santa Ana streets; during winter, the frequency in modern times by a (comparatively) 1990; Banerjee-Guha, 2006). The erosion city of California, the police were given of death rises. In the red light district rich and complacent majority against of social justice content at policy level the power to arrest the homeless without of Kabuki-Cho, internet cafes are kept a minority of their less fortunate fellow expresses the impact of the above any reason, for the purpose of putting an open for twenty four hours to help human beings’ (Waldron, 1991: 301-302). restructuring on political and cultural ink stamp on their body for their homeless the homeless have a roof in the night. life of cities (Banerjee-Guha, 2006) that identity that helped the administration Since 1990s the homeless problem has Contemporary Urban Scenario in India has put the concern for general welfare, to drive them out from the city. attained a critical nature in Hong Kong India is no exception to the labour security and protection to the and Tokyo and several emergency laws above rule. A major overhauling of the poor at stake. For example, in the place Riding the wave of such ideas, are being enacted to sanitise the cities. administrative and legislative framework of commitment to social housing, there the New York mayor Rudolf Giuliani Homeless are seen in different locations of the government in the early 1990s has emerged a legal war on the poor became popular among the middle and inside the ‘urban villages’ in the modern and involvement of the IFIs (International (Mitchell, 1997b). Earlier, the way to solve upper middle class when he enacted cities of Shenzhen or Guangzhou in Financial Institutions) gradually the problem of urban homeless was to a number of inhuman laws against the China (Banerjee-Guha, 2010b) too. smoothened the aggressive redrafting of get involved in public housing projects, homeless, the culmination of which was a pan-Indian urban planning proposal that provision of basic services, organised seen in a cold December night in 1991 in Waldron (1991) states that in 2005 finally led to the formulation of employment opportunities, facilities of Tompkins Square Park when the police the condition of being homeless in the largest ever urban reforms mandate health education, etc.. Following the raided the park and brutally drove out entrepreneurial, neoliberal cities in since independence. The Jawaharlal wave of economic globalisation, cities the homeless from their shacks (Smith, current times is simply a matter of not Nehru Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) like Mumbai, Bangalore, Hyderabad 1998). In the United Kingdom, the number having any place to call one’s own. In as it is popularly known has the World and many others, have become more of homeless in the capital city of London a ‘libertarian paradise’ where private Bank, Asian Development Bank (ADB), interested in wooing the real estate increased by 15 per cent from 2003 to property and ownership is the end of all United States Agency for International and builders to redevelop slums and 2009. Although the government plans mantras, the homeless simply does not Development (USAID) or the United dilapidated open spaces on a commercial to stop sleeping in streets by 2012, exist, in other words, need not exist. Kingdom’s Department of International basis to transform the face of the ‘urban’ the local council offices show extreme Development (DFID) as its mentors altogether. Although the fate of the reluctance to assist the homeless in ‘What is emerging – and it is (Banerjee-Guha, 2009). It has initiated a slum dwellers in such ‘free’ housing getting governmental assistance as not just a matter of fantasy – is a state of new regime of regulation in the Indian became known to all, the real estate it helps to keep the official number affairs in which a million or more citizens urban sector that has cleared the ground sector is rewarded for such projects

064 / 02 housing 03 / 065 through innumerable subsidies Among as a part of the neoliberal agenda of to take back the beggars hailing from the proportion of slum dwellers in cities the slum dwellers, even if some manage the JNNURM, are receiving loans from respective states, during the time of the to 10 per cent. Situation in Bangalore, to get hold of a dwelling unit after going commercial institutions, such as, the Commonwealth Games (Anandabazar Kolkata or Hyderabad is no different. through innumerable formalities, there World Bank, Asian Development Bank Patrika, 2010). About 60,000 children, is no guarantee that they will be able or DFID for developing infrastructure who begged on the streets of the capital, The 2001 Census gives a figure to continue there. Firstly, because of that again is working against the cause were put in camps erected outside the of homeless in the country as two million the insufficiency of space in the new of public welfare (Ramachandraiah, city during the Event. Also, the 12 lakh (Tulsyan, 2008). A study conducted by units for carrying out their economic 2009; Pakalapati, 2010; Bhowmik, labourers who were engaged in various Action-Aid International (Singh, 2007) enterprises they are forced to look for 2010). The contemporary cities are construction projects associated with the reported that the approximate number some appropriate space elsewhere developing a structural tendency towards Games had only 22,000 of them legally of the homeless in different Indian and secondly, because of the increased increasing social inequality, making the registered as labourers who had the cities during 2003-04 was as follows: vulnerability of the entire area due to disadvantaged sections of the society eligibility for getting wages as per the market pressure, they are in a constant more vulnerable. All redevelopment state of insecurity that leads to a second projects, be it commercial, residential or A Portrait of Urban Homelessness in India spate of displacement. Compared to slum even cultural/recreational, are gigantic - City Year Number of Homeless dwellers, conditions of the homeless is of mega order, reflecting a stance of the much more precarious as they do not ‘global’: the new office complexes, malls, Delhi 2000 1,00,000 have any chance to get access even to exhibition centres, stadia, entertainment Mumbai 2003/04 32, 254 such housing. It is, therefore, being argued complexes – all have a character of a Chennai 2003 40, 533 that the erstwhile public housing projects ‘demonic other’, that does not integrate Kolkata 2003 60, 000 for the poor should be identified as the the less affordable sections of the society Hyderabad 2003 20, 560 end of the aspect of modernism that saw as users (Banerjee-Guha, 2010b). All Pune 2004 10, 000 the cities also as site for constructing open spaces, slums, low income housing Lucknow 2003 10, 000 a more inclusive society. The emerging areas, at times, middle class areas Patna 2004 13, 000 lack of concern of the State towards also are getting appropriated by the Menezes, B. A, 2010, pp 301 accommodating the poor in the city as above design of ushering in an era of a an integrative part essentially marks the global ‘urban’ that happens to be much Minimum Wage Act; the rest, numbering In 1991, housing shortage in end of an ideal in which the poor in the more complex than before. As a natural to more than 11 lakhs, were labelled India was estimated at 22.9 million units; city were entitled to minimally decent outcome, the number of urban homeless ‘illegal’ and had no access to provisions it increased to 40.8 million units in 2000. housing and other opportunities through is found to have been increasing with a like housing or health facilities. One needs More than 90 per cent of the housing state intervention, to access education concomitant withdrawal of State from to note that this huge mass of ‘illegal’ shortage was experienced primarily and experience a steady advancement generating employment, providing homeless population was a creation of a by the economically weaker sections in their lives (Mitchell, 2001). housing and services for many. During legalised body of the government. In case (Menezes, 2010) who were relegated to the Commonwealth Games in 2010, of Bhopal, according to the 1991 Census, extreme vulnerability without having the Urban neoliberalism (Banerjee- according to official statistics, more than there were 4,00,000 slum dwellers. In cushion of social security of any sort. Guha, 2009; 2010a), in theory and praxis, 1,00,000 families became homeless. 2001 Census, by the stroke of a pen, has truly marked the beginning of an Redevelopment following the Games, this number came down to 1,15,000, Homeless in Mumbai era of ‘heterotopia’ that happens to be made many more homeless. Even the making almost 3,00,000 people not only In India 32 per cent of the extremely confusing to guide for any Delhi High Court, in one of its verdicts homeless but ‘illegal’ (Singh, 2008). A population live in urban areas of whom social praxis that has its goal in social on slum demolitions, stated that the careful look at the city’s redevelopment 26 per cent live below official poverty justice. Indian cities now are drastically Government probably wanted to prove exercises shows that a huge amount of line and 40 per cent do not have proper reshaping themselves to become the to the foreigners that Delhi did not have slum land in Bhopal in recent times has housing. 70 per cent of the urban core centres of investment of big capital. any homeless. The Central Government been handed over to the real estate as employed are engaged in the informal The urban local bodies in several cities, even asked all the state governments per the diktat of the JNNURM, to reduce sector. Slums occupy about 6 per cent

066 / 03 housing 03 / 067 of land in cities like Mumbai offering in number than females (Action-Aid, Mankhurd in the east, covering extensive 1885 tenements, the land now houses the shelter to nearly 60 per cent of the n.d.). The survey further reveals that 75 areas in eastern and western suburbs. The sprawling mall, violating the provision of city’s population. This means that the per cent of the sample population is in situation and status of the interviewed the Plan (NAPM, 2010). Coming back to remaining 94 per cent of the land is the age group of 16-45 years indicating rag pickers can thus be said to form a the rag pickers, while their contribution used by 40 per cent of the residents. a concentration of adult population of consolidated narrative of the homeless towards the waste management system Excluding the slum dwellers and people working age group whose contribution in the city, part of which has been of the metropolis is unquestionable, they living in impermanent tenements, to the urban economy is unquestionable. discussed in the following paragraphs. themselves are denied any kind of clean the homeless in Mumbai number The survey report is critical about the environment in the city (Menezes, 2010). around 1,00,000 (Iyer, 2005). In official statist perspective that considers the Socio-economic Status of documents and in the psychological homeless generally as beggars who Rag Pickers in Mumbai 1. Living Space: Rag pickers can only domain of the affluent, they are often have nothing but a parasitical existence Rag pickers in Mumbai are have access to informal housing which considered as encroachers on public in the city. The survey further reveals one of the most vulnerable sections according to the 2001 Census, are poorly land with their citizenship constantly that 60 per cent of the homeless are of the homeless population of the built impermanent structures, located in being debated in various platforms. illiterate that speaks of their abject city. They usually live on self-made congested and unhygienic environments poverty that acts as a serious constraint impermanent shacks on pavements without any provision of infrastructure Although no exhaustive study in accessing education. All these facts or on bare open spaces. Constantly in terms of water supply, sanitation and exists on the homeless population in are substantiated by an exhaustive harassed by civic authorities, municipal drainage. In Mumbai, they are seen in Mumbai, the few studies and surveys research undertaken by Menezes (2010) officials and workers, police, at times ubiquitous locations, along railway tracks, that have been conducted by NGOs and on rag pickers (who constitute a sizeable private security agents, they rarely along roads that are seldom used, inside researchers in different parts of the city proportion of the homeless) in Mumbai. have access to any kind of protective unused storm water pipes, beside water do throw light on the overall hapless Out of his total sample population, 85 per mechanism. It goes without saying that pipelines, underneath the flyovers, on situation of the homeless in this budding cent of the adults are illiterate while the in an intense neoliberal scenario, with ill-drained marshlands or vacant lands international financial centre of India. A illiterate children constitute 91 per cent the urban planning policies becoming (Menezes, 2010). A few are found to sample survey carried out in recent past of the total. They do not have access to even more cost effective, the possibility live in shacks made on pavements, or by the Action-Aid in six zones (subdivided basic services like water, sanitation or of integrating such poor groups in the marshy land, e.g. near Sion Station or into 24 wards) of the metropolis reveals electricity. Almost as a rule, they do not city’s development programmes looks Mankhurd. The same story gets repeated that the largest concentration of the have ration cards (effectively considered bleaker. Even though the websites of the from one city to the other. 62 per cent of homeless is found in Zone 1 i.e. in the as identity cards to live, work and study JNNURM are flooded with information the sample households in the study have five (A,B,C,D,E) wards located in the in Mumbai). Systematically they remain on water supply, sanitation and BUSP a per capita living space of 30 sq. ft. southern parts of Mumbai, spreading excluded from any kind of public policy projects for the poor, one wonders why from Colaba in the south to Kamathipura, that concerns the progress of the city. then the cases of evictions, demolitions Like the homeless in other Mumbai Central and Byculla in the north. and unlawful slum acquisitions for making cities, a large number of the homeless According to this report, the intensity of The above study on the rag way for mega commercial projects in Mumbai too live in the open, under the homeless population declines from the pickers brings out the realities of the life have reached an all-time high. In many trees, in desolate corners of parks, south to the north. Among the homeless, and work pattern of a huge section of the cases these are blatantly done against anywhere they can (Sharma, 2000), the overall number of males is more than homeless in Mumbai. The study, based the existing City Development Plan. without having any impermanent shelter the females, although in certain areas of on an extensive survey involving 700 For example, the Atria Shopping Mall made. Being forced to use the public the E ward (near Reay Road Station) the rag pickers as respondents (including 50 at Worli has been built on a three acre space for their private use, they do number of males and females match each child rag pickers), critically analyses the municipal land which according to the not have a semblance of having any other. In general, a typical sociological socio-spatial status of the homeless in a existing City Development Plan, was kept residential space of any sort. A large character is seen to exist among the globalising city. The survey was conducted reserved for housing the homeless and section of the urban homeless develop sample households, i.e. socially deviant in different parts of the metropolis from for a municipal primary school (obviously a nomadic nature. This is because they behaviours like drug addiction is found the southernmost areas of Colaba to meant for the children of the poor). live under a constant threat of eviction. rampant in areas where males are larger Andheri and Vikhroli in the north and Instead of the school and the planned Rag pickers largely belong to this group.

068 / 03 housing 03 / 069 2. Educational Status: Educational status blood pressure, rheumatism and rickets savings get over, they are forced again Several studies (Shinoda, of the rag pickers is known to be at an are widespread among the surveyed to take up a job that may have the same 2005) have, however, showed that all time low. 91 per cent of the children population. Gynaecological problems are characteristics like the old one. In this the homeless is not at all a dependant of the sample rag pickers are illiterate common among the females. Malnutrition way, they live in a vicious cycle of work group; they constitute a significant according to Menezes (2010). The 9 per among the children is almost structural. and no work. In the absence of a bonafide proportion of the informal workforce cent that have some primary (7 per cent) The most common disease among the address, they can neither open a bank of any city. Nevertheless, almost as a and secondary (2 per cent) education (up rag pickers, irrespective of gender and account to keep their savings, however rule, they remain out of the functional to class VIII) have some sort of a shelter age is, however, scabies that occur due meagre, in safe custody nor can they keep framework of either the Minimum however impermanent or inadequate it is. to their continuous association with the savings with themselves because of Wage Act or any kind of labour security Among the adults, illiteracy is rampant, garbage and filth that they often have lack of safety. Thus the only option is to provisions. Attitude of the State towards 88 per cent among males and 90 per to sort with bare hands. Children of the spend the money as quickly as possible. the homeless in recent times is found cent among females. A large number rag pickers are not only malnourished, This acts, at times, as an additive factor to quite antagonistic and biased. of the children are found to work as they are also perennially exposed to engage in deviant behavioural practices. rag pickers. Nangia and Thorat (2000) stunted physical and mental development. A study on the Coimbatore labour- State versus the Homeless: identified four major factors responsible In times of medical need, their only market (Rodger, 1993) reiterates that Maharashtra Government on for the low level of literacy among the recourse are the public hospitals where the marginal workers have very limited Housing the Homeless in Mumbai rag pickers, all of which are found to be they rarely visit. Majority prefer to go to set of choices, due to their low skill Having discussed the social and present among the sample population local quacks, due to financial constraints level, absence of asset endowments and economic status of the homeless, let us of Menezes. These are (a) supply- as well as paucity of time. Many adverse economic power relationships. now take a look at the State government’s related factors incorporating distance to respondents also are found unaware official approach towards housing the schools, lack of permanent settlements of the facilities existing in municipal Even after working for more urban homeless in Mumbai. In reply to a or language deficiency; (b) demand- medical centres (Menezes, 2010). than ten hours a day in an inhuman writ petition filed by the People’s Union related factors incorporating financial and degraded working condition on Civil Liberties (PUCL) at the Supreme constraints, need for participating in 4. Income/Employment Status: Menezes (Mander, 2001), the monetary reward Court on the subject, Maharashtra household activity or participation in (2010) observes that lack of appropriate for a rag picker at the day’s end is only Government in an affidavit in 2010 stated paid activity; (c) lack of interest that skills and indifferent health are the two between Rs 40-50 that is often spent that due to scarcity of land in Mumbai, it stems from parents’ ignorance and principal factors that create a structural on the entire family’s needs and wants. is very difficult to construct night shelters consequent unwillingness generated weakness among the rag pickers to get Beyond the basic needs, they cannot for the homeless in the metropolis. towards accessing education, and (d) better jobs. On the other hand, being dream of satisfying any higher need. The state, therefore, suggested that customary factors, such as, the prevailing unorganised workers, they do not have Expenditure patterns of rag pickers’ the urban local bodies should control psychology among the rag pickers any protection of unions or any kind of families show that the lion’s share goes the inflow of such population into the towards education especially in case of social security. Mishra (2007) states for food (about 70-100 per cent) that city as, according to the government, a the girl child or females (Menezes, 2010). that a large number of the homeless in leaves an extremely small amount to large majority of the homeless are poor Mumbai do abstain from work and opines spend on other necessities. For the inmigrants. Even though the government 3. Health Status: A survey conducted that the same is often misinterpreted as same reason, expenditure on clothes acknowledges that the homeless are among the homeless pavement dwellers ‘laziness’ by the mainstream experts. The becomes a matter of luxury, as also the poorest among the poor and cannot in 2000 (Karn et al, 2003) reveals that explanation that Mishra offers for their spending on children’s education. In afford even any informal housing, the this group is among the worst affected in abstaining from work is (a) unavailability case of sickness in the family, not only affidavit filed by the government only terms of diarrhoeal diseases (more than of regular work, or (b) incapacity of the budget for the next week dips, there makes statements on the state initiatives 60 per cent of the surveyed population the available work to fulfil even their arises a possibility of a debt trap too. for housing the slum dwellers. Although have suffered from it; 70 per cent of minimum aspirations. Hence, whenever 80 per cent of the sample households admitting clearly that the income of the children are affected). Diseases like they can save some money to pull on are found to have never incurred any the homeless is not sufficient for their diarrhoea, dysentery, other intestinal for a few days, they decide to quit the expenditure on education and 90 per sustenance, the affidavit drops them disorders, influenza, diabetes, low existing job for a better one. Once the cent have never spent on clothes. from public housing programmes and

070 / 03 housing 03 / 071 elaborately informs about the rental Homeless Citizens, 2010). The State thus tenants from dilapidated buildings or nothing but products of negotiations, housing being constructed for the slum is found to have taken a perspective of squatters from pavements. Way back within the realm of law, to remove such dwellers (around 5,00,000 houses) in surveillance with regard to the homeless in the 19th century, Haussmann tore people from the negotiator’s table. the Mumbai Metropolitan Region. One than assisting them to have a minimum through the old Parisian slums, using In other words, these laws have an must not forget that one of the dictates dignified status. Even though the National powers of expropriation in the name of implicit goal of redefining the public of the JNNURM is to make Indian cities Slum Policy of India recognises the poor civic improvement and urban renewal. rights so that only the housed may have slum-free. Accordingly, the Maharashtra as an extremely important element of Much of the working class areas of the access to them (Mitchell, 1997a). Government is keen on relocating the the urban labour force, contributing city were deliberately taken over (Harvey, slum dwellers outside the city with the substantially to productivity and labour 2008) in order to cleanse areas that The situation of the homeless help of projects like Integrated Housing market competitiveness for which they could throw a challenge to the prevailing in Mumbai is no different from other and Slum Development Program (IHSDP), deserve affordable land, house site and political order. In 1872, Engels wrote cities. Like their fellow folks in any Rajiv Awas Yojana (RAY), Basic Services services from the urban local bodies, about the process of redevelopment in other city, they too are largely left to to Urban Poor (BUSP), etc. Even though the Maharashtra Government considers depressed areas of cities that could not fend for themselves. The State not only one may doubt the effectiveness of these the urban homeless as a negative suit the changed circumstances. He noted does not include them in any policy schemes for the target population and section of the population who are that rent could not increase beyond a prescription of urban development, the modalities of their implementation, unable to earn, who loiter as vagabonds certain level in areas that accommodated rather it plays a formidable role in their it is very clear that all these schemes around bus stations, pavements, the workers, thereby making them eviction and dispossession. Although are meant for the slum dwellers and market squares etc (Government of vulnerable to urban renewal. History of the urban development plans boast not for the homeless. Several NGOs Maharashtra, 2010). This means that modern urban growth based on the above of ‘inclusiveness’, in practice they have criticised the manner in which the the State is openly criminalising the methodology went on repeating itself are brazenly anti-poor and the least government has equated the homeless urban poor and spatialising urban crime during the entire 20th century in several democratic (Banerjee-Guha, 2008). with the slum dwellers in the affidavit with a definite bias against them. cities of the world that finally, since the For example, the Planning Commission (Affidavit, Government of Maharashtra, 1980s, with the neoliberal regime getting has recently announced that any 2010). Although the government The above state perspective on more intense, has become more brazen, individual, spending Rs 20 per day on correctly identifies the problems faced the urban poor is essentially associated legalised and policy-based. In the 1990s, her/his basic needs, cannot be termed by the homeless in the city, nowhere in with the urban transformation agenda of in Seoul, construction companies and poor and will not be eligible to receive the document there is any mention of the neoliberal regime wherein citizens developers while invading the workers’ subsidies and social benefits from the any policy prescription to address these having less affordability and incapacity neighbourhoods, not only bulldozed Central government that a BPL (Below problems. Rather, when the homeless to remain in a competitive framework are the housings but all the possessions Poverty Line) individual can claim. What population in the city are found working gradually pushed out from the mainstream that these people had (Harvey, 2003). can be more anti-poor than this? as construction workers, rag pickers, official agenda of city planning. Such practices have now become a informal porters, garbage workers, flower structural component of the contemporary Despite the above scenario, market workers, workers in several Summing Up urban development process in several collective pressure is building up in other unorganised occupations, the The process of urban countries including India, as well. The several cities through initiatives of Maharashtra government in its affidavit transformation under neoliberalism urban homeless in this cruel framework social organisations, concerned citizens repeatedly mentions them as beggars, entails repeated bouts of economic and of modernised transformation are the and academic debates to challenge suggesting that they be accommodated spatial restructuring that has a distinct most ill-fated and wretched group. They the anti-homeless stance of the State in beggars’ homes. One must note that class dimension since it is the poor, the cannot have any claim on any space to policies. It is high time that the State is under Indian law, beggars are to be underprivileged and those marginalised call their own. They only have the public pressurised to implement the inclusive treated as criminals. According to a group from the political power that suffer space to use for their private activities. aspects of the policy statements and of NGOs, beggars’ homes are also not the most from the process. Violence is The proliferation of anti-homeless recognise the fundamental rights of the voluntary spaces but custodial institutions seen everywhere in the process of their laws and the inhuman approach of the urban homeless who essentially go to that take away the fundamental right eviction from urban space in the form State towards the homeless in several make a constructive and functionally to liberty of the inmates (Collective for of demolition of slums, eviction of poor cities, according to Zukin (1995), are active section of the population. A well-

072 / 03 housing 03 / 073 known NGO, Saathi (2004), working on are based on 2004-05 price structure), • Fainstein, S (2003): ‘Can We Make the Cities We Want?’ in R.A. Bueauregard and the urban homeless, has come out with several studies and surveys show that S. Body-Gendrot (eds.), The Urban Moment, pp 273-86, Sage, USA an alternate planning mechanism for the reality is otherwise. Fainstein (2003) • Government of Maharashtra (2010): Affidavit on behalf of the Government of the homeless that prioritises building suggests that social justice is not always Maharashtra in Compliance of Directions of the Supreme Court, New Delhi of (i) emergency shelters (ii) transitional and only a product of militant movements, • Harvey, D (1989): ‘From Managerialism to Entrepreneurialism: The Transformation in Urban Governance housing (referrals) and (iii) permanent it needs to be asserted at an aggressively in Late Capitalism’, Geografiska Annaler, Series B and Human Geography, Vol 71(1), pp 3-17, UK supported housing for the homeless. To contested institutional landscape too • Harvey, D (1990): The Condition of Postmodernity, Blackwell, UK make such alternatives work, a clear (Banerjee-Guha, 2010), for providing a • Harvey, D (2003): ‘The City as a Body Politic’ in J. 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